Lester, Paul Martin - Visual Communication Images With Messages-Wadsworth (1997)

VISUAL COMMUNICATION
Images with Messages
79
f*t&$£ *«v •
• • •
PAUL ARTIN LESTER

Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2014
https://archive.org/details/visualcommunicatOOIest
Visual
Communication
IMAGES WITH MESSAGES
PAUL MARTIN LESTER
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, FUILERTON
Visual
Communication
IMAGES WITH MESSAGES
COMMUNICATIONS EDITOR: Todd R. Armstrong COPY EDITOR: Jerrold Moore
EDITOR A L ASSISTANTS: Joshua King, Laura Murray PHOTO RESEARCHER: Winton Sweum
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Srai ;
( Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Lesk 'a ul Martin.

Visual communication : images with messages / Paul Martin Lester,
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-534- 19530-X
1. Visual communication. I. Title.
P93.5.L47 1995 94-19173

302.23— dc20
CONTENTS
Preface ix The Retina 23

Light path to the retina 23
SECTION 1 HOW WE SEE 1
Regions of the retina 23
Photoreceptors: Rods and cones 24

CHAPTER 1 TO SENSE. TO SELECT. TO
The optic nerve 27
PERCEIVE. 3
The Brain 29
The Visual Process 4
The cortex 30
Visual Communication's Circle Dance 6
The hippocampus 31
CHAPTER 2 LIGHT AND COLOR 7
Where Does Light Come From? 8

SECTION 2 WHY WE SEE 33
What Is the Speed of Light? 9
Particles or Waves? 10 CHAPTER WHAT THE BRAIN

4 SEES:
AND
COLOR, FORM, DEPTH,
Other Forms of Electromagnetic
MOVEMENT 35
Energy / 1
Color 36
Color 12
Describing color 37
Sociological Uses of Color 16
Form 40
CHAPTER 3 THE EYE, THE RETINA, AND Dots 40

THE BRAIN 18 Lines 41
Historic Eyes 18 Shapes 42
Windows to the Soul 20 Depth 44
Physiology of the Eye 21 The eight depth cues 45
V
vi CONTENTS
Movement 50 A new form of communication? 98
Real movement 50 Persuasion: A life and death issue 99

Apparent movement 50
Graphic movement 50 CHAPTER 7 IMAGES THAT INJURE:
Implied movement 51 PICTORIAL STEREOTYPES IN THE
MEDIA 100
Brain Cells Notice the Difference 51
Stereotyping Generally 102
Reinforcing stereotypes with images 103

CHAPTER 5 THE SENSUAL AND
Media coverage and prejudicial
PERCEPTUAL THEORIES OF VISUAL
thinking 104
COMMUNICATION 52
Specific Examples of Stereotyping 105
Sensual Theories of Visual Irish-American stereotypes 106

Communication 53 Jewish-American stereotypes 106
Gestalt 53 African-American stereotypes 107
Constructivism 58 Female stereotypes 112
Ecological 59 Gay and lesbian stereotypes 116
Perceptual Theories of Visual Can We All Get Along? 119
Communication 61
Semiotics 61
SECTION 4 THE MEDIA THROUGH WHICH WE
Cognition 67
SEE 123
SECTION 3 THE ETHICS OF WHAT WE SEE 73 Six Perspectives for Analyzing Any
Image 123
Personal Perspective 124

CHAPTER VISUAL PERSUASION IN
6
ADVERTISING, PUBLIC RELATIONS, Historical Perspective 125
AND JOURNALISM 75 Technical Perspective 125
Ethical Perspective 725

The Benetton Advertising Campaign 76
Cultural Perspective 126
The Fine Line Between Persuasion and
Propaganda 80 Critical Perspective 126
The role of persuasion 81
The role of propaganda 81 CHAPTER 8 TYPOGRAPHY 129
Visual Persuasion in Advertising 82 The Gutenberg Bible 129

Commercial advertising 83 The Curious History of Johannes
Noncommercial advertising 83 Gutenberg 131
Growth of advertising 84 Analysis of the Gutenberg Bible 136
Visual Persuasion in Public Relations 86 Typography and the Six Perspectives 138
Advertising and public relations 88 Personal Perspective 138
Politics and public relations 88 Historical Perspective 138
Journalism and public relations 89 Technical Perspective 149

Visual Persuasion in Journalism 91 Ethical Perspective 156
Corporate influence in newsrooms 92 Cultural Perspective 157
Objectivity and journalism 92 Critical Perspective 158
Back to David Kirby 98 Future Directions for Typography 158
CONTENTS vii
Technical Perspective 238

CHAPTER 9 GRAPHIC DESIGN 161
Ethical Perspective 241
Bass's Contributions to Graphic
Design 162
Critical Perspective 244
Movies 162
Future Directions for Cartoons 244
Television 164
Packaging and logos 165

CHAPTER 12 PHOTOGRAPHY 246
Analysis of The Man with the Golden
Arm 166
Analysis of "The Migrant Mother" 249
Photography and the Six Perspectives 252

Recent Trends in Motion Picture
Visuals 167 Personal Perspective 252
Graphic Design and the Six Historical Perspective 253

Perspectives 167 Technical Perspective 260
Personal Perspective 168 Ethical Perspective 265
Historical Perspective 168 Cultural Perspective 268
Technical Perspective 171 Critical Perspective 271
Ethical Perspective 176 Future Directions for Photography 272
Critical Perspective 185 CHAPTER 13 MOTION PICTURES 274
Future Directions for Graphic Design 185 Orson Welles and the Making of Citizen
Kane 275
CHAPTER 10 INFORMATIONAL Analysis of Citizen Kane 280
GRAPHICS 187
Motion Pictures and the Six
Weather Maps 188 Perspectives 282
Newspaper use 188 Personal Perspective 282
Television weather segments 190 Historical Perspective 284
Impact of technology 790 Technical Perspective 306
Analysis of Infographics in USA Today 191 Ethical Perspective 311
Informational Graphics and the Six Cultural Perspective 314

Perspectives 194 Critical Perspective 317
Personal Perspective 194 Future Directions for Motion Pictures 319
Historical Perspective 1 94
Technical Perspective 199 CHAPTER 14 TELEVISION AND

Ethical Perspective 207 VIDEO 322
Cultural Perspective 210 The Rodney King Incident 322

Critical Perspective 210 Making and airing the video 323
Future Directions for Informational The trial and its aftermath 325
Graphics 210 Analysis of the Rodney King Video 326
Television and Video and the Six
CHAPTER 11 CARTOONS 212
Perspectives 329
Analysis of "The Simpsons" 215 Personal Perspective 329
Cartoons and the Six Perspectives 217 Historical Perspective 331
Personal Perspective 217 Technical Perspective 344
Historical Perspective 219 Ethical Perspective 348
viii CONTENTS
Cultural Perspective 354 Networked Interactive Multimedia and the

Critical Perspective 358 Six Perspectives 402
Future Directions for Television and Personal Perspective 402

Video 359 Historical Perspective 402
Technical Perspective 406
CHAPTER 15 COMPUTERS 361 Ethical Perspective 407
Computer-Generated Images 361 Cultural Perspective 409
Morphing 362 Critical Perspective 412
Evolution of computer-generated Future Directions for Networked Interactive

images 363 Multimedia 413
Future of computer-generated
imaging 365 CHAPTER 17 THE MORE YOU KNOW,
Analysis of motion picture computer
THE MORE YOU SEE 415
graphics 366 Pictures — Learned Before Words 416
Computers and the Six Perspectives 366 Living in a Picture-Filled World 417
Personal Perspective 366 Helping Explain Unfamiliar Pictures with
Historical Perspective 367 Words 419
Technical Perspective 379 Pictures and words in mass
Ethical Perspective 389 communication 420
Cultural Perspective 394 Light— The Link 420
Critical Perspective 395

Future Directions for Computers 395 GLOSSARY 423
CHAPTER 16 NETWORKED BIBLIOGRAPHY 427

INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA 397
INDEX
IM — Like Talking to a Friend 398
435
Analysis of Laser Disk Presentations 401

PREFACE
^Nhere did the idea come from that words mation all demand that we become more
communicate better than pictures? Since they visually literate.
were first invented to communicate complex Visual Communication: Images with Mes-
thoughts, words and pictures have been sages explores several questions. What are
locked in a struggle for dominance, with your personal responses toward a particular
words being the clear-cut leader. With the visual presentation? How can you relate what
widespread use of Gutenberg's printing press, you see with the history of the medium of
words became more important than pictures presentation? What do you know about the
to convey complex thought. Images were technology that makes possible the presenta-
relegated to an occasional medical diagram, a tion of the information displayed? Are you
"pretty" border decoration, or a sensational aware of the ethical responsibility that pro-
eye-catching view. Reading and writing be- ducers of visual messages have in creating
came curriculum requirements, but visual images that are compelling and yet do not
literacy wasn't considered a necessary com- stereotype individuals? How do cultural in-
ponent of an individual's education. fluences determine the type of messages dis-
However, the invention of television and played and diverse interpretations of them?
the computer — and the recent spread of This book also explores the simple idea that
desktop publishing and interactive multi- visual messages that are remembered have the
media — dramatically changed the role of greatest power to inform, educate, and per-
visual messages in communication. Nowhere suade an individual and a culture — and why
on Earth can a person avoid being con- some images are remembered but most are
fronted with some sort of visual message. forgotten.
Knowledge about the nature of light, the An emphasis on visual messages does not
physiology of the brain, and the technological mean that words are considered less impor-
gadgets that people invent to present infor- tant than images. The most powerful, mean-
ix
x PREFACE
ingful, and culturally important messages are We live in a visually intensive society.
those that combine words and pictures equal- Bombarded daily with a steady, unrelenting
ly and respectfully. stream of visual stimulation from all manner

The first step toward understanding visual of media, we seek to understand pictures, but
communication is to educate yourself about we are only taught to understand words. We
the many ways that information is produced see mediated images more than we read
and consumed in a modern, media-rich soci- words. Some experts warn that if the trend
ety. Typographic, graphic, informational, continues, civilization will regress to illitera-
cartoon, still, moving, television, and com- cy and lawlessness. More optimistic research-
puter images are analyzed within a frame- ers predict that technological advances will
work of personal, historical, technical, ethi- merge words and pictures in new ways to
cal, cultural, and critical perspectives in order create innovative educational possibilities.
to complete this first step. In this new technological age, a person

This book also is a direct result of the new cannot afford to know only how to write or to
age in communications initiated and promot- know only how to make an image. Today,
ed by computer technology, which someone interested in advertising, graphic
design, journalism, motion pictures, photo-

1. makes production, presentation, and
communications, public relations, television,
viewing of visual messages easier; and
or visual perception must know how to use
2. links the various types of visual materials, and analyze the words and pictures presented
those who produce the images, and those in all those ways. The artificial boundaries
who are affected by what they see in (walls) between the various media imposed
numbers unequaled in the history of mass by tradition and older technology are begin-
communications. ning to crumble. This book can help you
Computers allow professional and ama-

breach those walls and enter the brave new
(visual) world on the other side.
teur writers and designers to produce typo-
graphic, illustrative, photographic, motion
picture, and television images in graphic
Features of the book
designs with ease.
For hundreds of years technology has kept
Visual Communication: Images with Messages
writers and visual artists separate and un-
contains the following features.
equal. Before Johannes Gutenberg's invention
of the commercially successful printing press, • An informal writing style explains de-
less than 30 percent of the people could read. tailed information in a thorough, yet easily
Seventy years after his invention, 80 percent understandable way. Section One presents
of the entire population of Europe could read. the latest scientific and medical informa-
Seventy years after Louis Daguerre's intro- tion available about light, the eye, and the
duction of the first practical photographic brain. Section Two features theoretical
process, almost everyone had a Kodak camera approaches to visual perception. Section
and looked at pictures in their local newspa- Three addresses ethical issues related to
pers. And yet, educators never developed a persuasive images and stereotyping. Each
visual grammar for photographs in the same chapter in Section Four is introduced with
way that a verbal grammar was developed for a detailed analysis of a significant example
words after Gutenberg. People are taught to from the medium being discussed, fol-
read words but are never taught to read lowed by a general discussion of the medi-
pictures. um from personal, historical, technical,
PREFACE xi
ethical, cultural, and critical perspectives. graphic design, journalism, motion picture,
Each chapter ends with a brief predictions photocommunication, public relations, and
section. television media presentations.
• More than 350 black-and-white and color
graphics and photographs from still and Section 1: How We See

moving image sources give life to the text's
This section of the book calls for more
historical references and contemporary
sophisticated visual perception techniques on
ideas. In addition to the illustrations,
the part of viewers in order to get the most
many examples are described in such a
from visual messages. The chapters in this
way as to evoke visual messages in the
section explain the physics and physiology of
mind of the reader.
how light enters the eye and forms images in
• The book exhibits the best that can be
the brain. Knowing about these physical and
achieved in graphic design when words
mental processes will help the student under-
and pictures are treated with equal impor-
memorable and
stand why some pictures are
tance and respect.
others are not.
• A cutline for each illustration identifies
the image and often describes it in terms Chapter 1: To Sense. To Select. To Perceive
that are used in the text. This chapter features the philosophy of the
• A glossary contains more than 100 key writer Aldous Huxley, who wrote "the more
words that are introduced in the text.

you know, the more you see" and how that
phrase relates to the study, appreciation, and
• A detailed bibliography presents sources of
production of visual messages.
additional information.
• An instructor's manual includes in-class Chapter 2: Light and Color

discussion topics and out-of-class assign- This chapter explores the history, physics,
ments, pages that can be used as masters and sociological characteristics of light. Light
for overhead projection sheets for each is the natural starting point for a visual
lecture, test questions with answers, pre- communication textbook because images re-
dictions from students about the future of ceive life through this form of electromagnet-
visual communications, a fictionalized ic energy. Consequently, having an under-
story of how virtual reality technology standing of the nature of light — how it shapes
may change the way visual communica- the objects we see and how it can direct our
tion courses are taught, an 800- item time attention — is vital for image analysis and
line that allows the reader to make con- creation.
nections between the various historical
developments presented in the text, and Chapter 3: The Eye, the Retina, and the
suggestions for teaching a visual commu- Brain
nication course. The parts of the eye and brain responsible

for sight are discussed. The physiology of
these vital body parts is used as a model for
Organization of the book many of the machines that help make the
world more visible. An understanding of the
The seventeen chapters are divided into four basic components of the eye and brain can
sections that discuss technical and sociologi- lead to insights regarding the images that
cal issues relevant to advertising, computers, cameras and computers produce.
xii PR K FACE
Section 2: Why We See texts to be exaggerated visions of reality

because their visual claims are intended to
Seeing is not simply a function of having
persuade and provoke. However, images used
enough light in a room. This section explores
for editorial purposes also are designed to
how the brain processes the individual graph-
conform to preconceived perceptions.
ic elements that make up a pictorial scene.
The many theories of how the mind puts the Chapter 7: Images That Injure: Pictorial
individual parts of an image together into Stereotypes in the Media
logical patterns of thought are explained and
This chapter contains a historical perspec-
discussed.
tive and a current analysis of how underre-
presented groups are portrayed in the media.
Chapter 4: What the Brain Sees: Color,
Form, Depth, and Movement Understanding the effect that stereotyping
has on society as a whole is important.

Every image, whether still, moving, real,
Pictures may be used to communicate a
or imagined, can be broken down into its
society's desire to segregate various groups
simple graphic components. Because of the
based on race, gender, age, physical condi-
way the brain functions, these graphic ele-
tion, and many other characteristics. Being
ments combine to make quick sense of what
able to identify pictorial stereotyping is the
the eyes see. Being able to identify and use
first step toward securing equality and justice.
those basic graphic elements helps in the
analysis and production of images.
Section 4: The Media Through
Chapter 5: The Sensual and Perceptual Which We See
Theories of Visual Communication
This section includes a chapter on each
Psychologists have come up with several
medium of presentation. Each chapter is
theories based on either sensual data received
introduced with a description of a significant
in the eye or perceptual information pro-
image or object presented by that medium.
cessed in the brain. The two types of ap-
Subsequent analysis involves the personal,
proaches are discussed with an emphasis on
historical, technical, ethical, cultural, and
how someone can use this information to
critical perspectives described at the start of
make memorable images.
the section. These six perspectives promote a
thorough understanding of the medium, the
Section 3: The Ethics of What We works produced by it, and its effects on the
See culture.
Before a discussion of each medium's role in

Chapter 8: Typography
the production and distribution of images, an
The chapter introduces the student to the
understanding of the ethical problems associ-
life and work of Johannes Gutenberg, who
ated with images is necessary. Pictures often
invented the first commercially successful
are used, knowingly or unknowingly, to mis-
printing press, on which the Gutenberg Bible
lead and distort.
was printed.
Chapter 6: Visual Persuasion in Adver-
tising, Public Relations, and Journalism Chapter 9: Graphic Design
Probably the most common use of images The graphic designs of Saul Bass, particu-
is for advertising and public relations purpos-

larly the movie title sequence for The Man
es. People expect pictures used in these con- with the Golden Arm, are featured.
PREFACE xiii
Chapter 10: Informational Graphics Chapter 16: Networked Interactive

Multimedia
George Rorick's design of the USA
map This chapter describes an interactive, mul-
Today full-page weather is a striking
example of an informational graphic that

timedia CD-ROM program, From Alice to
Ocean: Alone Across the Outback, as an exam-

directly influenced many other newspaper
ple of the best that the medium has to offer.
publishers.
But present-day interactive multimedia pres-
entations are nothing compared to the pro-
Chapter 11: Cartoons
grams of the future that will instantly net-
The work of Matt Groening, originator of
work with thousands of databases around the
"The Simpsons" in both comic strip and
world.
animated television productions, begins the
discussion in this chapter. Chapter 17: The More You Know, the
More You See
Chapter 12: Photography The book's conclusion stresses that a thor-
ough knowledge of visual communication

A discussion of Dorothea Lange's famous
portrait of a mother and her children, "The not only will help in the production and
Migrant Mother," begins the chapter that analysis of mediated images, but also will aid
describes the major technological and stylis- in the observation and interpretation of di-
tic innovations in still photography. Ethical rect visual experiences. The link among all
the information contained in the preceding

issues involved in photojournalism also are
part of the discussion. chapters is discussed.
Chapter 13: Motion Pictures Glossary
The close-up shot of Orson Welles saying

More than 100 terms that may be unfamiliar
the word "Rosebud" in his innovative motion defined
to the reader are briefly in this
picture Citizen Kane begins the discussion of section. Each word in the glossary is first
the movie industry.
emphasized in the text by boldface type and
explained there.
Chapter 14: Television and Video
The videotape shot by amateur George

Bibliography
Holliday that showed the beating and forceful
arrest of Rodney King, which later helped Most of the resource materials on which this
spark civil unrest in Los Angeles and convict book is based are listed so that the reader can
some of the officers involved, introduces the obtain additional information about each
power of televised images. subject presented in the text.
Chapter 15: Computers

Acknowledgments
The technological innovation of morphing
allows the creation of unusual computer- Writing a book is like running a 26.2-mile
generated forms that can range from the marathon in the sense that you never know
friendly sea creature in The Abyss to the what it is like until you do it yourself. If you
terrifying monster in Terminator 2: judgment are ever foolish enough to try (either one), be
Day. The full impact of computer technology sure to get plenty of help. To one degree or
on communication is discussed. another, the following people contributed
xiv PREFACE
greatly to this effort, helping me train, sup- Pegie Stark, Bob Steele, Paul and Mary Sum-
plying me with water, running heside me, mitt, Don Sunoo, Winton Sweum, Jennifer
cheering me along, and congratulating me at Tibbetts, Ed Trotter, Mike Tyler, Kim Walsh-
the finish line. In alphabetical order they are: Childers, Larry Ward, Lorraine Waters, David
Charlie and Lucy Adams, Todd Arm- Weaver, Marsha Woodbury, Fred Zandpour,
strong, Cecelia Baldwin, Ralph Barney, Saul and all the waitresses at Jon's Coffee Shop in
Bass, Nancy Benjamin, Paul Bibbo, Jay Black, Huntington Beach who let me sit at a table
Tom and Evie Brislin, Jim and Becky Brown, with an endless supply of coffee to write and
Tom Burr, Carl and Adjoa Burrowes, Fenton edit this text.
Calhoun, Michael Carlebach, Cynthia Carva- Thank you also to the following reviewers
jal, Neil Chapman, Ray Chavez, Cliff Chris- of the text: Kevin Barnhurst, Syracuse Uni-
tians, J. B. Colson, Paul Conrad, Carolyn versity; Richard Beckman, University of
Coogan, Marvin and Maria Cortner, Will North Carolina; J. B. Colson, University of
Counts, Deni and James Cramer, Wendell Texas; Lucy Ganje, University of North Dako-
Crow, Everette Dennis, Craig Denton, Patti ta; Tom Hubbard, Ohio State University;
Durham, Bob and Ginger Emry, Tony Fellow, Jeffrey Alan John, Wright State University;
Ed Fink, Lin Ford, Dick Foushee, Theresa Steve Jones, University of Tulsa; Keith
Frare, Cody, Jim, and Nancy Greenwood, Kenney, University of South Carolina;
Joanne Gula, Ruth Guzley, Chris Harris, Beth Charles Lewis, Mankato State University; Jul-
Hart, Rob Heller, Mark and Scott Heustis, iann Newton, University of Texas; and Patsy
Peggy Mclnnes Houston, Terry Hynes, Watkins, University of Arkansas.
Rhonda Jamgotchian, Jay Jimenez, Jeff John- I consider myself one of the luckiest per-
son, Josh King, Jeff Kowalchuk, Debby sons on the face of this planet because I am
Kramer, Ed Lambeth, Travis Linn, Elaine and fortunate enough to know each one of you.
Wally MacPhee, Sirish Mani, George Man- One of my fondest wishes is that someday we
ross, Chris Maron, George and Nancy Mas- can all spend a week together in an old,
troianni, Irene Matz, Elizabeth and Jay Mech- weather-beaten, sturdy (and extremely large)
ling, Jerrold Moore, Anne Moses, Carlene house somewhere along the coast of New
Nelson, Julie Newton, Coral Ohl, Nora Paul, England so that all of you can get to know
Richard Pearce-Moses, Michelle Perlman, each other.
Bob Picard, Nancy Pierce, David Pincus, Rick
Pullen, Liz Regan, Tony Rimmer, Joel Robin-
son, Susan Ross, David Shedden, Michael Paul Martin Lester
Shulman, Bill Smith, Ken Smith, Ted Smythe, Fullerton, California
How We See
Visual communication relies both on eyes light, how the eyes focus light, how the
that function and a brain that makes sense of retinas collect light, and how the brain proc-
all the sensory information received. An ac- esses, sorts, and stores light is important
tive, curious mind remembers and uses visual because camera and computer construction
messages in thoughtful and innovative ways. is based on some of the same principles.
Knowing about the world and the images that A knowledge of the physics and physiol-
it conveys will help you analyze pictures. And ogy of light will enhance your use of the
if you can examine pictures critically, you technologies of the future and the ability
have a good chance of producing high-quality to decipher innovative visual messages. It
images that others will remember. is light that gives visual messages their
General knowledge of the physics of life.

CHAPTER 1
To Sense. The greatest thing a
human
To Select. this
soul ever does in
world is to see
To Perceive. something. . . . To see
clearly is poetry,
prophecy, and religion, all
in one.
Think of all the visual messages that are a doctor who treated your cut leg; all the colors
John Ruskin,
part of your life: a cracked bat given to you bv of the plants as you walked along the trail; the
a professional baseball player; your fingers on pictures on the wall of your lover's bedroom.
PAINTER
the handlebars during your first bicycle ride; Actually, the proportion of remembered to
the smile from your favorite teacher during forgotten images is quite small. Why are a
your high school graduation; red blood drip- chosen few easily recalled while a vast array of
ping from a cut on your leg; the sight of a ambiguous memories are lost?
small stream during a quiet walk in the The brain deliberately and unconsciously
country; a passionate look from a lover. These sorts all the possible images and selects those
visual messages are all a part of your reper- that become a part of your long-term memo-
toire of memories. These personal moments ry. That selection process depends largely on
are forever stored in the gray recesses of your how much you want to know. For an image to
brain. Pictures weave themselves into your be remembered, it must make such a strong
memory system, sometimes lying dormant impression that you want to recall it again
for years. You remember and communicate and again. Through repetitive mental viewing
these mental images because they are highly over time, the image becomes permanent and
meaningful visual messages. your brain stores the visual memory. These
Think of all the personal visual messages pictures become a part of your visual image
you have experienced but may have forgotten: bank. When you see new images, you make
the billboard advertisements on the outfield new associations and comparisons with pre-
wall during the baseball game; where you viously stored mental pictures. The content of
ended up on your first bicycle ride; the faces the new and old images constantly bounce
of your fellow graduates sitting next to you as back and forth in your mind so that you learn
you waited for your diploma; the face of the from them. Otherwise, you will forget them,
3
4 TO SENSE. TO SELECT. TO PERCEIVE.
as you do most words and pictures. As the Art of Seeing (Figure 1.1). Huxley suffered
actor Rutger Hauer said in the movie Blade from a degenerative eye condition known as
Runner, "All those moments will be lost in keratitis punctata from the age of 16. One eye
time like tears in the rain." was merely capable of light perception, and
Think about some of the reasons for not the other could view an eye chart's 200-foot
remembering images: you were distracted by letters from only 10 feet away. In his book he
another activity; you were tired; you were described the physical exercises he used to
hungry; you were confused by what you saw; overcome his handicap without the aid of
you were experiencing some personal tragedy; glasses. However, his main idea is that seeing
you did not assign significance to the images. clearly is mostly the result of thinking clearly.
Actually, your well-being depends in part on Huxley summed up his method for achieving
your mind not playing back every possible clear vision with the formula: "sensing +
picture focused by the lenses in your eyes. selecting + perceiving = seeing."
You couldn't function well in society if your For Huxley:

Figure 1.1 brain stored and recalled everything you saw.
Sensing is not the same as perceiving.
Blind in one eye and nearly Like a party where the hosts show off their
The eyes and the nervous system do the
blind in the other, Huxley newly purchased video camera, you would be
sensing, the mind does the perceiving.
was forced to wear glasses forced instantly to view over and over all of
The faculty of perceiving is related to the
your past experiences. You would not be able
with thick lenses. individual's accumulated experience, in oth-
to live well in the present.
Nevertheless, the low camera er words, to memory.
Many famous and often reproduced imag-
perspective, dramatic Clear seeing is the product of accurate
es that begin Chapters 8 through 16 have
lighting effect and his eye sensing and correct perceiving.
visual messages that are so strong that mil-
contact with the viewer Any improvement in the power of per-
who have seen them have
lions of people
reveal a strong personality
ceiving tends to be accompanied by an
memorized them. And when they see them
improvement in the power of sensing and of
behind the glasses.
again, people learn something more — they that product of sensing and perceiving which
make new connections. These images are
is seeing.
strong, compelling, and easily understood.
They have helped shape Western culture and The first stage of clear vision is to sense. To
how large numbers of people feel about them- sense, or look, simply means letting enough
selves. Although separate and individual in light enter your eyes so that you can see
their intent, content, and medium, all are objects immediately around you. Sensing also
linked by the inescapable elements common depends on how well the many parts of the
to all visual messages: They are objects that eye work. Obviously, a damaged or improper-
get their life from light. That life comes not ly functioning eye will hamper sensing.
only from the light of day, but also from the Think of the human visual process as a
light of revelation, the light of understanding, camera without film; that is, little mental
and the light of education. processing of the image occurs during the
looking phase of visual perception. For exam-
ple, a friend calls out to you:
The visual process "Look over there," and you move your head
in the general direction indicated by your
Aldous Huxley, author of the novel Brave friend. You try to take in the whole scene.
New World and other works of futuristic You look at everything, but you see nothing.
vision, detailed his efforts to teach himself You have no idea why you have been in-
how to see more clearly in his 1942 work The structed to look.
THE VISUAL PROCESS 5
Huxley's next stage is to select a particular the mix of genders and races. You see their
element from a field of vision. To select is to clothing. You see their ages and heights. You
isolate a specific part of a scene within the see their body gestures. And because of that
enormous frame of possibilities that sensing conscious mental activity, you see what you
offers. That isolation is a result of the combi- assume is the reason for your friend's insis-
nation of the light gathering and focusing tent command. A person is lying down on
properties of the eye with the higher level the sidewalk in the middle of this group of
functions of the brain. Selecting is a con- people.
scious, intellectual act. When you select you

The last stage in Huxley's visual theory is
engage more fully the objects in the scene
to perceive; that is, you must try to make
than when you merely look. Selecting starts
sense of what you select. If your mind has any
the process of classification of objects as
chance of storing visual information for long-
known, unfamiliar, meaningful, or confus-
term retrieval and to increase your knowledge
ing. To select is to isolate an object within the
base, you must actively consider the meaning
area where the sharpest vision takes place in
of what you see. Mystery programs often
the eye: the foveal focus point in the back of
visually reveal all the clues needed to solve a
your eyes. By selecting individual objects
murder. Many people miss these visual clues
within a scene, you are doing what the eye's
because they have been taught to value verbal
physiology was made to do — to focus your
information more than visual. Once the clues
mental activities on a single, small object that
are perceived and collated, the solution often
is isolated from all others.
is obvious. However, a subsequent viewing
About seeing, Huxley wrote that "the
never recaptures the feeling of discovery ex-
more you know; the more you see." A former
perienced during the first viewing. Under-
baseball player watches and sees a baseball
standing what you select requires the same
game much differently from someone who
amount of curiosity and wonder that you give
attends a game for the first time. The new-
to selecting something for the first time:
comer probably will miss signals from a
manager, scoreboard details, the curve of the A man is down on a busy street corner.
ball's flight as it speeds from pitcher to batter, People stand around. They appear to be
and many other details observed by the simply waiting for the light to change so that
former player. A city dweller might notice they can walk across the street. None of the
architectural and cultural details in a city, but passersby look at all concerned for the man
she might get lost in a forest. Her friend who on the ground. Maybe none of them are
lives in the country might be able to identify aware that he's lying on the pavement. But
every tree and flower along a rural path but how can that be? He is in the center of the
might not be able to find his way to the group. Many of the people will need to walk
airport from a busy highway. The more you around him in order to cross the street.
stimulate your mind, through past experi- What is the mystery here?
ence or knowledge, the greater are the

To process an image mentally on a higher
chances that you will see more of your
level of cognition than simply sensing and
world:
selecting means that you must concentrate on
You narrow your gaze and look in the the subjects within a field of view with the
direction your friend asks and you start to intent of finding meaning and not simply as
see — you start to isolate mentally all the an act of observation, which demands much
subjects in the scene. You see a crowd of sharper mental activity. Ask yourself: Does
people standing on a street corner. You see the image have any significance for your life?
6 TO SENSE. TO SELECT. TO PERCEIVE.
The answer to that question determines ing. Your mind's eye — not an actual sensual
whether you rememher or forget a picture. image — has created the picture inside your
Although you can certainly isolate a particu- head.
lar visual element with little mental process-
ing when it is a new or surprising occurrence,
Visual communication's circle
analyzing a visual message ensures that you
DANCE
will find meaning for the picture. If the image
becomes meaningful, it is likely to become a The more you know, the more you sense. The
part of your long-term memory. As a result: more you sense, the more you select. The
more you select, the more you perceive. The
Now you really see the man who is down. more you perceive, the more you remember.
You see that he is paralyzed and dragging The more you remember, the more you learn.
himself with his gloved hands along the The more you learn, the more you know.
sidewalk. You see his tattered clothing. You The greatest aid to clear seeing isn't eyes
see his brown, long, and disheveled hair. You that function with or without glasses or a
see the small wooden box that he carefully telescope that brings into sharp focus the
drags start-step fashion along with him. You craters of the moon. The process of sensing,
see the hand-lettered sign on the box that selecting, and perceiving takes a curious,
reads, "VIETNAM VETERAN. PLEASE questioning, and knowledgeable mind. The

HELP." All the clues obtained by looking goal of a visual communicator isn't simply to
and seeing are now in place. Your mind can have an image published or broadcast. The
now find meaning. Because you have taken goal of a visual communicator is to produce
the time to understand the scene fully, it powerful pictures so that the viewer will
becomes a powerful visual message that has remember their content. Images have no use
a good chance of staying in your memory for if the viewer's mind doesn't use them. As
years to come. You realize that the man is a future image consumers and producers, you
desperate person who needs some assistance will want to see images that you remember
and yet no one is willing to come to his aid. and make images that others remember.
The goal of this book is to give you a
This simple exercise proves that visual method for analyzing visual messages regard-
messages can become long-time mental less of the medium of presentation. Without
memories through direct, cognitive process- systematically analyzing an image, you may
see a televised image and not notice the
individual elements within the frame. You
Figure 1.2
ceive • might not consider its content as it relates to
Aldous Huxley's method for the story and to your life. Without consider-
clear seeing makes a strong ing the image, you will not gain any under-
visual message. The words standing or personal insights. The picture
arranged in a circle and
o will simply be another in a long line of
separated with dots stand forgotten images. Analyzing an image makes
out because of the familiar

you take a long, careful look at the pictures
shapes ( see Chapter 4).

you see — a highly satisfying intellectual act.
Those images become a part of your general

knowledge of the world. You discover how
X <> 1
images are linked in ways that you never
thought of before. You become a more inter-
esting, curious person (Figure 1.2).
CHAPTER 2
Light and Color One of my basic feelings
is that the mind, and
the heart alike . . . must
be dedicated to the
glory, the magic, and
the mystery of light.
It's early Sunday morning. You barely open dark hallway. Not wanting to open your eyes Clarence John Laughlin,
your eyelids. You see that it is still dark and fully just yet, you use your hands to feel the
quickly shut them again. wall along the hall. When you reach the PHOTOGRAPHER
Moments pass. bathroom, you steel yourself for the first
As you lie in the morning's darkness with shock of morning. You switch on the light
your eyelids closed somewhere between and instantly are helpless: You are blinded
awake and asleep, you start to notice your blinded by the light that is not the gentle
surroundings without aid from your visual morning glow of natural sunlight, but the
sense — the feel of recently laundered cotton harsh, incandescent glare of artificiality. You
sheets, the smell of freshly brewed coffee from blink your eyelids several times in the vain
the kitchen downstairs, the robin's song from hope that doing so will hasten your transition
a tree outside your window, and the bitter- from a nocturnal to a diurnal creature. In
sweet taste in your mouth from the remnants about the time it takes to brush your teeth,
of last night's chocolate brownie dessert. you are able to face comfortably the 100-watt
Moments pass. bulb and stare at your reflection in the mirror

