Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY

windsorTOPIC THREE: THE SEARCH FOR BETTER

HEALTH
1. What is a healthy organism?
Discuss the difficulties of defining the terms ‘health’ and ‘disease’
Health
 Health: a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely the
absence of disease or illness (WHO)

Disease
 Disease: impaired physical, emotional and/or mental function *
disturbance of homeostasis

Why difficult to define?

 Very broad terms
 Every organism responds differently to a disease and fluctuations of homeostasis
 Health can vary daily and because of aging
 Everyone has different idea of what their quality of life should be
 Example: Person carrying the infectious pathogen HIV may be ‘healthy’ if the symptoms
of the disease AIDS has not appeared
 Because you have a cold, does that mean you are unhealthy?

Outline how the function of genes, mitosis, cell differentiation and specialisation assist
in the maintenance of health
How does the function of… Assist in the maintenance of health?
Genes  To ensure that the correct proteins are produced to enable
cellular processes to continue
 Gene expression  proper function is essential to maintain
good health
 If genes faulty, and polypeptides and proteins are faulty, cell
processes/structures may be abnormal and disease can result
 Growth and healing of tissue dependent on protein metabolism
 controlled by genes
Mitosis  Cell division that allows normal growth and repair
 If process goes wrong  maybe cancer  occurs when cells
rapidly divide and do not carry out cell differentiation and
specialisation
 When this happens  tumour grows making organism unhealthy

Cell differentiation and  Cell Differentiation: change from unspecialized cell to

specialisation specialised cell
 Become specialised for different functions
 Undifferentiated cells form tumours
 Cell Specialisation: cells have differentiated to perform
particular function
 Allows cells to develop structure to best perform specific
functions
 e.g. to prevent entry of pathogen
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Use available evidence to analyse the links between gene expression and maintenance
and repair of body tissues
Gene expression: gene information used in the production of a protein or other gene product
 Steps:
 ‘Switching on’ segment of DNA to produce a polypeptide
 Changing polypeptide into required protein
 Making protein become either:
o A component of cytoplasm
o OR an enzyme and control production of other cells
 Constitutive genes: ALWAYS EXPRESSED genes that maintain normal body functions
E.g. genes that code for digestion enzymes (amylase) must be constantly expressed to
produce saliva when needed
 Facultative genes: only EXPRESSED WHEN NEEDED
 Example: Regenerating family of proteins that are only largely expressed in bowel disease
o Genes are expressed to assist in the maintenance and repair of body tissues
 When there are sufficient cells & organelles, mitosis allows cells to divide  occurrence of
cell differentiation and separation
 Specialised cells  can’t divide
 e.g. nerve cells – not easily replaced

Example: Breast Cancer

 Genetic
 ‘Basal-like' cancer  aggressive, difficult to control and harder to treat
 Type caused by mutation of BRCA1 gene
 Put women at much higher risk of developing particular form of BC
 Increases risk of developing BC by 85%
 BRCA1 gene:
 Tumour suppressor gene: code for proteins which slow down or stop mitosis
- Cause cell death if uncontrolled increase in cells
 Located on chromosome 17
 PTEN gene:
 Tumour suppressor gene: regulates cell cycle and prevents excessive
proliferation of cells
 If damage to PTEN gene  repaired by BRCA1 gene proteins  PTEN gene would
be expressed properly and cell division would be controlled
 Mutations to BRCA1 gene  proteins necessary to repair PTEN not produced 
PTEN not repaired and not expressed  uncontrolled cell cycle  formation of
tumours

2. Over 3000 years ago the Chinese and Hebrews were advocating
cleanliness in food, water and personal hygiene
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Distinguish between infectious and non-infectious disease

Vector: organism that transmits a disease causing pathogen
Infectious disease Non-infectious disease
 Caused by an organism (pathogen) in a  Not caused by an organism
host i.e. virus or bacteria  Include:
 If host successfully controls pathogen,  Genetic diseases e.g. Down
disease does not occur syndrome & haemophilia
 Can be caused by microscopic and  Lifestyle/Environment diseases
macroscopic organisms e.g. Cardiovascular disease, lung
 Can be transferred from one organism cancer & skin cancer
to another
 Direct: pass directly from person to
person
 Via Vector: passed on through
intermediary e.g. anopheles mosquito
(malaria)
 Examples: colds, influenza, chicken
pox, herpes and measles