Again you try to open your eyelids briefly. (Figure 2.1).
This time morning's first light casts a peach- Literary references and colloquial expres-
colored glow on the white walls in your sions about light and vision abound because
bedroom. A gentle spring breeze causes the of the importance of seeing. When we want to
prism in the open window to sway slightly, learn the truth, we say, "Throw light on the
making its rainbow-colored lights dance subject." If we are concerned that we are not
along the walls and ceiling. getting the full story, we complain with,
Enough rest. The time to rise is now. You "Don't keep me in the dark." Missouri is the
reluctantly leave your bed and make your way "Show Me" state and proudly proclaims that
awkwardly to the bathroom down the long, fact on its car license plates. Presumably,
7
8 LIGHT AND COLOR
that occurs in our brains. Without the stimu-

lus created from a photon on photoreceptors
in the back of the eye, light would not be
visible. Consequently, having an understand-
ing of the nature of light — how it shapes the
objects we see and how it can direct our
attention — is vital for image analysis and
creation. Knowing both the physical and
mental processes involved with light creations
will help you understand why some images

are memorable and some are not. Such
knowledge will help to make you a successful
producer of visual messages (Figure 2.2).
Where does light come from?
Figure 2.1 Missourians, as do many residents of other The study of the nature of light excited the
The use of lighting in this states, need to see something before they can minds of some of the greatest scientists who
computer-generated image believe it. "Seeing is believing" is a common have ever lived. One of the first questions that
helps create a sense of depth

phrase that equates truth with visual aware- scientists addressed was: Where does light
ness. And when he wants to explain how originate? The Greek philosopher Empe-
in this view of a chapel. The
wonderful it is to see his former lover stand- docles in about 500 B.C. and the Greek mathe-
lighting effect also
ing in his Casablanca bar, Rick exclaims, matician Euclid, 150 years later, thought that
communicates religious
"Here's looking at you, kid." light rays began in each person's eyes and
meaning.
Throughout human history, people have traveled outward, illuminating all the objects
been fascinated by light. Civilizations prayed in the world. In a poetic description,

Figure 2.2 and celebrated the start of each new sunrise Empedocles said that the eyes were "like a
See color section following and invented gods that ruled the sun. Reli- lantern" that gave light to all that could be
page 210. gious leaders equate light with life and begin seen. He also believed that he was a god and
the Bible with its creation. When fire was tried unsuccessfully to prove the point by
discovered, most were awed by the flames and jumping into the volcanic crater of Mt. Etna.
the ability to control them. Most scientists of Empedocles's day be-

To know the physics and physiology of lieved that all the material in the universe
how light enters the eye and forms images in comprised four basic elements: fire, water, air,
the brain is important because much of how or earth. He was the first to assume that the
we see is a matter of how much we know and four elements combined in various propor-
want to observe about the world. The connections to make everything in the world. He
tion between a lit subject, the eyes, and the also was one of the first scientists to ask how
brain has as much to do with the physical bones, blood, and flesh formed living things.
nature of the link as it does with our psycho- The Greek philosopher Plato, one of the
logical response. most famous thinkers in Western civilization,
Light is a natural starting point for a visual reasoned that, as vision cannot occur in the
communication book because images receive dark, sight must be a result of a mixing
life from this form of electromagnetic energy. between the light from outside and the light
But visible light is simply a chemical reaction from inside the eyes. When the mixed-up
WHAT IS THE SPEED OF LIGHT? 9
particles were all the same size, he reasoned,

an object was transparent. Different-sized
particles resulted in color vision.
Abu Ali Mohammed ibn alHasan Ign
al-Haytham, or simply Alhazen to his English

friends, wrote seven books on optics some-
time around A.D. 1000. He was one of the first
scientists to understand that light originates
in the sun or from fire and does not emit

from human eyes. Alhazen largely based his
argument on commonsense observations. He

simply thought it impossible for light to emit
from the eyes and instantly illuminate objects
at great distances.
The German Jesuit Christopher Scheiner

proved in 1625 that light enters the eye and
carries images with it. He simply slaughtered
an animal and looked from behind the beast's opposite wall. Alhazen cut a small pinhole in Figure 2.3
eyeball. He saw a tiny, upside-down version one wall of his tent and safely viewed an This wide-angle,
of the scene from behind the eye. eclipse from inside the tent. He used this low-perspective computer
principle to study the sun and to prove that image of a room contains
light travels in straight lines. Aristotle also
three kinds of light — the
knew and wrote about this phenomenon.
light from the incandescent
What is the speed of light? Later, Renaissance artists used the camera
bulb, light from the outside,
obscura to make paintings that were true to
and light from a computer
Another intriguing question to be answered the natural linear perspective of a real-world
monitor that gives birth to
by scientists curious about the nature of light scene and by photographic inventors who
the image.
was its speed. They knew that light must placed light-sensitive emulsions inside their
travel rapidly, but pinpointing the exact speed homemade pinhole cameras (Figure 2.3).
was difficult. The actual speed of light travel- Alhazen was an interesting character, to
ing in a vacuum measured by modern, so- say the least. An Arabian mathematician, he
phisticated equipment is 186,282.3959 miles was born in an area near present-day Basra,
per second or about 670,615,200 miles per Iraq. Later in his career, he boasted that he
hour. In glass, light slows a little to a speed of could construct a machine to prevent the
446,400,000 miles per hour. powerful Nile river from flooding and vastly
Alhazen knew that the speed of light is not aid agriculture in the region. Word about
infinite but that it must be great.He also Alhazen's boast eventually reached Egypt and
discovered that the speed slows when light the caliph Hakim, who summoned him to
moves through water. An important person build the device. Alhazen did not know how
in the history of optics and photography, to build such a machine. Fearing the caliph's
Alhazen was one of the first scientists to use a anger, he pretended to be insane until Hakim
camera obscura, Latin for "dark chamber," died in 1021. Alhazen died in Cairo in 1038.
for the study of solar eclipses. A small hole One invention and one astronomical dis-
cut into a wall of a dark room— when the covery were needed to permit accurate mea-
optical angles are right — projects an upside- surement of the speed of light. In 1608 Hans
down view of the outside scene on the Lippershey, a Dutch eyeglass maker, invented
10 LIGHT AND COLOR
the telescope. He simply put lenses inside a exact timing device than available to previous
hollow metal tube and noticed that faraway scientists, he measured the speed of light to
objects appeared to be larger with this new within 2.5 miles per second of the actual
device. He immediately offered his invention velocity.
to the government for use by its war depart-

ment. Galileo, an Italian born in 1564 (the
same year as Shakespeare), heard of Lipper- Particles or waves?
shey's invention and made his own telescope
based on its description. Galileo declined to A third mystery of light was whether it is
view advancing armies through the optical composed of individual particles or is actual-
device. Instead, he turned his attention to the ly a series of waves similar to the effect of
stars in the night sky and became famous. In ripples on water. Sir Isaac Newton was an
1609 he discovered the planet Jupiter and its early proponent of the particle theory. Be-
moons. Because of his discoveries, he de- sides his famous work on gravity, he pro-
bunked the idea that the sun and its planets duced the first scientific work on light
revolved around the Earth — supporting an Opticks, published in 1704. He reasoned that,
idea originally proposed some 50 years earlier because light travels in a straight line, it must
by the equally famous Polish scientist Nico- be composed of individual particles; waves
laus Copernicus. Religious leaders branded would not behave in such a manner. Newton
Galileo a heretic and jailed him for his called the light particles corpuscles and his
troubles. idea the corpuscular theory.
Without knowing it, Galileo contributed In 1803 Thomas Young discovered that
to a more accurate estimate of the speed of light must be composed of waves similar to
light. Using Galileo's discovery of Jupiter, those in water. Young conducted a simple
Olaus Roemer, a Danish astronomer, com- experiment to show that light must be a series
puted a close approximation of the speed of of waves. He allowed light to travel through a
light in 1675. Roemer noticed that some of small hole in a board. He then directed that
the moons of Jupiter were visible at varying shaft of light through a second hole in anoth-
times, depending on how close Earth was to er board and projected it on a third board
the planet. Roemer assumed that the twenty- having no hole. The light traveling through
two-minute time difference between when the two small holes caused interference pat-
one of Jupiter's moons was visible and when it terns between the light waves. You can see this
was hidden was the time required for light same effect by standing in shallow water on a
from Jupiter to reach the Earth. He came up sunny day. Looking down at your feet you
with the speed of light as 132,000 miles per will see waves of light colliding with each
second — less than the actual measurement other, creating similar interference patterns
because Roemer did not know the exact on the bottom. Many scientists supported
distance between the Earth and Jupiter. Young's explanation because it fit scientific
Nevertheless, most people of his day ridiculed observation. However, Newton's view re-
him for proposing such an incredible velocity. mained dominant. In fact, Young was criti-
In 1926 Albert Michelson, the first Ameri- cized so intensely for questioning Newton
can to win a Nobel Prize for science, devel- that his medical practice declined. Conse-
oped an accurate measuring He set up tool. quently, he abandoned his studies of light to
rapidly rotating mirrors at a known distance avoid economic disaster.

from each other and reflected a beam of light Finally in 1900 Max Planck theorized that
from one to the other. Using a much more both the particle and the wave theories de-
OTHER FORMS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY II
scribe light energy. Planck, a German physi- was that when he moved the thermometer
cist known for his work in the study of past the red color, beyond the visible spec-
thermodynamics, discovered that energy ac- trum, he found a different temperature. He

tually is a discrete package he called quanta. concluded correctly that light must have com-
These individual packets later were called ponents that humans cannot see. Conse-
photons. When photons behaved indepen- quently, other researchers started to experi-
dently, they acted like Newton's light parti- ment with his finding and made their own
cles. But when they combined to form pack- startling discoveries.
ets of energy, they became energy waves. One of the greatest scientific discoveries
Other scientists explained how this proc- pertaining to light came from Scottish scien-
ess actually worked. In 1905 Albert Einstein tist James Clerk Maxwell. He also is a key
won the Nobel Prize for showing that figure in the history of photography — he
Planck's idea of energy was correct. In 1913 invented the first color film process in 1861
Danish physicist Neils Bohr explained why (described in Chapter 12). In that same year,
Planck's theory about the nature of light, he made his most important finding. Until
both as particles and waves, was correct. Bohr Maxwell's time, scientists had assumed that
showed how photons interact with the elec- the energy forces of magnetism and electrici-
trons that make up atoms. If atoms absorb ty came from separate sources. Widespread
more than their normal amount of energy, acceptance of such a view is easy to under-
they become excited. After this initial energy stand because, on the face of it, the two forces
increase, they drop back to their original are quite different. How could the curious
energy level. This process of increasing and pull of magnets on a metal object and light-
decreasing the atomic energy levels for nu- ning during an intense electrical storm ever
merous atoms eventually produces tiny bun- come from the same energy force? Maxwell
dles of light energy (photons). Heat also proposed that the forces of magnetism and
excites photons. The tungsten metal coil in an electricity actually were one and the same, for
electric bulb is heated by electricity to more the first time unifying two separate forces
than 4,500° F. Because photons from the into a single theory. He called this new
entire range of visible light are excited, the combination of energy forces electromagne-
filament gives off white light. tism. Through experimentation with mag-
nets and electricity, Maxwell showed that a
magnetic field in a vacuum travels at about

Other forms of the same speed as light. From this observa-
electromagnetic energy tion, he concluded that light is simply another
form of an electromagnetic wave. If such a
There were more mysteries to solve about conclusion were true, it would explain
light. In 1800 William Herschel discovered Herschel's discovery of energy waves past the
with a thermometer that the light spectrum visible light spectrum and might lead to other
contained more than could be seen. He such electromagnetic energy discoveries.

discovered infrared radiation by projecting Sure enough, in 1888 German physicist
the colors of the visual spectrum through a Heinrich Hertz discovered another form of
prism onto a sheet of white paper. Curious to electromagnetic energy that could travel over
find out whether each color had its own long distances. Originally called Hertzian
temperature, he moved a thermometer from waves, they now are known as radio waves. By
one color to the next. Each color did possess a 1895 Guglielmo Marconi was using the newly
separate temperature, but more intriguing discovered waves to send radio transmissions
12 LIGHT AND COLOR
The Electromagnetic Spectrum Color

From left to right the wavelength increases Various philosophers, scientists, and physi-
H z h- cians throughout recorded history have at-

G E O
t 1 tempted to explain the nature of color. Aris-
V « i
O V E
E O.
f totle was born in Macedonia in the year 384
Cosmic X Visible Micro- AM B.C. The great philosopher and teacher of
Rays Rays Light waves Waves
kings — he was the official tutor of Alexander
Great — thought
Gamma Ultra- Infrared TV/FM
Rays violet Waves Waves the that light and color were
different names for the same visual phenome-
non. Technically, he would have been correct
had he stopped at that point. But being a man
of letters, he continued writing, recording
that he thought that all the colors were sim-
ply mixtures of black and white. He also be-
From left to right the frequency slows lieved that something transparent between an
object and the eyes caused the sensation of
color.
Figure 2.4 over a mile. In 1901 he sent a radio broadcast Much later, Leonardo da Vinci, with no
Electromagnetic spectrum across the Atlantic Ocean. Scientists now laboratory experimentation to back his claim,
charts in most textbooks are know that many different waves comprise the proposed a more accurate theory of the
crowded with numerical full electromagnetic spectrum. In 1895 Wil- nature of color. Based on his observations of
information that is quickly

helm Roentgen discovered electromagnetic the natural world, he thought that six pri-
forgotten. Only the essential

energy outside the range of light that humans mary colors — white, black, red, yellow,
could see. These fields were later called X green, and blue — existed. He came to this
elements are presented
Using the rays to discover hidden views conclusion simply by reasoning that the six
here — the placement of the
rays.
of the human body proved to be a major colors were wholly independent and unique.
various forms of energy and
medical breakthrough. Subsequently, scien- Da Vinci believed that, by mixing these six
the connection between
tists discovered many different electromag- colors in varying degrees, all the other colors
wavelength and frequency. human
netic sources having extremely different ener- capable of being seen by a normal eye
For example, red is the most
gy levels. Gamma rays are 10 million times could be created.
noticeable color. It makes an smaller than the visible light wavelengths, His interest and theories on the mixing of
excellent choice for bicycle whereas AM radio waves can be several miles colors came directly from his experience as
riders because it has the in length. Hertz also discovered ultraviolet one of the great masters of painting. Al-
longest wavelength and the waves, but he died before he had a chance to though all the colors desired by painters can
slowest frequency of all other realize the importance of his finding. Then in be made by mixing those six color pigments
1905 Albert Einstein explained the photo- together in varying degrees, this property of
colors. The tolor stays on
photoreceptor
electric effect caused by ultraviolet radiation, paints doesn't explain how colored lights are
cells in the
for which he won the Nobel Prize. Fluores- mixed. Colored pigments and colored lights
retina longer than any other.
cent lamps use ultraviolet energy to produce mix to form color in vastly different ways.
their lighting effect. The lamps are filled with Colored pigments absorb some light wave-
mercury vapor and argon gas. Under a low lengths and reflect others; the eye sees the
electrical charge, the mercury vapor gives off reflected or rejected color of an object. When
nonvisible ultraviolet energy that causes an colored lights are mixed, their wavelengths
inside coating of phosphor to glow when combine to create a new color. This distinc-
radiation strikes it (Figure 2.4). tion is the basis for the terms sidbtractive color
COLOR 13
for paints and additive color for light (dis- theory, also known as the three-component
cussed in Chapter 4). theory or the trichromatic theory, became the
In 1666 Sir Isaac Newton proved where dominant color theory to explain how the eye
colored light originates. He used one of the physically sees color.
rooms of his mother's house for his famous Young and Helmholtz maintained that
experiment on the nature of light. Newton there are three different kinds of photorecep-
created his own live-in camera obscura when tors in the eye with each one specifically
he covered the windows of the room except sensitive to a particular color. Color percep-
for a small hole that allowed a narrow shaft of tion, they reasoned, is a result of mixing red,
light to enter. He directed this ray of light green, and blue once the photoreceptors are
onto a glass prism that split the white light of stimulated. The mixing of the colors is the
the sun into its colorful components. That basis for color photography and color televi-
prisms could achieve this effect was well sion, but the Young- Helmholtz theory does
known, but Newton tried something that had not explain every aspect of color perception.
never been attempted. He let a sliver of yellow Scientists now know that the length and
light pass through a second prism, which energy level of the electromagnetic wave-
emitted only yellow light. Later, he let all the length determine whether the human eye can
colors pass through the second prism, which see colored light. The length of an energy
re-created white light. Newton had proved wave is measured in parts per millimeters.
that colors came from the light itself and not The wavelength of the visible light spectrum
from the glass object (Figure 2.5). is only about 0.0003 millimeters, or 300
Newton inspired a large amount of experi- nanometers, wide. The entire electromagnetic
mentation on the mixing of various colors to spectrum sensitive to the photoreceptors in
produce other colors. Scientists soon discov the eyes therefore is only from 400 to 700
ered that three colors — red, green, and blue nanometers on the visible light portion of the
— could be mixed to produce all the other electromagnetic spectrum. Blue shows up on
colors. Nevertheless, some scientists still in- the visible spectrum at about 430 nano-
sisted that colors were a result of the mixing
Figure 2.5
of light and dark shades and not from mixing
colored lights. German poet lohann Wolfgang
"Newton Analyzing the Ray
von Goethe strongly advocated this Aristote- of Light." Within a
lian view. But without accurate experimental darkened room of his
procedures, Goethe could not support his mother's house, Sir Isaac
theories and they were eventually discounted. Newton discovered that
Thomas Young was the first to link color color comes from sunlight
and the human eye. In 1801 he suggested that and not from objects in an
the eye must be composed of three different
environment.
light-sensitive materials so that humans could
perceive color. Hermann von Helmholtz, a
German physiologist and physicist, further
refined Young's ideas.
Helmholtz was the first scientist to mea-

sure the speed of the nerve impulses within
the nervous system. He also invented the
ophthalmoscope — a device used by doctors
to examine the eye. The Young- Helmholtz
—
14 LIGHT AND COLOR
Figure 2.6 to turn more yellow as they age. The more

For those who long for the yellow the cornea, the less likely blue and
numbers missing from the green colors will be seen.
electromagnetic spectrum Although the concept may be difficult to
chart, some are provided

grasp at first, objects do not contain color.
Color is a result of light striking an object,

here. Again, this graphic
and without light, there is no color. Every
shows that red has a longer
object contains atoms that respond to a
wavelength than the other
certain wavelength of light. Dye pigments
colors. The thicknesses of the
achieve their color by absorbing, or subtract-
horizontal columns have no
meters, green has a wavelength that starts at ing, certain parts of the spectrum and reflect-
meaning other than to
about 530 nanometers, and red has a wave- ing, or transmitting, the parts that remain.
attract attention. length beginning at 560 nanometers (Figure The reflected color is the one seen. In the case
2.6). of light, however, colors are created by add-
A highly energetic color — one with a high ing, in varying degrees, different amounts of
wavelength frequency — does not indicate red, green, and blue light. A red dress is
how quickly the eye will notice the color. perceived as being red because the atoms
Violet, with its high frequency, is considered within the dye subtract all the other wave-
to be the most active color, whereas red, with lengths and reflect only red. But a dress made
a low frequency, is the least active color. Yet, up of red-colored light (if there were such a
for the human eye, violet is the least noticea- fashion creation) appears to be red because
ble color, and red is the most noticeable color. the red light wavelength interacts directly
Because of its long wavelength and quick with the red-sensitive cones in the eye.
recognition by the eye, red is used for signal When you look at the red coating of a
lights, stop signs, and other warning or atten- recently polished apple, you naturally think
tion-getting purposes. Many people assume that the apple must be red. In reality, the
that those who drive red sports cars are more apple is every color except red. An apple
likely to be caught by the police for speeding and all other objects — absorbs all the colors
because that color is more noticeable. Howev- it can and reflects the colors it cannot absorb.
er, a recent study by a newspaper reporter in The photoreceptors in the eye pick up the
St. Petersburg, Florida, revealed that red cars rejected color. When an object reflects all
are no more susceptible to speed traps than wavelengths of colors in nearly equal
any other automobile. Nevertheless, bicycle amounts, the human eye perceives that object
riders and runners should wear bright red as white. If an object absorbs all the wave-
clothing, which is much more noticeable lengths in equal proportions, reflecting none,
than, for example, blue outfits. The reason it is perceived as black. The daytime sky
that the eye notices red more easily is not appears blue because the volatile short wave-
because there are more red-sensitive cones in lengths of the color blue are easily scattered
the retina. The reason is that the cornea is by the few dust and gas molecules in the
colored yellow to protect the eye from harm- morning or early afternoon sky. But because
ful ultraviolet rays. Yellow absorbs the shorter of the relatively clean air, the longer and
wavelengths of blue and green and lets the slower red wavelengths are not scattered.
longer wavelength of red pass through to the Later in the day when the sun is low on the
retina. Older adults often have trouble seeing horizon, sunlight must travel through many
blue and green objects because corneas tend more dust particles in the air. The longer
COLOR 15
wavelengths become scattered as the mole- associate words with tint variations. The most
cules hit more pollutants in the air. The effect obvious split was between the light of day and
is the golden sunset favored by many photog- the darkness of night. Thus primitive lan-
raphers. For months after the volcanic erup- guages first contained words for white and
tion in 1991 of Mt. Pinatubo in the Philip- black. As humans learned that color differ-
pines, those living along the West Coast of ences could warn of poisonous fruits, they
the United States were treated to spectacular added words that described the colors red and
sunsets because of all the ash particles in the yellow, the most common plant colors. But
air that scattered the long, red wavelengths. other colors not considered vital for survival
Color has three characteristics: chroma, were not named. The tribespeople of Jale in
value, and brightness (discussed in Chapter New Guinea have no word that describes the
4). Chroma, or hue, refers to the name of the color green. Nyakundu in Swahili can refer to
color. Scientifically speaking, it is the differ- the colors brown, yellow, or red. The Japanese
ence in wavelengths between individual col- word that means the color blue, aoi, only
ors. Value, or saturation, is the amount of recently was included in that language. Previ-
color concentration. Strong concentrations of ously, the word had referred to a wide range
a color have a high value, and weak dilutions of colors from green to violet. Blue was one of
of a color have a low value. Brightness is the the last colors to be named because there are
amount of light emitted from a colored ob- few poisonous blue flowers. Furthermore,
ject. Subtle changes in a color's chroma, people did not see the blue-colored sky as a
value, and brightness can yield literally mil- threat, so it did not need to be named.
lions of colors. However, the human eye You might argue that, because cultures
cannot detect the minute differences. have no word to describe a specific color, the
Physically, most people can distinguish color doesn't exist for them. In a way, that's
between 150 and 200 of the millions of true: A color that is not named is a color that
possible colors but can't name 150 colors. is not noticed. A color that is overlooked is a
However, artists, house painters, and interior color that is not considered by the higher
decorators who work with colors every day functions of the brain, so the color might as
may know hundreds of names for colors. A well not exist. When there is a need to know a
resident of Ireland may have several more specific color, as in the case of an artist, a
words to describe the country's "forty shades name will be supplied. The physical proper-
of green" than a resident of Saudi Arabia ties of the eyes allow a human to see hundreds
where there is less vegetation. Look at the of possible colors. Unless the brain processes
names for colors in a child's crayon box. They the color through a naming system, a person
are not simply blue, red, green, and orange. does not consciously discriminate the color
As a marketing ploy, these colors demand (although a part of the visual field) from the
more sophisticated naming schemes, such as more known colors. In Huxley's terms, the
teal blue, wild strawberry, jungle green, and unnamed color is sensed, but it is never
vivid tangerine. Naming colors is a way of selected or perceived. Luckily, humans do not
seeing slight differences in the lightness or consider every possible color because the
brightness of a color. But in some cultures, brain protects itself from over-stimulation.
knowing the differences in color hues isn't Pity the poor soul who could name every
important. color seen and had little room in the brain for
When our earliest ancestors first became any other thought. Color, therefore, is not a
aware of differences in colors, they started to property of the thing being seen. Color is a
16 LIGHT AND COLOR
combination oflight being received by the eye as make-up contained toxic metals that slow-
and processed in the brain. ly killed their wearers.
The color purple often is associated with

dignity or sadness. Many artistic people say
Sociological uses of color that they prefer purple to the other colors.
Egyptians wore a purple necklace to thwart

The most obvious quality oflight is its color. adversity. However, the Chinese philosopher
Most anthropologists agree that the first pur- Confucius reportedly hated the color.
pose of color vision in early humans was to Baby boys are dressed in blue because the
distinguish between helpful and harmful color is associated with the color of the
plants. Many poisonous foods are bright in sky — where the gods lived. The color suppos-
color. But the purpose of color has become edly gives boys power and protects them from
much more. Color is a complex property of evil spirits. Some adults wear blue for the
light that adds immensely to the satisfaction same reason — to ward off the evil eye. Par-
humans receive when looking at the world. ents once draped blue and violet stones
Color attracts attention to a particular detail around children's necks because they associ-
like no other visual attribute. Next time you ated the colors with virtue and faith. The
go to a movie, note the list of tightly packed parents hoped that the gods would protect
credits at the end of previews of coming their children and at the same time make
attractions. Good graphic designers usually them obedient.
color most of the text in white and make the Green is a favorite color of those who are
movie title a strikingly different color. Such a outgoing and have large appetites. An emer-
technique makes the name of the film, an ald green connotes versatility and ingenuity,
important marketing feature, appear to jump whereas a grayish green signifies deceitful
off the screen at you. behavior. Green stones worn around the neck
Throughout recorded history various col- were thought to promote fertility. Green also
ors have been associated with magical spells, is believed to have a calming effect. Many
medical cures, and personality revelations. A backstage waiting rooms in theaters are called
general love for color is considered to be a "greenrooms" because of the color of their
sign of an enthusiastic person. An indiffer- painted walls.

ence to color is a trait of an introspective Jaundice has long been considered a con-
personality. In ancient Egypt, women so dition that can be cured through exposure to
loved color that they used green powder sunlight. For many years, however, people
topped with the glitter obtained by crushing mistakenly thought that the sun's yellow
beetles for eye shadow, black paint as lipstick, color was the curative agent. Consequently, to
red rouge for their cheeks, blue paint to combat jaundice in Germany, patients ate
outline the veins of their breasts, gold paint to yellow turnips and wore gold coins and
coat their nipples, and a reddish brown dye saffron clothing. Russian physicians had their
called henna to stain their fingers and feet. wealthy patients wear necklaces made of gold
But Egyptian women did not use color beads. In England, victims of the disease were
merely to brighten their complexions. Color forced to eat yellow spiders rolled in butter.
had social meaning. Red fingernails signaled Red colored objects supposedly relieved
that the woman considered herself to be a many medical ailments. In Ireland and Russia
member of the highest social class. Unfortu- red flannel clothing was believed to be a
nately, many of the paints and powders used remedy for the scarlet fever. Red woolen
SOCIOLOGICAL USES OF COLOR 17
blankets were applied to a sprained ankle in Cultural heritage, training, and personal
Scotland, to a sore throat in Ireland, and to experiences give colors special meanings not
prevent fever in Macedonia. To prevent shared by everyone. An average person sees
smallpox, the physician to Edward II de- the color red as red. An anthropologist sees
manded that the king's entire room be paint- red as a power symbol for an ancient civiliza-
ed red. To prevent the scars caused by the tion. A psychologist sees red as a clue to a
disease, red light was used in Denmark. Red patient's personality. An artist sees red as one
stones were often used to treat any disease. of a hundred different red-hued solutions to a
Some people still believe that an injury such painting's composition. Again, the more you
as a black eye should be covered immediately know the more you see. The eye sees the
with a blood-red, raw steak. The Japanese color — all colors — but the brain interprets
thought that the color red overcame night- its meaning (Figure 2.7). Figure 2.7
mares. The Chinese tied a red ribbon to a Color as a basic perceptual cue that the See color section following
child's hair to promote long life. Parents dress brain responds to (along with form, depth, page 210.
baby girls in pink because a European legend and movement) and the way color is used in
claimed that girls were born inside little pink the media are discussed in Chapter 4.
flowers. Many people believe that a room that
is painted pink will calm children, whether
girls or boys.
CHAPTER 3
A fool sees not the same The the Retina,Eye,

tree that a wise man
sees.
and the Brain
William Blake,
POET
Historic eyes tribe taught the younger ones to watch out for
weak or broken tree branches. Eventually,

Study your eyes in a mirror for a moment. generation after generation of tree-dwelling
What do you see? You see ancient, prehistoric animals were born and adapted to that envi-
eyes. In fact, the configuration of two eyes set ronment.
in the front of the head, protected by a heavy For any species to evolve genetically into a
layer of surrounding bone, and sending their slightly different species takes about a million
dual images to a brain that fuses the double years. For humans, a million years is roughly
view into a single, coherent picture is at least equivalent to 40,000 generations. Within 20
50 million years old. million years after those first creative and
During the Paleocene epoch, about 65 brave creatures decided to climb out of their
million years ago, our early ancestors grew earth-bound habitat, startling genetic chang-
tired of being easy prey for faster predators. es had taken place in their bodies.
Some of them came up with a great idea: Living in trees required that vision play an
Why not climb up into high trees where the essential role in physical survival. Because
swift, but earth-bound beasts could not reach seeing what was to the front was much more
them? As some took to the trees, others important than what was to the sides, the eyes
followed (Figure 3.1). Many climbed too enlarged and moved to the front of the head.
high, slipped, and fell to their deaths. Many The skull around the eyes also enlarged to
tried the treetops but decided to take their protect the sensitive, newly vital organs.
chances back on the forest floor and were Climbing from branch to branch required
soon eaten. But many others stuck with their sophisticated spatial judging abilities. With
newfound life-style and learned to survive in two eyes, slightly apart, yet their separate
their leafy kingdom. Older members of their images made whole by an increasingly intelli-
18
HISTORIC EYES 19
gent brain, this binocular vision gave these the contemporary human nevertheless has
mammals depth perception. adapted to the requirements of its modern

After 800,000 generations of living in the age. Such complex and unanticipated evolu-
sun-soaked tree limbs, these early night- tionary skills as driving a car or piloting an
fearing, nocturnal mammals changed to day- airplane are possible only because of the way
loving, diurnal creatures that were able to the eye and brain function together to control
distinguish between slight variations in light the rest of the body.
wavelength frequencies. In other words, they However, the greatest adaptation over
could see colors. Although they had no for- countless millennia, isn't binocular or color
mal way of communicating their color prefer- vision but the concept of sensual redundan-
ences, they taught each other that many of the cy. That is, humans can learn about the world
most poisonous plants were brightly colored, through a variety of senses, so each individual
that color could determine when edible sense does not have to be extremely sensitive.
plants were ripe enough to eat, and that Because the senses of hearing, smell, touch,
predators and dinner possibilities often were taste, and sight all work together, each one
brightly colored. does not have to occupy a huge amount of
Over countless generations, modern hu- brain capacity as in other animals.
mans eventually emerged from these tree- The skin of a snake is so sensitive that it
dwelling animals. Our Ice Age ancestors had can tell the difference of three thousandths of
the same brain size, shape, and functions as a degree in heat temperature. Hawks can see
the reader of this line of text. Although an animal as small as a mouse from three
minuscule in comparison to evolutionary miles away. If our senses were that sensitive,
time changes, the 50,000-year-old life span of we would have little room in our brain for
Figure 3.1
Moving from the ground to
trees where it was a bit safer
had the added benefit of
improving eyesight after
thousands of generations.
20 THE EYE, THE RETINA, AND THE BRAIN
anything but sensory information. We would thew in the Bible writes, "The eye is the lamp
be like the snake and hawk — able to feel and of the body. If your eye is good, your body
see extraordinarily well but not able to proc- will be full of light." In a scene from The
ess and store much other information. Women, Joan Crawford's eyes are described
Redundant senses allow us to see well as, "eyes that run up and down men like a
enough to survive in a complicated, modern searchlight."
world and give our brains enough mental Despite the analogies provided by poets,
activity to make sense of it all. An important the eye is simply an instrument that collects
lesson of human physiology is that seeing is as light and focuses it to the rear surface of the
much a function of the brain as it is a func- eyeball. Since the invention of the camera,
tion of the eye. the eye has been compared to its simple
mechanism for focusing and capturing "light
drawings" on film. This analogy isn't sur-

Windows to the soul prising because knowledge of the physical
workings of the eye helped in the camera's
An understanding of the basic components of development. The essential parts of the still
the eye, the retina, and the brain is important or motion picture photographic process are
because these vital body parts are used as housed within a protective box or carrying
models for many of the machines used to case; the eye is protected by an outgrowth of
Figure 3.2 make the world more visible (Figure 3.2). the skull. A visual artist often uses a drop of
See color section following Cameras for still and video images often are solution to clean the glass elements of the lens
page 210. compared to the eyes. Computers that can from dust and smudges; the eye has a built-in
process thousands of commands in a blink of lens-cleaning system with its salty tears. The
an eye often are used to explain the inner shutter regulates the amount of time film is
workings of the human mind. exposed to light; the eyelids open and shut so
More than 70 percent of all the sensory that vision is possible. The aperture is an
receptors in the human body are in the eyes. opening that lets light enter the camera; the
Hearing, smelling, tasting, and touching all pupil performs the same function in the eye.
take a backseat, combining for the other 30 In still and motion picture photography, as
percent. When lovers engage in long, passion- with the eye, the lens focuses the outside
ate kisses, they often close their eyelids to image to a point at the back of the dark
shut out distracting visual messages the eyes chamber. In photography, a sheet of thin,
give them. They want to concentrate their light-sensitive emulsion records the picture,
sensory receptors on the lover's soft sighs, the as photoreceptors in the back of the eye
aroma of hair and skin, the taste of the process the light rays. Photographers process
mouth, and the feel of caresses. As Leonardo and print their images in a darkroom; hu-
da Vinci once wrote, "The sense which is mans process their images within the visual
nearest to the organ of perception functions cortex region of the brain. The major differ-
most quickly, and this is the eye, the chief, ence between the human visual system and
the leader of all other senses." that of still, film, and televised images is that
The eyes are a source of wonder for both when the eyes are open, the picture is contin-
artists and writers. They are a source of uous. Moving, mediated images actually are a
insight about the owner's personality and a series of still pictures strung together to give
source of inspiration for poetic descriptions. the illusion of motion.

Even though no light shines from the eyes, Humans with a normal field of vision can
literature is filled with such references. Mat- comfortably see about 90 degrees to the left
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EYE 21
and 90 degrees to the right and about 80

degrees up and 80 degrees down. The eye- Parts of the
brows and nose obstruct part of the vertical
view. The field of vision is divided into three
sections: the foveal, the macular, and the
peripheral fields. The foveal field is responsi-
ble for the most acutely focused detail in the
eye. Under normal lighting conditions, it
brings objects into the sharpest focus possible

so that the brain can concentrate and analyze
the visual image. The foveal field, however,
optic nerve
represents only a 2 degree angle of coverage.
Consequently, the object under scrutiny by

the foveal field is about the size of the letter
"e" on this printed page. Under lower light-
ing conditions, the eye uses the macular

... approximately actual size <5 i
field, situated on both sides of the foveal field,
to see less detailed objects. You must con-

sciously move your eyes directly off an object catchers. Eyelashes filter dust and other for- Figure 3.3
in low light in order to see it because the eign matter. Each eyelash is rooted in nerve The gestalt law of
foveal field doesn't function when there is cells so sensitive that the tiniest piece of dust continuation is at work in
little light; however, the next-door macular will cause the eyelids to close immediately. this infographic (see Chapter
field does. By turning your head slightly, The eyelids also will close reflexively to pro-
5). The gray boxes at the
you move the image onto the macular field. tect the nerve system from a threatening
top and bottom link the
The outside edge of the eye is the peripheral movement, an object that comes too close to
headlines and shift the
field. An evolutionary holdover that pro- the eyes, a blinding flash of light, or a sudden
viewer's attention to the
tects the body from possibly harmful actions, loud noise. When the eyelids are shut, the soft
center. As with the shape of
it is the least developed field. The peripheral part of the eyes are waterproof and air tight.
the eye, the viewer is
field does not see colors well, cannot see Each eye sits in an orbit surrounded by seven
objects with much clarity, but is sensitive of the skull's bones as a plate of armor to purposefully led around a
to slight movements by other people or ob- further protect it. The orbit or socket con- circle pattern. Note the
jects. Patients with degenerative peripheral tains fatty tissue behind the eye that helps to slight indentation of the
vision slowly lose the capacity to see in dim cushion the eye when hit. foveal area. The dent means
light. Humans normally blink about once every that this spot, where vision
five seconds. Blinking washes the eyes with is most acute, contains no
soothing, slightly salty tears — perhaps our cells in front of the rods and
Physiology of the eye when we were amphibious
link to the time
cones.
animals swimming in the salty seas of prehis-
The eye is a complex system of various body toric earth. All animals that live in the air
parts acting in unison to achieve sight. Open- produce tears to clear and moisten their eyes.
ing the eyes exposes the central nervous Humans are the only animals who cry.
system directly. Nowhere else in the human The first layer of the eyeball itself is a
body can such a condition be created. Conse- tough, protective membrane called the sclera.
quently, many protective measures are built About 80 percent of the eyeball is composed
into the eye system. of this tissue (Figure 3.3).
Hairy eyebrows act as sunshades and grit The cornea is a tough, transparent layer
—
that bulges slightly in front of the center of Melanin also causes freckles on the skin. The
the eye. When Greta Garbo compliments (unction of the color is to protect the eyes
Melvyn Douglas in the movie Ninotchka by further from the effects of harsh sunlight.
saying, "The whites of your eyes are clear. Generally, human irises have more melanin
Your cornea is excellent," she acknowledges and appear darker in people who live near the
both his sclera and cornea. The cornea con- equator where the sun is brightest. Those
sists of four transparent layers that reduce the living in northern regions have lighter colored
speed of light by about 25 percent and bend irises.
the light toward the center of the eye to aid in The pupil is simply the dark opening in
focusing. The cornea accomplishes about 70 the center of the iris. The word has an
percent of focusing, and the lens achieves the interesting history, as it comes from the Latin
rest. The cornea's transparency is ensured by pupilla meaning "a little doll." Romans gave
protein and water and no blood vessels. This the opening that name after noticing their
peculiarity of construction makes the cornea doll-like reflections in the eyes of others. An
slow to heal, but it also means that the cornea old Hebrew expression for the pupil, eshona-
survives the body's death longer than any yin, refers to the "little man of the eye."
other organ. Consequently, it is an excellent Behind the iris is the slightly yellow,
candidate for transplanting in another person rubbery lens. Its function is to receive the
having a faulty cornea. light rays bent slightly by the cornea and
The iris, named for the Greek word for further focus them to a tiny spot of acute
rainbow, gives the eye its color. The iris is a visual sharpness at the back of the eye. About
muscle that changes the size of the black hole the size of an aspirin tablet, the lens has no
in the center of the eye, the pupil. The blood vessels and is composed of about 2,200
circular muscles in the iris change the size of fine layers that look like stacked plywood
the pupil from about 2 to 8 mm. (A millime- when greatly magnified. As a person ages, the
ter is roughly twice the width of the tip of a lens becomes hard and loses some of its power
pencil.) The unique pattern of these fibers in to focus. A four-year-old child can easily
each person may make them useful for pur- focus on an object four inches away. Without
poses of identification, similar to finger- the aid of glasses, an aging adult must hold a
prints, in the future. newspaper about sixteen inches away from
The amount of light in a scene causes the the eyes in order to focus the words.
iris to enlarge or contract the opening. Re- Between the cornea and the lens is a space
search shows that emotional responses or that contains the white, nourishing fluid
special interests do the same thing. Observant known as the aqueous humor. As new fluid is
jewelry sales personnel will notice if a partic- produced, the old liquid is drained. If the
ular ring or necklace causes a customer's drainage mechanism is blocked, pressure can
irises to contract or enlarge the pupil's open- build up behind the iris. The result is one of
ing. Such a response would indicate an inter- the most common causes of blindness
est in that piece of jewelry. Appropriately, the glaucoma. More than two million people over
word iris is the name of the Greek goddess the age of thirty-five have glaucoma. If left
who was a messenger for the Olympian gods. untreated, nerve fibers in the optic nerve
Drugs also can affect the size of the opening. degenerate, causing blindness.
Heroin and other opiates enlarge the eye's A clear, jellylike substance that fills the
portal, whereas amphetamines constrict it. main cavity, called the vitreous humor, main-
The color of the iris is a result of how tains the eyeball's shape and pressure. The
much of the pigment melanin is present. vitreous humor is matched optically with the
THE RETINA 23
slightly yellow color of the lens. This color into the camera's lens result in "red eye"; that
matching ensures that light rays will not is, the blood vessels become a part of a
change their intended course from the cor- startled image. Just before any light reaches
nea, through the lens, through the vitreous the retina, it must pass through several layers
humor, and to the back of the eye. Normally of nerve cells that lie on top of the retina.
the fluid chamber is clear, but red corpuscles These cells form the first link between the
and other small particles, called floaters or retina and the brain. Fortunately, they are
flying gnats, break off over time and float nearly transparent and little clarity is lost to
within the jellylike fluid. You can see these their complex structures as light passes
harmless tiny dots or filaments, but never in through them.

focus, by looking at any light-colored surface As with a camera's lens, the image on the
or area. retina is inverted. The brain corrects this
upside-down vision. Behind the retina is a
dark layer called the choroid, which gets its
The RETINA color from melanin, the same material that
causes freckles on the skin and color in the

Turn out the lights at night in a room with iris. The choroid acts like a blotter and soaks
windows and sit for a few moments. Wait up excess light. Without this choroid layer, as
until your eyes have adjusted to the low level in people with albinism, light not absorbed by
of light. What do you see? Or more to the the photoreceptors in the retina would
point, what do you not see? Colors. In the bounce around the eye diluting the colors
dark, colors do not exist. As Sir Francis Bacon and dimming the image from the outside
once remarked, "All colors will agree in the world.
dark." A person can experience the sensation of
About the size and thickness of a first- light without its going through the pathway
class postage stamp, pink in color and as just described. A hit on the head or intense
fragile as wet tissue paper, the retina is a net rubbing of the eyelids may stimulate the
(the Latin word rete means "net") of approxi- retinal cells. If you look into any bright light,
mately 125 million light receptors that lines the cells will become overstimulated and
about 85 percent of the back of the eyeball. glow for as long as a few minutes. This
This net contains about 7 million cells re- glowing effect is called the phosphene phe-
sponsible for color vision and 118 million nomenon. Hallucinogenic drugs can produce
receptors used for night-time viewing. The this effect for relatively long periods of time.
huge difference in the number of day-sensi- Some native tribes in North and South Amer-
tive and night-sensitive cells is a reminder ica use drugs that produce geometric phos-
that humans were once nocturnal, night- phene shapes. Some Amazon native artwork
loving creatures. and architecture, for example, are decorated
with the patterns seen under the influence of

these drugs.
Light path to the retina
Before light arrives in the retina's net of

Regions of the retina
photoreceptors, it must pass through the
cornea, the liquid aqueous, the iris, the lens, The retina has two major regions: peripheral
the vitreous humor and small blood vessels in and foveal. Imagine holding in front of your
the eye. Placing an electronic flash too close face a 10-by- 10-inch pane of frosted glass
to a camera and having the subject look right with a clear polished spot in the center of
about one-half inch in diameter. This setup -focusing area as possible. Within that tiny
would represent the two regions of the retina. area is the even smaller fovea centralis. Most
As you look through the panel you will notice of the color-sensitive photoreceptors are lo-
immediately that the center clear portion is cated in this area. Each light-sensitive neuron
used for focusing on objects and seeing is about 0.00004 inch wide. Approximately
colors, and the outside portion can detect 25,000 of these tiny cells occupy the fovea
sudden movements reasonably well. region, an area smaller than the head of a pin.
Within each eye, 85 percent of the total Within the macular region arc another
photoreceptors, or approximately 100 mil- 75,000 receptors. Because cells in the foveal
lion, are located along the peripheral region. region are not useful in low light, seeing an
But the impulses received by these neurons object clearly in dimmed light often requires
lining the back of the eye are funneled into a a conscious effort to move the eye away from
single channel to the brain. Consequently, the center of the object. Next time you are in
peripheral vision isn't as acute as foveal a darkened room, look closely at the phos-
vision, which has many more direct impulse- phorescent minute hand of your watch. The
to-brain connections. However, most of the tiny greenish bar will appear to disappear if
photoreceptors in the peripheral area of the you try to look at it directly. But steady your
retina are sensitive to low levels of light. This concentration on a nearby area of the watch's
area of the retina allows humans to function face and you will be able to see the time. The
reasonably well in a darkened room. In evolu- cells sensitive to dim light in the macular
tionary terms it is also one of the oldest region of the retina allow tiny objects to be
portions of the eye. visible in the dark. However, acute focus is
In contrast the foveal region is where sharp the goal of the eye's physiology, so this system
focus and color vision come together. But it is works best in bright sunshine.
a small area, comprising only a small percent-
age of the eye's view. If the foveal region were

Photoreceptors: Rods and cones
projected, it would cover only one letter on
this printed page. To demonstrate how small The retina contains two types of photorecep-
the foveal region is, concentrate your focus on tors: rods and cones. They get their names
a single letter in the middle of this sentence. from their shapes: Rods are long and slender;
The edges of the line of type will not be in cones are shaped liked upside-down funnels.
focus. Humans have the largest percentage of The approximately 118 million rods are pri-
foveal area of any animal. Some predatory marily responsible for night vision, and the 7
birds have excellent areas of sharp vision, but million cones allow us to see colors. Again,
without a large brain capacity they can't take the tremendous difference between the num-
much advantage of what they view. ber of rods and cones in the eye is a reminder
The foveal region is divided into two that humans come from nocturnal animal
parts: the macula lutea and the fovea centra- roots.
lis. The macula lutea is a tiny yellow pit in The rods and cones convert the electrical
the center of the retina. The yellow color energy of light to chemical energy that the
protects this sensitive area from the sun's brain can use. The brain cannot process
harmful ultraviolet rays. The area is recessed electrical impulses from outside sources; it
because the many other neuroconnector cells must have energy in chemical form to proc-
that link the photoreceptors with the brain ess. Light energy stimulates the photorecep-
are missing from this region, giving as clear a tors to produce chemical energy that is passed
path to this sensitive light-gathering and from one cell to the next so that the visual
THE RETINA 25
message eventually enters the brain. The

entire trip from retina to brain takes about
three thousandths of a second.
The Rods
If you were able to see a rod under a micro-

scope, it would appear to be colored purple.
Termed visual purple, this reddish-purple

pigment inside each rod is chemically
bleached by strong light. The bleaching proc-
ess inactivates the rods, making them insensi-
tive to light. Without chemical bleaching of

the rods, we wouldn't be able to see during
the day. Think of the last time you went to a

matinee movie and were nearly blinded by
the bright, late-afternoon sunshine as you left
the theater. However, as the rods were

bleached, you could begin to see better in the
circles and squares
bright light. If you had to reenter the theater the gray circles are a result of your photoreceptors
because you had left your sweater on the seat, exciting and inhibiting each other
you would have to wait a few minutes until
your irises expanded before you could see.
Expansion of the irises allows as much light region can distinguish minute movement. Figure 3.4
as possible to enter your eyes and the visual For example, fluorescent light tubes flicker, A drop shadow box adds
purple to become unbleached and sensitive to and the outer region of the retina can some- three-dimensional depth
light again. times spot this effect. Because of the bleach- while faint, gray circles are
Although the rods respond to light energy ing and unbleaching phenomenon, rods also
created between the square
more slowly than the cones, they are much are useful in distinguishing form, depth, and
shapes — not by the
more sensitive to light. Rods also are sensitive texture.
infographic elements, but
to slight movements by outside objects. Expo- The peripheral and foveal portions of the
within the mind of the
sure to light immediately bleaches a molecule retina work in tandem. The outside edge of
viewer.
in a rod. The excess energy from that process the retina alerts the body that something has
excites a fellow rod, causing it to be bleached moved or is worth attention. Moving the
while the original rod immediately becomes head will bring the object directly into line
unbleached. This excitatory and inhibitory for focusing by the foveal region. The brain is
process allows the brain to distinguish edges constantly telling muscles to move the eyes in
easily so that it can detect slight changes in order to concentrate on objects observed by
movement (Figure 3.4). the sensual data received from the peripheral
From the outside to the center of the area. The brain is always looking for change.
retina, rods become less numerous. The out- Thus a flashing light will attract more atten-
side edges of the retina are composed entirely tion from the sensors in the brain than a
of rods. This region is responsible for most of steady beam. Because acute vision is centered
the eyes' peripheral vision. Objects at the far in the fovea, the mind automatically moves
edges of peripheral vision appear gray be- the eyes so that an interesting visual target is
cause there are no cones to see colors. Despite always in the center. These tiny, automatic
a lack of sharp-focus vision, the peripheral eye movements, called saccades (French for
bleaching and unbleaching process in the

Between the Eye and the Brain is the Retina
rods are shared. In fact, approximately 110
Focused light
million rods get only about a million chan-
from the eye
travels from nels to the brain. The physical structure of the
left to right
through the eyes and brain simply does not allow enough
(G) ganglion,
(A) amacrine,
space for any more channels. An intriguing
(B) bipolar and consideration is how much the eye sees that
(H) horizontal
cells before cannot be communicated to the brain be-
reaching the
(R) rods and
cause of the limited number of channels.
(C) cones. Light Another curious physiological fact about
(as chemical o
impulses) the retina's construction is that light must
travels back
through the travel through several layers of nerve cells
cells and the
before reaching the rods and cones. When the
(O) optic nerve
"2
to the brain. I
rods are excited, the chemical impulses must
travel to the brain via these same nerve cells.
Fortunately, these neurons for the most part

Figure 3.5 "jerk" or "jolt"), keep the eyes moving and are transparent, so little light is lost during
Most of the retina is a the image fresh on the retina. Because the this process. When enough light energy has
complicated mass containing image quickly fades from the face of the entered the eye, the rods become inoperative
retina, without these movements visual per- through bleaching, which activates the color
six types of cells. Although
four kinds of nerve cells

ception would be severely restricted. One of sensitive cones (Figure 3.5).
the basic principles of graphic design is to

initially are in the way of
exploit this phenomenon. Layouts are consid- The Cones
an image's path to the rods
ered well designed when they move a viewer Although relatively small in number,
and cones, they eventually
dynamically from one element to another. An cones in the retina allow us to see color, fine
relay light from the
eye that is in constant motion is an eye that details, rapid changes in light intensity, and
photoreceptors to the optic
will have the best chance to find meaning quick movements. They become most active
nerve. Note that the names within a complicated graphic design (see during the day when there is the most light.
of the cells in the Chapter 5). Bats and owls do not have any cones in their
infographic are set in italic Near the foveal, or central, region of the eyes; they need to see only during the night.
type and are carefully eye, the retina has fewer rods on its outermost Rods may require thirty minutes to an
aligned with each other to edges. The rods gradually build up and reach hour to become fully adapted to a dimly lit
improve their appearance their numerical peak in the macular area, scene. Cones react much more quickly, fully
(see Chapter 8).

about 20 degrees off the foveal axis, but there adapting in about seven minutes. The reason
are no rods in the fovea centralis itself. This for the difference in reaction times is that
configuration of rods is the reason that you each cone in the foveal region has its own
must move your eyes slightly away from an channel to the brain. The fovea centralis, the
object in order to see it in the dark. centermost portion of the foveal area, is
The brain could not possibly process all smaller than the head of a pin and contains
the visual information obtained by the 118 about 25,000 cones. The concentration of
million rods if each one were directly and cone cells— along with their individual con-
individually linked to the brain. The human nection to the brain — give them their high
head would have to be twice as large as it is to acuity.

contain all the linked connections. Conse- If you could run your finger along the
quently, the nerve impulses produced by the retina, you would notice a slight pit in the
THE RETINA 27
foveal region because the horizontal, bipolar, offspring. All forms of dichromatism affect
and amacrine neurons are not in front of the 2.002 percent of males but only 0.031 percent
cones in this area. Because ultraviolet and of females.
blue light might damage the exposed, delicate
cones, a yellow-colored layer of melanin

The optic nerve
behind the fovea absorbs most of this harm-
ful light. When choosing sunglasses, you Whether from rods or cones, the light energy
should select a pair that not only blocks responsible for allowing us to see objects and
ultraviolet light but that also is shaded yellow. lights eventually find their way through the
Three different types of cones represent series of neuron connections to the optic
sensitivity to the colors blue, green, and red, nerve. This thick rope of nerve cells on the
although they are actually colorless. The nasal side of each eye in the back of the
principle behind color photography and tele- eyeball enters the brain through a connection
vision relies on this same division of labor. known as the blind spot.
Look closely at the screen of a TV set and you Ironically, without the blind spot, humans
will notice these same three colors. could not see. About a million nerve ropes
Light from a broad source such as the sun form the optic nerve. One indication of how
appears white because it stimulates all three much more acute human vision is than the
types of cones equally. With unequal stimu- other senses is the number of connections
lation, that is, more stimulation from one eyes have to the brain. The ears, for example,
color than another color, the brain receives a have only 30,000 links to the brain. With no
combination of cone impulses, allowing the photoreceptors where the optic nerve enters
color to be perceived. By using this process, the back of the eyeball, vision is arrested in
the brain can easily distinguish some 200 that one, tiny region.
colors. French scientist Edme Mariotte discovered

the blind spot during the seventeenth centu-
Color Deficiency ry. You can experience the lack of vision that
People with normal color vision are called takes place in this blind spot by sitting or
trichromats, as all three color cone sets func- standing in an area preferably with a dark
tion fully. There are two types of color background. Close one eye and fix your gaze
deficiency: monochromatism, or true color at an object that is at least twenty feet away.
blindness, and dichromatism, in which some Hold a pen or any small object at arm's
colors can be detected. An individual who length. Move the pen horizontally in the
has cones that do not function or has no same direction as the eye that is closed. At
cones at all can see only shades of black, about 18 degrees off the center, the tip will
white, and gray. Such a person must rely on vanish. It disappears because no rods or cones
rods for vision. Consequently, monochromats cover the outside layer of the optic nerve.
are extremely sensitive to bright lights and Such a small area of absent vision has no
cannot focus images well. Monochromatism effect on the quality of eyesight. In fact, cover-
is extremely rare, occurring in only ten out of ing one eye has little effect over a scene that is
a million people. Dichromats see only two viewed. Objects within our field of vision
colors (usually blue and yellow or green and appear just as bright and in focus with one or
red) and shades of gray. Color deficiency two eyes open. However, the use of only one
results in a defective gene carried by women eye results in a loss of up to 30 degrees in
that they almost always pass to their male horizontal vision and, more important, se-
28 THE EYE, THE RETINA, AND THE HRAIN
Figure 3.6
The brain
Sir Isaac Newton discovered
the curious crossing structure
of the optic nerve cells. Note
that if one side behind the

The next step in the path from light to eye to
retina to optic nerve is the connection with

chiasma is severed because
the brain. Without the image processing ca-
of an accident, sight from
pabilities of the brain, pictures would simply
both eyes will still be
be variations in light and dark regions with-
maintained.
out meaningful associations.
verely limits depth perception. Two eyes, When Egyptian embalmers were prepar-
slightly separated give humans the illusion of ing the bodies of their beloved kings and
depth perception. Objects take on three- queens for the afterlife, they would carefully
dimensional shape, and shapes, forms, and separate and preserve many of their internal
textures gain added volume. For the protec- organs in special clay containers. Centuries
tion of a species that moves so frequently in a later archaeologists discovered jars containing
complicated, object-filled environment, such the liver and lungs, for example, but they
a feature is vital for its survival. never found a separate container for the
Depth perception is not only a result of brain. The archaeologists concluded that the
having two eyes but also of a separation of ancient embalmers simply threw the brain
each eye's image within the brain. The optic away, thinking that it had no useful purpose
nerves from each eye intersect behind the for the body and would never be needed in
eyeballs at a place called the optic chiasma the next life.
(Figure 3.6). Sir Isaac Newton discovered this The brain is the central processing unit for
crossing of the nerves. In this area, which is the body and the seat for all mental and phys-
named for the Greek term for "two crossed ical activities. The brain is composed of ap-
lines," the two separate strands of nerve proximately one trillion (1,000,000,000,000)
fibers join and then split again. Half of each cells. Humans are born with all the neurons
eye's set of optic nerves continue to travel to they will ever have. Throughout a person's
the half of the brain corresponding to that life, the body manufactures no other neurons.
eye. Half of the left eye's nerve cells, for About 100,000 neurons die naturally every
example, end up at the left hemisphere of the day. Regular alcohol consumption many
kills
brain. The other half of the optic nerve ropes more. By the age of ninety, the number of
cross over to the opposite hemisphere. This neurons in an average person has been re-
physiology allows for an even distribution of duced by 30 percent. But with so many cells
the visual image throughout the brain, which to begin with, the brain can function despite
may aid in quicker recognition of objects. this loss. More important than the number of
Splitting of the optic nerve also helps main- neurons, however — and the reason that the
tain partial sight if there is damage to the Egyptian embalmers should have been more
optic nerve connection with the brain after careful with this organ — is that each cell
the split. If a severe injury causes the nerve within the brain can spontaneously form
>unch on one side of the head to be severed hundreds of thousands of connections with
after the center cross, blindness will occur in hundreds of thousands of other brain cells.
only one-half of each eye. Total blindness in The total possible connections within a single
one eye can thus be avoided by this configu- brain may be greater than the number of
ration of nerve fibers. stars in the entire universe!
THE BRAIN 29
Thoughts and actions are communicated ning, judgments and decision making, cer-
from one cell to another throughout various tain types of goal-oriented behavior, and
areas in the brain. Repetition and practice some aspects of emotional behavior. Damage
strengthens these connections. Stronger links to the frontal lobe may result in the inability
lead to quicker recognition and associations to plan complex actions. The parietal lobe
of objects and ideas. The brain, then, is a compares input data from the senses in order
huge and sophisticated communication net- to report on spatial orientations. Damage to
work. It is the most wondrous and mysterious this lobe may result in difficulty in telling the
organic entity that is still, despite sophisticat- difference between objects. The temporal
ed measurement and viewing devices, largely lobe is responsible primarily for hearing,
not understood by scientists. perception, and memory. Finally, the occipi-
The optic nerves eventually make a con- tal lobe, or visual cortex, interprets visual
nection to the part of the brain known as the impulses and transmits information about
thalamus. All impulses that arise from the them to other areas in the brain (occipital is
sensory systems (except the sense of smell) Latin for "toward the back"). One of the
pass through the golfball-sized group of cells reasons you "see" a bright light when you are
of the thalamus. The thalamus is one of the hit in the back of the head is because of the
oldest parts of the brain in evolutionary terms light receptors in that part of the brain.
and is part of the limbic system, or reptilian Blindness can occur if the occipital lobe is
brain, which is responsible for basic survival damaged. Only 10 percent of the visual cortex
functions. The light data received by the is actually used for processing visual data.
photoreceptors from each eye that allow for The function of the rest of this area of the
depth perception are kept separate in the brain is still a mystery.
thalamus. The eyes' resolution isn't reduced Artificial eyesight may soon be a reality for
because the number of relay neurons within those who are blind. In a recent successful
the thalamus is the same as the number of experiment, scientists at the National Insti-
optic nerve ropes. The thalamus suppresses tutes of Health Clinical Center in Bethesda,
sensual information that the conscious mind Maryland, placed thirty-eight microelec-
doesn't need to know about. When you are trodes in the visual cortex of a 43-year-old
watching a television program, for example, blind woman. The procedure allowed her to
you do not need to be aware of the tension "see" the letter "I." Researchers predict that
within your muscle system or the tempera- television camera devices attached to eye-
ture of your body. But when there is a need glasses with 1,000 or more microelectrodes
for such information, as in the case of a fire, attached to the visual cortex may someday
the thalamus springs to action to warn the allow blind people to see low-resolution di-
brain of the smell of smoke and the heat from rect images.
the flames. Visual data, however, are not The cerebrum is divided vertically into
subject to this censorship. The thalamus roughly two halves termed "left and right
simply receives the optic nerve's impulses and brains." Studies of head-injury victims re-
transfers them directly to the part of the brain vealed that the left side of the brain is
known as the visual cortex located in the responsible primarily for verbal, analytical,
back of the cerebrum. intellectual, numerical, and sequential skills;
The main body of the brain, the cerebrum, and that the right half of the brain is responsi-
is divided into four lobes horizontally and ble primarily for visual, artistic, and symbolic
two halves vertically. The frontal lobe of the skills. The idea that engineers use only their
cerebrum is responsible for long-term plan- left brains and that artists use only their right
Figure 3.7 brum. Nevertheless, if it were stretched out, it
Imagine the brain split apart would be four feet by five feet in size. The
by unseen hands. You are cortex represents about half the volume of the
looking straight down from brain. The wrinkles efficiently fit the maxi-
the top of the head at the

mum amount of cortex material into the
compressed space inside the protective skull.
corpus callosum. The
The cortex is a plate one-eighth of an inch
network of nerve cells
thick and contains about 200 million cells.
arguably is one of the most
Within the complicated structure of the cor-
important parts of the brain
tex, most learning takes place. Nerve impuls-
because it communicates
es in the cortex travel about seven miles an
information from the left
hour, but an image can travel from the retina
and right halves, making through the thalamus and to the cortex in
synthesis of emotional and only one-tenth of a second. Even so, sleight-
intellectual thoughts possible. of-hand magicians can make objects seem-
brains is outdated and misleading. Whatever ingly disappear in that length of time.
their chosen field, people need to have both An image transmitted from the thalamus
halves of their brains working fully. The gets shape, form, depth, and color in the
corpus callosum is a four-inch-long, quarter- occipital lobe. Six layers of neurons form the
inch-thick bundle of nerve fibers that con- thin cover of the cortex. The fourth layer with
tains roughly 300 million nerve cells. The its pyramid-shaped neurons concentrated in
only purpose of this thickly packed bunch of the back of the head — the visual cortex — is
fibers is to form communication links be- responsible primarily for processing visual
tween the two halves of the brain. With images. The visual cortex maintains the one-
well-connected links, an engineer can solve a to-one photoreceptor-to-neuron arrange-

complicated problem creatively and an artist ment. The visual cortex creates a kind of
can explain a piece of art sensitively with a topological copy of the image on its wrinkled
written description in a catalog (Figure 3.7). surface through the use of specialized cells
without a loss of resolution (Figure 3.8).
But the visual cortex isn't just a projection

The cortex
device. It has the ability to modify light
If you form an image of a brain in your mind, images in accordance with past experiences
it probably will be a view of the wrinkled, with similar pictures. If familiar faces in a
gray cortex (cortex is Latin for the "bark of a high school yearbook are turned upside
tree"). However, the cortex is only a thin down, a person cannot recognize them easily
layer that forms the outer edge of the cere- because the visual system hasn't memorized
the faces in that position. We almost always
Figure 3.8 see another face in the right-side-up, straight-
The significant fact of this ahead configuration, as in looking at our-
diagram for a selves in a mirror. We recognize small objects
communication textbook is
visual cortex such as silverware and pens quickly, no
that the visual cortex, i
matter what their position may happen to be,
sensory information from because we have seen them numerous times
the eyes is processed, is in

in various positions. The visual cortex sorts
through present and past visual images, per-

the back of the brain.
Modified after James Kalal, Biological Psychology, 4th ed.,
mitting quick recognition.
Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1992
THE BRAIN 31
However, where perception takes place in

the brain is still a mystery. A visual image in
the cortex is not an exact copy of the image

seen in the real world. The visual cortex
divides it into several different parts. Cells in
the visual cortex are highly specialized: Some

are responsible only for color recognition,
others locate edges, and still others look for
lines. The basic perception elements of size,
distance, shape, color, location, and subject-
to-background relationships have their links

to individual cells in the cortex. Thus, the Modified after lames Kalat, Biological Psychology, 4th ed.,
Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1992

brain divides visual images into the basic
graphic design building blocks that artists use recently did scientists discover this location Figure 3.9
to create their pictures. The visual cortex is a for the storage of visual messages. How these Left: Wrapped around the
wholly natural link between the inner work- stored pictures help to activate a response in thalamus is the curved
ings of the mind and the way humans pro- other areas of the brain is still a mystery. structure of the
duce and analyze visual messages. The visual An object illuminated by enough light
hippocampus where visual
cortex is the place where parts of the outside, causes its image to travel through the eyes,
messages are stored. Right:
visual message can be identified, but it isn't activates photoreceptors in the retina, moves
The familiar shape of the
the center where those parts are finally put through the optic nerve to the thalamus, and
seahorse could easily he used
together and where meaning is established. gets sent to the visual cortex. If the image is
as an icon for this book
memorable, that is, if it is filled with mean-
because this tiny creature
ingful content for the viewer, it finds a home
The hippocampus
hippocampus. There the image gave the hippocampus its
in the rests
The visual cortex can process some visual until recalled by higher brain functions an name.
information and determine whether a visual hour, a year, or even decades later. Over
message must evoke a muscular response. But several centuries, scientists working in the
it doesn't store the pictures. Near the thala- field of human physiology have tracked this
mus is a small part of the brain called the illuminated route.
hippocampus, Greek for "seahorse," which But just like looking at a road map can
its shape resembles (Figure 3.9). The hippo- only show you how to arrive at a specific
campus is a memory storage area and a place destination and not the wonders you discover
where new images are compared with old along the journey itself, knowing the route
pictures already stored in the mind. It is the light takes doesn't explain fully how humans
seat for visual memory — the place where recognize and respond to specific visual mes-
powerful visual messages, images with mean- sages. Visual perception and visual theory
ing, are stored. When needed by the higher will further refine your knowledge of how
brain functions, the brain somehow retrieves images become permanent fixtures within
images from the hippocampus. Only quite our personal image banks.
Why We See
It is the brain — not the eyes — that under- and sorts visual messages will help you create
stands visual messages. Therefore, to consider images that take advantage of that fact. The-
how the mind processes the visual informa- ories further refine our understanding of why
tion it receives from the eyes is vital. The some pictures are remembered but most are
brain processes images as four basic visual forgotten. Knowing how we see helps explain
perception cues (color, form, depth, and why we see.
movement). Knowing how the brain divides

S
CHAPTER 4
What the Brain Sees: A mind that works
primarily with
Color, Form, Depth,
meanings must have
and Movement organs that supply it
primarily with forms.
Suzanne Longer,
PHILOSOPHER
In 1962, American neurophysiologists David they had thought was possible: the stimulated
Hubel and Torsten Wiesel of the Johns Hop activity of a single brain cell responsible for
kins University in Baltimore reported on vision. They discovered that a single cell
their experiments with a cat's brain. Their within the visual cortex was activated when
work provided clues to how the mind sees the line of light was vertical and moved from
images provided by the eyes, and the two the left to the right. When that same upright
scientists received a Nobel Prize in 1981 for it. line was moved up and down while connect-
The scientists attached a microelectrode, ed to the same nerve cell, there was no
as small as an individual brain cell, to a nerve response.
in the visual cortex of an anesthetized cat The visual cortex actually is composed of
(Figure 4.1). They attached the microelec- several thin layers of nerve tissue. By a
trode to both an amplifier and an oscillo- tedious method of placing microelectrodes in
scope. The amplifier converted electrical en- various cells within each layer, Hubel and
ergy to a 'put-put' sound, and the Wiesel found that some cells responded to a
oscilloscope converted signals to a blip on a spot of light, the edges of objects, certain
screen. With the cat's eyes open and focused angles of lines, specific movements, and spe-
toward a screen, the scientists flashed simple cific colors and that some responded to the
straight and slanted light patterns. Thus Hub- space between lines rather than the lines
el and Wiesel could see and hear immediately themselves. In short, each brain cell in the
the effect of any nerve cell stimulation by the cortex almost reacts in a one-to-one relation-
patterns of light. After they flashed the light ship with the type of visual stimulation it
on the screen several times and adjusted their receives. From all this information, the brain
equipment, the scientists recorded what constructs a map of the retinal image.
35
36 WHAT THE BRAIN SEES: COLOR, FORM, DEPTH, AND MOVEMENT
Figure 4.1
Color
David Hubel and Torsten
Wiesel shared a Nobel Prize Imagine waking up from a night's sleep after
experiencing one of the most vivid dreams in

for attaching a tiny electrode
0.
your life. Later in the morning, you excitedly
to a cat's visual cortex and 13 2
tell a friend the details of your dream. In it,
identifying the types of
you are walking in a forest on an alien planet.
visual cortex cells responsible | I
You decide to sit on a seat similar to a park
for sight.
bench. As in any major city, passersby smile
as you greet them. But there is something
1 | peculiar about these people. They look like
2 S ordinary humans except for one characteris-

tic — the strange color of their skin. On closer
Through additional research, Hubel and inspection, you observe that the animals and
Wiesel determined that the cells on the sur- plants also look like they do on Earth except
face of each layer in the cortex combine in for their color. As you look at the sky, you
columns, as individual letters combine to discover that the colors of the clouds, the
form words, to make sense of all the colors, atmosphere, and the sun are strikingly differ-
forms, depths, and movements necessary for ent from their colors back home. This alien
visual perception. They identified three types planet seems perfectly normal, except that
of cells: simple, complex, and hypercomplex. none of the colors found on this planet are
Simple cells respond to a single beam of light, anywhere near the known colors back on
to movement, and particularly to lines that Earth.
form the edges of objects. Complex cells are On Earth there are only six basic colors:
responsible for larger features that make up red, yellow, green, blue, black, and white. All
the edges of objects and colors. Hypercom- other colors, and there are at least 7 million
plex cells are much more responsive to the possible colors that can be seen with the eyes,
space between lines than the actual lines are slight variations of the six colors. But the
themselves. Consequently, they provide in- colors of the objects and the persons on this
formation necessary for depth perception. planet have nothing to do with the six basic
Scientists still don't know how the three colors you are familiar with. These new colors
types of cells combine between the various are not even variations in the shading or
columns to provide the brain with the per- tinting of the six colors; they are complete-
ception of vision. Many believe that the brain ly new and unlike any color you have ever
cells link up in some way to form a symbolic seen.
representation of the images provided by the At first vaguely interested in the story of
retina. The images can then be stored in the your dream, your friend is now naturally
hippocampus, the part of the brain responsi- curious about what these colors look like. You
ble for long-term picture storage. What scien- suddenly stop your excited recitation and
tists do know is that the brain, through its stare blankly into her eyes. You realize that
vast array of specialized cells, most quickly there is no way you can describe these colors
and easily responds to four major attributes of because they are so different from any known
all viewed objects: color, form, depth, and color. You are a bit embarrassed and your
movement. These four visual cues are the friend feels frustrated by your lack of com-
major concerns of any visual communicator munication skills. Sadly, like most dreams,
when designing a picture to be remembered the alien colors soon fade from your memory
by a viewer. like the setting sun at the end of a day.
COLOR 37
Describing color color red, for example, is about 1 ,000 K, and a

deep blue color is approximately 60,000 K.
Actually, three different methods are used to Sunlight at noon, depending on the time of
describe color: objective, comparative, and year, is between 4,900 and 5,800 K. These
subjective. The objective method for describ- temperatures obviously are not the tempera-
ing colors depends on known standards of tures you would feel if you touched or were
measurement; the comparative and subjective exposed to each color. Otherwise, no one
methods rely on the evaluation of the person would want to be a stage performer for fear of
who sees the color. Color, more than any burning to a crisp each time the spotlight was
other attribute of a direct or mediated image, turned on. The Kelvin scale is derived from
produces emotional responses from the view- the heat required to change the color of a
er. Color therefore is a highly subjective and black metal radiator. As the temperature
powerful means of communicating ideas. increases, colors reveal themselves. The next
James Maxwell, the Scotsman who invented time you look at logs burning in a fireplace,
color photography in 1861, once wrote that note the various colors produced. Yellow and
the "science of color must be regarded essen- red colors are cooler on the temperature scale
tially as a mental science." Consequently, no than green or blue colors.