Explain why cleanliness in food, water and personal hygiene practices assist in control
of disease
 Intake of food and water  easy way for micro-organisms to enter our bodies
 Minimising number of micro-organisms in food & water  reduces risk of infection
 Good personal hygiene  ensures body openings are clean  prevent micro-
organisms entering
 In sterile conditions  no microbes present
Controlling disease
 Prevent contamination of food and water through:
 Proper sanitation
 Proper food handling
 Personal hygiene
 Water treatment processes
 Prevent decomposition and spoilage of foods
 Prevent transmission of disease and infection
 Use disinfectants, sterilisation and antiseptics
 Minimise contact with food & water
 Avoid crowded conditions, poor sanitation and untreated sewage  ALL
increase spread of disease

Identify the conditions under which an organism is described as a pathogen

Pathogen: any organism that produces a disease
 Parasite/organism living in another organism – can cause disease
 Two types:
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1. Micro-organisms
2. Macro-parasites [endoparasites (in body) & ectoparasites (outside body)]
Conditions - to be a disease-causing pathogen, it must:
 Have enough virulence (number of particular pathogen to cause disease)
 Virulence needed  only small amount
 Enter through certain part of host or survive without being destroyed by natural acidity
and mucus
 Escape from one host to another and SURVIVE

Identify data sources, plan and choose equipment or resources to perform a first-hand
investigation to identify microbes in food or water

Equipment used in Microbiology

 Agar plates: petri dishes filled with a sterile, jelly-like substance extracted from
seaweed (AGAR)
 Different types of agar are used for different purposes
 Techniques:
 Selective media: allows certain organisms to grow while inhibiting others
 Differential media: for differentiating closely related organisms
 Enriched media: supplemented with highly nutritious materials such as blood &
serum, to make it grow bigger
 Need to sterilize area  prevent contamination from other micro-organisms
Experiment
Aim: To culture microbes growing in probiotic yoghurt, and to identify them
Method:
1. Collect a tub of probiotic yoghurt
2. Sterilise an inoculating loop with a blue-flame Bunsen burner and use it to collect
samples of the yoghurt and spread over the agar
3. Place the lid on the plate, then label and seal. DO NOT REOPEN THE PLATE
4. Incubate (temperature depends on what you’re growing)
5. Observe growth of colonies.
a. Shiny smooth colonies  Bacteria
b. Furry colonies  Fungi
6. Disposal  Autoclaving (steam sterilisation)
Conclusion
 Shiny smooth colonies  Bacteria
Furry growth of mycelium  Fungi

Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to describe ways in
which drinking water can be treated and use available evidence to explain how these
methods reduce the risk of infection from pathogens

 Provision of clean water and disposal of waste water  essential for good health
 Dysentery: disease caused by drinking unclean water and poor disposal of waste water
 causes cramps, nausea & fever
 Water is tested for range of chemicals & micro-organisms e.g. pesticides, metals and
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pathogens
 1998: Sydney water quality contaminated by two protozoans Cryptosporidium and Giardia

6 stages of water treatment How reduce risk of pathogens

1. Coagulation
 Removal of particles from drinking water through insertion of a coagulant
(usually ferric or aluminum salts)
 Salts dissolve into water to form positive ions which attract negatively charged
particles
 Removal of suspended particles that attract and hold bacteria and
viruses
 Removes about 99% of bacteria and viruses
2. Flocculation
 Floc removed by filtration or settling processes
 Floc examples include: alum & iron compounds
 Prevention of disease from pathogens
3. Sedimentation
 Particles settle to bottom of dam/catchment etc
4. Filtration
 Removal of very small particles such as viruses and protozoans
 Filters can be made of sand, gravel of charcoal
 Removal of suspended particles that attract and hold viruses and
protozoans
 Removes about 99% of viruses and protozoans

5. Disinfection
 Chlorination, chloramination and ozonation
 Fluoride added to prevent tooth decay
 Kill micro-organisms & bacteria that may cause disease
6. Source control
 Protection from primary infection
 Proper fencing
 Adequate distance from farms where fertilizers and pesticides are used
 Distance from sewage systems

3. During the second half of the nineteenth century, the work of

Pasteur and Koch and other scientists stimulated the search for
microbes as causes of disease
Describe the contribution of Pasteur and Koch to our understanding of
infectious diseases
Pasteur
 Disproved spontaneous generation
 Before microscopes  believed living matter could spontaneously form from
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non-living matter
 Germ theory of disease: Discovered that micro-organisms cause disease
 Swan-neck flask experiment: proved bacteria and mould cannot form
spontaneously  prevented germs getting in but allowed oxygen to get in
o Examined samples of fermenting wine under microscope
o Identified micro-organisms that cause fermentation
o Proved living organisms present in the air  Destroyed theory of
spontaneous generation
o Have two flasks with broth that are not boiled  show that
microorganisms form on broth
 Developed the idea of pasteurization
o Microbes could be killed with heat
 Created vaccines against anthrax, chicken cholera and swine erysipelas