two individuals see a color in exactly the Obviously, the objective method with its
same way. wavelength and temperature measurements is
not a good way of describing colors seen in a

Objective Method dream because no equipment can be con-
The objective method for describing col- nected to light images imagined in the mind.
ors rests on the assumption that the percep- Scientific methods most accurately describe
tion of color is simply the result of various the differences between colors as measured by
light wavelengths (discussed in Chapter 2) mechanical or electronic devices. But a hu-
stimulating the color-sensitive cones along man mind is far from a precise measuring
the back of the eyes' retina (discussed in instrument, which leads to the two other
Chapter 3). The visible light spectrum com- methods for describing color.
prises light with wavelengths between 400

and 700 nanometers. Human Comparative Method
eyes can see
colors only within that range because only The second technique for describing col-
light within that narrow range stimulates the ors is the comparative method. As with a
cones in the retina. However, the unique dictionary definition, the color red, for exam-
physical nature of their eyes lets many other ple, would be compared to the color of blood.
animals see colors that humans miss. Colors The color blue might be compared to that of
imagined in a dreamlike state do not have to the sky on a clear sunny day. For the compar-
conform to the specific light spectrum range ative method to be of use, the color that
because the visual experience isn't processed another color is compared to must be accept-
through the retinas' cones. ed universally as a standard. If some people's
Color also may be measured physically by blood were green, to use blood as an example
its temperature because each color has a of the color red wouldn't make sense. But
unique temperature that distinguishes it from because all human blood is red, it is a valid
every other color. The temperature of colors comparison. However, a physiologist might
is measured in kelvins (K). Absolute zero on be momentarily confused by the comparison
the Kelvin scale, the lowest temperature that because blood inside the body that has not
is physically possible is approximately 273 been exposed to oxygen is blue in color.
degrees below zero on the Celsius scale. The Furthermore, one person's conception of
the color red isn't always someone else's. worn by someone inside the room will appear
Blood red is dark, but the red on an American to be yellow. When you are inside the room,
flag is much lighter. A person can distinguish the light from the bulb appears to be white
about 150 slight variations in darkness and and the jacket is red again. The mind tries to
lightness of any particular color, and the keep a chroma constant in order to avoid
National Bureau of Standards lists 7,500 dif- confusing sensual stimulations. Much of
ferent names for colors. Thus we can compare what we know about color constancy comes
colors by using the names of many possible from the work of Edwin Land, the inventor of
variations of each color. the Polaroid camera (see Chapter 12).
Chroma, or hue, refers to the common Some people use a color wheel or some
expression of a color, or simply the color accepted standard of color listings as an aid to
itself. Chromatic colors are red, yellow, green, remembering colors. The Munsell Book of
and blue. Achromatic colors are black and Color developed by Albert Munsell and the
white. Increasing the amount of colored pig- Pantone color systems are collections of
ment that makes a color will increase its known color samples that make comparisons
intensity, but the basic chroma will remain between colors easy. The Pantone system is
the same. Saturation refers to the intensity or used widely because many desktop comput-
amount of pure color a chroma contains. A ing workstations have that color system as
less saturated color has been diluted with part of their page-making software.
either black or white. The color "wheel" is actually a set of two
The value of a color refers to the amount triangles. Blue, green, and red are primary
of shading or tinting of the color. If a chroma colors (Figure 4.2). Arrange them on a trian-
is mixed with black, the color is said to be gle pointing upward with blue on top, green
shaded; if it is mixed with white, the color is at the left, and red at the right corner. Cyan,
said to be tinted. magenta, and yellow are secondary colors.
Lightness and brightness also are terms Superimpose a triangle pointing downward
that help describe color differences. Lightness on top of the primary color triangle with
refers to the amount of light that reflects off cyan at the left, magenta at the right, and
the surface of an object. Brightness is the yellow at the bottom corner.
amount of luminance or the characteristic of If colors that are directly opposite each
the light source itself in the area where the other, called complementary colors, are
color is viewed. When you step out of a mixed, the two form a neutral gray, achro-
theater after a matinee on a sunny day, you matic color. Stare at an intense color that fills
squint because of the brightness — not the your field of view for about a minute and
lightness — of the sun's light. The amount of then look at a white sheet of paper. In about
lightness an object has combined with the thirty seconds you will see the color's com-
amount of brightness where the object is plement as an afterimage. This phenomenon
located affects the perception of the color is one of the reasons that scientists concluded
differently. that color perception isn't simply an act of the
Constancy is a phenomenon of human eyes but an act of the mind.
color perception by which colors viewed un- Colored paints and colored lights act quite
der different brightness conditions retain differently when combined. When colored
their chroma. During the day a red jacket will pigments are mixed, they absorb or subtract
appear red either outside or inside a house. color from each other, and eventually the
But if you are outside at night and look into a mixture will turn black. Colored lights mix
room lit by an incandescent bulb, a red jacket differently, depending on whether the lights
COLOR 39
mixed are primary or secondary. If two Figure 4.2
primary colors (red, green, or blue) are pro- This arrangement of
jected on a screen with two projectors, they primary and secondary

will produce the secondary color between colors is a demonstration of
them on the color wheel. If all three colors are Max Wertheimer's gestalt
projected, they will produce white light.
approach to visual
Hence primary colors are called additive
perception (see Chapter 5).
colors, and secondary colors are called sub-
The illusion of the solid
tractive colors. When white light from a
white triangle linking the
projector is passed through a filter of a
primary colors is caused not
secondary color, it will block the passage of
by the triangle itself but by
its complementary or opposite color. A cyan
filter, for example, will not let red light pass The primary all the other elements in the
and secondary colors diagram. Cover the black
through. If all three secondary color filters are
set before a white light projector, the colors circles and the white triangle
will combine to create black. strongly affects the emotional response of the vanishes.
The additive and subtractive principles of message. In their drawings, children tend
color are used in printing color photographs. to prefer abstract colors over shapes and
Four color separations, each printed in a lines. Girls generally use more intense col-
secondary color ink, are required. A picture is ors than boys do in their early pictures.
photographed through a green filter and Educational psychologists consider such use
printed with magenta ink, photographed of color to indicate enjoyment of social inter-
through a red filter and printed with cyan actions and possession of higher reasoning
ink, and photographed through a blue filter abilities.
and printed with yellow ink. The three secon- Painters have known for years that the
dary separations are combined with a separa- warm colors — reds and yellows — appear
tion printed in black ink to add depth and closer than cool colors — blues and greens.
detail to the image. Each color separation The terms warm and cool are psychological
must be carefully registered on top of the distinctions and are not related to the actual
others and individually run through a print- temperature of the color. (Recall that blue is
ing press. The high cost of printing color one of the hottest colors available.) Light
photographs is the result of extra print runs. colors tend to be viewed as soft and cheerful,
Computer technology is bringing down the and darker colors have a harsh or moody
cost of color printing because color separa- emotional quality about them. A room paint-
tions can be produced directly on the com- ed a light color will appear larger than the
puter with available software. same room painted a dark color. Colors that
The comparative color description meth- are tinted tend to recede, whereas shaded
od is a good technique to use if you have an colors advance toward the viewer, making the
example of the color in question and can room look smaller (Figure 4.3). Figure 4.3
compare it with an existing color. Without a We tend to associate a pleasant or bad See color section following
sample, comparisons are not possible. experience with the colors of the objects that page 210.
comprise the event. Blood red might remind
Subjective Method someone of an accident. Green might recall a
The third technique for describing color is pleasant walk in the grass. Yellow might be
the subjective method. A person's mental the color of a balloon bought at a circus.
state or association with a colored object Imagine any color of your choosing. Do you
relate it to a specific object? Most people Because color — more than any other visu-
never associate color with a formless blob, al attribute — has the capacity to affect the
but with a definite object. For that reason, emotions of the viewer, a message may be
memory of a color affects the perception of it. forever remembered or forever lost, depend-
Researchers have found that a memory of a ing on how it is utilized. For that reason, pay
red apple will make a printed picture of a red particular attention to the use of colors in
apple appear even more red. Because people graphic design (discussed in Chapter 9).
associate colors with objects and events, this Color easily draws attention to itself. Used the
visual attribute is highly subjective and emo- right way, color can emphasize an important
tional. Recall from Chapter 2 that color also part of a message; if used casually or too
has sociological meaning that the visual com- often, color can be a serious distraction.
municator often cannot be aware of.
Without known wavelengths or tempera-

tures of the colors, an object that displays the Form
colors, or samples of the colors themselves,
the only method left to explain your dream to Another common attribute of images that the
a friend is by your personal reaction to brain responds to is the recognition of form.

the colors you "saw" in the alien world. Form defines the outside edges and the inter-
Your friend will have to be satisfied with the nal parts of an object and has three parts:
subjective terms you use to describe the dots, lines, and shapes.
Figure 4.4
The silhouette of a child

colors — pleasant, stimulating, intense, and
wondrous. If those words don't spark any
standing alone on a small
Dots
creative associations in your friend's mind
hill is all the more
about the possible chroma of the sky over The dot is the simplest form that can be
noticeable because of the dot
your dream planet, you are left with the stock written. In fact, it simply is a filled-in circle
that shapes his head. response, "I guess you had to be there." made with a writing implement on a piece of
paper. As a circle, it is a known shape and

gives comfort by its appearance in everyday
objects — a ball, a face, the sun, the moon. A
dot anywhere within a framed space demands
immediate attention (Figure 4.4). Moved to
the center, the dot becomes the hub of a

wheel. If off to one side in a frame, the dot
creates tension as the layout appears out of
balance. Two dots within a framed space also

create tension as the viewer is forced to divide
attention between the two objects. Two dots

within a field of view also can imply a
measurement between two points in space.
When three or more dots appear in an image,

the viewer naturally tries to connect them
with an imaginary line. It may be a straight or
curved line or take the basic shape of a

square, triangle, or circle. Hundreds of small
dots grouped together can form complex
pictures. Georges Seurat and other pointillist
FORM 41
artists in the nineteenth century used a

technique called pointillism in which they
peppered their paintings with small colored
dots that combined in the viewer's mind to
form an image when viewed from about eight

feet away (Figure 4.5).
Dots also figure prominently in the half-
tone process that allows the printing of pho-

tographs. A picture is photographed through
a screen with hundreds of small holes. The
result is an image that is actually a collection
of dots in the pointillist tradition.

A television screen is a collection of phos-
phor-filled red, green, and blue dots that glow

to fluorescence when shot with electrons from
a cathode-ray tube. Again, the mind com-

bines these small dots into a coherent picture.
The principle of the color television set has its
roots in the dots that form the back of the
retinas in the eyes. The rod and cone dots

enable you to see the dot at the end of this
sentence. might say, "I've got a line on you." And when Figure 4.5
you chart the progress of an event, you draw a The nineteenth-century

time line. Lines, a basic visual component, French pointillist Georges
Lines
are a part of our everyday speech (Figure 4.6). Senrat constructed his
When dots of the same size are drawn so Marshall McLuhan, the Canadian philos-
paintings by using a series of
closely together that there is no space between opher, writes that for Western culture lines
dots and only twelve
them, the result is a line. The word line is are important elements within images be-
separate colors, never mixing
used in many different contexts because it is cause of the way we read words. Literacy
one color with atiother. The
such an important concept. When President emphasizes a linear and sequential way of
tedious, mathematically
Bush challenged Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein thinking. Because sentences are written on
based painting technique
just before the Gulf War in 1991, he evoked horizontal lines with one word following the
the imagery of the graphic designer: He drew next, we structure our thoughts the same found few advocates because
a figurative "line in the sand." At Disneyland way. Lines simply are the outward expression the style lacked spontaneity.
in Anaheim, California, on a warm summer of the way most people in Western civiliza- Nevertheless, his paintings
day, most visitors' time is spent in lines. tions think. In Eastern or native cultures, accurately reflect how the
When someone waits to talk with a business- curved and circular lines are more important photoreceptors in the retina
person on a telephone, the administrative than straight lines. and in color monitors divide
assistant usually announces: "Pick up on line A linear way of thinking also determines
images into a series of dots.
one." In football, the point where the two how people in Western cultures perceive
teams confront each other is called the line of time. Time, the duration between one point
scrimmage. The defensive players along that (or dot) and the next, probably is the most
line are called linemen. A popular television common sequential abstraction. But the con-
program of the 1960s was an occupational cept of time is a culture-bound phenomenon.

guessing game called "What's My Line?" Because native cultures view time on a circu-
When someone thinks he knows you well, he lar (not a linear) path, past, present, and
42 WHAT THE R-RAIN SEES: COLOR, FORM, DEPTH, AND MOVEMENT
Figure 4.6 top right to the lower left corner of a frame. It
Two schoolgirls in New is a perfect compromise between horizontal

Orleans riding a streetcar and vertical forces. Any other diagonal line
provide the illusion of a strongly moves the eye of the viewer in the
line's direction. Several diagonal lines within

mirror image when the bar
a composition create a nervous dynamic
in the center acts as a
energy.
dividing line.
Curved lines convey a mood of playful-
ness, suppleness, and movement. Curves have
a gracefulness about them that soften the
content of their active message.

If lines are thick and dark, their message is
strong and confident. If thin and light with a

clear separation between them, their mood is
future events all have equal importance in delicate, perhaps a bit timid.
their view of time. The concept of time as it Grouped lines form blank spaces that the
relates to graphic design is discussed in the eyes naturally want to inspect. When drawn
section devoted to the rendition of depth per- or as a part of an object, they also combine to
ception by various cultures. As a collection of simulate the sensation of touch. The lines
dots, a line may be thought of as the time line that form the surface of an object may be part
of a dot. As it moves from one point to the of an illustration or part of the natural
next, the dot leaves a trail, which is the mark lighting where the object is located. A rough
left before the last dot in the line is drawn. surface has several small curved lines that
When we think of them in this dynamic way, make up its bumpy exterior. A smooth sur-
lines become restless wanderers that always face has few lines that mark its coating.
lead the eye to further action. Lines are visible Texture stimulates the visual sense by the
links with past events and are stimuli that image itself and the tactile sense through
point to the future. memory. For example, previous experience
Lines, whether straight or curved or in with the sharp points of the needles of a
combination, have an energy that comes from cactus transfers to a picture of the plant.
the sequence of individual dots. Hence lines Lines by themselves and not as outside
almost always evoke an emotion in the view- edges of shapes usually do not occur naturally
er. According to anthropologist Evelyn Hatch- except as cracks in rocks or thin tree branch-
er, straight lines convey a message of stiffness es. Lines are largely a human invention. As
and rigidity. Straight lines can be horizontal, such, a graphic designer or any other visual
vertical, or diagonal. Horizontal lines, espe- communicator must always be sure that lines
cially when low in the frame, remind viewers used in a picture match the mood of the piece
of a horizon with plenty of room to grow. If (Figure 4.7).
the horizontal line is high in the frame, the
viewer feels confined, as the layout seems
Shapes
heavy. In a layout, vertical lines bring the eye
of the viewer to a halt. The eye attempts to The third type of form, shapes, is the combi-
travel around the space created by the line. nation of dots and lines into patterns that
Diagonal lines have a strong, stimulating occur throughout nature and in graphic de-
effect in a field of view. The most restful sign. Shapes are figures that sit on the plane of
diagonal line is one that extends from the the visual field without depth and define the
FORM 43
outside edges of objects. They can be as ter and still photography formats often take
simple as a beach ball and as complex as the advantage of the horizontal sides that a rec-
side of a person's face. A shape that is quickly tangle naturally creates. In a rectangular
recognized is clearly separated from the back- frame, the chief object of focus does not have
ground of the image. to be in the center for the piece to appear
The three basic shapes are parallelograms, balanced. White or blank space offsets the
circles, and triangles. From these three object in the frame to create a unified com-
shapes, variations that compose all known or position. With a square format, an object
imagined forms can be created. As with all close to one side of the frame creates an
visual attributes, a particular culture assigns unbalanced appearance.
meaning to each shape.
The Circle
The Parallelogram The first shapes primitive humans proba-

The parallelogram is a four-sided figure bly took notice of were the bright, circular
with opposite sides that are parallel and equal forms in the sky. Consequently, circles have
in length. The two major types of parallelo- always been associated with the endless
grams are squares and rectangles. "Be there or rhythmic patterns of time, symbolizing eter-
be square" is often a challenge given to those nity without clear beginnings or endings. A
organizing a party. In Western culture, a popular country song, "May the Circle Be
square is defined as an unsophisticated or dull Unbroken," implies that a circle of friends
person. Similarly, a square shape, with its and family members will always maintain
formally balanced, symmetrical orientation, their closeness — even after death. Not sur-
Figure 4.7
Similar arm positions of the

is the most dull and conventional shape. But prisingly, as shapes associated with the pass-
comes from two persons and the statue

strength also its plain appearing of time, most clocks have a circular shape;
ance. A square is considered sturdy and however, most digital watches are not circu- in Central Park, New York
straightforward. In language, the equivalents lar. Digital watches only show numbers that City, create an implied line
are a square deal or a square shooter. The tell the present time. They convey no sense of between the three.
implication from the phrases is that the

business transaction or person so described
may not be flamboyant but that you can trust
that person to be fair.
Rectangles are the slightly more sophisti-
cated cousins of squares. Of all the geometric

figures, rectangles are the most common and
are the favored shape of the frame for mediat-
ed images. Still and motion picture photogra-
phers learn to see scenes through the rectan-
gular format of film's horizontal 35 mm
viewfinder. Because a television's screen is
close to a square shape, videographers most

often place subjects in the center of the
screen. As discussed in Chapter 14, the ad-
vent of high-definition television technology
will change the shape of television screens to
the wide-screen rectangular form used in
movie theaters. Composition in movie thea-
Figure 4.8 comes from their stable bases. The triangle
Because the sun, the moon, juggles its two parts — the base and the apex
and faces have circular — to create a dynamic energy. From its base
shapes, this form is one of comes stability, but from its peak comes
tension (Figure 4.9).
the most noticeable of all
In contrast, the isosceles triangle draws its
forms. Photographers often
power not from its base but from its sharp
use it to add interest.
point. When the point is vertical and used in
architecture, the shape is called a steeple and

symbolizes a religious person's hoped-for
destination. But pointed in any direction,
isosceles triangles challenge the eye to follow.
When using the isosceles shape, a visual
time passing that an analog watch with a communicator must be sure to give the
moving second hand does. Therefore most viewer a message to see at the end of its point.
digital watches are square, having symbolical- Tension always exists between the two
ly lost their link with the reason for their types of triangles when one of the most stable
invention. and one of the most energetic shapes known
A graphic designer must use circles care- are used in the same image. The next time
fully. They immediately draw the viewer's eye you start a game of pool, consider the sym-
in their direction and thus can overpower an bolic tension between the isosceles triangle in
image's main message (Figure 4.8). the form of the cue stick and the equilateral
triangle as an arrangement of balls, mediated
The Triangle
by the circular shape of the white cue ball.
A square would wear a traditional black Even basic shapes have a symbolic meaning
tuxedo to the high school prom. Rectangles that can be communicated to the viewer. For
and circles would at least wear colored bou- many people, isosceles shapes are phallic
tonnieres. But a triangle, especially an isosce- symbols that represent masculine characteris-
les triangle, would get in trouble with the tics. Likewise, equilateral triangles and circle
principal. It might come in short pants, a forms are vaginal symbols and have come to
Hawaiian shirt, and a bow tie. Triangles are represent feminine attributes for many peo-
the most dynamic and active of shapes. As ple. For example, primitive cultures often
energetic objects, they convey direction, but represented man as a straight line and woman
they can burden a design with the tension as a circle. In terms of this symbolism, is it
they can create. any wonder that pool is such a popular game?
The two types of triangles — equilateral
and isosceles — have vastly different moods.

All three sides of an equilateral triangle are Depth
the same length. Its shape conveys a serene
mood because of symmetrical balance. Think If humans had only one eye and confined
of the silent stone pyramids of Egypt. They their visual messages to drawings on the walls
calmly watch the passing of each millennium of caves, there would be no need for more
and tourist with an instamatic camera. Seen complex illustrations thatmadecould be
from a distance, they are an abrupt change in from dots, lines, and shapes. But because we
the naturally sloping sand-dune-filled hori- have two eyes set slightly apart, we naturally
zon. Seen up close, their power obviously see in three rather than two dimensions. Con-
DEPTH 45
sequently, we expect our pictures to have the The eight depth cues
illusion of depth even though they are actual-
Subsequently, researchers have identified
ly presented on a flat surface.
eight possible factors, used singly or in com-
Depth is related to volume because when a
bination, that give viewers a sense of depth:
basic shape has volume, it exhibits the illusion
space, size, color, lighting, texture gradients,
of weight and mass. There are five volumetric
interposition, time, and perspective.
forms: cube, cylinder, sphere, pyramid, and
cone. A cube is composed of six squares. A Space
cylinder is a rectangle with two circular
Space is the frame in which an image is
shapes on each end. A sphere is two circles
located. With a natural scene, the space
cut in half and joined at the middle. A
depends on how close you are to the subject.
pyramid is four triangles. A cone is a circular
Standing in an open field gives the feeling of a
shape and a triangle combined. When each
large amount of space and enhances the
form is rotated in space, its volume becomes
feeling of depth. If an object is close to the
obvious. Each form transmits symbolic mes-
eyes, depth perception is limited.
sages similar to those of their flat counter-
parts.
Size
In 1838, one year before photography was
Size can help in the illusion of depth
introduced, Sir Charles Wheatstone presented
perception if the viewer is aware of the
a paper to the Royal Society in London
object's actual size. A 747 jet airliner seen
detailing his views on binocular vision. He
from a distance is a small size on the viewer's
had concluded that the illusion of depth
actually is created by the two eyes seeing
slightly different views. The images are pro- Figure 4.9
jected onto each two-dimensional retinal A triangular shape is
screen, and the two retinal views travel to the implied in this photograph
brain, which interprets the difference be- oj dune buggy riders on
tween them as depth. Sand Mountain, Nevada.
He later used his studies in depth percep-
tion to invent the stereoscope. An early exam-
ple of the modern Viewmaster, the stereo-
scope presents a two-dimensional view of
two slightly different photographs mounted
side by side on a cardboard backing. When
they are viewed simultaneously by each eye,
the brain merges the images into one, three-
dimensional image. The difference between
looking at an ordinary photograph and an
image through a stereoscope is striking. Stere-
oscopically enhanced views were enormously

popular as educational and entertainment
sources from about 1860 until 1890. Before
the invention of the halftone method for
printing pictures in publications, stereocards

viewed through stereoscopes were the main
source of pictorial news.
retina. If someone has no idea of what the illusion of depth if objects are viewed as the
flying object is, she would conclude that it is same size.
quite small. But because we are familiar with
the actual size of the aircraft, we simply know Color
that it is far away and not as small as a robin. As indicated at the start of this chapter,
Size, consequently, is closely related to our an object's color can communicate depth.
ability to determine an object's distance. Warm-colored objects appear closer than
Distance is related to space and helps in our cool-colored objects. High-contrast pictures
perception of depth. with great differences between light and dark
Size also is related to scale and mental tones seem closer than objects colored with
attention. Without knowing an object's size, more neutral tones (Figure 4.10).
we have to view it next to an object of known
size in order to determine its size. Archaeolo- Lighting
gists take pictures of artifacts found at histor- Differences in light intensities can com-
ical sites with a ruler in the scene so that municate depth. A television studio techni-
viewers will know how large the recovered cian will position a light above and behind a
object is. Tourists often are disappointed news announcer. Called a "hair light," the
when they travel to Mount Rushmore in brightness level is slightly higher than the
South Dakota because, with no frame of lights in front in order to separate the person
reference, the presidential faces carved in the from the background. The prevalence of
rock do not convey a sense of their enormous shadows also indicates an object's volume
size. Educational psychologist Jean Piaget and gives the viewer another depth cue. The
found that, if much attention is given to an light's brightness and position create shadows
object, its size will be overestimated. A small, that the viewer notices (Figure 4.11).
Figure 4.10
refined figure often attracts attention within a
In this computer-generated
visual frame because the viewer must con- Textural Gradients
image, note how light creates centrate on it. Scale and attention are related The ripple effect seen in a still pond sud-
the illusion of depth. to depth perception because there is no denly disturbed by a rock or ridges from the
wind against a sand dune are called textural
gradients. The ridges appear closer together
as the viewer moves away.
Interposition
Interposition is the placement of one ob-

ject in front of another to give the illusion of
depth. Similar objects positioned side by side
without lighting from behind and simple line
drawings do not communicate three-dimen-
sional depth. A near object is in the fore-
ground, whereas a far object is in the back-
ground. Determining the difference between

foreground and background objects is an
important depth cue. Psychologist Edgar
Rubin identified five factors that help distin-
guish between the two: symmetry, convexi-

ty, area, meaning, and orientation.
DEPTH 47
Time Figure 4. 1
Three prisoners hang

Time and space are intricately related
concepts that find expression in visual mes- grotesquely from the spar of
sages. In one sense, time as a depth cue refers an American flagship in this
to the first element a viewer sees in a frame. nineteenth-century
That picture will be in the foreground of the engraving. The use of

viewer's mind, with other images seen later dramatic, silhouette lighting
in the background. But time as a cultural
amplifies the horror of this
communication is more complicated. Ac- image.
cording to Evelyn Hatcher, cultures that
think about time differently present depth

cues differently.
A culture that places more importance on
past events will place close objects on the
same level as distant objects. Murals in Bel-
fast, Northern Ireland, for example, often bly the most famous artist/scientist during
display this type of perspective (Figure 4.12). this era was Leonardo da Vinci. His paintings
The creators of these often emotional messag- reflect an early attention to duplicating on a
es relive the past as a way of continuing the two-dimensional surface the illusion of depth
feud between Catholics and Protestants in the as viewed in the real world. One of Leonar-
present. Cultures that are more interested in do's most famous works, The Last Supper,
capturing and controlling the present mo- uses perspective to express the social impor-
ment often exhibit a normal field of view. The tance of the Christ figure (Figure 4.13).
Figure 4.12
prevalence of the camera, with its emphasis Leonardo da Vinci is credited with invent-
Cultures that tend never to
on linear perspective, indicates how cultures ing the "Leonardo window" to aid perspec-
forget past events, such as in
try to control time. Edward Hall's book The tive renderings, although Filippo Brunelleschi
Northern Ireland where
Dance of Life eloquently explores the ways or Leon Battista Alberti probably developed
that cultures experience and manipulate the technique. It involved tracing a scene on a many people still discuss
time. Finally, cultures that emphasize long- sheet of paper (later on glass) with the artist's seventeenth-century battles,
term planning and the importance of future eye remaining in the same position. Using produce murals that often
events often exhibit images without any rec- this method, the artist could be sure that the have few depth cues.
ognizable depth perceptual dimensions. For

example, traditional Japanese and Chinese art
often have no noticeable depth cues.
Perspective
Probably the most complex depth percep-

tion cue is perspective. A person's cultural
heritage has more bearing on the interpreta-
tion of perspective attributes than any other
factor. The concept of perception as used in
Western art is relatively new compared with

the entire history of art. In Europe, during
the Renaissance, from about the fourteenth to
the sixteenth centuries, visual communica-
tors usually were artists and scientists. Proba-
Figure 4.13
The Last Supper by
Leonardo da Vinci is a
classic example of the use of
linear perspective to
emphasize the main subject
of a visual message. All of

the diagonal lines in the
painting converge on the
face of the Christ figure at
the vanishing point.
Figure 4.14
This 1525 woodcut by
Albrecht Durer demonstrates
a drawing table called a
Leonardo box (named after

lines drawn accurately mimicked an actual The "box" most commonly used by artists
Leonardo, but probably
scene (Figure 4.14). Communications scholar of the day to draw accurate landscapes was
invented by FHippo Kevin Barnhurst notes that the device "creat- camera obscura. Recall that a small hole
the
Brunelleschi). The ed a version of things seen by a Cyclops, in a box projects an upside-down view of the
perspective tool uses a frame whose eye remains immobile, recording uni- outside scene if lighting conditions are favor-
to achieve an accurate linear formly the details before it as it peers from a able. Artists inside a large camera obscura
perspective of an object. box." simply traced the image on a thin sheet of
paper. Much later, light-sensitive material
replaced paper and became the basis for
modern photography. Photography, more
than with any other invention, spurred artists
to render scenes in their proper perspective.
In her book Visual Metaphors: A Methodo-

logical Study in Visual Communication,
Evelyn Hatcher identifies three major forms
of perspective: illusionary, geometrical, and
conceptual.
Illusionary Perspective An illusionary per-
spective can be achieved through size, color,
lighting, interposition, and linear perspective.
When you stand on a railroad track and look

down the ties, the steel rails seem to converge
into a single area, or vanishing point, in the
distance. This trait of parallel lines when seen

DKPTH 49
at a distance is called linear perspective. This Any mediated image will never accurately
aspect of illusionary perspective is what art- duplicate the depth cues seen in an actual
ists were trying to duplicate with the aid of view because the mind cannot forget that the
the Leonardo window and camera obscura picture is a contrivance presented on a flat
(Figure 4.15). screen or sheet of paper. However, technolog-

ical advances may change this major differ-
Geometrical Perspective The visual artist's ence between real and mediated images in the
own style heavily influences geometrical and future. The brain can be fooled if the envi-
conceptual perspective. For both, the place- ronment where the image is viewed can be
ment of the objects within an image's frame controlled. For example, viewers wear hel-
is important. In geometrical perspective, the mets in virtual reality systems to eliminate all
artist shows near figures in the lower portion outside visual cues. In this case, the system
of the picture, and objects farther away higher challenges the normal depth perceptual cues Figure 4.15
in the frame on a vertical line above the near that identify a picture as different from reali- The "ponzo" or railroad
object. This type of perspective is common ty. Psychologists should be prepared for the
track illusion occurs when
among traditional Japanese and Mayan art- implications of a viewer's being unable to
horizontal lines of equal
work. Children often exhibit this type of per- distinguish between direct and mediated im-
length appear to be different
spective in their drawings. ages as with virtual reality technology.
sizes. As in Leonardo's The
As with all marks that artists make and all
Last Supper, photographers
Conceptual Perspective Conceptual per- images that machines record, complicated
also utilize linear perspective
spective is a compositional trait that relies on meanings are overtly or covertly communi-
a more symbolic definition of depth percep- cated. An image that shows a ball's volume and its vanishing point to
tion than the other types of perspective. It may be the simple picture that it appears to create a more dynamic
can be divided into two types: multiview and be, or it may reveal a hidden world of cultural composition.
social. With the multiview perspective, a communications (Figure 4.18).

viewer can see many different sides of an
object at the same time. The picture is often
an x-ray, or transparent, view of the object.
Near objects overlap Figure 4.16

far objects only by the
outside edges or lines that make up their The early works of Pablo
shapes. Pablo Picasso liked to use this type of Picasso often are clear
perspective (Figure 4.16). examples of the multiview
In a social perspective, the most important form of perspective.

person in a group picture, a government or
corporate leader, is larger in size than other,
less important people (Figure 4.17). A viewer

often assumes power relationships because of
social perspective. In a picture of a couple,
the man's dominance over the woman often

is signified by the man being nearer and
larger in the frame with his hand resting on
or arm wrapped around the woman's shoul-
der. Over the past two decades, the feminist
movement has made advertisers and others
more sensitive to nonverbal, negative stereo-
types such as these.
—
Figure 4.17 simply a series of still images spliced together

In this promotional picture on a long strip of film or videotape. Move-
for Apple Computer's ment is perceived in the brain through a
Newton MessagePad, the

phenomenon called persistence of vision. In
low camera angle and

1824 Peter Mark Roget, who later became
famous for his popular Thesaurus, proposed
position of the models
this phenomenon, which he thought resulted
emphasize that the man in
from the time required
front is the boss — an for an image to fade
from the cells of the retina. Scientists now

example of social
know that persistence of vision also is a result
perspective. Not surprisingly,
of the time needed for the brain to receive
he is the one holding the
and analyze the picture. Consequently, a
personal digital assistant. character in a film will appear to move
because of a blurring between the individual
Movement frames that pass through a projection device

at least at twenty-four frames a second.
Color, form, and depth join movement to
constitute the principal qualities of images

Graphic movement
that make the cells in the visual cortex
respond quickly to a stimulus. Recognizing Graphic movement can be the motion of the
movement is one of the most important traits eyes as they scan a field of view or the way a
in the survival of an animal. Knowing wheth- graphic designer positions elements so that
er an object or other animal is moving closer the eyes move throughout a layout. One of
avoids potentially harmful encounters. There the first psychologists to study a viewer's eye
are four types of movement: real, apparent, movements over an image was Julian Hoch-
graphic, and implied. berg. His constructivism theory of visual com-
Figure 4.18 munication states that viewers see successive
The dog causes problems for parts of a picture over time with eyes that
Real movement
the lady of the house in this
scan a scene. The mind then puts these
Real movement is motion not connected with scanned parts of a picture together to form a
nineteenth-century woodcut.
a picture presented in the media. It is actual whole image.
But with the flat perspective
movement either by a viewer or by some Visual communicators often position the
of the illustration, the dishes
other person or object. Because real move- graphic elements in a design to take advan-
might have fallen without
ment does not involve mediated images, we tage of the eyes' movement over a picture. A
the pet.
don't emphasize it in this book. viewer will scan an image based on previous
experiences and current interests, seeing cer-
tain parts of the picture and ignoring others.
Apparent movement
Scanning is a subjective — not a random
Apparent, or illusionary, movement, is a type choice. A viewer often scans pictures with a
of motion in which a stationary object ap- left-to-right, top-to-bottom preference (in
pears to move. The most common example of cultures where reading and writing follow the
this type of movement is motion picture same rules). However, if the viewer spots an
films. People in a film appear to move when a area of particular interest in an image, read-
movie is projected onto a screen. In reality, ing rules do not apply (Figure 4.19). A visual
the filmed characters aren't moving at all. communicator can direct a viewer's eye in a
Motion pictures and televised images are preconceived direction in a limited way. The
MOVEMENT 51
eye will usually follow a line, a slow curve, or movement. For thousands of years visual Figure 4.19 (left)
a horizontal shape before it follows other communicators have used the four visual The photograph of a woman
graphic elements. Of course, colors, sizes of cues in their work, whether it appears on cave pondering her next step on
individual pieces, and placement of elements walls or on computer screens. An important a sidewalk in downtown
against a frame's white space also are crucial lesson for image producers who want to make San Francisco presents two
(Figure 4.20). Chapter 9 contains a complete memorable messages is to understand that
lines of motion. Although
discussion of graphic elements at work in brain cells are complex "difference detec-
the line of people and the
layout and design. tors." They are stimulated more by the rela-
two boys move to the right,
tive difference between visual elements than
the woman's gaze directs the
by the intensity of each element. Consequent-
Implied movement
viewer's eyes to the left.
ly, a gaudy, colorful presentation may lose
Implied movement is a motion that a viewer much of its impact if all its graphic elements This crossing of lines
perceives in a still, single image without any have the same intensity. But differences be- contributes to a feeling of
movement of object, image, or eye. Some tween the colors, lines, and shapes detected tension.
graphic designs purposely stimulate the eyes by brain cells are only part of the reason that
with implied motion in order to attract some messages are noticed and others are not. Figure 4.20 (right)
attention (Figure 4.21). Optical or "op" art The content of a visual message also plays a Screen image presentations
has been used in advertisements and in vital role, which we discuss next. often use text animation to
posters to achieve frenetic, pulsating results. gain the viewer's attention.
Visual vibration is the term used for the
In this computer-generated
images. Through high contrast line place-
picture, motion is supplied
ment or the use of complementary colors,
by the mind.
moire (wavy) patterns seem to move as if
powered by an unseen light source.

Figure 4.21
In this promotional still for
Brain cells notice the the Back to the Future
difference motion simulation ride at
Universal Studios, the use of

David Hubel, Torsten Wiesel, and the many
scientists that built on their work demon- motion lines creates an
strated that the brain cells in the visual cortex illusion of excitement and
respond primarily to color, form, depth, and visual stimulation.
CHAPTER 5
The image . . . always The Sensual

has the last word.
Roland Barthes,
and Perceptual Theories
PHILOSOPHER of Visual Communication
Psychologists, philosophers, and practition- cracking and hissing; in your nose because
ers have devised several approaches that help you can smell the rich aroma of the wood; in
explain the way we see and process images. your hands and face because you can feel the
Knowing the four visual attributes the brain warmth of the fire; and in your eyes as you
responds to — color, form, depth, and watch the hypnotizing glow of the yellow
movement — is only part of the story for the flames. Sensations are lower order, physical
visual communicator. The five principal the- responses to stimuli and alone convey no
ories we discuss in this chapter can be divid- meaning. Nerve cells in your ears, nose,
ed into two fundamental groups: sensual and hands, and eyes do not have the capacity to
perceptual. The sensual theories (gestalt, make intelligent thoughts. They are simply
constructivism, and ecological) hold that di- conveyors of information that they pass on to
rect or mediated images are composed of light the brain.
and little else. The perceptual theories (semi- When stimuli reach the brain, it can make
otic and cognitive) are concerned mainly sense of all the sensual input. Conclusions
with the meaning that humans associate with based on those data are almost instantaneous.
the images they see. The noises, smells, temperatures, and sights
To understand any of these approaches to are interpreted by your brain as the pleasant
visual communication, you must first know experience that it is: a fire in a fireplace.
the difference between visual sensation and Perception is the conclusion that is made by
visual perception. A visual sensation simply is combining all of the information gathered by
a stimulus from the outside world that acti- your sensual organs. Sensations are the raw
vates nerve cells within your sense organs. data. Visual perception is the meaning con-
Wood burning in a fireplace activates the cells cluded after visual sensual stimuli are re-
in your ears because you can hear the logs ceived.
52
SENSUAL THEORIES OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION 53
the train in Frankfurt, went to a toy store,

Sensual theories of visual
and bought a popular children's toy of the
communication
day — a stroboscope, more commonly called
a flip book. The flip book is a simple form of

Gestalt
cartoon animation. On the first page of the
Approximately two weeks before the end book, a drawing, say, of a cartoon character
of the year, many home owners around in a running position is displayed on the
the world decorate their houses with hun- left-hand side of the page. On each subse-
dreds of colored lights, transforming neigh- quent page, the drawing of the figure is to the
borhoods into wondrous worlds of color. right of the previous drawing until the last
Several styles of decorations are displayed. page shows the character at the right-hand
Some lights shine constantly, some blink side of the last page. To see the effect of the
or twinkle at regular or random moments, character running from the left to the right
and some seem to race from one side of side, the viewer simply flips the pages rapidly.
a house to the other. How is this illusion of Wertheimer's observations during the train
lights moving across the eaves of a house trip and using the flip book led to a famous
created? laboratory experiment at the University of
An electrical current actually moves later- Frankfurt.

ally. Each light within the strand is dark un- In a darkened room, Wertheimer and his
til the current reaches it. When the cur- associates conducted an experiment similar
rent arrives, the colored bulb lights. When the to the flashing of holiday lights. On the
current moves on down the line, that left-hand side of a frame, a small light
bulb suddenly goes dark while the next flashed. After a brief pause, a light on the
bulb on the strand lights up, and so forth right-hand side of the frame flashed. The
down the line of lights. This on-again, off- viewer's brain immediately interpreted the
again sequence creates the illusion of a two flashes as light moving from left to right.
single light moving across a house on a How could there be movement in the absence
winter's night. The absence — not the addi- of sensations between the two stimulations?
tion — of light achieves the illusion of move- Wertheimer concluded that the eye merely
ment. The phenomenon occurs because per- takes in all the visual stimuli and that the
ception lives in the brain, not within the brain arranges the sensations into a coherent
domain of the eye. The brain links the lights image. Without a brain that links individual
to form a rapidly moving light that delights sensual elements, the phenomenon of move-
the eyes. ment would not take place. His ideas led to
The gestalt theory of visual perception the famous statement:
emerged from a similar observation. Instead
The whole is different from the sum of its
of watching racing colored lights on houses at
parts.
holiday time, German psychologist Max
Wertheimer received his inspiration during a In other words, perception is a result of a
summer of 1910. Wertheimer
train trip in the combination of sensations and not of individ-
happened to look out the window as the train ual sensual elements.
moved through the sunny German country- The word gestalt comes from the German
side. He suddenly realized that he could see noun that means form or shape. Gestalt
the outside scene even though the opaque psychologists further refined the initial work
wall of the train and the window frame by Wertheimer to conclude that visual per-
partially blocked his view. Excitedly, he left ception was a result of organizing sensual
a
54 THE SENSUAL AND PERCEPTUAL THEORIES OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION
ABC the law of similarity and wheels, how would you verbally describe
it to your superiors back in Houston?
the horizontal rows of letters,
1 2 3 inmihers and symbols are grouped The law of similarity holds that you would
because of their similarities
@%& attempt
classifying
to
it
make sense of the object by
as a series of basic shapes —
triangle between two circles, for example. The
A B C the law of proximity
now the arrangement of letters, numbers
brain wants to keep stimulus patterns as
and symbols is seen as three columns simple as possible, so a simple form (one that
1 2 3 because of the distance between them the brain immediately recognizes) implies a
@ %& simple meaning. The brain can more easily

group similar shapes, sizes, colors, and the
like than dissimilar graphic elements. In the
A B the law of continuance
since the eyes try to make connections
Martian example, your brain would group the
1 2 3 between the numbers and circle shapes, equal in size and color, as
@ % &
diagonal pattern
letters,
symbols, the arrangement is seen as a similar objects (Figure 5.2).
The law of proximity states that the brain
more closely associates objects close to each
other than it does two objects that are far

c the law of common fate apart. Two friends standing close and holding
and symbols are
the letters
hands be viewed as being more closely
> 1 2 3^ grouped because they seem to be
headed in the same direction
will
related than a third person standing twenty

yards from the couple. Similarly, the fact that
® the two circles seen on the Martian artifact
are near each other would lead to the conclu-
the four laws of gestalt
sion that they form some meaningful associa-
tion (Figure 5.3).
Figure 5.1 elements or forms into various groups. Dis- The law of continuation rests on the
This infographic is itself a crete elements within a scene are combined principle, again assumed by Gestalt psycholo-
demonstration of the four and understood by the brain through a series gists, that the brain does not prefer sudden or
gestalt laws — the symbols at

of four laws of grouping: The law of similari- unusual changes in the movement of a line.
the left are separated by the

ty, the law of proximity, the law of continua- In other words, the brain seeks as much as
words at the right because of

tion, and the law of common fate (Figure possible a smooth continuation of a line
5.1). (Figure 5.4). The line can be a line in the

their similar nature, their
The law of similarity states that, given a traditional sense of the word, as in a drawing,
proximity, their linkages,
choice by the brain, you will select the or several objects placed together that form a
and their directions.
simplest and most stable form to concentrate line. Objects viewed as belonging to a contin-
on. This law stresses the importance of basic uous line will be mentally separated from
shapes in the form of squares, circles, and other objects that are not a part of that line.
triangles. The law of continuation also refers to objects
Imagine yourself as an astronaut exploring that are partially blocked by a foreground

the surface of Mars. Suddenly you are con- object. For example, your mind will close the
fronted by an artifact half-buried in the red circle shape of the Martian artifact even if a
dust. Assume that this object is a ten-speed boulder partially blocks your view (Figure
bicycle, although for this exercise you have no 5.5).
idea that it is a bicycle. Without identifying A fourth law of Gestalt psychology is the
the parts of the object as handle bars, seat, law of common fate. A viewer mentally
Figure 5.2 (left)

/V7ac/f is back — sort of. Sports/B1.
Accent The law of similarity. In
Gazette this newspaper feature page

Ink spots
play an Self-rule nears as Israel recognizes PLO layout, the top and middle
encore illustrations are linked by
their wedge shapes.

Testimony ends
^ in Hinckley Twp
policeman's tria Figure 5.3 (right)
r m The law of proximity. The

HI story and photographs from
President Bill Clinton's
appearance are linked on
this front page because of
their proximity.
X 3*
Veterans' efforts to aid Amish
grow out of concern for others
First-time director Gibson i
feels like an expectant father i^J
groups five arrows or five raised hands point-

ing to the sky because they all point in the The law of continuation. A
same direction. An arrow or a hand pointed reader is graphically prodded
in the opposite direction will create tension, from one apple recipe to the
because the viewer will not see it as part of next by the implied
the upwardly directed whole. The elements of movement of the curved line
the law of common fate are more closely re-
of fruit on the right-hand
lated to time than any of the elements of the
side of this feature page.
other laws. Holiday lights that run along the
length of a house travel from left to right over
a period of time. This light illusion sets
colored bulbs apart from a strand of non-

blinking lights covering a nearby bush (Fig-
ure 5.6).
One of the first uses of the gestalt laws was
to explain the phenomenon of reversible
figure and ground spatial patterns (in paint-
ing and photography, called negative and

positive space). For figure and ground pat-
terns the crucial question was: How do we

know what is in the foreground and what
belongs in the background of an image? This
question is related directly to the important Convexity: We view objects that exhibit
need of the brain to label objects as near or shapes that curve outward as figures more
far in order to judge their relative importance often than to those with inward forms.
> < or danger.

In 1915, Edgar Rubin, a Danish Gestalt
Area:
compared
We see shapes that are small in area
to the total visual field as fig-

Figure 5.5 psychologist, experimented with figure and ures.
One of the most well ground patterns by drawing an object that
Meaning: We pay more attention to famil-
known optical illusions is
could be interpreted as either a face or vase
iar objects than to those we cannot dis-
called the Muller-Lyer
(Figure 5.7). Sensually, both the face and the
cern. Consequently, we view those mean-
vase images are stimulating photoreceptors in
illusion. Two lines of equal ingful objects as being in the foreground
the retina. However, the brain cannot see
length appear to be different of the image.
lengths because of the

both images at once — you must make a
Orientation: An object's shape influences
conscious decision whether to see a face or a
addition of outward and our perception of it as a part of the figure
vase in the drawing. Rubin identified five
inward arrows. The gestalt or the ground. More than any other shape,
factors, based on the gestalt laws, that help
law of continuation may a vertical or horizontal shape will most
identify objects within a visual field as being
help explain the effect. The often be a figure.
in the foreground (figure or positive space) or
brain naturally extends the in the background (ground or negative space) Rubin also outlined the principle of cam-
length of the second line (Figure 5.8). ouflage in which there is little or no separa-
because the outward arrows tion between the foreground and the back-
Symmetry: We see objects that have a
continue the horizontal ground. Understanding and manipulating
balanced or symmetrical orientation as
direction. this trait of visual perception led directly to
foreground objects.
military applications of merging the colors of
uniforms and equipment with those of sur-
Figure 5.6
The law of common fate.

Accent rounding backgrounds in order to hide them.
This principle also influenced the work of
Besides their similar shapes,
a C ear artists M. C. Escher and Paul Klee, both of
the two cola bottles are |
whom were influenced by the writings and

linked graphically by their
findings of several Gestalt psychologists.
upward direction. Winner The strength of the gestalt theory of visual
perception is its attention to the individual
forms that make up a picture's content. Any

analysis of an image should start by concen-
trating on those forms that naturally appear
in any picture. Recall that color, form, depth,
and movement all are basic characteristics of
an image that the brain notices. Gestalt
teaches a visual communicator to combine

With Crystal
Pepsi and Tab those basic elements into a meaningful
Cleat as the main
new
participants, the
round ol cola wars
whole. The approach also teaches the graphic
promises to have
a whole different artist to focus attention on certain elements
flavor
by playing against the gestalt laws. For exam-

ple, a company's logo (or trademark) will be
Reinventing the mill wheel
noticed in an advertisement if it has a dissim-
ilar shape, size, or location in relation to the
other elements in the layout.
The main criticism of the gestalt theory is sidewalk communicates sadness, not through
that it fails to account for cultural influences. an inner storehouse of familiarity with that
German philosophy has a long tradition of emotion, but with the graphic elements in-
believing in the metaphysical and innate herent in the walk: slumped back and slow
properties of human psychology. Without movements.
physiological data to support their work, The work of educational psychologist Jean
gestalt theorists nonetheless concluded that Piaget emphasized the importance of learned
recognizing good shapes and arrangements behavior in a child's growth. Coming long
within a composition is an evolutionary trait after the development of the gestalt approach,
Figure 5.7
of the brain. And although the mind recog- his findings suggested that visual perception
As you concentrate on the
nizes basic forms and patterns, such a func- must be a combination of the visual elements
white area of a variation of
tion cannot explain the way individuals gain that make up a scene and the symbolic
personal insights and meaning from mediat- meaning of those elements. The gestalt the- the popular Peter and Paul
ed visual messages. ory is excellent at describing the patterns Goblet illusion, the cup
Ironically, the cultural heritage of German concerned with visual perception, but it offers becomes the foreground
philosophy leads to gestalt's most serious no explanations other than innate properties figure. Stare at the black
criticism — that a person's culture conveys no of the brain in describing how those proper- shapes and the faces will
meaning for a visual work. According to ties become meaningful. Nevertheless, the appear.
gestalt theorists, past experiences and cultur- Gestalt psychologists inspired several related
al influences have little bearing on finding the theories that help explain the inner workings
meaning of an image. Wertheimer believed of the human mind as it studies an image.
that visual perception takes place too quickly The work of gestalt theorists clearly shows
for the mind to use its memory of past stored that the brain is a powerful organ that
images in interpreting an image. For him, a classifies visual material in discrete groups.
depressed person who walks along a crowded What we see when looking at a picture is
Figure 5.8
Edgar Rubin used the gestalt
laws to draw conclusions

about how foregrounds and
backgrounds are identified —
leading to camouflage
clothing. In this photograph,
the symmetrical shape, the
curved form, the familiar
sidbject, and the vertical
orientation help identify the
model and not the shadow
as the foreground (or
positive) shape.
1
ly give meaning to an image. Consequently,

several Gestalt psychologists attempted to
develop theories that helped explain the im-

portance of the viewer's own mental state
during active viewing.

In 1970, Julian Hochberg, a professor of
psychology at Columbia University, found
that the eyes of observers are constantly
in motion as they scan an image. These
quick focal fixations all combine within
the viewer's short-term memory to help
build a mental picture of a scene. The viewer
constructs the scene with short-lived eye
fixations that the mind combines into a
whole picture.
Hochberg had his subjects use eye-

tracking machines in his visual perception
experiments. These devices can chart the way
Figure 5.9 modified by what we have seen in the past a viewer looks at an image. Because the foveal
The gestalt approach and what we want to see (Figure 5.9). region of the eye is a tiny area, the eye
maintains that the "whole is constantly moves in order to maintain focus
from the sum of its (Chapter 3). Eye- tracking machines simply
different Constructivism
parts." This advertising
made obvious the eyes' frenetic journey
The gestalt approach had been criticized for across a direct or mediated image.
photograph, which uses a
describing perceptions rather than giving Look magazine editors used eye-camera
montage effect to create
explanations of how these perceptions actual- studies to determine how readers looked at
excitement in the viewer's
stories and individual photographs. In one
mind about the motorcycle,
EYE-TRAC such study, 100 women were connected to an
demonstrates that RESEARCH
1
TESTING eye-camera machine that registered where
Cables conflea '
philosophy. A single image camera

cs
electron'
lo tr>e Eye and for how long the eyes focused on a
V«v» Monitor
contsol unil (not
would be difficult for a »| - 1
; Pupil monitor
picture of a man. The women looked at the
viewer to interpret, but man's face 31.65 percent of the time; the least
taken as a whole, the noticed feature was the man's left hand.
meaning is clear. More recently, Dr. Mario Garcia and Dr.
Pegie Stark of the Poynter Institute for Media
Figure 5.10 Studies in St. Petersburg, Florida, used an
modern Eye-Trac testing machine to record on video-

In this Julian * 1
The leadei s<is m a eomiortabie chair wearing a
headband holding two miniature video ca-ne'as View camera - tape the eye movements of participants as
Hochberg setup, researchers Movement is unrestneiod, tne reader can »t baa
v*<cw5 reader's
place the newspaper on the (able.
at the Poynter Institute for

Light
Almost in-
visible light
\\ they read different versions of a newspaper.
illuminates
eye .
3
-a
»
The researchers found that the content, size,
Media Studies in St.
1 and placement of photos on a newspaper page
Petersburg used eye- tracking L €3 is more important than whether the image is
li
equipment to study the « -a
i > printed in color. Their findings are a part of
viewing habits of newspaper Z a
the publication Eyes on the News distributed
readers for their study, Eyes
by the Poynter Institute (Figure 5.10).
Scene camera —
on the News. Views scene
For Hochberg, the gestalt approach de-
scribed a viewer as being too passive. In Figure 5.1
contrast, constructivism emphasizes the Because the eyes do not have

viewer's eye movements in an active state of to scan a smaller image as
perception. According to the gestalt theory, Modified after Carolyn Bloomer, Principles of Visual Perception, Design much as a larger one,
Press, 1990
all an observer needs to have for visual determining that the
perception is enough light and eyes that work motion, searching for recognizable features
illustration at the right is an
well. If those conditions are met, the viewer among the ocher-colored hills. Your head
impossible object is easy.
gains as much information as possible simply mimics the automatic movements of your
This conclusion is a result of
by allowing the brain to make sense of all the eyes, moving left, right, up, and down. Your
Julian Hochbergs eye
visual patterns seen. legs easily move your body forward through
fixation research.
Constructivism allows for a much more this unfamiliar landscape. Occasionally, you
active role of the observer. Eyes are constantly swivel your hips left and right as you walk.
in motion, pausing 1-3 seconds on an indi- You suddenly stop before a huge sand dune
vidual element within a visual field and then and wonder whether you should climb it. You
moving to the next fixation. Several of these bend your knees, crouch close to the ground,
fixations are needed to build the mental map and study this large hill. You casually suck
of the image that the viewer's mind con- from a straw plunged into a glass filled with
Figure 5.12
structs. After completing this map, through an iced drink. Look up at the hill that faces
James Gibson advocated that
prior knowledge of the environment and you. The noonday sun bathes the scene with
past experiences — an important considera- an intense yellow illumination. You move
visual perception researchers
tion belittled by gestalt theorists — the ob- your head slightly to the left and then to the
test subjects outside of
controlled laboratory
server makes sense of the image. right. Notice the ridges in the sand caused by
Impossible objects are a good example of the wind. Closer to you, the distance between environments. His work
how constructivists analyze visual works each crest is great. But as the ridges climb up helped explain how ripples
(Figure 5.11). When first viewed, the drawing the dune farther away from your point of in sand dunes give clues
looks like an ordinary box. But when the view, the distance between the horizontal about space and size.
mind attempts to assemble all the parts,

it concludes that such an object would be
difficult to reproduce in the real world.
Although vital in helping to explain the

reason for the eyes' constant travels across an
image, constructivism actually is only a mi-
nor clarification of the gestalt approach. The
reason is that the link between the numerous
eye fixations and past experiences locked
within a person's memory in helping to
explain a picture is never made clear.
Ecological
As an introduction to the ecological approach

to visual perception, perhaps you should
imagine getting out of your chair and walk-
ing along the windswept sand dunes of a
far-away desert (Figure 5.12). As you scan the
distant horizon, your eyes are in constant
—
lines shortens until the ridges appear to be devised, the government would save enor-
stacked on top of each other. mous amounts of time and money. The most
Now scan the entire scene before your dangerous part of flying is landing the plane
eyes. Compare the size of the hill in front of safely, and depth perception is a crucial factor
you with the size of other hills next to it, with in that technical skill. Gibson concentrated
the sun above you, with the ridges in the on developing a test that measured a pilot
sand, with the straw in your ice-filled glass, candidate's natural depth perception. At the
and even with the shoes on your feet. From all time depth perception was believed to be
these mental observations (and many more), enhanced by the binocular structure of the
your mind decides how far away and how eyes and certain characteristics within a field
high the sand dune is. From this information of view: the degree of overlapping objects, the
you decide to go back to your comfortable total size and the height of a particular field of
chair and forget about climbing the hill. view, and other factors. Gibson's test based
This mental exercise demonstrates the on these assumptions was unsuccessful; he
three major principles involved in the ecolog- could not measure whether a person would
ical approach to visual perception. Founded be a successful pilot by a depth perception
by Cornell University psychology professor test.
James J. Gibson, the ecological approach says

Gibson Constructs a Theory
that
1. the study of visual perception should in- Gibson's work for the government wasn't
volve subjects, not in laboratories with wasted. Beginning in 1950 and continuing
expensive eye-tracking machines, but out over the next thirty-five years, he worked
in the environment where real people with the idea that depth perception actually
must function and live every day because was a function of the way that light structures
perception is best studied with moving the surfaces of objects within a field of view.
observers within natural surroundings; For example, textural gradients such as hori-
zontal ridges in a sand dune receive light in
2. visual perception isn't simply a combina-
various intensities and give the impression of
tion of images scanned by eye fixations as
depth. Gibson believed that these textural
the constructivists believe but is a product
gradients contain invariant lighting informa-
of the way light affects the appearance of
tion that traditional depth cues lack. Invari-
the objects within a field of view
ant information refers to constant attributes
Gibson's ambient optical array, or the
of the illuminated surfaces that do not change
visible surface structures of the elements
even when an observer changes position. No
before our eyes illuminated by the light
matter how you turn your head, the ridges on
source — and changes as the observer
the sand dune will appear closer together as
moves through a scene; and
they recede from your point of view.
3. by the slight changes in the ambient opti- Gibson thought that the textural gradients
cal array, size and depth perception deter- within a scene also determine size. Con-
minations are automatically processed in structivists would say that we determine
the brain without the need for conscious whether one object is larger than another by
mental calculations. their relative size on the retina of the eyes:
During World War II, the U.S. military That is, a small object projects a smaller
employed Gibson to try to determine who image than a larger object. For Gibson, the
among the hopeful candidates would become mind automatically sweeps a scene and di-
successful pilots. If such a test could be vides it into a gridlike pattern. As a person
PERCEPTUAL THEORIES OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION 61
Figure 5.1
James Gibson's work with
texture gradients provided a
basis for the concept of
invariant information
related to distance
calculations. In this still
from the movie Terminator

2, the squares of the
checkerboard floor are all the
same size even though they
appear to be smaller in the
background. The illusion
gives a feeling of depth and

distance. Because the squares
moves throughout a scene, the objects remain the best guess of how animals use visual in the center do not follow
the same size in relation to each other. In perception, but humans learn to associate that organized pattern, we
other words, the scale or proportion of the meanings with the objects they can see.
notice the menacing alien
objects remains the same. Size is determined Cognition is based on previous experiences,
creature rising from the
simply by the number of surface grid units an cultural factors, and linguistic abilities that
floor.
object occupies in space. If one object covers contribute to the total concept of visual
more grid units than another object, it is said perception. Gibson, therefore, would not
to be closer. A windswept sand dune in the agree with Huxley that "the more you know;
distance is considered large because it takes the more you see." However, perceptual theo-
up many more surface units with the ambient rists would have no trouble with that state-
optical array than other objects. For Gibson, ment.

size determinations require no high-level
brain functions. Size and depth percep-
tion are simply direct perceptual experiences Perceptual theories of visual
— perception without mental calculations communication
(Figure 5.13). As Gibson states, "Scale, not
size, is actually what remains constant in The semiotic and cognitive approaches to
perception." visual perception may be considered content-
Others have criticized Gibson's theories driven or perceptual theories. Although rec-
because, as with the previously discussed ognizing that vision cannot happen without
approaches, the ideas may be valid for the way light illuminating, structuring, and some-
animals see, but do not explain the entire times creating perceptions, these two ap-
process of human perception. For Gibson, proaches stress that humans are unique in the
perception simply is a matter of light struc- animal kingdom because they assign complex
turing objects and giving the viewer enough meaning to the objects that they see.
information to determine whether the objects

should be used or avoided. For a sentient
Semiotics
animal constantly exploring the environ-
ment, perception functions as an invitation The flag that is raised high above a football
to some form of action. His ideas probably are stadium and is watched reverently during the
singing of the national anthem by those in hind any sign must be learned. In other
the stands and on the field is a sign. The right words, for something to be a sign, the viewer
hand placed over the approximate location of must understand its meaning. If you do not
the heart during the singing of the anthem is understand the meaning behind the orange
a sign. The words printed in the program color of a jacket, it isn't a sign for you.
about the football players on the field are Semiotics (called semiology in Europe) is
signs. The close-up photographs of players the study or science of signs. Actually, it is the
crouched and awaiting the snap of the ball culmination of Aldous Huxley's anthem: The
during the game are signs. The officials' more you know, the more you see. Thus,
striped uniforms and their hand signals indi- images will be much more interesting and
cating penalties are signs. The illuminated memorable if signs that are understood by
numbers on the scoreboard are signs. Even many are used in a picture. The study of
the cleat marks in the sod after a running semiotics is vital because signs permeate
Figure 5.14 back's score are signs. The "high five" slap every message. The academic study of semi-
Sporting events are rife with with a friend after a team's touchdown is a otics attempts to identify and explain the
symbolism. These sign. The simple silhouette drawing of a man signs used by every society in the world.
enthusiastic L.A. Ram above the men's room door is a sign. The Although semiotics has gained popularity
green traffic light as you make your way home only recently, it is an old concept. In A.D. 397,
football fans sit in the north
from the game is a sign (Figure 5.14). Augustine, the Greek philosopher and lin-
end zone of every home
A sign is simply anything that stands for guist, first proposed the study of signs. He
game and for some
something else. After reading the preceding recognized that universally understood enti-
unexplained reason wear
list of signs you might well ask: What is not a ties afforded communication on many non-
watermelons on their heads.
sign? That is a good question because almost verbal levels. For Augustine, signs were the
Unfortunately, as with
any action, object, or image mean some-will link between nature and culture. The word
many symbolic signs, an thing to someone somewhere. Any physical semiotics comes from the language of his
outside viewer cannot easily representation, from a gesture to an orange country: Semeion is the Greek word for sign.
interpret the meaning of jacket, is a sign if it has meaning beyond the Contemporary semiotics emerged through
such an act. object itself. Consequently, the meaning be- the work of two linguistic theorists just before
World War I. Swiss linguist Ferdinand de

Saussure developed a general theory of signs
that was taken from notes by his students
while he was a professor at the University of

Geneva. At about the same time, American
philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce published
his own ideas about the effect of signs on
society. These two philosophers inspired oth-
ers to concentrate in this field of study. The
Americans Charles Morris and Thomas
Sebeok, the Italian Umberto Eco, the French
Roland Barthes, and many others have con-
tributed greatly to the study of semiotics.
Acceptance of Semiotics
Peirce and de Saussure weren't particularly
interested in the visual aspects of signs. They

were traditional linguists who studied the
way words are used to communicate meaning Three Types of Signs
through narrative structures. However, over Peirce's contribution to semiotics was

the years semiotics has evolved into a theory in the formulation of three different types
of perception that involves the use of images of signs: iconic, indexical, and symbolic.
in unexpected ways. For example, Sebeok All signs must be learned, but the speed of
identified some of the topics that semiotics comprehension of the three types of signs
researchers have studied. Besides the obvious varies.
subject of visual signs and symbols used in Iconic signs, or icons, from the Greek word
graphic design, they include the semiotics of that means image, are the easiest to interpret
the theatre, where performance elements are because they most closely resemble the thing
analyzed; the semiotics of puppetry, in which they represent. Icons can be the simple draw-
the colors, costumes, gestures, and staging of ings above restroom doors that communicate
the characters are studied; the semiotics of tele- the gender allowed inside (what do icons
vision and commercials; the semiotics of above the men's room in Scotland look like Figure 5.15
tourism; the semiotics of the signs used in where the traditional dress is a kilt?), the Arthur Rothstein, working
Boy Scout uniforms and rituals; the semiotics trashcan image on the screen of a Macintosh for the Farm Security
of notational systems used in dance, music, computer that means to discard unwanted Administration during the
logic, mathematics, and chemistry; and urban files, many street signs that clearly indicate a
1930s, moved this steer's
semiotics, in which cities are seen as social dangerous road condition, and the most com-
skull to a parched piece of
symbols. The field has become so popular mon of all — photographs and moving images
land for the photograph. The
that journals, international conferences, and (Figure 5.15).
image immediately became
academic departments at universities now are Indexical signs have a logical, common-
an icon for the dire weather
devoted to semiotics. sense connection to the thing or idea they
conditions experienced by
represent rather than a direct resemblance to
Storage of Signs in the Brain
the object (Figure 5.16). Consequently, their
many Great Depression
The study of signs is based on the idea that interpretation takes a little longer than that farmers at that time in U.S.
the hippocampus of the brain stores images of icons. We learn indexical signs through history and unethical subject
in a symbolic format in order to recognize an everyday life experiences (Figure 5.17). They manipulations by
object almost instantaneously. With instant can be a footprint on the beach or on the photographers.
identification of an image, either directly

experienced or mediated, the brain can clas-
sify it immediately as helpful or harmful.
Even though the brain is an enormously
complex organ, its basic function is simple: to
process information to protect the person. In
other contexts when you see a drawing, a
photograph, a videotape, or an actual image
of an apple, you identify it as a fruit because
you already have a stored symbolic image of

an apple in your mind based on previous
experience. One reason why you may fail to
notice a friend's change of hairstyle is that

your mind stores a symbolic face of your v
acquaintance in memory. You must con-
sciously override your mind's symbolic image
of your friend to notice the new hairstyle.
64 THE SENSUAL AND PERCEPTUAL THEORIES Ol VISUAL COMMUNICATION
Figure 5.16 Ferdinand de Saussure further refined the

This nineteenth-century line idea of how signs are used to communicate
drawing presents two good messages. He divided all signs into two parts:
examples of an indexieal the signifier and the signified. The signifier is
sign. There are two possible

the drawing, sound, or direct or mediated
sources for the smoke —a image that expresses the sign. The signified is
the meaning communicated by the signifier.

steam engine pump on the
The concept or emotion conveyed by the sign
horse-drawn fire engine and
depends on the social and cultural rules
a fire inside the house. But
established by a society over time,. The way
is there a blaze on the fire
that rules are made to define the meaning of
engine, and is the man at
signs is of great interest to semiotic experts.
the window simply smoking As Charles Morris once remarked, "A semiot-
a (rather large) cigar? ic attempts to develop a language in which to
Experience helps us decipher talk about signs."
indexieal signs. surface of the moon, smoke spewing out of a A signified relationship requires two fac-
high smokestack or automobile exhaust pipe, tors: the emitter and the receiver. The emitter
all types of maps, and even the fever noticed encodes or sends a sign, and the receiver
by a doctor with a sick patient. Footprints decodes or translates the sign. If the receiver
stand for the person who impressed them. decodes the sign the way the emitter intended
Smoke represents the pollution generated by when encoding it, the message is successfully
Figure 5.17 the furnace or the engine. Maps stand for communicated. If the receiver fails to under-
A restaurant's napkin geographic locations. Fever indicates that the stand the emitter's encoding, the message is
contains an indexieal sign. patient has an infection (Figure 5.18). misunderstood or lost. Aberrant decoding is
The lines emitting from the The third type of sign is the most abstract. the term for poor communication between
chicken pot pie illustration Symbols have no logical or representational emitter and receiver. It usually occurs when
connection between them and the thing they the two participants come from two different
do not represent strings for a
represent. Symbols, more than the other cultures and speak different languages. A
marionette (as my
types of signs, have to be taught (Figure 5.19). parent complaining about the noise level
four-year-old daughter
For that reason, social and cultural considera- of the music in a teenager's room is an-
assumed), but steam rising
tions influence them greatly. Words, num- other example of aberrant decoding. The two
from the freshly baked
bers, colors, gestures, flags, costumes, most family members have trouble explaining their
entree.
company logos, music, and religious images different attitudes about the song's volume
all are considered symbols (Figure 5.20). because they come from cultures differentiat-
Because symbols often have deep roots in the ed by age.
culture of a particular group, with their Another important relationship between
meanings being passed from one generation the sign and its communicated meaning is
to the next, symbolic signs usually evoke a indicated by the terms denotation and con-
stronger emotional response from viewers notation. Denotation describes the common-
than do iconic or indexieal signs (Figure sense meaning of a sign. Connotation is the
5.21). meaning derived by an individual receiver.
Iconic and indexieal signs are called moti- Probably the greatest barrier to an interna-
vated signs because they closely resemble the tional language of signs is that the same
B
object they represent. Symbols, with no clear- denoted sign can have many vastly different
cut attempt at resemblance, are called arbi- connotations. Within a culture, denotations
RESTAURANTS £ trary, or conventional, signs (Figure 5.22). often match connotations. But when messag-
Figure 5.18 (top left)
This billboard advertisement
displays a clear example of
an indexkal sign —a
footprint in the sand is a
sign that a human has
walked on the beach.
Figure 5.19 (top right)
In Belfast, Northern Ireland,
the UDA is the Ulster
Defense Association, an
ultraconservative
paramilitary organization.
The sans serif typeface urges
the Irish hunger strikers in
1981 to starve themselves in
the prison wing known as
"H-Block. " The cross used
for the "I" in "DIE" is an
ironic religious symbol when

es are attempted across cultures — whether of signs. Thus syntactics is of primary interest it is associated with this
based on age, economics, gender, ethnic to visual communicators because an image is
violent message.
background, location, or whatever — aberrant a collection of graphic elements that convey
decoding often results. For example, in many meaning for the viewer. Peirce wrote that a Figure 5.20 (bottom left)
cultures eye contact between two individuals sign always refers to another sign and never to Clasped hands symbolize
talking with each other is a sign of interest. In the actual object in itself. Agreeing with him, prayer or contemplation in
other cultures, eye contact indicates disre- de Saussure noted that the meaning commu- many cultures. The
spect and may even be considered an insult. nicated by a sign depends not on actual
unusually tight cropping of
Humans always see and hear through the objects but on other signs. For him, a sign by
the top of the image
filter of who they are within a community. itself means nothing.
emphasizes the importance
As described by Morris, the study of
semiotics encompasses pragmatics, seman- Images —A Collection of Signs of the gesture by a doctor
who treats young patients

tics, and syntactics. Pragmatics refers to the Roland Barthes described the chain of
origin, common uses, and communicative associations or signs that make up who have been paralyzed by
a picture's
effects of signs. Semantics involves attempts narrative. In verbal language the narrative is
gunshots.
to determine the significance of signs within linear. One word follows the next in a specific
Figure 5.21 (bottom
and among various cultures. Syntactics trac- rule-based order. In that regard, verbal com-
right)
es and explains the ways that signs are communication is considered discursive. Pictures,
bined to form complex messages. on the other hand, are presentational. Signs
A black cloth over th
of a person syml leath

Semiotics grew out of linguistic theory, so within an image are presented in various
pragmatics, semantics, and syntactics are ways, many times depending on the style of in many cultures. In reality,
terms used in analyzing written or spoken the image maker. Although the chain of signs this man is avoiding the sun
communications. However, a direct or medi- is more tightly controlled with text than with on the boardwalk of Atlantic
ated image is nothing more than a collection images, one exception might be poetry, in City.
66 THI-: SENSUAL AND PERCEPTUAL THEORIES OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION
A metonymic code is a collection of signs
EAT FISH that cause the viewer to
assumptions. A photograph
make associations or
in an advertise-
L VE LONGER
ment that shows the signs of a living room
with expensive paintings on the walls, real
wood paneling, richly upholstered furni-

ture, subdued lighting, and a fire glowing
under a mantle would communicate meto-

Figure 5.22 which the order of the words can have non- nymically the prospect of romance or com-
On a wall of an Alaskan linear, presentation qualities. In fact, the fort for upper-class residents.
salmon plant a car bumper Greek poet Simonides in about 500 B.C. wrote An analogic code is a group of signs that
sticker displays iconic (fish)

that paintings were "silent poetry and poetry cause the viewer to make mental compari-
and symbolic ( words and
painting that speaks." sons. Analysis of this type of code uses the
The common term for Barthes' chain of terms metaphor and simile. A metaphor
heart) signs. The sticker
associations is codes. Through its history and suggests equivalence, whereas a simile sug-
itself is an indexical
customs, a society develops a complex system gests only that the signs have similar features.
sign — it indicates that a
of codes. Individual signs are thus combined Yellow writing paper might remind the au-
person attached the message
to communicate complicated ideas in the thor of the yellow peel of a lemon because of
to the wall.
form of these codes. Asa Berger suggests four its similar color. In that regard, comparing
types of codes: metonymic, analogic, dis- paper to a lemon's peel is considered a simile.
placed, and condensed. A metaphoric comparison would be paper
that was actually made from the peel of
Figure 5.23
lemons expressly fabricated for use by song
Stanley Kubrick's Dr.
writers to compose their musical (sour)
Strangelove, Or How I
notes.
Learned to Stop Worrying Displaced codes are those that transfer
and Love the Bomb is a meaning from one set of signs to another. In
classic study of the the movie Dr. Strangelove (directed by Stan-
displacement code. The ley Kubrick), rifles, missiles, airplanes, and
missile that actor Slim

other phallic shapes were photographed pur-
posely to communicate the idea of sexual
Pickens rides to his doom at
tension among certain military characters
the end of the movie is the
(Figure 5.23). Images of penises are not
ultimate phallic symbol. In
acceptable pictures for most members of
this publicity still, Pickins
society and so are displaced by other symbol-
poses on the nuclear
ism. Liquor, lipstick, and cigarette advertisers
warhead prop.
also commonly use phallic imagery in the
form of their products' shape in the hope that
potential customers will link the use of their
product with possible sexual conquest.