Source: http://biotech.gsu.edu/houghton'04/2107'15/Figures/lecture2/Pasteur1.jpg

Koch
 Bacteria  Cause of the disease anthrax
 Cause of tuberculosis
 Designed rules of procedure  show that a particular micro-organism is the
cause of a particular disease
1. Must be shown that micro-organism believed to be cause of disease, must be
present in diseased organism
2. Micro-organism must be isolated and grown in pure culture (containing only
that micro-organism)
3. Micro-organisms from the pure culture, when injected into healthy organism,
must produce the disease
4. Micro-organisms that are isolated from experimental organisms, grown in pure
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culture  identical to micro-organisms from original culture

Source: http://medicalmilestonesrobertkoch.weebly.com/before-the-experiment.html

Contribution of Pasteur and Koch

 Laid the foundation for the scientific study of microorganisms
 Established culture techniques and rules & procedures now used in infection
control e.g. sterilisation of instruments

Perform an investigation to model Pasteur’s experiment to identify the role of microbes

in decay

Aim: To model Pasteur’s experiment in order to demonstrate that microbes cause decay
Method
1. Dissolve meat extract cube in hot water
2. Set up equipment: a conical flask through which an S shape glass tube is passed to
prevent the entry of air (microorganisms)
3. Set up identical flask and stopper, but with straight glass tube
4. Place equal amounts of broth in both flasks
5. Boil for 15 min
6. Observe for several weeks: look for changes to broth and odour
7. Dispose of contaminated liquid by autoclaving
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Results:
 Liquid exposed to open air  went cloudy, developed scum, bubbled and produced
unpleasant odours
 Liquid with S shaped tube  remained unchanged
Conclusion: Microbes could not grow spontaneously. Fermentation relies on entry of microbes
by air

Distinguish between:
– Prions
– Viruses
– Bacteria
– Protozoans
– Fungi
– Macro-parasites
And name ONE example of a disease caused by each type of pathogen

Pathogen Description Example of disease it causes

Prions  Protein that has been altered from it Scrapie in sheep
normal structure  can alter other
proteins to develop more prions
 Chain reaction
 Does not contain DNA or RNA
 Attacks brain or nerve cells
Viruses  Non-cellular Influenza
 Contains DNA, RNA and protein coat
 Enclosed in protein
 Live inside living cells
 Requires living host cell to replicate
 Cannot be seen with light microscope
Bacteria  Prokaryotic cells Cholera
 Divide quickly and/or produces toxins
Protozoans  Eukaryotic cell – single-celled Malaria
 May have complex life cycle
Fungi  Heterotrophic organisms Candidiasis
 Some unicellular, others consist of long
threads
 Spread via spores or rapid division
 Some infect external skin and nails,
while others enter host’s body
Macro-parasites  Eukaryotic cells – multi-cellular Fleas
 Visible to naked eye
 AKA parasites

Gather and process information to trace the historical development of our understanding
of the cause and prevention of malaria
Malaria
Date Development
18 BC Romans: thought came from swamps – malaria means ‘bad air’
1820 Quinine - used to prevent
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1880 Laveran  discovered protozoan Plasmodium

1886 Golgi  observed asexual reproduction in Plasmodium
 Identified 2 species
1897 Ross  discovered cause of disease: protozoan Plasmodium
1898 Grassi  Anopheles mosquito – carrier of malarial parasite
1940 Chloroquinine used – first synthetic anti-malarial drug
1990 Cowman  explained why parasite can hide from human defence system and why
became resistant to anti-malarial drugs
2009 USA - First clinical trial of anti-malarial vaccine on adult volunteers

Source: http://www.ib.bioninja.com.au/options/option-f-microbes-and-biote/f6-microbes-
and-disease.html

Identify data sources, gather process and analyse information from secondary sources
to describe one named infectious disease in terms of its: Cause Transmission Host
response Major symptoms Treatment Prevention Control

Infectious disease: MALARIA

Factor Description
Cause  Protozoan parasite – Plasmodium
Transmission  Bite of infected female Anopheles mosquito
 When mosquito bites person with malaria – becomes infected for life
 Vector injects sporozoites into human’s bloodstream
 Sporozoites travel to liver cells
 Spores form and burst after 2 weeks, releasing thousands of
merozoites into blood
 Each merozoite attacks RBC
 Parasite forms tiny knobs on surface – stick to blood cells – hide from
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defence system
 Less common methods: blood transfusion, sharing needles and
congenital infection