Finally, condensed codes are several signs
that combine to form a new, composite sign.
Televised music videos and the advertise-

ments inspired by them have unique and
often unexpected meanings. The signs of
musicians, dancers, music, quick editing
techniques, graphics, colors, multiple images, computers for routine data and word process-
and the like all form a complex message. ing as never before (see Chapter 15).
Within the culture the message is intended A peculiar aspect of human nature is that
for, the condensed code has relevant mean- people attempt to explain themselves through
ing. But for those outside that culture, the the use of metaphors. Since the dawn of
images often are confusing, random, and human civilization, humans have tried to
without purpose. The way individuals com- solve the mystery of our existence by compar-
bine signs and form their own meaningful ing ourselves with what we already know. For
messages often cannot be controlled by the example, during the Industrial Revolution,
creators of the signs. This type of code is the many people thought that the human body
most promising for a new mode of commu- was similar to a complicated machine. Con-
nication and is where most research in semi- sequently, for many years physiologists used
otics needs to take place. the metaphor of the machine to explain the
Symbols often evoke strong emotional re- functions of the human body.
sponses among viewers. The burning of a When more and more researchers began to
country's national flag as a protest gesture is a use computers in their work, they naturally
powerful symbol of defiance and anger. It compared the computer's central processing
isn't simply an act to create heat through the unit to that seemingly equivalent structure
burning of a piece of fabric. Semiotics teaches within the skull, the brain. Researchers
the importance of symbolism in the act of thought of the brain as a highly complicated
visual perception and communication. A processor of information much like a com-
viewer who knows the meaning behind the puter. Computer technologists attacked the
signs used in a complex picture will gain problems inherent in building machines to
insights from it, making the image more mimic the thought capabilities of the human
memorable. The danger of using complex mind and developed software programs
signs as a part of an image is that they may be to perform complex problem-solving tasks.
misunderstood, ignored, or interpreted in the They computerized chess strategy so success-

wrong way. Nevertheless, the challenge for fully that they could challenge some of the
visual communicators, expressed in the study masters. They built hardware that allowed
of semiotics, is that, when used correctly, recognition of simple visual stimuli and
signs can offer modes of communication scenes. And they used flow charts that de-
previously unknown. tailed the functions of a computer software
program to explain the mental functions of
the brain. The scientific field of artificial
Cognition
intelligence (AI) was born; one of its purpos-
Many extraordinary events occurred during es is to create machines to think and learn
the decade known as the "Sixties," not the like humans.
least of which was the beginning of the Because of their knowledge of how a
widespread use of computer technology computer works, scientists became less con-
among academics. Until then, computers cerned with the physical aspects of processing
were largely the domain of a few, well- images and more interested in the idea that
financed military and corporate institutions. visual perception is a result of a series of
Although two more decades would pass be- mental events. High on the list of those events
fore the desktop workstation explosion would are the role of memory, problem solving,
make it possible for almost anyone to become expectations, and knowledge. Visual percep-
computer literate, researchers began using tion is a function of the meanings we
—
associate — through learned behavior or intel- or parts. He called these basic components
ligent assumptions — with the we objects see. geons, short for geometrical ions. Through
his research, he discovered that only 36 geons
The Brain as a Complex Image Processor are needed to make all objects. But because of
According to the cognitive approach, a previous experience with an object, most

viewer does not simply witness a light- people can recognize it by viewing only 3
structured object as in the ecological ap- geons. Recognizing an object that is unusual,
proach, but actively arrives at a conclusion obscured, or seen at an odd angle or out of
about the perception through mental op- context requires the presence of more geons.
erations. The French semiotician Fernande Biederman suggests that the mind may store
Saint-Martin and the American Irving Bieder- images symbolically within the brain in the
man have tried to explain how humans men- form of geons to make recognition quick and
tally make sense of the images they see by simple. His work may be an important link
theorizing that we construct visual "alpha- between the way words and images are view-
bets" composed of the graphic elements that ed. After learning a written language, a reader
make up a picture. Saint-Martin attempts to usually doesn't have to analyze consciously

create an alphabet for images in her book every letter within a word. Whole words
Semiotics of Visual Language. For her, color is become a part of a verbal geon.
the basic visual element. Color, as a form of Psychologist Richard Gregory has ex-
light, gives shape and substance to the visible pressed another variation of the cognitive
world, and she calls her basic visual alphabet- approach. He believes that an observer
ic letter the coloreme. A coloreme is the from prior knowledge and memory — pos-
smallest element within a direct or mediated sesses a fairly clear idea of what does and
image that can be focused within the foveal doesn't belong in a scene. For example, an
field of the retina. A coloreme can comprise a elephant lumbering down the street would be
picture's actual color, texture, size, bound- an odd sight. Gregory further believes that a
aries, direction, or position in the frame of viewer constantly checks sensations received
view. These physical attributes of the image, by the eyes against the hypothesis of how the
once noticed and identified, find meaning world should look within a given context.
through successive viewings, similar to the This back-and-forth flow of data between
ideas expressed by the constructivists. eyes and brain is similar to the way a comput-
In 1987, Irving Biederman published his er operates. "We may think of sensory stimu-
theory of visual perception in which he lation," Gregory writes, "as providing data
outlined an alphabet of objects. Any written for hypotheses concerning the state of the
alphabet is simply a collection of symbols that external world." The brain checks the objects
correspond to the sounds made during within a field of view against an internal list
speech. A basic unit of speech is called a of objects that should be a part of the scene
phoneme. For all the languages in the world, and draws a reasonable conclusion.
only 55 phonemes are needed. The 44 pho- How we build mental lists of objects that
nemes for the English language are simplified belong in a scene depends on many personal
into 26 characters — the alphabet. Webster's factors. Because no two individuals have
Dictionary actually lists 50 alphabetic sym- experienced quite the same lives, visual per-
bols that describe all the sounds needed to ception is a highly personalized and subjec-
pronounce the more than 50,000 words in it, tive activity. Once again, the more you know
but 26 letters suffice. Biederman recognized — and can remember and use — the more you
that every object consists of primitive shapes will see.
Visual Perception and the Viewer's State systems are not actively studied by many
of Mind researchers, medical students regularly use
Carolyn Bloomer identifies several mental them in trying to remember the many com-
activities that can affect visual perception: plicated medical terms they encounter in
memory, projection, expectation, selectivity, their studies.
habituation, salience, dissonance, culture, Plato's wax tablet theory was an attempt
and words. to explain the process of memory. He envi-
sioned the brain as a waxy substance on

Memory Arguably the most important men- which facts were imprinted. A memory lasted
tal activity involved in accurate visual per- in the mind and could be recalled as long as
ception, memory is our link with all the the impression remained.
images we have ever seen. People have long The information processing model of the
used pictures as memory aids, or mnemon- mind divides memory into three sections.
ics, to help themselves recall certain events or First is the brief visual storage that lasts one to
long verbal passages. Simonides invented the three seconds. This storage system is the one
first mnemonic system. While giving a per- that Hochberg and the constructivists see as
formance of one of his lyrical poems at the the building blocks made from rapid eye
home of a friend in about 500 B.C., he was fixations. Second is short-term memory,
called out of the room. Suddenly, the ceiling which may last several seconds or longer,
of the room he had just exited collapsed and depending on the viewer's level of concentra-
killed several of the guests. Later, anxious tion and awareness. Third is long-term mem-
relatives of the victims asked him the fate of ory, which may last a lifetime. Understanding
their loved ones. Simonides was able to recall how a picture makes it to the long-term
those who had been crushed by the stone roof storage area in a person's brain is one of the
by mentally re-creating the seating arrange- most crucial factors in making images that
ment for those around the dinner table. This will be remembered. Unfortunately, because
tragic experience led him to experiment with of the importance of memory in visual per-
this form of mental exercise. He found that he ception, memory skills tend to decline in
could memorize long passages of his writings more literate cultures that rely more on writ-
by dividing them into sections and mentally ten than oral or visual communication. With
placing them within various rooms of an printed words, a person's memory need not
imagined house. be so acute because a passage may be read
The Lakota and Dakota Native American again and again.
tribes commonly used a mnemonic device
they called "Winter Count" as their only Projection Creative individuals see recog-
form of tribal history. The Plains tribes of nizable forms in the corn flakes floating in a
North America measured time in the cyclic bowl of milk in the morning. Others make
concept of "winters" rather than the linear sense out of cloud, tree, and rock formations
concept of "years" common to other civiliza- or find comfort in the messages learned from
tions. tarot cards, astrological signs, and the I-
Modern-day mnemonic experts use absurd Ching (Figure 5.24). One reason that psychol-
pictures to help people recall names, complex ogists use the common Rorschach inkblot test
words, and important facts. For example, an is that individuals often reveal personality
image of a young girl sipping a soda through traits by deriving meaning from the oddly
a thirty-foot straw might be a mnemonic for formed shapes. A person's mental state of
the state of Mississippi. Although mnemonic mind is thus "projected" onto an inanimate
significant details within a scene. If you are

trying to locate a friend sitting in the packed
bleachers during a baseball game, all the
other unknown faces in the crowd will have
little significance. When you see your friend,
your mind suddenly locks on that known

appearance as if with the help of a spotlight in
a darkened room.
Habituation To protect itself from over-

stimulation and unnecessary pictures, as with
selectivity, the mind tends to ignore visual
stimuli thai are a part of a person's everyday,
habitual activities. When you walk or drive to
school or work the same way every day, your

brain doesn't really notice the sights along
your route. People like to travel to new areas
Figure 5.24 object or generalized statement. One per- because the images experienced in an unfa-
Tarot cards are an example son will walk past a tree trunk without the miliar place often are striking and interesting.
of the mental activity

slightest hesitation. Another person will However, overstimulation, particularly if a
known as projection. They spend hours marveling at the humanlike face culture is much different from the one left,
are one of the many symbol formed by the curves and shadows in the can result in a phenomenon called culture
systems that people use to

wood. The difference between the two indi- shock. A person may grow irritable and tired
viduals may be in the mental processes that if presented with too many visual sensations
help them discover traits
affect what they see. for the brain to filter.
about their personalities or
Generally, we are ambivalent about visual
look into the future. After
Expectation When you walk into a living stimulation. On the one hand, we enjoy new
the illustrated cards are
room, you may expect to see a couch, pictures experiences. On the other hand, we do not
shuffled, a reader familiar
on the wall, and perhaps a television set. If enjoy too many of them. One way to prevent
with their symbolism you have a strong mental picture of what your mind from thinking habitually is to
explains their meaning. should constitute a living room setting, you search constantly for new ways to think about
may fail to notice the typewriter that sits on a familiar objects or events. For example, eat
nearby card table. Having preconceived ex- dessert first, imagine dancing a jig while
pectations about how a scene should appear waiting in a checkout line, or simply take a
often leads to false or missed visual percep- different route to school or work. Practicing
tions (Figure 5.25). creative thought readies your mind to think

actively about new images when you see
Selectivity Most of what people see within a them.

complicated visual experience is not part of
conscious processing. For example, rarely do Salience A stimulus will be noticed more if
people think about their own breathing unit has meaning for the individual. If you
less consciously made aware of the process. recently met someone you like whose favorite
Most of visual perception is an unconscious, food is from India, whenever you smell curry
automatic act by which large numbers of or hear other people talking about the coun-
images enter and leave the mind without try, you will be reminded of that person. A
being processed. The mind focuses only on person who is hungry will notice the smells of
food cooking emanating from an open win- Figure 5.25
dow. A trained biologist will see more in a Expectation is a mental
slide under a microscope than the average condition that leads to poor
person will; both individuals see all there is to visual perception. A casual
see under the microscope, but what the viewer would most likely
biologist sees is consciously processed in the overlook a photograph of

mind. Shapes and colors have more meaning
boys mugging for the camera.
for the artist than for the nonartist.
However, the viewer's
attention is drawn to the

Dissonance Trying to read with a television
image when these Belfast
or stereo loudly playing in the same room is
boys proudly display their

difficult because the mind really can concen-
hidden knives. Suddenly, the
trate on only one activity or the other. A book
is set aside the moment a television program viewer is shocked out of an
or the lyrics of a song become interesting. As expected scene.
with Rubin's face or vase drawing, concentra-

tion is limited to one activity at a time.
Television programs that combine written
and spoken words, multiple images, and mu-
sic run the risk of creating visual messages
that the viewer cannot understand because of
all the competing formats.
Culture As a manifestation of the way peo- musical, logical-mathematical, visual-spatial,

ple act, talk, dress, eat, drink, behave socially, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, and inter-
and practice their religious beliefs, cultur- personal. Linguistic intelligence is responsible
al influences have a tremendous impact on for speaking, writing, and reading. Musical
visual perception. Religious icons, state and intelligence creates and appreciates music.
country flags, T-shirt designs, and hairstyles Logical-mathematical intelligence is respon-
all have individual and cultural meanings. If sible for quantitative analysis and thought.
you are aware of the signs that are a part of a Visual-spatial intelligence is for image cre-
particular culture (such as those presented in ation and appreciation. Bodily-kinesthetic in-
the section on semiotics) you also will com- telligence gives a person a sense of physical
prehend some of the underlying reasons be- well-being and place. Intrapersonal intelli-
hind their use. Culture isn't simply the con- gence internally monitors a person's psycho-
cept of a country's borders or the idea of logical state. Interpersonal intelligence allows
high-class or upper-class "Culture." Culture the person to communicate with others.
spans ethnicity, economic situation, place of Western culture traditionally favors left-
work, gender, age, sexual orientation, physical brain, linguistic, and logical-mathematical
handicap, geographic location, and many intelligences over right-brain, visual-spatial
other aspects of a person's life. Culture also processing. College entrance examinations,
determines the importance of the signs that for example, concentrate exclusively on math-
affect people who live in that culture. ematic, reading, and verbal concentration
Howard Gardner, an educational psychol- skills without a visual component to the
ogist, writes that each person actually pos- test. According to Gardner, less populated cul-
sesses seven brain intelligences: linguistic, tures favor interpersonal, visual-spatial, and
bodily-kinesthetic intelligences. If, as sus- In Conclusion . . .
pected, people actually use only a small The cognitive theory of visual communi-
percentage of the brain's capacity, that limit- cation has moved past its computer-model
ed use may be a factor of the culture a person roots. Such a development is a positive sign
happens to have been born into and lives in.
because comparing the mental activities of
the brain to the workings of a computer at
Words Although we see with our eyes, for
best is naive and at worst is misleading. The
the most part our conscious thoughts are human mind is an infinitely complex living
framed as words. Consequently, words, like
organism that science may never fully under-
memory skills and culture, profoundly affect
stand. More meaningful connections between
our understanding and subsequent long-term what people see and how they use those
recall of a direct or mediated image. One of images arise when they view mental process-
the strongest forms of communication is
ing as a human rather than a mechanical
when words and images are combined in
process.
equal proportions.
s
The Ethics
of What We See
Visual messages are a powerful form of com- nately, without a sufficient verbal component,
munication because they stimulate both in- the meaning of a visual message often is
tellectual and emotional responses — they ambiguous. Consequently, images through-
make us think as well as feel. Consequently, out history have been used both to help and
images can be used to persuade and to per- to harm others. A creator of images has an
petuate ideas that words alone cannot. When ethical and moral responsibility to ensure, for
controlled by economic interests and corporate example, that a picture is a fair, accurate, and
considerations, pictures can be powerful tools a complete representation of someone from
to persuade people to buy a particular prod- another culture. Too often, however, that
uct or think a specific way. Any viewer or knowledge is gained after an image causes
producer of visual messages must be aware of harm. Fortunately, sensitivity and knowledge
the ways that pictures are used to convince about other cultures can give you an under-
others of a certain point of view. Unfortu- standing of the correct use of pictures.
CHAPTER 6
Visual Persuasion In a world where the
rich and powerful can

in Advertising,
hire more and better
Public Relations, and persuaders, who has the
last word?
Journalism Bill Moyers,
JOURNALIST
Suppose that you have always been a fan of from what you know about events in the
the 1960s television show "Laugh-In" and world that the picture could have been taken
the bubbling personality of Goldie Hawn. in Beirut or Belfast. You look for a headline
When you spot the comical photograph of and written copy on the page, but you don't
her sitting on an elephant's trunk on the see any. So you turn the page.
March 1992 cover of Vanity Fair on a rack at The next two pages reveal another striking
your local used-book store, you are intrigued photograph that is printed to all four edges of
enough to buy the magazine. the paper. Hundreds, if not thousands, of
Back home and in a comfortable chair, people appear to be trying to climb aboard an
you casually flip through the pages of the already filled aging ocean liner. People are
magazine. You impatiently turn page after standing on the shore and in the water,
page that feature upscale clothing and make- grasping ropes that dangle from the deck, and
up advertisements and wonder when you will lining the railing. The colorful and chaotic
find the interview with Ms. Hawn. Just when scene demands explanation. You want to
you have almost reached the end of your know what is happening, the reason for their
patience with all the slickly produced ads, you desperate attempts to escape, and whether
confront an arresting image that fills both they made it to safety. You can't find any
pages. In the middle is a color photograph of written explanation. This time, however, you
a car fully engulfed in flames. You assume notice in the upper left-hand corner of the
that a bomb placed in the car had just page — amid a cloudless, blue sky — a small
exploded. You assume from the type of car, headline set in a green rectangle. The words
from the buildings in the background, and read "United Colors of Benetton." Under this
75
76 VISUAL PERSUASION IN ADVERTISING, PUBLIC RELATIONS, AND JOURNALISM
text in even smaller letters is an 800 telephone

number where you can order
THE BENETTON ADVERTISING
the clothing
company's spring catalog. You suddenly
CAMPAIGN
real-
ize that the powerful image isn't part of a

story about a far-away tragedy but is used to Luciano Benetton sells about 80 million
get your attention so that you will buy clothes sweaters, shirts, and other articles of clothing
from the company. through some 6,000 franchise outlets in 100

You turn back to the bombed-out car countries. Total estimated sales in 1992
photograph and, sure enough, there is the reached $1.6 billion. Besides being one of the
green logo that you missed at first. You feel a wealthiest persons in the world, Benetton also
little foolish that you could be tricked so is a member of the Italian Senate.
easily. You turn the page and review the Although Benetton's advertising cam-
desperate scene of the ship's passengers paign, organized for the last ten years by
and silently wonder if anyone experiencing creative director Oliviero Toscani, uses only 4
the fear and uncertainty demonstrated percent of the company's annual profits, free
in the picture is aware that they are being publicity generated in newspapers, maga-
used to sell $100 sweaters. You turn the zines, and telecasts throughout the world
page. about the controversial advertising campaign
Before you is one of the most emotional has been worth several times the cost of
photographs you have ever seen. The color running three color photographs on six con-
Figure 6.1 picture fills the page to the edges (Figure 6.1 ). secutive pages of a national magazine. Of
See color section following Again, the green Benetton logo appears at a course, every advertising director's dream is
page 210. corner of the frame with the telephone num- to get such free reportorial attention about an
ber for its latest catalog. This picture is harder advertising campaign.
to look at than the other two. You are Because of photography's ability to arouse
transported to what appears to be the death- interest, pictures are used to shock potential
bed of a young man. An older man (his customers. A young Brooke Shields began the
father?) obviously is crying. Two women also latest manifestation of "soft porn" advertise-
are on the bed. Unlike the previous images, ments when she posed in tight-fitting Calvin
where the perspective was far away, you are Klein jeans in 1980. Commercial interests
almost on the bed with this grieving family. recognize the impact of images to shock
The color photograph is a deeply personal viewers, obtain free publicity about contro-
moment in this family's life. You are touched versial ad campaigns, and generate sales.
by their deep sadness, but you are also Shock advertising uses images that are emo-
curious about the situation and want to know tionally powerful to sell products. "Shock
what is going on. You look for any text on the jocks," or radio personalities who will say
page that would give you even the slightest anything controversial to generate publicity
amount of information, but like the other and boost ratings, often use this style of
images this picture has no cutline. You won- advertising. Shocking images regularly ap-
der how using this family tragedy in an pear on the covers of supermarket tabloids
advertisement for something as banal as de- that use their front pages as visually arresting
signer clothing could ever be justified. There advertisements to entice you to purchase the
are no answers. publication. In television, the trend is toward
You decide to close the magazine and go sensational coverage that features people in-
outside to try to rid your mind of this private, volved in everything from sexual affairs to
personal photographic image. sadism to murder.
THE BENETTON ADVERTISING CAMPAIGN 77
Shock advertising can make a little-known Benetton's target audience has always been
company a media standout. For example, young (18-24-year-olds), perhaps more so-
Diesel, an Italian jeans manufacturer, was cially conscious clothing buyers than other
criticized for its campaign featuring guns age groups. Its latest campaign is simply a
pointed at the viewer along with the copy, natural progression from earlier advertising.
"How to teach your children to love and Beginning in 1989, catalogs, store posters,
care." Benetton executive Peter Fressola de- and billboards for Benetton used photographs
fended the Diesel advertisements, saying that that emphasized multicultural harmony
"jeans are about sex and danger. And the (Figure 6.2). In all the advertising pictures,
people who are offended by these ads are the only copy on the page was that of the
probably not Diesel customers anyway." Benetton logo. Images of a black woman
Nevertheless, the ads were quickly withdrawn breast-feeding an Anglo baby, a black child
from many magazines — but sales of the jeans resting on several white teddy bears, a close-
doubled because of the controversy. Shock- up of black and white hands cuffed together,
ingly violent or sexual images used in ads are and two small black and white children
the culmination of corporate cynicism in sitting side by side on matching toilets sym-
which almost any sensational still or moving bolically emphasized racial harmony and
image is justified if it gets the attention of equivalence.
potential customers. In 1991, the advertising campaign
The use of shock advertising is more switched to more overtly political images that
common by companies that have small adver- shocked governmental censors. Just before the
tising budgets. They hope that the media Gulf War started, the company introduced a
Figure 6.2
attention generated by the controversial cam- picture of several rows of crosses in a ceme-
Benetton has long
paign will far exceed the actual cost of the tery. The ad was banned in Italy, France,
ads. Jerry Delia Femina, creative director of maintained an advertising
Britain, and Germany. Arab countries refused
the Delia Femina McNamee agency, which to print a picture of black, white, and Asian campaign that attracts
introduced the first condom advertisements, children sticking their tongues out at the attentioti and at the same
flatly states that shock ads are "desperate camera. Members of the Catholic church were time promotes racial
advertising. This stuff insults the intelli- outraged that a picture of a priest and nun harmony.
gence." Delia Femina asserts that a com-
pany's only reason for placing shockingly
visual advertisements such as those used in
the Benetton campaign is to get free publicity.
"If this ad [the Benetton deathbed image]

fails to shock people," asks Delia Femina,
"where does it go from here? Ads with blood,
dismemberment and hanging bodies?" The
communications director for Benetton,
North America, Peter Fressola, disagrees with
the publicity argument. He insists that his
company's campaign will shock only those

who "have been living in a cocoon. They
need to be shocked into seeing what's really
going on in the world." But as noted earlier,
seeing and perceiving are often two different

Kirby surrounded by family members shortly

before his death due to AIDS.
UNITED COLORS
OF BENETTON. Taken by Ohio University student Therese
Frare, the image was published in Life maga-
zine. Benetton executives first saw the picture
after it had won the Budapest Award and
second place in the general news category for
the prestigious World Press Photo contest.

Frare had been photographing in the Pater
Noster House in Columbus, a hospice-

approach home, where Kirby received treat-
ment. After asking his permission, Kirby

11
allowed her to take pictures of him that were
to accompany a story for a school project.

O (3
Their relationship eventually led to the mov-

11
DO ing, deathbed image that caused little reac-
tion as an editorial picture in Life. Kirby's
Figure 6.3 kissing on the lips was used in an advertise- parents, Bill and Kay, gave permission to
Two models employed by ment (Figure 6.3). During this era, though, Benetton to use the image in its ad campaign
Benetton wear the clothing no picture received as much attention as that because they thought it would raise AIDS
of a priest and nun who kiss
of a child photographed fresh from the womb awareness around the world. Benetton execu-
of her mother, covered in blood and with the tives donated $50,000 to the Pater Noster
for the camera in this studio
umbilical cord still attached. This shockingly House to furnish and renovate the facilities.
image. Many Catholics were
realistic image was printed large on bill- David Kirby was from Stafford, Ohio, a
upset by the image because
boards, but banned in Italy and Britain. small town of only ninety-four residents.
it seemed to mock their
Never one to rest on previous publicity- Lured by the prospects of a better life, he
religious beliefs.
seeking achievements, creative director Tos- traveled west after high school and eventually
cani embarked on the latest Benetton cam- ended up in California. He soon lost touch
paign that uses previously published news with his family. But after contracting AIDS,
photographs. The long list of disturbing im- Kirby telephoned his parents and asked if he
ages without context or explanation includes could return home. He wanted to die with
a woman sobbing over the bloody body of a family members around him. They immedi-
Mafia victim (published only in Italy), a ately welcomed him back. His return to the
mercenary soldier holding high the thigh town, however, caused panic among many
bone of a human, the image of Albanian residents uneducated about the disease. The
refugees escaping on an Italian ship, a red- emergency workers who took him to the
eyed duck coated with oil after a recent spill, hospital later burned everything in the ambu-
an albino Zulu woman who appears embar- lance that Kirby had touched. Schoolchildren
rassed next to two brown-skinned women screamed in horror about an "AIDS mon-
who appear to shun her, an Indian couple ster" living near them. But Kirby didn't
wading through flood waters, South Ameri- shrink from the cruel characterizations. He
can children working as laborers, a man often went door to door to educate neighbors
sprawled on the ground while being forced to about him and AIDS. As an AIDS activist, he
submit to a radio interview by men on top of did much to calm the fears of Stafford's
him, and the picture that has been called "the residents.
most shocking photo used in an ad," David When the disease progressed to its inevita-
THE BENETTON ADVERTISING CAMPAIGN 79
ble conclusion, Kirby (then thirty-two) was for the ad campaign is to make people think,
at the hospice-approach home with his fami- to get them to talk about serious issues, and
ly. At the moment of his death, Frare took the to promote worldwide multiculturalism. Tos-
picture of Kirby surrounded by his father, cani also wants to expand the way advertise-
sister Susan, and niece Sarah openly weeping ments are used. He believes that ads can be
over the loss of their loved one. His mother used to inform and spark commentary about
was in the next room crying. The picture is a serious issues. "Advertising can be used to say
riveting moment in which a family faced with something that is real about things that
unspeakable tragedy is united by their grief. exist," says Toscani. Both Fressola and Tos-
Barb Cordle, who is the volunteer director at cani admit that they also want to create
the Pater Noster House and who helped care advertising that breaks traditional banal pres-
for Kirby, said that "the picture in the ad has entations in order to focus more attention on
done more to soften people's hearts on the the company. Without doubt the campaign
AIDS issue than any other I have ever seen. has been a tremendous success. Estimated
You can't look at that picture and hate a worldwide sales jumped 10 percent, or by
person with AIDS. You just can't." more than $100 million from 1991 to 1992.
But others, particularly AIDS activists, You might be swayed by the purely hu-
cannot look at the picture and not feel horror, manitarian concerns expressed by Benetton
Figure 6.4
anger, and outrage over the image being used corporate officials. To its credit, company ex-
Probably as a result of the
in an advertisement. They cite the use of the ecutives donate thousands of dollars not only
criticism about the use of
picture as another example of a large corpora- to AIDS-related causes, but to such diverse
the David Kirby image in
tion exploiting a personal tragedy to sell a organizations as the United Negro College
product. They wonder why phone number an advertisement, Benetton
a Fund, Friends of the Forest, and the Central
for AIDS information could not be included Park Zoo. Or you might agree with those who officials responded with a
in the ad if an 800 number was printed so criticize Benetton's use of emotionally much more obvious AIDS
that customers could obtain the company's charged pictures that call attention to the reference in this studio
new catalog. Critics ask whether using such company rather than to the issues raised by photograph using a male
an emotionally powerful image for commer- the content of the images (Figure 6.4). model.
cial purposes without any written copy in the
advertisement to explain the meaning of the
picture is ever morally acceptable.
The picture generated much discussion
about shock advertising on television talk
shows and in newspaper and magazine
articles. Unfortunately, the controversy over
the image has swirled around its use in the
advertisement. Such a narrow discussion ig- UNITED COLORS
OF BENETTON.
nores the fact that Frare's image is a brilliant
example of decisive moment photojournal-
ism. Because of all the media attention, more
than 1 billion people around the world proba-
bly have seen the Kirby family scene. But
interest in the controversy doesn't necessarily
mean that more people have become educat-

ed about AIDS around the world.
Fressola of Benetton asserts that the reason
Regardless of how you assign motives to emotional appeals, to change a person's mind
actions, the Benetton campaign highlights an and promote a desired behavior.
important feature of mass communication: Most information, whether factual or not,
The fields of advertising, public relations, and is communicated through the mass media.
journalism always have been closely related. More and more, that information relies on
Each one uses persuasive techniques in vary- the emotional appeal inherent in visual pres-
ing degrees to support existing opinions, entations. In Public Opinion, Walter kipp-
change attitudes, and cause actions by those mann stressed the need for images to change
who view their output. The overt blurring a person's attitude. "Pictures have always
between corporate and editorial interests is been the surest way of conveying an idea,"
one of the most pressing concerns of media wrote kippmann, "and next in order, words
critics today. that call up pictures in memory." Recogniz-
able symbols used in visual presentations will
become long-lasting memories with the pow-

THE FINE LINE BETWEEN er to change attitudes if viewers have a chance
PERSUASION AND PROPAGANDA to actively think about the content of the
image and relate it to their own situation.
Through everyday experiences, a person ac- "Unless that happens," added kippmann, the
quires a certain set of beliefs and attitudes picture "will interest only a few for a little
about other people, places, objects, and is- while. It will belong to the sights seen but not
sues. Perhaps as a child you were punished by felt, to the sensations that beat on our sense
a high school principal and thus dislike all organs, and are not acknowledged."
persons in authority. Maybe you have heard All human communication — whether ad-
that Mexico City has high pollution levels, so vertising layouts, lectures from parents and
you never want to visit it. Perhaps your father professors, closing arguments by lawyers in a
doesn't like to eat broccoli and so neither do trial, or campaign speeches — uses persuasion
you. Maybe someone you admire opposes and propaganda in an attempt to mold or
capital punishment, influencing you to adopt change a listener's or viewer's attitude. Com-
that same attitude. A belief is the informa- munications educator James Carey says that
tion that people have about another person or "communication is fundamentally and es-
a place, object, or issue that forms or changes sentially a matter of persuasion, attitude
their attitudes. Attitudes are general and change, behavior modification, and socializa-
long-lasting positive or negative feelings tion through the transmission of informa-
about people, places, objects, or issues. If tion."
information is limited or its source isn't Persuasion is a socially accepted way of

trusted, a belief can become an enduring attempting to change individuals' attitudes.
attitude that can lead to stereotypical genera- In a pluralistic, democratic society, the gov-
lizations (discussed in Chapter 7). ernment most commonly attempts to per-

The goal of education is to teach an suade the public through an independent
individual how to seek factual information press. When the president introduces a new
and base reasoned conclusions on those data. budget, the government mobilizes its huge
Persuasion uses factual information and emo- public relations bureaucracy to "sell" the plan
tional appeals to change a person's mind and to Congress and the American people. The
to promote a desired behavior. In contrast, president and the administration use the
propaganda uses nonfactual information or print and broadcast media to present their
opinions that appear to be facts, along with ideas. Such a system naturally leads to tension
THE FINE LINE BETWEEN PERSUASION AND PROPAGANDA 81
between the government and the media, as if a speaker is believable or imbued with
both groups compete for the public's atten- authority, uses factual arguments in a rea-
tion, but ultimately it is the best check of a soned presentation, and gains an audience's
government's truthfulness. attention through emotional means, persua-
During wars or other critical times in a sion is possible.
nation's history, even a democratic govern- Not much was done to study how people
ment is forced to resort to propaganda tactics are persuaded until World War II. The U.S.
usually reserved for totalitarian regimes. For government employed Yale psychologist Carl
example, during World War I President Wil- Hovland to improve morale within the mili-
son wanted to convince the American public tary. Hovland and his associates discovered
that entering the European conflict was good that, to be persuasive, a message must first
for the country, and he authorized a massive gain a person's attention. The reason for the
effort to convince the public of that necessity. use of large or bold headlines and big photo-
During the Watergate crisis in the 1970s, graphs is to keep the message from being lost
the Nixon administration purposely mislead within the blitz of media messages that regu-
members of Congress and the media in order larly bombard a person. A large color photo-
to cover up illegal activities. Such tactics are graph may stand out from the usual mix of
propagandistic, not persuasive, in nature. smaller sized images. But persuasion is effec-
A totalitarian government's use of infor- tive only if the targeted person understands
mation always has been associated with prop- the symbols used in the communication and
aganda. When information outlets are owned mentally rehearses the visual or verbal mes-
or controlled by the state, all communication sage several times in the mind.
is considered political. The government con-

trols its citizens' behavior by manipulating
The role of propaganda
the educational, informational, and social
processes to the point where people have no The word propaganda started out as a neutral
other way to check facts independently. The term, without negative connotation. It simply
fall of the Russian Parliament in 1992 had meant a way to spread an idea to a large
almost as much to do with its citizens being population. In the seventeenth century, the
able to communicate by means of radio and Roman Catholic church set up the Congrega-
television transmissions, videotape record- tion for Propagating the Faith as an effort to
ings, and fax machines as the desire to free bring more members into the church. Subse-
themselves from centralized rule. quently, its use by governments intent on

conveying their version of the truth to friends
and enemies alike has given the term a
The role of persuasion
pejorative connotation that can't be ignored.
In the fourth century B.C., Aristotle was the Where persuasion is the gentle art of con-
first to write about the art of persuasion. He vincing someone that your position is correct
defined it as communication designed to through factual information, propaganda is
influence listeners' choices. According to Ar- thought of as the duping of an unsuspecting

istotle, persuasion has three components: public through misleading or false informa-
ethos, logos, and pathos. Ethos refers to a tion.
source's credibility. Logos refers to the logical Various authors have contributed to the
arguments used to persuade an individual. negative connotation that the word now
Pathos refers to emotional appeals used in the bears. F. M. Cornford defined it as "that
persuasive argument. Aristotle believed that, branch of the art of lying which consists in
82 VISUAL PERSUASION IN ADVERTISING, PUBLIC RELATIONS, AND )OURNALISM
very nearly deceiving your friends without use of spoken, written, pictorial, or musical
quite deceiving your enemies." Terence Qual- representations to influence thought and ac-
ter wrote that propaganda is "the deliberate tion through debatable techniques. In many
attempt by the few to influence the attitudes ways, the difference between persuasion and
and behavior of the many by the manipula- propaganda is simply the social definition of
tion of symbolic communication." The word the words.
has long been associated with the thought-

control techniques used by totalitarian re-
gimes, but critics have expanded the defini-

tion to include many of the persuasion tech- Visual persuasion in
Figure 6.5 niques utilized by all governments and large advertising
As with the Benetton image corporations to persuade an unsuspecting
of David Kirby, the public. Nicholas Pronay said that propaganda Media critic Everette Dennis defines advertis-
advertising photograph for is "what practical people are paid to do, in ing as "any form of nonpersonal presentation
the Kenar clothing company practical ways, to achieve practical objectives; and promotion of ideas, goods, and services
is meant to alert the public that is, to make people do something they by an identified sponsor." The advertising
would not otherwise have done." industry in the United States employs about
about AIDS. But what is the
Media personnel do not like to use the 200,000 people and generates more than $100
connection between
word because it is closely related to their jobs billion in annual billings. According to
supermodel Evangelista,
as persuasive communicators. Sociologist Dennis, advertising benefits society because it
seven older women wearing
Harold Lasswell said that "both advertising funds most of the media, provides consumer
black dresses, an empty
and publicity fall within the field of propa- information in the form of public service
wooden chair, and the AIDS announcements, and stimulates the economy.
ganda." Media critic John Merrill enlarged
issue? The striking image Diplomat George Kennan labels adver-
the definition to include journalism, saying F.
attracts attention, but says tising as "the greatest evil of our national
that "three-fourths of all media content . . .
nothing about AIDS to most contains propaganda for some cause, idea, life." Advertising compels people to buy what
people walking along Times institution, party or person." In the end, the they do not need, makes people feel inferior
Square in New York City. best definition may be that propaganda is the by showing what they cannot afford or look
like, makes people throw out perfectly useful
products after they become out of date, and

contributes to a materialistic society that
drives the price of consumer goods higher to
pay for all the advertisements (Figure 6.5).

Because the price of goods that are adver-
tised includes the cost of the advertising, it is
an industry with historical roots in capitalis-
tic societies. In fact, advertising will always
occur in a society whenever it moves beyond

the basic, subsistence level. As soon as citizens
have money left over after paying for food,

clothing, and shelter, advertisers will compete
to obtain those extra funds.
A capitalistic society always has two parts:
a sphere of production in which goods are
produced and a sphere of circulation in which

VISUAL PERSUASION IN ADVERTISING 83
money is exchanged for those goods. Produc- Noncommercial advertising

tion creates tension between owners and
workers because the two groups are not Noncommercial advertising includes govern-
considered equal partners in most capitalistic ment notices and information and public-
cultures. However, because anyone is free to service announcements (PSAs). The Adver-
purchase any object desired (so long as that tising Council, a national association con-
person has the funds), the circulation sphere cerned with ethical advertising practices,
is considered a way that owners and workers usually arranges to produce these messages.
can share in the benefits of their ventures. PSAs include short advertisements that might
Advertising operates in the circulation urge safe sexual practices and racial harmony.
sphere. Advertising promotes the capitalistic The purpose of an advertisement is to
dream that everyone has an equal chance to attract attention, arouse interest, stimulate
obtain the fruits of their labor. The reality, of desire, create an opinion, and move the
course, often is different. viewer to a specific action (to buy the prod-
There are two major types of advertising: uct). Visual images are essential components
commercial and noncommercial. of advertisements. Well-crafted images with
their inherent emotional qualities can pro-
duce all the motivational changes desired of

Commercial advertising
customers by advertisers when carefully com-
In newspapers and magazines, commercial bined with some well-chosen words. The text
advertising appears most frequently as either in an advertisement establishes a link be-
classified or display advertisements. In classi- tween the vague, neutral content of the image
fied ads, readers actively search a separate and its interpretation by the prospective cus-
section of the publication for goods and tomer. Where a picture might be misinter-
services desired. Display advertising uses preted, the words make the message obvious.
graphic elements to attract attention to the As Roland Barthes suggests, words and pic-
content of the ads and the products or tures provide "anchorage" of the message's
services offered. Classified advertising usually meaning in the mind of the viewer.
lacks the persuasive appeal of display adver- In the early 1900s, advertisements almost
tising. In television, cable channels that show always featured elegantly penned line draw-
inexpensively produced slides for companies ings with little copy. Those classy layouts
are the classified ad equivalent. All other were designed to subtly persuade the consu-
television advertising is display in nature. mer to associate the product with an upper-
Besides the traditional print and broadcast class lifestyle. Photographs usually were not
advertising of products and services, com- used because they were linked with the "yel-
mercial advertising also includes goodwill low journalism" and sensational reporting in
and trade advertising. Goodwill advertising newspapers.

involves paid attempts to promote a com- During the 1920s, photographic realism
pany's standing or image among viewers. became more acceptable. Photographs were
Trade advertising appears in specialty maga- viewed as more modern and in keeping with
zines and attempts to sell a company's goods a society on the move. Buyers also believed
or services to another company. Such adver- more in the truthfulness of a photographic
tising generally uses less persuasive tech- image over a painterly illustration that could
niques and more factual information than be manipulated easily. A publication of the
advertising directed at ordinary consumers. Photographers' Association of America stated
that "buyers do not question photographic broadcasting, established guidelines for tele-
evidence. . . . They believe what the camera vision programing and advertisements. Ad
tells them because they know that nothing content had to be truthful, in good taste, and
tells the truth so well." Although photogra- fair. However, advertisements in publications
phers use lighting, perspective, lens choices, and on television during the 1950s perpetuat-
and many other methods to distort reality as ed the illusion that America was filled with
much as any illustrator (see Chapter 12), the confident and successful Anglo men with
public believed more in photographic than supportive and desirable women at their sides
artistic truthfulness. Another reason that ad- ready to do their bidding.

vertisers willingly shifted to photographs was By the 1970s, the trade journal Advertising
that, during the Great Depression, photo- Age was beginning to receive letters to the
Figure 6.6
graphs became cheaper to produce than time- editor complaining about the sexist attitudes
Although denied by R.J.
consuming artistic illustrations. portrayed in advertisements. Consumer com-
Reynolds tobacco company
In the 1920s, critical opinions of advertis- plaints about commercial advertising also
officials, the cartoon
ing's motives emerged. Critics voiced concern brought an end to cigarette advertising on
character Joe Camel has
that advertisements were directed to those television, although it still is permitted in
been criticized for enticing
with money, excluding the poor, ethnic mi- print advertisements. Complaints, however,
young people to smoke by norities, and other disenfranchised groups. have not stopped RJR-Nabisco from using
making the habit look fun Advertising seemed to be a mirror that re- smiling cartoon figures as symbols for Camel
and sophisticated. flected the shortcomings of a society in which cigarettes. Critics claim that the cartoon illus-
class differences are highlighted and show- trations appeal to children, who are attracted
cased. For example, women used as models by the brightly colored drawings, and may
during this period were tall and slender. Such lead them to try smoking and become addict-
physical attributes became associated with ed to the harmful habit. A recent survey of
class and activity: Angular-shaped women one group of schoolchildren showed that "Joe
were "on the move" and rejected women's Camel," because of the aggressive advertising
traditional roles. The conflict between the campaign, was recognized more often than
reality of women's body shapes (in 1928, only Mickey Mouse, who has never even held a
17 percent of all American women were thin cigarette (Figure 6.6).
and over five feet three inches tall) and the During the tight economic climate of the
shape seen in the advertisements continues to 1970s, graduates with marketing degrees were
the present. Through rigorous exercise and hired over those with traditional, creative
potentially dangerous diet programs, many skills. Ad agencies needed indi-

advertising
women force themselves to be slender like the who knew how to market a product
viduals
models in advertisements. more than how to create the ad itself. Ad
By World War II, people in the United executive David Ogilvy said at the time,
States owned only a few thousand television "Today, thank God, we are back in business
sets. Even after the war, when millions of as salesmen instead of pretentious enter-
people bought their first television sets, com- tainers."
mercials were relentless in their repetitiveness

mainly because so few were produced. Never-
Growth of advertising
theless, they were instrumental in selling the
goods advertised. In 1952, the National Asso- The current trend in advertising is much
ciation of Broadcasters (NAB), urged by the different from previously. Millions of dollars
concerns voiced by the Federal Communica- are spent to hire directors known for their
tions Commission (FCC), which regulates motion picture productions. Highly paid ce-
VISUAL PERSUASION IN ADVERTISING 85
lebrities act in commercials that resemble Figure 6.7
minimovies in their plot lines and produc- General Motors paid the
tion values. producers of the movie Days
Concurrent with this high production of Thunder thousands of

movie trend are techniques used by advertis- dollars to have the Chevrolet
ers to blur the line between editorial and name and Lumina
advertising material. Back in 1912, Congress
automobile prominently
passed the Newspaper Publicity Law that
displayed in the film.
required all printed matter published for the
purpose of making money to be identified as
an "Advertisement" somewhere in the ad
because of concern that unsophisticated read-

ers might not know the difference between a
news story and an advertisement. Beginning

in the 1920s, ads featured photographs be-
cause newspapers were using photographs.
When combined with testimonials, realistic
scenes, and layout styles that mimicked news

pages, ads could be produced to fool readers.
In the 1950s, corporations that sponsored

television programs occasionally exercised
editorial control over program content. Hall-

mark Cards and Kraft Cheese sponsored Moonstruck. General Motors paid to have
dramatic shows; Twenty Mule Team Borax Tom Cruise drive Chevrolet Luminas in Days
presented "Death Valley Days," with Ronald of Thunder (Figure 6.7). Disney offered a
Reagan as host; and Philip Morris used sliding scale to advertisers for their little-seen
Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz as company film Mr. Destiny. Simply showing the product
spokespeople during their show, "I Love on the screen cost $20,000. But if a main
Lucy." The two comedians often would make character actually used the product, a
commercials and smoke Phillip Morris ciga- $60,000 fee was demanded and received.
rettes during the show. "Product plugola" is so common and skill-
The trend toward masking advertisements fully done in movies that viewers often are
as entertainment or informational programs unaware that they are watching a carefully
continues unabated. Product placements in contrived commercial.
motion pictures take up much of a film On television, the Ragu spaghetti sauce
producer's time, as lucrative placement deals company produced commercials that fea-
can offset some production costs. The pro- tured the fictitious De Luca family. With
ducers of E.T. The Extra-Terrestrial initially canned applause, a laugh track, and a stage
offered the makers of M&M the chance to be set straight out of any situation comedy, the
the main character's favorite candy, but Her- commercial was disguised as a television
shey officials declined the offer. Sales of show. The company hoped that the elaborate
Reese's Pieces candies increased by 65 percent guise would fool the viewer and prevent or
after moviegoers watched E.T. follow the delay changing channels.
candy trail. Seagram's, the parent company In high schools, Whittle Communications
for Mumm's champagne, paid $50,000 for offers cable transmitted educational and news
Cher to drink that brand in the movie programming on the "Channel One" broad-
cast. Sprinkled between the news segments time. For Kress, "If we are happy with socie-
are commercials for products of special inter- ty, we are happy with the ads. If we want to
est to teenagers. Completing the trend are change the ads, we must bring about wider
infomercials, which resemble talk-show pro- social changes." But where else can wider
grams. These long-form advertisements pitch social changes get support than in the mass
hair care products, new inventions, and diet media — a media controlled by the advertise-
plans, have attractive hosts, and pay enthusi- ments that support it? There lie the media's
astic audience members to clap loudly. In conflict of interest and the reason that social
print, the equivalent is called advertorials. change seldom occurs quickly.

The Benetton campaign that was designed to
resemble a news story is an excellent example.

Finally, media critic and producer Adam Visual persuasion in public
Clayton Powell III has expressed astonish- relations
ment over what he calls "blipverts" — quick-
cut video inserts of less than a second that Opinion makers, whether in government or
show images of products on television business, long ago learned that what is re-
screens. ported in a news story sometimes isn't as
With all these sophisticated advertising important as how it is presented. Public

techniques, critics argue that the public is relations specialists try to influence news
slowly being persuaded to accept advertise- reporters in the hope that favorable coverage
ments as news and news as advertisements, will result. Public relations people also at-
with no difference between the two. Because tempt to influence public opinion positively
advertising largely supports the media, tradi- about a particular product, company, or is-
tional media outlets offer little criticism of sue.
this trend. David Pincus, professor of public relations

Media critic Daniel Boorstin asserts that at California State University, Fullerton,
"it is considered appropriate to attempt to writes that the profession "is a process that is
persuade." If people are too easily persuaded designed to assist organizations in developing
to buy products they do not really need, and maintaining ongoing positive relation-
education levels should be higher to make ships with key support groups." The public
consumers more wary of advertising claims. relations industry helps gain the public's
Australian educator Gunther Kress asserts support for issues and services identified as
that advertising simply mirrors the society in important by corporate executives. As part of
which it operates. "Every culture," he writes, that process, public relations executives help
"has the kind of advertising it deserves." A journalists identify important stories by giv-
strong educational system produces individu- ing them tips, making the reporters secon-
als that are culturally literate and able to dary news sources. Media ethicist John Mer-
purchase the products in the advertisements. rill asserts that 50 percent of all the stories
The mass media should carry advertisements presented in the media — whether print or
that give potential customers the information broadcast — probably are generated initially
they require to make intelligent choices with- by a public relations person. Unfortunately,
out resorting to tricks that blur the line the public relations industry has some uneth-
between advertisements and news stories. ical members who concentrate on deception,
However, the blurring of the two simply may emphasize the way a story appears rather
be a commentary on the way a capitalist than its substance, and create news events
society operates in order to survive in a that end up being low-cost or free advertise-
visually saturated and economically insecure ments for their clients.

VISUAL PERSUASION IN PUBLIC RELATIONS 87
As part of a corporation's structure, man- the military in great numbers. Because of the
agement uses public relations to explain a massive outpouring of public opinion, jour-
situation or product. In time of a company nalists of the day simply were not permitted
crisis, management mobilizes its public rela- to write anything critical about the nation's
tions forces to give information to the public. propaganda campaign.
Those who use the media almost always The Creel Commission became responsi-
recognize commercial advertising as a direct ble not only for propagandizing the war but
attempt at persuasion. However, public rela- also for censoring information. The commis-
tions uses the journalistic practices of the sion checked prepublication copy and photo-
press release and the press conference subtly graphs so that newspaper publishers would
to sway public opinion to a preconceived not reveal information classified as secret.
point of view. The commission's directives had a chilling
Public relations is a relatively new field, effect on most of the war news. Reports "had
despite the often told joke that it is "the to agree with the official communique and
world's second oldest profession." It has its [could] not provide an accurate picture of the
beginning in the public opinion campaign horrors of the Western Front." The military
initiated by President Wilson during World was particularly sensitive to photographs of
War I to convince the American public of the dead and dying soldiers on the battlefield.
necessity of joining Britain and France in Major Kendall Banning of the War Depart-
their fight against Germany. ment's Office of the Chief of Staff explained:
Because of the censorship restrictions im-
It is doubtful ... if the public wanted such
posed by the British and German govern-
scenes. . . . Such pictures caused needless
ments, reporting was so neutral that a 1914
anxiety to those whose friends and relatives
poll of American newspaper readers indicated
were at the front, and tended to foster the
that two-thirds of them had no sympathy for
anti-war spirit that was always so persistently
either side. Consequently, by the time the
cultivated by the enemy. Accordingly the
United States entered the war in 1917, many
general policy was adopted of withholding
Americans were reluctant to take up arms
such views from the public. . . .
against the Germans. Recognizing that dras-

tic action was necessary, eight days after Considered the founder of the public rela-
Congress declared war, President Wilson set tions profession, Edward L. Bernays worked
up a Committee on Public Information (CPI) for the CPI. After the war, he applied the
headed by a former journalist, George Creel. techniques utilized so successfully to sway
Creel promised Wilson "a plain publicity public opinion to the promotion of products,
proposition, a vast enterprise in salesman- a company's image, the platform of a political
ship, the world's greatest adventure in adver- candidate, and fundraising drives. At a time
tising." From $5 million of a $100 million when experts agreed that the mass media
national defense fund, the CPI made movies could influence large numbers of people,
and posters and organized 75,000 speakers. public relations was born to take advantage of
Called "Four-Minute Men," these hired that phenomenon. By the 1920s, the concept
hands traveled around the country, making of a press agent responsible for a company's
short speeches to whip up support for the war image began to emerge, and politicians and
effort. Their talks often contained inflamma- corporate heads began to hire individuals to
tory and false information about rumored control their public image.
atrocities committed by the Germans. The Another early public relations practitioner,
efforts were successful as American citizens Ivy Lee, was a former newspaper reporter.
learned to hate the Germans and enlisted in Rich individuals hired Lee to help change the
public's perception about them in the hope ers purchased space and time in the media for
that historical records would be kind to them promotion, whereas public relations people
or that sales of their company's products worked to obtain them free. Nevertheless,
would increase. For example, oil tycoon John companies had to pay advertising or public
D. Rockfeller had a much-deserved reputa- relations executives for the campaigns, so

tion as someone who regularly resorted to large, international ad agencies began buying
unfair business practices and was cruel to his public relations firms. Advertising agencies
employees. Automobile maker Henry Ford now own six of the ten largest public relations
had a similar problem with the public be- firms. However, the public relations and ad-
cause of anti-Semitic articles he wrote early in vertising components of communications
his career. Through press releases and public companies often maintain separate client lists
statements, Lee successfully turned public and do not work together much. Part of the
opinion around for the two corporate giants reason is that companies would rather work
so that they were perceived as loving and with specialized small agencies that can com-
generous individuals. municate and act more quickly.
In 1922, Walter Lippmann published the
book Public Opinion, in which he tried to put
Politics and public relations
a positive social face on public relations. He
cautioned the industry to maintain high During the 1970s, the use of public relations
ethical standards because the temptation is in politics also grew. Almost every govern-
great to exploit a strategic position in the ment agency now has a public affairs or
company's favor. At the same time, Lipp- public information office to handle publicity.
mann recognized that the person responsible During the Watergate scandal, President
for a company's publicity "is censor and Nixon's advisers convinced him to make
propagandist, responsible only to his employ- speeches denouncing the media's efforts to
ers, and to the whole truth responsible only as associate him with the illegal acts by govern-
it accords with the employer's conception of mental officials. They hoped that his criticism
his own interests." In other words, reporters would reduce the credibility of the press and
are to know only the company's truth, not all that readers and advertisers would pressure
the truth about a particular product, situa- the media to back off the story.
tion, or issue. Unfortunately, public relations In the 1988 American presidential cam-
and propaganda have always been linked. paign, public relations specialists were criti-
Because of the economic boom in the cized for conducting political campaigns that
United States after World War II, the number relied more on visually appealing "photo
of people working in public relations grew opportunities" and scare-tactic commercials
tremendously. Manufacturers, financial insti- than on substantive issues (Figure 6.8). Vice-
tutions, religious groups, government agen- President George Bush always seemed to be
cies, and communications firms all employed speaking before a huge American flag or
press agents. flag-waving elementary children. His han-
dlers hoped that this visual image would
connect the candidate with patriotism in
Advertising and public relations
voters' minds. Critics charged that Bush's
By the 1970s, advertising agencies realized campaign went too far when a television
'ublic relations firms were competing campaign commercial featured an African-

with them for corporate funds to promote American convict, Willie Horton. He raped
campaigns to an external audience. Advertis- and murdered a woman soon after being
released in a Massachusetts furlough pro- Figure 6.8
gram, the home state of the Democratic Arranging photo
candidate, Michael Dukakis. Critics blasted opportunities is one of the
the ad for its racist overtones, which inflamed chief jobs of a political
voter fears about crime in their cities. In any handler. Here, Ronald
event, Bush won the election easily.
Reagan signs an autograph
Another type of public relations practi-
for one of his fans.
tioner is the lobbyist. A lobbyist is paid by
corporations and other special interest groups

to influence lawmakers' decisions on legisla-
tion that directly affects their operations or
members. For example, the Edison Electric
Institute employed lobbyists to persuade

members of Congress to vote against a pro-
posed energy tax that would affect their 150
million utility customers. Wright Andrews,
Jr., partner of a Washington lobbying firm,

said that "lobbying is an honorable profes-
sion. We are primarily advocates and com-
municators on behalf of people." But Presi-
dent Clinton has criticized lobbyists as
"defenders of decline" supported with large hole" in a newspaper is driven by public

paychecks by "special interests." relations interests, that leaves only about 18
percent for traditional, reporter-driven stor-

ies.
Journalism and public relations
One of the main jobs of a public relations
By 1990, more than 1,500 firms employed professional is to get free, favorable publicity
some 150,000 practicing public relations spe- about a product, situation, or issue. Although
cialists. Fully one-third of all companies directly influencing the tone of a news article
retain a public relations consultant. Most is seldom possible, a public relations person
newspaper editors like to use well-written can provide favorable story angles and infor-
and interesting news items from public rela- mation that a reporter might not have time to
tions personnel. Editors often can fill the obtain otherwise.

newspaper with stories that readers are con- Public relations people like to use newspa-
cerned about and at the same time please pers because the information has a chance of
corporate clients and potential advertisers being read, reread, and absorbed. Producing
with the free publicity. An additional benefit news releases for newspapers is relatively
is that such articles don't hurt the paid, inexpensive and the number of outlets is
commercial advertising that is vital to the large. Currently, some 1,625 daily and 7,600
publication's continued existence. A Wall weekly newspapers are published in the Unit-
Street Journal survey determined that 45 ed States. That's a lot of space that must be
percent of its 188 news items in a particular filled with something.
edition originated with public relations Writers of successful press releases follow
sources. For almost all newspapers, the news- four rules: The release must contain news-
to-advertising ratio is 35 percent to 70 per- worthy information; the release should be
cent. If 45 percent of the 35 percent "news sent directly to the city editor or section
90 V SUA
I I. PERSUASION IN ADVERTISING, PUBLIC RELATIONS, AND JOURNALISM
editor of the newspaper; the release should be prime-time television viewers watched one of
delivered well in advance to ensure coverage; the top three networks: ABC, CBS, or NBC.
and the release should be accompanied by a With the advent of cable broadcasting, the
well -produced photograph. More often than proportion shrank to 60 percent with expec-
not, a photograph dramatically increases the tations that it will drop even further. Cable
likelihood that the story will be run. The television offers public relations personnel
"mug" or head-and-shoulders portrait is the excellent opportunities because of its special-
most likely candidate for inclusion in the ized audiences, need to fill large amounts of
paper. Because the public relations business air time with some type of programming,
relies on corporate appearance, images are the and relatively inexpensive advertising rates.
mainstay of its message. Whether for the networks or for cable sta-
Most public relations events are staged to tions, a public relations specialist can influ-
attract media attention. These media events, ence programming by using several visual
photo ops, or pseudoevents require the public techniques.
relations specialist to be creative and see
beyond the pictorial cliche. News editors will Guest Appearances
not be happy and probably will reject a Producers are anxious to have provocative
traditional check-handling, ribbon-cutting, guests as interviewees or panelists. Because of
or ground-breaking ceremony. The key to the visual impact of television, the medium
getting a story published is the uniqueness of emphasizes personality over substance in
the visual message. If it contains unusual, most cases. Consequently, public relations
dramatic, or emotional, pictorial elements, an specialists coach their clients when they are
editor will be more inclined to use the story. about to be interviewed, say, on a talk show.
Public relations people who work with They tell their clients to dress conservatively,
television broadcasters also apply these crite- not to wear reflective jewelry or white shirts
ria. The average American family watches the (or blouses), to maintain eye contact at all
television screen about seven hours a day. times, to use strong and purposeful hand
With 88 million U.S. households having at gestures, and not to cross their legs. Such
least one television set, any message on televi- attention to detail is important because man-
sion is almost guaranteed a large audience. ners often are more important than matters
However, because there are fewer television on television.
stations (about 1,400) than newspapers, pub-

lic relations personnel must be particularly Video News Releases
well attuned to the needs of television pro- Although expensive to produce (between
gram directors to get their messages aired. $10,000 and $30,000), video news releases
The advantage of television over other com- (VNRs) provide pictures and interviews that
munications sources is that the persuasive a television station doesn't have access to or
impact of visual communication can be ex- time to get. If a VNR provides information
ploited easily. Television is a medium that on a timely, important subject, a program
relies on the content of its visual message, and director is likely to use it on a newscast.
without compelling video, a viewer quickly Public relations textbooks advise students
loses interest in the program. More and more that the key to designing a VNR is to present
viewers have a wide range of choices of the material as if it were an actual news story
programs to watch and can change channels produced by the station — not as an aggres-
quickly and repeatedly. sive sales pitch. That way, viewers will believe
In the mid-1970s, some 92 percent of that a member of the station's staff, not some
VISUAL PERSUASION IN JOURNALISM 91
outside corporate source, generated the pro- example, political public relations specialists
gram, increasing its credibility. Few VNRs, use visual persuasive techniques to put the
except in smaller markets, run without some politician's positive spin on a story. "Spin
type of editing by the station. Nevertheless, doctors," as these specialists are called, have a
public relations personnel pride themselves in mission to convince the average citizen that a
getting their client noticed favorably regard- politician should be trusted or forgiven. More
less of the content or the time slot in which often than not, because of the time con-
the VNR airs. straints, budget cutbacks, and the history of

commercialism of the mass media, their
Expanded News Releases accounts are published or aired with little
Also known as infomercials, long- form criticism or cross-checking of facts.
programs on a particular subject are becom- Fortunately, the public relations industry
ing quite popular. Thinly disguised as news is filled many bright, articulate, and
with
or talk shows, expanded news releases vary caring individuals who work hard to over-
from blatant advertisements for a particular come the historical stereotypes of the publici-
product to religious programming that relies ty hounds who spend their time glad-hand-
heavily on viewer donations to corporate- ing at cocktail parties or hacks churning out
sponsored programs that may feature a non- press releases dictated by management. Con-
profit organization or even a foreign locale in cern about negative perceptions of the indus-
a travel format. Although company executives try led to the formation, in 1948, of the
spend about $400 million a year for info- Public Relations Society of America (PRSA),
mercials, the return is estimated to be be- with student chapters around the world. The
tween $750 and $900 million annually. Cable society established a code of ethics, accredits
outlets are more highly pressured to come up public relations professionals and academic
with programming than are networks and so programs, promotes scholarly research in the
are more likely to run shows at a modest field, and showcases successful public rela-
advertising rate. Celebrities such as Cher and tions activities. Consequently, the public's
Vanna White help sell hair products and teeth perception of the profession has improved.
whiteners for a percentage of the profits.
Susan Powter, creator of a diet program

called Stop the Insanity, has become a celebri- Visual persuasion in
ty because of her infomercial. Typically, audi- journalism
ences for these programs are tourists lured
into a studio by their curiosity and offer of The communications industry is first and
free orange juice and bagels. Inside, the pro- foremost a corporate enterprise that largely
duction staff carefully coaches them to react obtains its income from advertisers who pur-
with laughing, chuckling, or clapping to the chase space or time, not from readers or
claims made by the professional actors. viewers. The often hidden mission of a mass
media institution is to supply advertisers with
Criticism and the Industry's Response educated and upscale consumers — those
Public relations is criticized because it with extra money to spend. As Walter Lipp-
sometimes hides its commercial intent from mann said in 1922, "The newspaper that goes
unsuspecting readers and viewers. A newspa- into the homes of the prosperous has more to
per reader cannot determine whether a per- offer to the advertisers ... it may go into the
suasive public relations person originally homes of the poor, but an ad agent will not
suggested a news story to a reporter. For rate that highly. Ad agents buy space in
publications where there is a chance for the they simply left the profession. Newspaper
product to be bought by a reader." What was content could be controlled easily because
true in the third decade of this century is still readers were wealthy and well-educated
true today, and what was true for newspapers members of society who shaped and then
is equally true for television. agreed with the policies presented in the
publication. These readers were the only ones
who could afford to purchase year-long sub-

Corporate influence in newsrooms
scriptions to the newspapers.
Advertiser pressure to influence editorial "Penny press" newspapers obtained their
stories can be pervasive and persuasive. The name because for the first time people could
University of Wisconsin conducted a survey buy individual editions for one cent. With
of 250 editors of daily newspapers on the their broader content, these newspapers ap-
subject of advertiser pressure in 1991. It pealed to a more general audience. They
reported that 93 percent of the editors had could afford to reject the partisan practices of
received calls from advertisers threatening to the established press because they derived
cancel expensive display ads because of the their income more from individual sales than
content of a news story. Of those advertisers, from wealthy opinion makers and advertisers.
89 percent followed up on their threat. One By the 1870s, the penny press was that in
auto dealer, for example, canceled $9,000 name only. These publications had become
worth of ads after the news department enormously successful business enterprises
labeled a car "funny looking." Small newspa- and helped to cause the downfall of specialty,
pers with their tighter budgets are more political publications. Publishers of penny
susceptible to advertising pressures than are press newspapers became successful because
large circulation newspapers. Editors get calls they learned how to use free-market econom-
not only from outside advertisers but from ic tactics to attract readers and advertisers.
internal personnel as well. Fifty-five percent Objectivity in those early years came to
of the editors reported that they had received mean reporting the news from as many
calls from their own advertising departments sources as possible in order to gain the
to modify a story's content to please an interest of more readers and thus gain more
advertiser. advertisers. So long as reporters were relying
on government or corporate spokespersons,
telegraph wire reports (invented in 1848),
Objectivity and journalism
and illustrations that the readers accepted as
A reporter or photographer relies on the being credible, so-called objectivity in report-

concept of objectivity to resist personal bias ing was maintained. Of course, the percep-
and efforts by advertisers and public relations tion of newspaper objectivity rested on read-
personnel to influence the content of a story. ers' uneducated notion of credible sources. In
However, the history of journalism is filled fact, government and business proclamations
with unsuccessful attempts at reporter objec- often were questionable, telegraph reports
tivity. could be tampered with, and the content of
illustrations could be manipulated easily by
Pre-Civil War skillful engraving artists.
Before the Civil War, American newspa-

pers were blatantly partisan and political. For Yellow Journalism
the most part, they were supported by power- The 890s began
1 the modern era of news-
ful individuals who wanted their causes ad- paper journalism. It also marked the time
vocated. Reporters obliged these interests or when partisan politics returned to the pages
VISUAL PERSUASION IN JOURNALISM 93
of newspapers. But unlike the preceding de- with a color press that printed an eight-page
cades — when literate interpretations of the Sunday comic section. Included in the comic
day's events followed a preconceived political offerings of 1895 in Pulitzer's World was
purpose — publishers in the 1890s were intent Richard F. Outcault's The Yellow Kid of
on advocating controversial stands to boost Hogan's Alley. The comic featured a cynical,
circulation sales. Thus began the "ye U°w bald, and orphaned child who smoked cigars
journalism" period, and the two big names in and made negative comments. The yellow
journalism during that time were Pulitzer journalism period was named for Outcault's
and Hearst. fast-talking kid (see Chapter 11).
Joseph Pulitzer was an immigrant who The culmination of the New York circula-
worked for the New York Sun and later tion wars was a real war — the Spanish-
purchased the St. Louis Evening Post, trans- American war in Cuba from 1895 until 1898.
forming it into the present-day Sr. Louis Some critics assert that the war would never
Post-Dispatch. In 1883, he bought the strug- have been fought if not for the interest paid to
gling New York World newspaper, which had events in Cuba by the New York newspapers.
a daily circulation of only 15,000. Fifteen When a small band of rebels staged an
years later, circulation had increased to 5 uprising in Cuba, Spain sent about 80,000
million a week because of the use of large troops to quiet the rebellion. American com-
illustrations, blaring headlines, and a sensa- mercial interests supported Spain's action, Figure 6.9
tional writing style. William Randolph which would protect their financial interests
With $50,000 rewards,
Hearst came from wealthy parents who in the area. Pulitzer and Hearst knew that
banner headlines,
bought him the San Francisco Examiner in circulation would jump if they could sensa-
sensational language, and
1887. Hearst copied all of Pulitzer's sensationalize the story (Figure 6.9). During the
many illustrative elements,
tional tricks and made a success of the three years of the conflict, there were fewer
the newspapers owned by
California publication. In 1893, he moved to than twenty days on which the newspapers
Hearst below left) and
New York and bought the Morning journal had no front-page stories about the crisis.
(
two years and ignited the New Pulitzer (below right)

later York Reporters were instructed to write the most
circulation wars. Besides the usual crime and sensational copy they could; illustrators convinced the public that a
melodramatic stories, Hearst introduced an worked from eyewitness or fictitious accounts war with Spain was
advice to the lovelorn column and rewards for to produce large engravings for the front necessary while increasing
the capture of criminals. Pulitzer countered page. When the artist Frederic Remington their circulations.
1.011,068 1.011.068
$50,000 REWARD. who destroyed the kaine?- S50.000 REWARD.
|Sr NEW ~ Jj
YORK JOURNAL
AND ADVERTISER DEWEY'S MARVELLOUS NAVAL ACHIEVEMENT- |3s355E£]
31 MAINE WAS II WORK

j-r^^l THE WORLD'S SPLENDID NEWS VICTORY
DESTRUCTION OF THE WAR OF AN ENEMY, Eleven Spanish Ships Destroyed. 300 Spaniards Killed Outright; No American Ships Disabled,
$50,000 ! Assistant Secretary Roosevelt] $50,000 !