Host response  Parasite takes ½ hour to invade liver cells – not enough time for B cells to
produce antibodies
 Parasite leaves liver cell and attacks RBC’s – stimulates release of
inflammatory cytokines to slow growth of blood infection
 Hide in RBC’s – prevent immune response
 Damage to organs  prevent circulation to brain, liver and kidneys
 Physical examination – enlargement of liver and spleen

Major symptoms  Fever  Vomiting

 Headache  Joint pains
 Shivering  Diarrhoea
 Sweating
Treatment  Anti-malarial medications e.g. quinine
 Determined by infectious disease physician

Prevention  Anti-malarial medications – should be taken several weeks before, in and

after leaving malaria-affected area
 Wear light, long, loose clothing
 Avoid use of perfumes
 Avoid outdoors at dusk and dawn
 Use insect repellants and vaporising devices
 Sleep under insecticide-treated bed nets

Control  Queensland Public health units  monitor patients diagnosed with

malaria to determine if control methods required
 People recently travelled to affected area  deferred from donating
blood
 Killing adult mosquitos
 Eliminate breeding sites

Identify the role of antibiotics in the management of infectious disease

 Compounds that kill or inhibit bacterial pathogens
 Management of infectious
e.g. Penicillin is made from fungus – Penicillium mould
 Some alter DNA, allow other substances to enter cell and destroy pathogen
 Role: treatment of infectious diseases or prevent infection (in extreme cases)
 Rarely used for infectious diseases caused by non-bacterial pathogens
 Report of antibiotics being abused in farms  increasing resistance
 When taking  important to take full course to avoid resistance

Process information from secondary sources to discuss problems relating to antibiotic

resistance
 Resistance  increasing concern
 Each time antibiotic used, may be some individual pathogens that have natural
resistance  left to breed and pass on resistance to next generation  next time drug
used = no effect
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 Overuse has resulted in superbugs

o Antibiotic resistant strains e.g. golden staph
 Overuse reported in farms
o During production of meat, animals are given antibiotics to prevent infections
o We could be consuming antibiotics  lead to more resistance
 Many hospitals encountering Staphylococcus aureus (golden staph) infections 
once easily treated using antibiotics (vancomycin)  now resistant to all treatments
o Life-threatening
 Since 1980’s  increase antibiotic resistance of Streptococcus pneumonia
o Cause of pneumonia, middle ear infections, sinus and meningitis
 New antibiotics need to be developed as more strains of bacteria become resistant
 Preventing infections can decrease the need for antibiotics
o Vaccination programs e.g. diphtheria – virtually eliminated the need for antibiotics
because infections are very rare

4. Often we recognise an infection by the symptoms it causes. The

immune response is not so obvious, until we recover
Identify defence barriers to prevent entry of pathogens in humans:
FIRST LINE OF DEFENCE – NON-SPECIFIC BARRIERS
Defence Barrier Description What it does
Skin  Skin continually grows through  Mechanical barrier
new cells developing beneath  Protects other tissues
 Cells fit tightly together to form  Collects and holds pathogens
protective layer  Secretes sebum  produce
 Outer layer contain keratin  acids that inhibit growth of
microorganisms cannot penetrate bacteria and fungi
unless broken  If skin broken?  blood-clotting
mechanism rapidly seals wound
to prevent entry of pathogens
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Mucous Membranes  Line digestive, respiratory,  IgA antibody  Protects against

reproductive and urinary tracts
with mucus
Cilia  Tiny hairs projected from cells
lining nose, trachea and bronchial
tubes
invasion of pathogens
 Movement of mucous  any
particles trapped in mucous
move to nose opening or
pharynx  coughed out or
swallowed

Chemical barriers  Acid in stomach  Stomach acid  destroys

 Alkali in small intestine pathogens, Inc. those carried to
 Enzyme lysozyme in tears throat by cilia and swallowed
 Alkali  destroys acid resistant
pathogens
 Lysozyme  destroys cell
membranes of bacteria

Other body secretion  Secretions from sweat glands  Protect body from invasion
 Oily secretion from hair  Contains chemicals that destroy
bacteria and fungi

Identify antigens as molecules that trigger the immune response

 Antigen: any foreign substance e.g. virus
o Protein molecules that trigger immune response  because of production of
specific antibodies
o Each pathogen has its own antigen

Explain why organ transplants should trigger an immune response

 Antigen-antibody response  result from rejection of transplanted tissue
 Transplanted tissue fails to live and become part of organism
 Transplanted tissue contains antigens  identified by body as containing foreign antigen
 triggers immune response

Identify defence adaptations, including:

SECOND LINE OF DEFENCE – NON-SPECIFIC RESPONSES
Defence Adaptation Description
Inflammation  Designed to isolate and destroy foreign particles
response  Prepare tissues for healing
 Dilation of blood vessels  increasing blood flow and raising
temperature of tissue
 Helps confine pathogen for WBC to destroy it
 Mediated by chemicals such as histamine and prostaglandins
released by damaged tissues

Phagocytosis  Phagocytes  WBCells that engulf and destroy micro-organisms

 Important  body’s immediate defence against infection
 Acute inflammation (lasting hours or days)  neutrophils
 Chronic inflammation (weeks or months)  macrophages
Lymph System  Fight disease at second and third line of defence
 System of vessels
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 Drains intercellular fluid back to blood

 Contain spleen, bone marrow and thymus
 Lymph nodes  filter out foreign bodies e.g. harmful bacteria and cell
debris
 contain lymphocyte and macrophages
 found in armpits, neck and groin
 enlargement  sign of infection

Cell death to seal off  After phagocytes destroy antigen  die

pathogen  Phagocytes – Macrophages and Lymphocytes  Form region that
contains dead cells and phagocytes
 Thick layer of dead cells off pathogen in structure like cyst
 Prevents entry of nutrients to pathogen  killing it

Gather, process and present information from secondary sources to show how a named
disease results from an imbalance of microflora in humans
CANDIDIASIS
 Caused by fungus Candida albicans
o Natural micro-organism
o Occurs in mouth, respiratory tract, female genital tract and gastrointestinal tract
 Occurs when imbalance of Candida albicans cells
o Usually kept in balance by competition from other micro-organisms, such as
lactobacilli (bacteria found in gastrointestinal tract)
 Increase of Candida albicans  can be caused by:
o Taking antibiotics or steroids
o Use of oral contraception
o Pregnancy
o Malnutrition
o Diabetes mellitus

5. MacFarlane Burnet’s work in the middle of the twentieth century

contributed to a better understanding of the immune response
and the effectiveness of immunisation programs
Identify the components of the immune response:
THIRD LINE OF DEFENCE – SPECIFIC RESPONSE
Component Description
Antibodies  Immunoglobins
 Proteins found in blood plasma and other body fluids
 Produced in the lymph nodes by B cells in response to specific
antigen
 Can combine with and help neutralise an antigen
 Highly specific for antigen that stimulated their synthesis and
release
 Antigen-antibody response
 Activates production of proteins that result in bacteria being
ingested and destroyed  histamine released  inflammation
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T cells  Lymphocytes
 Form in bone marrow/thymus gland
 Remain inactive in blood and lymph until they meet antigen
 Cell mediated immunity: Antigen binds to T cell  activating it to
multiply  destroy
 Some memory T-cells remain in body as memory cells so know how
to fight off antigen next time introduced
 Do not produce antibodies

B cells  Mature and develop in bone marrow of humans

 Control the humoral blood response  B cells in blood and lymph
activated by antigens
 Produced in response to helper T-activation or by the presence of
antigens
 Activated B cells  clone themselves and then differentiate…
 Into plasma cells that send antibodies into the blood
 OR into memory cells
(Process occurs in lymph nodes)

Describe and explain the immune response in the human body in terms of:
Interaction between B and T lymphocytes
 T cells help and influence B cells
 B and T lymphocytes interact as both attacking same antigen
 Helper T cells stimulate B and T cells to clone
 When antigen enters body
o Processed by macrophage  places fragments of antigen on external membrane
o Fragments recognised by helper T cells and B cells
o Signal to other cells to initiate immune response

The mechanisms that allow interaction between B and T lymphocytes

 Mechanism 1:
o T cell produces soluble factor after interaction with antigen
o B cell reacts with soluble factor and specific antigen  becomes functional
antibody-producing cell
 Mechanism 2:
o Contact between T and B cell  because of interaction with antigen
o Contact allows T cell to signal the B cell to become functional antibody-producing
cell
 Helper T cells  T lymphocytes that help B lymphocytes
 Work together - T cell will recognise antigen and attack with B cell
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The range of T lymphocyte types and the difference in their roles

Exposure to antigen makes responding T cell change into range of T lymphocytes

T lymphocyte Role
Killer T cells  Secrete substances
 Directly destroys antigens
 Enhance activity of macrophages
 Inhibit replication of viruses
 Destroy any abnormal cells e.g. cancer cells
 Produce interferon  protects cells living around infected cell from
viral invasion

Helper T cells  Secrete chemicals called interleukins

 Help B cells produce antibodies
 Help formation of cytotoxic T cells
 Enhance inflammatory response

Suppressor T cells  Turn off immune response after infection controlled

 Reduce release of antibodies from plasma cells
 Reduce release of chemicals from cytoxic cells

Memory T cells  Recognise original invading antigen  invasion dealt with quickly
 Stimulate helper T cells  quickly producing large amount of
antibodies
 Remain in lymph nodes or blood circulation  allow long-term
immunity

Outline the way in which vaccinations prevent infection

 Vaccination: injecting or ingesting antigens from living, dead, weakened or non-virulent
strains of micro-organisms
 Stimulate a person’s immune system to develop resistance
 Exposure to same antigen  antibody-antigen response  antigen destroyed
 Some offer life-long immunity or short term
 Booster injections may be given at various intervals
 Active immunisation
o Injection of an antigen
o Stimulates production of antibodies and T and B memory cells specific to that antigen
o Protect against measles, polio and diphtheria
 Passive immunisation
o Injection of antibodies produced by other organism in response to infection
o Short term protection
o Risk: stimulating aggressive response
o Helpful for immediate protection: people have no immunity to disease they have

Process, analyse and present information from secondary sources to evaluate the
effectiveness of vaccination programs in preventing the spread and occurrence of once
common diseases, including smallpox, diphtheria and polio
Disease Effectiveness of Vaccination Program
Smallpox  Virus
Effective  Airborne or spread by direct contact
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 1796: Edward Jenner developed vaccine  not effective

 No one realised potential
 1840’s: vaccine became free  not widely used until became compulsory
 1967: WHO developed worldwide immunisation program  extremely successful
 1979: WHO  vaccination eradicated disease
 Only remaining samples of virus in laboratories
Diphtheria  Bacterial infection
Ineffective  Transmission  physical or respiratory contact
 Vaccination DTP (prevents against Diphtheria, Tetanus and Pertussis (whooping
cough)
 1923: vaccine released
 1940s-50s: decrease in occurrence
 1974: WHO’s EPI program  aim to immunise all children against disease
(diphtheria, polio) by 1990
 2002: 5000 death  4000 under 5
 2005: Vaccination rate 95% across 183 countries
Polio  Virus
Effective  Transmission  inhaling infected droplets or direct contact
 1955: first vaccine developed  effective to some extent  years following – 200
people developed disease and 11 died
 1960’s: safer vaccine developed  decreased spread and occurrence by 60-70%
(very effective)
 1974: WHO’s EPI program  became scarce in industrialised nations
 1988: World Health Assembly – Global Polio Eradication Initiative  widespread
vaccination of children <5 where virus still existed  extremely effective (99%
reduction)
 2006: All BUT 4 countries 100% polio free

Outline the reasons for the suppression of the immune response in organ transplants
 Transplant organs stimulates immune response  tissue proteins of one person not the
same as another (except for twins or closely inbred strains)
 Before transplant  donor and recipient very closely matched to have similar major
histocompatibility complexes (MHC’s) – hundreds so hard to match
 Body identifies as foreign
 T cells  main cell responsible for rejection of transplanted organs
 Patients given powerful immunosuppressive drugs  suppress immune response in
order to help transplanted organ live and become apart of body
 Side effects: Diabetes, renal impairment, susceptibility to infection

Macfarlane Burnet
- Contribution to understanding of immunological responses
- One of the founders of immunology
- Isolated strains of viruses to develop vaccines
- Investigated how the immune response functions
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY

6. Epidemiological studies involve the collection and careful

statistical analysis of large quantities of data. Such studies
assist the casual identification of non-infectious diseases
Identify and describe the main features of epidemiology using lung cancer
as an example
Epidemiology
 Study of disease
 Science of prevention
 Systematic and ongoing collection, collation, analysis and interpretation of
data
 Epidemiologists: study how often diseases occur in different groups of
people and ask why
o Work supports vaccination programs for controlling infectious
diseases
o Investigate risk factors for non-infectious diseases i.e. lung cancer
 Descriptive studies
o Show patterns of distribution of disease in population
 Analytical studies
o Planned investigations planned to test specific hypotheses
 Intervention studies
o Measure effectiveness and safety of interventions i.e. clinical trials
Lung Cancer
 Cause: abnormal growth of cells in lungs
 Collection and analysis of epidemiological data  increased knowledge of
disease
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY

 Australian Cancer Council & State Cancer Councils  collect and report on
incidence, mortality, prevalence and survival
 5th most common cancer in Australia
 8000 Australians diagnosed each year
 1 in 33 Australians will develop lung cancer by age of 75
 Studies  shown variation in disease for factors such as age, sex, regional
area and occupation
o Long-term data collection  indicates trends or changes in factors
over time
o Trends in incidence  reflect change in smoking habits
o Last 10 years: Incidence in males fallen BUT risen in females

Gather, process and analyse information to identify the cause and effect
relationship of smoking and lung cancer
 Linking cause and effect requires many studies with large populations
o Ensure not just a coincidental correlation between the two things
 Five criteria in establishing cause and effect relationship:
1. A high relative risk (look at statistics)
2. Consistency (in data between incidence of smoking and lung
cancer)
3. Graded response to a graded dose (death rate of lung cancer
increase with number of cigarettes smoked a day)
4. Temporal relationship (If A causes B, then exposure to A must have
stimulated B)
5. A plausible mechanism (the cause – 40 different carcinogens in
cigarettes cause increase in cancer)
 1950s: Doll, Hill, Hammond & Horn  established cigarette smoking
markedly increased chances of developing lung cancer
 Comparison of trends in smoking rates across sexes and trends in lung
cancer

NSW Cancer Council

 Smoking major cause of lung cancer
 Workers exposed to industrial substances i.e. asbestos  significantly
higher risk of developing lung cancer
 Link between passive smoking and lung cancer
 2003 – Lung cancer leading cause of cancer-related deaths in males
Stephanie Azzopardi
Identify causes of non-infectious disease using an example from each of the
following categories:
Category
Inherited diseases
Caused by genetic factors
Nutritional deficiencies
Lack of vital component in
diet
Environmental diseases
Disease caused by
environmental factors,
such as high stress levels,
noise, drugs and
pollutants
HSC BIOLOGY
Example of non- Description
infectious disease
Down’s syndrome  Caused by an additional
chromosome 21
 Suffer mental retardation
 Poor muscle tone
 Appearance  almond shaped eyes,
shorter limbs, protruding tongue
 Higher risk of congenital heart defects
Recurrent ear infections
 More common in babies born to older
mothers
 Believed to be linked to mistakes in
gamete production
Anorexia nervosa  Caused by deliberate under-eating
 Psychiatric disease
 Dangerous long-term effects on
health
 Can be fatal
Mesothelioma  Lung cancer caused by exposure to
asbestos
 No symptoms until 20-30 years after
exposure
 No cure
 Treatment can only slow down
progression of disease
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY

Gather information from secondary sources to analyse and present information

about the occurrence, symptoms, cause, and treatment/management of a named
non-infectious disease
Non-infectious disease: LUNG CANCER
Factor Description
Occurrence  2011: most common cause of cancer death in Australia – 18.8% of all
cancer deaths
 9200 (65% males 35% females) diagnosed every year
 2014: 11500 Australians predicted to be diagnosed
 2009: average age first diagnosis = 71 men 69.9 women
Symptoms  New/persistent cough
 Persistent chest infection
 Breathlessness
 Unexplained weight loss
 Recurring pneumonia and bronchitis
 Excessive fatigue
Cause  Growth of abnormal cells
 Cause not completely understood, but multiple factors could lead to
 Smoking: 87% of death via lung cancer
 Exposure to passive smoking increase non-smoker’s risk by 30%
 Exposure to asbestos seven times more likely to develop
mesothelioma
Treatment Surgery options include:

Source: http://www.cancercouncil.com.au/78503/b1000/lung-cancer-
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY

23/surgery-for-lung-cancer/

 Radiotherapy: use of x-rays to kill cancer cells

 Brachytherapy: small tube placed in trachea near tumours to suppress
growth
 Chemotherapy: use of aggressive cytotoxic drugs to prevent cells
multiplying
 Targeted therapy: use of specific drugs to ‘switch off’ mutations and
restrict cancer growth

Management  Pain relief medication: help clear phlegm in lungs

 Exercise: help speed recovery
 Pulmonary rehabilitation: improve breathing and confidence living with
one lung
 Regular chest x-rays: check sufficient function of lungs
 Tablet chemotherapy: administered after chemotherapy
 Palliative care: prevent, manage and relieve symptoms of treatment
and disease
7. Increased understanding has led to the development of a wide
range of strategies to prevent and control disease
Discuss the role of quarantine in preventing the spread of disease and
plants and animals into Australia or across regions of Australia
 Australia’s isolation  helps prevent introduction of some plant and animal diseases
o Only effective with quarantine services at every entry point into the country
 Quarantine regulations  prevented entry of foot and mouth disease  disease can
devastate livestock industry
 Some areas in Australia free of certain viruses e.g. bunchy top virus in bananas
o Movement of fruit & plant material across Australian regions  restricted by
quarantine laws to prevent the spread of disease
 Quarantine regulations  apply to importations, customs at airports and shipping
terminals
 North Head Quarantine Station (1828-1984)
o Helped prevent entry of plague, cholera, typhus fever, typhoid fever, yellow
fever, small pox and leprosy
o During outbreaks of small pox  centre used to isolate victims  prevented
the spread of disease
 Before quarantine  many plants and animal pests introduced into Australia without
consideration of impact
o Result: problems with rabbits, foxes, feral pigs and camels
 Quarantine works well for diseases with short-incubations period, but not well for
long-incubation period diseases

Process and analyse information from secondary sources to evaluate the

effectiveness of quarantine in preventing the spread of plant and animal disease into
Australia or across regions of Australia
The effectiveness of quarantine
 Fire blight
 Bacterial disease  effects pears, apples and other ornamental plants
 Native for North America BUT has spread to Europe, Middle East, Central
America and New Zealand
 Strict quarantine in Australia  controlling entry of any plant material that
could be carrying disease  prevented spread of disease
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY

o Effectiveness of program will show if disease enters with apples

imported from New Zealand

 Equine Influenza
 Quarantine blamed for its rapid spread through horses in NSW and QLD in
Aug 2007
 Originally detected at Eastern Creek
 Despite that all horses were detained and tested  disease rapidly spread
 Extremely contagious  could be spread on human clothes
 Quarantine originally detected virus and restricted horse movement BUT
failed to prevent the spread of the disease

Perform an investigation to examine plant shoots and leaves and gather first-hand
information of evidence of pathogens and insect pests
Aim: To observe plant shoots and leaves and detect evidence of pathogens and insect
pests
Method: Collect a range of garden plants and observe using microscope
Results:
 Old Lilly-Pilly: lumps on leaves called pimple gall  deformed growth
 Kangaroo Paw Plants: black inky marks on leaves  evidence of fungus that occurs
in moist conditions
Conclusion: Discolouration of leaves, deformation of leaves, irregular shaped leaves, furry
white growth on base of shoots  evidence of insects and pathogens

Explain how public health programs have controlled and/or prevented disease
 Design to raise public awareness
 Influence people to make lifestyle changes that improve their health
 Assist in early detection of diseases
 Help control and prevent disease by strategies directed at the pathogen, the host and
the environment
 Increasing emphasis on preventing disease rather than curing disease
 Laws requiring governments to keep track of occurrence of certain diseases e.g.
AIDS have helped stop spread  need to be isolated or quarantined
 Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY

“Slip, Slop, Slap” Campaign

 Prevent skin cancer
 AUS & NZ  highest rates of skin cancer in the world
 >30 Aussies die each week from skin cancer
 Use song to raise awareness and achieve purpose

“Grim Reaper” Campaign 1987

 Campaign against AIDS
 Raised awareness of the dangers of contracting AIDS
 Promotion of contraception
 Use confronting images to raise awareness and achieve purpose

Gather and process information and use available evidence to discuss the changing
methods of dealing with plant and animal diseases, including the shift in emphasis
from treatment and control to management or prevention of disease
Shift from TREATMENT & CONTROL  TO MANAGEMENT OR PREVENTION
 There has been a shift from waiting for a disease to occur  to preventing the occurrence
of a disease before it infects
o Agriculture: genetically resistant crops are grown  don’t have to spray pesticides for
diseases later in life
 Animal and plant diseases  managed by Australian quarantine restrictions
o Diseases e.g. foot and mouth, rabies – managed by not allowing infected organisms
 Worldwide immunisation against small pox  disease eradicated

Measures that TREAT Advantages Disadvantages

only
Pesticides Destroy organisms that damage Organisms could form resistance to
crops or garden plants, or cause disease which would prove their
disease in animals eventual ineffectiveness
Biological control Controls pests using other living Pest may become resistant to the
organisms  doesn’t harm parasite or organism
environment
Medication (Antibiotics) Eradicate diseases through topical With overuse people could form
or tablet form resistance to antibiotics, and
therefore we may run out of
 Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY

antibiotics

Measures that Advantages Disadvantages

MANAGES OR PREVENT
Public health programs Helps maintain disease free
e.g. garbage collection communities
Transgenic plant species Plants are automatically resistant
to pests and disease
Quarantine restrictions Prevent spread of disease by
prevention of organisms infected
with foot and mouth, or rabies,
from entering the country
Only promote
Not legally binding or compulsory
No variation in the population
Annoying
Owners have to abandon their
animals

Reference List

Images
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level_Biology/Biology_Foundation/protein_structure_and_function#/me
dia/File:DNA_chemical_structure.svg
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC BIOLOGY

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