No American Sailors Killed; Only Six Injured Capt Mahan. the Pre-Emlnent Strategist —
to The World: "Commodore Dewey Has Fought the Greatest Naval Battle on
$50,000 REWARD! Convinced the Explosion of !j

$50,000 REWARD!? Record" —
All Spanish Forts Destroyed; Dewey Now Has Manila at His Mercy.
For the Dele*. lion of the

for the Detection of the
the War Ship Was Not Perpetrator of
j
AMERICAN SHIPS. CONSTANTLY IN MOTION. FOUGHT AT RANGE OF ABOUT ONE MILE:
Perpetrator of THE SPANISH TORPEDO BOATS WERE SUNK AS THEY ADVANCED TO STRIKE.
the Maine Outrage!
an Accident. the Maine Outrage!
J
1898. bj Ikt Hrm PuUuktng Company, A a- , urt\ &fix>at CabU DafitXh to Tkt H'vUi
The Journal Offers $50,000 Reward for the
HONG KONG. Uat j -At darbmk aon.eg. May u CsbboUiv Liraxj
.,
> A«ie>.« tqoadru*. tax .(brine ao.pt. At Uiiarru.
Conviction of the Criminals Who Sent Boat*. Court. I.kifk led pHrtl •aeia.lairt ika 9pa a il »_ Pad.pa.e*,.
-«- npra/rt >bt ei-i) erataaJ tea tW lona «r Canit. kltaila &•
., .
:
,
ictf American Sailors to Their Oeath. ELEVEN SPANISH WARSHIPS DtsTHOVEO

i tart Beak eraea - • bin futnati ud ,«o tDngurit u4 nîrrd oar iraaapofl. atonal 'ega «ad •
Naval Officers Unanimous That . .
UiaJaaa*
aad ruiluii ansa am ibr da«atuc KtLU Una UMh, Ceaulla V.Laaco, Daa laaa 4a Aaacrva. lb* lale it Caaa. Gta-.-' ,
y 4ti Outre.
the Ship Was Destroyed aad UlkaL

TW Sfauxarda tsat lam aaadrta ail ltdFoot agadnd of it** wrn muaoad.
on Purpose. Tat of ikt Pail>ppiata cAoallt rrponrt taai ika Sparine atjuadroa lad > laJUd eed dweoW a ladled u4 tijBtatw-ahou. ear-
•aird 0/ Uwii t. iiaj fan
Tbt Aatrua fnaatra aad Aawncae cvaa wttt iBaa.Brlt errrtt ihu iba Spaeiae
BATTLE LASTED SEVEN HOURS TWENTV UINUTES
Figure 6.10 complained to Hearst that there was no war practice of sensational journalism to new
The epitome of sensational in Cuba to draw, Hearst replied with the levels of excess. The New York Daily Graphic
journalism practices in the famous line, "You furnish the pictures; I'll and Daily News used large, graphic photo-
1920s is this Daily News furnish the war." graphs and screaming headlines to interest
front page. Photographer

When the American battleship Maine ex- customers standing before newsstands. Vio-
ploded in Havana harbor in 1897, the news- lence, sex, and crime confessions were all fair
Tom Howard secretly made
papers aroused public opinion against Spain, game. When photographs could not be taken
three, slightly blurred
despite evidence that members of the crew of the actual subjects of a news story, the
exposures during the
accidentally set off the explosion. The news- composograph was used along with models
execution of Ruth Snyder.
papers used emotional headlines and large and office personnel to stage manage the
The heavily retouched image
monetary rewards for information about the reenactment of crimes or trials. This period
is all the more shocking by incident to incite their readers. Public opin- culminated in the shocking full-page photo-
its large size and boldface ion, through propagandized newspaper ac- graph of Ruth Snyder on the electric chair
headline with a seldom used counts, turned against the Spanish govern- with the large headline, "DEAD!" Tom How-
typographic symbol — an ment, making war in Cuba inevitable. ard strapped a camera to his leg and secretly
exclamation mark. Tabloid newspapers in the 1920s raised the made the picture at the moment of her
execution for the killing of her husband. The
Sundjf.
Ojily.
\ 'I !l.
1 .357.556
1,193.297
N'.i. 17:1 *
DAILYJ NEWS extra
- /• .'; NEW YORK'S
Y..H..
'
J^PiCrURE NEWSPAPER
Kn.l.<>. I41
~ - EDITION j
newspaper sold 250,000 copies and then sold
an additional 750,000 copies from a subse-
DEAD/
quent press run (Figure 6.10).
Emergence of Objective Reporting
The New York Times demonstrated a better
side of Spanish-American war reporting.
Bought in 1896 by Adolph S. Ochs, a former

printer from Tennessee, the paper was de-
signed for well-educated readers tired of the
tactics used by the yellow journalists. Ochs
directed his reporters and illustrators to pro-
duce credible and balanced stories and pic-
tures.
Embryonic objective reporting survived

the onslaught of sensationalism. Investigative
journalists such as Ida M. Tarbell and Lincoln
Steffens, the "muckrakers," used undercover
and other investigative techniques to report
objectively business and government corrup-
tion. But not until the depression in the
1930s did objectivity in reporting become
common.
By the 1930s and 1940s, objective report-
ing, with its emphasis on the inverted pyra-

E
UQ mid writing formula (who, what, why, where,
when, and how), became important in the
coverage of spot news and political, econom-

ic, and foreign affairs. The inverted pyramid
VISUAL PERSUASION IN IOURNALISM 95
style of reporting, in which the important photographic projects, particularly those of

facts are covered at the beginning of a story the Farm Security Administration (FSA), high-
actually was invented shortly after the tele- lighted the use of still and moving images.
graph came into widespread use. Reporters They were used to prove that the Great
who used the "lightning lines" were afraid Depression was a dire economic time for
that their transmissions might suddenly be many Americans and that controversial legis-
disconnected, so they loaded the start of their lation had to be enacted. The effective use of
stories with all the essential facts. photojournalism in Life and Look magazines
Objective reporting was viewed as a way of during the 1930s and 1940s would soon be
maintaining credibility by providing a buffer replaced by television (see Chapter 12).
between readers and the public relations ef-

Television's Contribution
forts of government and corporate interests
with their hidden motives and persuasive The new medium of television failed its
techniques. Opinion pieces by editors and first test as a reliable news source in the 1950s
columnists started to appear on separate during the search for communists in Ameri-
pages away from news stories so that readers ca. Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin
would not confuse objective reporting with was virtually unknown beyond his home
policy pronouncements and interpretations. state until he discovered the simple fact that
Editorial and corporate personnel had dif- an unsuspecting public believed whatever was
ferent reasons for wanting objective words broadcast on television and reported in news-
and pictures. On the one hand, editors and papers. His unsubstantiated reports about
reporters advocated objective reporting as a government officials with communist ties
way of increasing newspaper credibility and was a fascinating story, illuminating the fear
overcoming negative reactions to yellow jour- of the American public of the "Red menace."
nalism. On the other hand, publishers saw McCarthy showed the media how easily it
objectivity as a way of playing it safe and not could be manipulated. CBS journalist Edward
upsetting advertisers with emotional, exagge- R. Murrow put an end to the wild ranting of
rated stories. that mean-spirited man when he stated his
Photographers also attempted to become disgust in a broadcast report. His honest
more professional. Most had been viewed, as outburst marked a new era in reporting. For
one reporter remarked, "reporters with their the first time, the notion of complete reporter
brains knocked out." To help overcome that objectivity — a frame of mind that ignored all
stereotype, in 1942 the University of Missouri preexisting beliefs and biases a journalist
offered the first degree in photojournalism in might have — was shown to be unrealistic and
the country. In 1945, the National Press dishonest.
Photographers Association was formed to Consequently, liberally educated and so-

increase professionalism and ethical concerns cially conscious reporters became freer to
among its members. question government policies and actions.
Nevertheless, as a reaction to the photo- During the Vietnam War and the Watergate
graphic sensationalism of yellow journalism, scandal, and in the investigative reports on
pictures began to have less significance in CBS's "Sixty Minutes," reporters entered a
newspapers. Space reserved for images be- new phase in journalism: They became de-
came smaller and based on set sizes. Repro- fenders of the public and not concerned with
duction of the images, rarely a top priority for the economic consequences of their reports.
publishers, didn't improve. During the de- Investigative reporting teams sprang up in
pression, however, government-sponsored newspapers and television around the coun-
1
Figure 6. 1 try to report on abuses by government reporters do not come from a journalism
Two different images of war: and corporate officials. Media departments tradition. There is a growing sense that mass
Left: Eddie Adams's Pulitzer at universities were crowded with young communication and its products are simply
Prize image is the type of

students who wanted to emulate Carl Bern- cogs in the wheel of advertising to help drive
picture military officials

stein and Bob Woodward's Watergate the economy.
stories for the Washington Post, Eddie
would rather the public not
Adams and Huynh Cong Ut's powerful Impact of Advertising
see. Many media critics and
images from Vietnam, and Mike Wallace's By 1900, newspapers had become enor-
social historians have said
muckraking on "Sixty Minutes" (Figure mously successful business operations. Chain
that the photograph helped
6.11). ownership further strengthened the financial
turn public opinion against
But it was a short-lived phase. The public base of powerful publishers. Advertisers
the Vietnam War. Right: turned conservative and the country encoun- viewed newspapers as a powerful medium for
"Air force footage of first tered economically uncertain times. A person selling their products. In 1890, expenditures
bombing of Iraqi air force concerned that a media report might cause for advertising in all U.S. newspapers was
headquarters.
''
For the first the closing of a plant or layoffs has little $300 million. By 1909, they had jumped to $1
time in the history of sympathy for a reporter's claim of freedom of billion. Subscription and individual sales
warfare, viewers at home the press. Today, the media are seen as useful were slowly diminishing in importance as
could watch live television

partners in the continuation of the status sales of advertising increased. Publishers were
quo. Government and corporate public rela- beginning to realize that newspapers should
pictures of air strikes against
tions personnel have largely succeeded in serve advertisers and not the public.
enemy forces during the
their attempts at press management. Media In the 1920s, advertisers began to be
allied war against Iraq.
school enrollments have declined along with concerned about the tabloid's excessive sensa-
"Smart bombs" with
salaries and career opportunities. Managing tionalism. They generally believed that only
nose-mounted video cameras
editors now hire business school graduates as the lowest members of society — without
broadcast images of targeted
reporters for their specialized knowledge of much buying power — were attracted by such
buildings to home viewers
corporate and economic issues and part-time stories. Consequently, publishers started
until the screens went blank writers and illustrators to avoid paying ex- moving away from sensational reporting to
after the explosion of the pensive health and retirement benefits. Ethi- follow the lead of the New York Times. They
missile. cal considerations often take a back seat if hoped that wealthier individuals would read
the papers and make the publications more has exploded. Consequently, public relations
attractive to advertisers. personnel for celebrities are particularly con-
In the 1940s, advertising occupied about cerned with their clients' images and limit
55 percent of the space in newspapers. Today journalists' access to them.
it represents 65 percent and is growing. In- Television program directors are pressured
creased advertising means less news story and to put dramatic moments at the end of an
editorial space. And that remaining space is editorial segment so that the viewer will be
even more precious when public-relations watching when the commercial appears.
driven information is considered. Long, complicated stories don't work well on

The national newspaper USA Today was television because a viewer might change
introduced in 1982 to great fanfare. Part of channels. Similarly, images should be dra-
the media's attention to the newspaper was matic and emotional to rivet the viewer to the
its large, colorful weather map that filled a content of the program (to get ready to watch
whole page (see Chapter 10). Its color repro- the ads). The local station will promote
duction generally was ahead of its time tech- docudramas that re-create sensational events
nically and influenced many newspapers (often murder cases) with the promise of
around the country to use color. But the color "seeing the real" people involved in the
photographs and graphic elements weren't tragedy during the local newscast.
necessarily intended to be a journalistic To keep ratings high, dramatic "live" shots
achievement. Color was used to show adver- at news scenes, long police car chases video-
tisers how beautiful their ads could look in taped from a pursuing helicopter, "reality-
newspapers. Modular design techniques, col- based" crime shows in which journalists
orful photographs, and short, easily readable participate (and some say glorify) intrusive
stories were aimed at attracting readers by actions by members of the police, and crime
showing them how much newspapers could reenactments are becoming the norm rather
resemble television programs. Pictures were than the exception. Shows such as "A Current
used to create an upscale look so that adver- Affair," "Inside Edition," and "Hard Copy,"
tisers would see that the publication was, with their double entendre sexual titles, regu-
according to media critic Fred Ritchin, "a larly feature the type of stories once the
good environment for advertising." When province of supermarket tabloids. As eco-
editorial photographs become advertisements nomic pressures become greater and advertis-
for the publication in order to attract adver- ing dollars become scarcer, the tabloid jour-
tisers, stage managing, reenactment, and sub- nalism mentality — the idea that anything
ject and electronic touch-up manipulations can be aired as long as there is video
become acceptable (see Chapter 12). becomes a part of mainstream journalism
Feature stories and special sections on practice (see Chapter 14) (Figure 6.12).
fashion, food, lifestyles, and other topics fill In a 1993 speech to broadcasters, CBS
newspapers and televised reports. These soft journalist Dan Rather criticized all networks
news stories are designed to attract consumers for their tentative, corporate-driven news
who can afford to buy the products adver- philosophy:
tised. Accompanying this trend is the rise in
celebrity journalism, in which every move a Too often for too long we have answered to
famous star makes is documented with imag- the worst, not the best, within ourselves and
es. Entertainment and gossip news, particu- within our audiences. . . . For heaven's and
larly promoted if a report includes details the ratings' sake, don't make anybody mad
about the personal problems of a celebrity, — certainly not anybody that you're cover-
Figure 6.12 in Life magazine reads, "THE END. After a

Print and television three-year struggle against AIDS and its so-
journalists often are cial stigma, David Kirby could fight no long-
criticized for traveling in er. As his father, sister and niece stood by in
anguish, the 32-year-old founder and leader

packs when covering the
news. Here, New York City

of the Stafford, Ohio, AIDS foundation felt
his life slipping away. David whispered, 'I'm

television reporters follow a
ready,' took a labored breath, then suc-
witness after his appearance
cumbed."
in the highly publicized tax
The cutline for the Benetton ad reads,
evasion trial of hotel queen
"United Colors of Benetton."
Leona Helmsley.
The words in the journalism context of
Life magazine are meant to stir the reader's
emotions, to educate the reader about a
family's courage and love for each other, and

ing, and especially not the mayor, the gover- perhaps to persuade the reader to do some-
nor, the senator, the President or anybody in thing tangible about the AIDS crisis. The
a position of power. Make nice, not news. words in the advertising context for Benetton
This has become the new mantra. are meant to sell sweaters.
David Brinkley once said that "objectivity

is impossible to a human being." Agreeing, A new form of communication?
John Merrill writes, "Reporters are not mind-
Photography critic Vicki Goldberg made the
less, soulless automatons who roam about
intriguing point that the Benetton campaign
without values, opinions, and prefer-
may be the first example of a new informa-
ences. . . . They have their prejudices, their
tion source. Emotional, editorial images pub-
biases, their values." Reporters learn in jour-
lished in the mass media without any cutline
nalism school, from their peers, and by their
information attract attention and curiosity by
own experiences the ethics that guide their
their ambiguousness. "A public that is read-
reporting decisions. Objectivity is touted as a
ing fewer newspapers and believing fewer
way to make sure that news reports are fair,
broadcasts," she writes in the New York
accurate, and complete. Unfortunately, re-
Times, "might begin to swallow tiny doses of
porters seldom hear how corporate concerns
information between the ads for liquor and
contrive to manipulate the content of their
lingerie." To get any details about the pic-
words and pictures. Skepticism about corpo-
tures, a person must hear of them by word of
rate motives in an era of shrinking budgets
mouth, read about them in other media
and layoffs is often a story idea that a
sources, or simply make them up. Such a
beginning journalist cannot afford to men-
communication process is one way of con-
tion to the city editor or news producer.
structing a transcultural, transglobal, and
translanguage information source by which
individuals are able to make sense of pictures
BACK TO DAVID KIRBY based on their own experiences without the
need for media interpretation. Benetton has
Look at the Benetton advertisement of David introduced the world to a visual, nonverbal
Kirby on his deathbed surrounded by family mode of communication.
members one more time. The original cutline The idea of presenting visual images by
BACK TO DAVID KIR BY 99
themselves, without cutline information, has effective form of communication simply be-
been a mainstay of television images since its cause they are.
beginning. Although voice-over announcers

give the viewer a few general details about the
Persuasion: A life and death issue
pictures and graphics that usually identify
the name of the person speaking, most of the Before assigning nothing but positive motives
images are unexplained. Viewers must make to the editors of Life magazine, take a look at
their own assumptions about what they are what else is on the page with the Kirby family
seeing. Hence misleading, incorrect, and bi- (Figure 6.13). Therese Frare's black and white Figure 6.13
ased information can easily be passed to the image is on a double-page spread inside a See color section following
viewer without the viewer's knowledge. Add- black border framed by a thin, white rule. page 210.
ing in-depth, newspaperlike cutlines in voice- The cutline is at the lower left of the picture.
overs or as graphic elements is costly. It is in The text is printed in white and set inside a
television's interest to keep the images ambig- black box. But stuck between the two pages
uous because the industry has conditioned attached between the image of Kirby and his
viewers to accept television as a passive medi- father on the left page and his sister and niece
um. A.dding words to the pictures simply on the right page — is a cheery, white insert
would be too much work for "couch pota- printed with colorful holiday graphics and
toes." photographs. It is a promotion to get the
If it does nothing else, the Benetton adver- reader to subscribe to the magazine. "Give
tising campaign reminds us of the power of the gift that shows you care ..." the copy
television to influence all other media. A time reads, "all year long. Give LIFE." When you
may come when newspaper editors adopt turn the little card over it reads, next to the
television's practice of presenting images with crying face of David Kirby's father, "With
little verbal accompaniment. If it does, print LIFE your holiday shopping's a snap." Ex-
journalism, as we know it, will cease to exist. cept, of course, if you are dead. Advertising
To prevent it, we must always assert that and journalism merge in a shockingly ironic
words and pictures used equally are the most and insensitive way.
CHAPTER 7
Whether right or
Images That Injure:
wrong . . . imagination
Pictorial Stereotypes
is shaped by the
pictures seen .... in the Media

Consequently, they can
lead to stereotypes that
are hard to shake.
For many, Labor Day marks the end of the Lest the viewer forget the reason for all
Walter Lippmann,
summer season. It is a holiday that recognizes this excitement, the entertainment segments
WRITER
the transition between lazy days full of relax- are interspersed with filmed spots about MD
ation and the start of a new season of research and people afflicted with the disease.
productivity for students and workers alike. We see scientists in white lab coats mixing
As that last picnic, last stroll along a trail, or chemicals in test tubes, doctors talking pas-
last dive into a pool begin to fade into sionately into the camera of the need for more
pleasant memories, many Americans settle money to further their research, and
into a comfortable chair, turn on their televi- wheelchair-bound children being pushed to
sion sets, and watch the Jerry Lewis Muscular their next physical therapy session. Parents of
Dystrophy Association (MDA) telethon, the these children talk with tears in their eyes
annual fund-raising program that has be- about the shock of learning of their child's
come a staple of the medium (Figure 7.1). illness.
The telethon is a throwback to the age of Muscular dystrophy is a name for several
vaudeville. The show usually begins with inherited diseases that affect the muscles
high-kicking, tap-dancing performers, an attached to the skeleton. The most common
ironic number considering that many of those and serious form of MD is called Duchenne,
benefiting from the telethon cannot walk. named for the French neurologist Guillaume
Lewis, with his professional charm and slick- Duchenne, who first described the condition
backed black hair, introduces each subse- in 1868. Duchenne MD affects only boys.
quent performance, from comedians to sing- The first sign of the disease appears at about
ers, with the same level of enthusiasm, despite age 4 when a child begins to have trouble
the many hours he has been awake (Figure walking. By age 10, the child must use a
7.2). wheelchair. As the disease progresses, all the
100
IMAGES THAT INJURE: PICTORIAL STEREOTYPES IN THE MEDIA 101
muscles eventually are affected, almost always Figure 7.1
causing death by age 30. Without doubt, Jerry Lewis is doing all
Duchenne MD is tragic, but the disease is right. Before the start of his
rare. It results in only 30 cases per 100,000 1993 MDA telethon, he

male births, affecting some 30,000 families in steps out of his luxury Rolls
the United States. Although the gene respon- Royce automobile in front of
sible for causing the disease has been identi-
a Las Vegas casino.
fied, as yet there is no cure.
The Muscular Dystrophy Association has

been criticized because most of the money
raised by the telethon goes to support other
fund-raising events while MDA executives
receive salaries as high as $300,000 a year. Figure 7.2

But to the organization's credit, it has given The 1993 MDA telethon
money to further research and to sponsor
began with an ironic
worldwide scientific conferences. For exam-
opening sequence. For a
ple, in 1986 a $5 million research grant led to
fund-raiser that purportedly
the discovery of the gene dystrophin that
helps many who must use
produces a potentially life-saving muscle pro-
wheelchairs to get around, it
tein. The organization also provides some
curiously chose to start the
funds for equipment and services to patients.
The more than 40 other kinds of neuro- program with an energetic,
muscular diseases do not receive as much high-kicking, ta p-dan cing
emotional publicity because they are much Las Vegas-style routine.
less severe than Duchenne MD. These less
life-threatening forms of MD can affect both video about the company's fight against MD,
males and females. Despite numbness in the and delivers a check in true public relations
face and extremities, MD patients aided by fashion to Lewis. Lewis hoots with joy and
physical therapy can lead long, productive announces that the check has a number
lives, some with and some without the use of "followed by lots of zeros." The lights flash,
wheelchairs. Nevertheless, the public's stereo- the audience applauds, and the camera zooms
typical perception, promoted by the telethon, in to reveal the dancing numbers of the
is that MD victims always must use wheel- electronic tote board high above the stage as it
chairs and always die prematurely. registers a new total.

Filmed segments or cut-aways to a local The Jerry Lewis/MDA telethon is a chance
station's activities usually end with emotional for viewers to be entertained, to feel sorry for
monologues from Lewis. These tearful eulo- "Jerry's Kids" who are afflicted with the
gies almost always are accompanied by a sick disease, and perhaps to contribute money in
child in a wheelchair being rolled to the front the hope of finding a cure.
of the small stage by an adult. After an But for other individuals, the Labor Day
introduction, the child nervously recites a telecast is a source of dread and embarrass-
brief message (Figure 7.3). Lewis, with tears ment. For those who use wheelchairs, the
welling in his eyes, delivers an emotional telecast is an annual reminder of how main-
appeal for money. At the end of his perfor- stream media sources communicate stereo-
mance, a spokesperson for a large corporation typical attitudes, even for a good cause.
walks on stage, introduces a slickly produced Wheelchair-bound individuals aren't seen as
102 IMAGES THAT INJURE: PICTORIAL STEREOTYPES IN THE MEDIA
rest of us. At times, you seem to understand.

You talk about our right to live with dignity.
What that means is access to schools and
jobs, equipment like computers and vans,
attendants and respect. The MDA can't be
responsible for all this. But misleading peo-

ple — potential employers, potential spouses,
and even newly disabled people who don't

know any better — only works against these
goals.
Your pity campaign is so dispiriting, so
destructive, that no matter how many mil-

lions you raise, the ends do not justify the
means. Why not wield your sizable influence

to fight our real enemies? What truly handi-
caps us most are the obstacles — architectur-
al, financial and attitudinal — erected by

others.
Stereotyping generally
Figure 7.3 active, independent, and normal persons. In 1990, Congress passed the Americans
As 1993 poster child Lance They are viewed as helpless and fragile indi- With Disabilities Act recognizing that those
Fallon looks offstage, Jerry viduals to be pitied — and can exist only if the with disabilities face prejudice and discrimi-
Lewis makes an emotional viewer picks up the telephone and pledges a nation that prevent them from equal partici-
pitch for viewers to

donation. pation in society, including employment.
contribute to the MDA In the late 1960s, Ben Mattlin was a poster The media portray the disabled in one of
while every five seconds a

child for the New York MDA organization. three ways: as heroes who have overcome
Today he is married, a Harvard graduate, and their cruel fates, victims of their bodies who
new message appears at the
a free-lance writer. He objects to the words should be pitied, or saints who somehow cope
bottom of the screen.
Lewis uses to characterize those afflicted with with their limiting physical conditions. In
However, home viewers
the disease. Such terms as cripples, dealt a bad media reports, the disabled are admired for
contribute only a small
hand, got in the wrong line, or half a person are their efforts to overcome or live with their
percentage of the overall offensive to Mattlin. He is concerned that physical handicap because the rest of society
total. Corporate sponsors viewers will see those who use wheelchairs as doesn't expect much from them. In her book
have already committed Lewis does, as victims trapped in their "steel "Are they selling her lips?" Advertising and
most of the money during imprisonment," "confined," "bound," or Identity, Carol Moog notes that "media imag-
the telethon in exchange for part of the "dystrophic child's plight." es of people who do remarkable things in
promotional spots. In an open letter to Jerry Lewis published spite of their handicaps make it harder for the
in the Los Angeles Times, Mattlin wrote: disabled to gain self-respect for themselves as
they are." Stereotypical coverage always re-
Despite your undoubtedly honorable inten- wards the exceptional and ignores the ordi-
tions, you are sadly misinformed about disa- nary.
bilities. Moreover, you are misleading the Stereotypical characterizations are so per-
able-bodied population while offending the vasive in the print and broadcast media and
STEREOTYPING GENERALLY 103
in the movies that producers and consumers the humorous Chinese servant,
of media messages often fail to recognize the correct Filipino houseboy,
much less criticize — them. Media stereotypes the volatile Latin,

reinforce prejudices that can lead to personal the extravagantly romantic Frenchman,
and societal discrimination and even vio- and
lence. the hard-working, thrifty Scandinavian.
In a 1946 analysis of 198 fictional short
stories in eight popular magazines of the day.

Reinforcing stereotypes with images
many commonly held stereotypes concerning
cultural groups were identified. Anglo men Whether an individual is identified because
always were "tall, blond and handsome." of gender, age, cultural heritage, economic
Anglo women usually were characterized as status, sexual orientation, or physical disabili-
"darling" southern belles. Individuals from ty, the visual message generally communicat-
other ethnic groups were variously described ed about that person often is misleading and
as false (Figure 7.4). Because pictures affect a
viewer emotionally more than words alone

the amusingly ignorant Negro, do, pictorial stereotypes often become misin-
the Italian gangster, formed perceptions that have the weight of
the sly and shrewd Jew, established facts. These pictures can remain
the emotional Irish, in a person's mind throughout a lifetime.
the primitive and backward Pole, When pictorial stereotypes are repeated
the patronized native of a Pacific island, enough times, they become part of a society's
Figure 7.4
Stereotypical images can be
seen in the strangest places.
Men's heads are neatly

arranged but women's
figures are haphazardly
placed in a mannequin
supply warehouse.
culture. Recall that culture describes a set of One of the chief functions of the brain is
learned and mutually accepted rules that to categorize visual information into basic
define all forms of communication for a units that can be easily and quickly analyzed.
group of people during a particular time Selectivity is the process by which the mind
period. People form attitudes about others, decides which objects are important, insignif-
both within and outside their own culture, icant, helpful, or harmful. Recall that the
through direct experiences, interactions with basis for Cestalt psychology is an acknowl-
family members and friends, educational in- edgment of the mental process of selectivity.
stitutions, and the media. Culture tells us Unfortunately, this trait of the brain also
what we should do to get along within a leads to instant categorization of people.
particular society as well as what our actions Noticing a person's gender, age, ethnic back-
mean to others (Figure 7.5). ground, and the like is perfectly natural. But
Communication is easier when people preconceived attitudes or opinions that may

share the same cultural meanings (speak the or may not be true about that person are
same language or use the same visual sym- learned through enculturation.
bolism). To be successful, communication
(from the Latin word for commonness) re-
Figure 7.5 Media coverage and prejudicial
quires mutual understanding of the symbols
The girl posing for the thinking
used. By definition, different cultures attrib-
photographer in a southern
ute different meanings to similar actions. Because of the definition of news and the
California neighborhood is
Consequently, members of one culture often need for visual messages to be action-
representative of her age and
are easy to identify and have trouble commu- oriented, violence is a chief staple of print and
social group. By holding a
nicating with members of another culture. In television reporting and entertainment. "If it
toy submachine gun she also

a multicultural society, members of other bleeds, it leads" is an often unspoken rule of
becomes an icon for the fear cultures often are stigmatized because of their thumb. Pulitzer Prizes, Emmys, and Os-
that many people have of inability to articulate the symbols of the cars are awarded to image makers who pro-
living in that area. dominant culture. duce dramatic pictures of ordinary persons
undergoing extraordinary events. Readers
and viewers are at once repulsed and attract-
ed by violent acts that occur in their commu-

nity.
By concentrating on violence as the pri-
mary way for people to solve their problems,
the media perpetuate negative perceptions. In

the absence of a personal basis for any other
opinion, images that are shown shape atti-
tudes about specific cultural groups. Because

the media crave action, they favor reports of
violent activity over reports of calm, "nor-
mal" activities.
A news outlet that is respected in the

community and has wide distribution has an
enormous impact on its constituents. Because
the media most often substantiate existing

prejudices and because most violent activities
occur in low-income areas, the media are

SPECIFIC EXAMPLES OF STEREOTYPING 105
therefore filled with race-related images. Such stereotyping of ethnic and other groups isn't
a situation guarantees perpetuation of stereo- a high priority when newsrooms all exhibit
types. the same skin color.
A University of Pennsylvania Annenberg Throughout the world an estimated 1 7,000
School of Communication research study distinct cultural groups almost never receive
reported that people who watch more than media attention within their societies. In
four hours of television a day tend to believe Latin America, for example, 600 separate
that their world actually is similar to tribes live in lowland regions alone. In the
the world presented on the TV screen. The United States, some 20 million people belong
Kerner Commission report of 1968, the Na- to so-called "fringe" religious groups; 75
tional Commission on the Causes and Pre- million U.S. citizens classify themselves as
vention of Violence in 1969, the U.S. National belonging to more than 120 separate ethnic
Institute of Mental Health Advisory Commit- cultures. But the faces that most often appear
tee, and the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights in still photographs and moving images are
all have concluded that the media perpetuate white. The 1990 U.S. census identified this
racial and sexual stereotypes through simplis- country's four most numerous ethnic groups.
tic and violent news coverage and entertain- Of the total of 248 million people, there are
ment programs. As media critic and philoso- 58 million German Americans, 38 million
pher Jacques Ellul once wrote, "The press Irish Americans, 32 million English Ameri-
ignores the truly poor to promote the inter- cans, and 23 million African Americans.
esting poor." More often than not, an "inter- Those same four groups also headed the 1790
esting" poor person is one who is involved in census. There are strong indications that the
a violent act. number of Latinos may overtake the number

Stereotypical media coverage manifests it- of African Americans within the next 50
self as a sin of either admission or omission. years. In 1992, for the first time consumers
Media coverage of individuals in a specific purchased more bottles of salsa nationally
cultural group usually presents them as spe- than they did bottles of ketchup.
cial cases to be pitied for their terrible living The dominant cultural groups — those
situations, admired for bettering themselves, with the most power and influence in the
or, most often, reviled for their violent crimi- social structure, including the media — are
nal actions. The stories of hardworking, the ones that control which images get seen. It
decent members of various cultural groups is always to the advantage of the dominant
often are ignored. Accounts of their lives groups to stereotype other groups in order to
simply are not considered to be "news." secure their dominance.
Part of the problem with the media's
portrayals of minority groups is that few
practicing journalists are from diverse cultur- Specific examples of
al groups. Only 5.8 percent of all media stereotyping
personnel identify themselves as a member of
another culture. Sixty-one percent of the Every form of prejudice is based on the
daily newspapers in the United States do not assumption that members of one group are
have any diverse staff members, and 92 per- better than members of another because of
cent have no diverse group members in false opinions about physical, intellectual,
management positions. In addition, media and social characteristics. Throughout histo-
schools have few if any culturally diverse ry, various ethnic and other groups have been
professors or students. Sensitivity to the discriminated against by the dominant
groups in societies. Some groups have man- m Irish-American stereotypes

aged to overcome discrimination and become
The Irish were the first ethnic group that were
a part of the dominant societal force. Most
much different from the dominant English
others have not been so successful.
culture already established in the United
Almost any group you can think of has
States to immigrate freely to America in large
been the target of prejudice and discrimina-
numbers. Keys
tion at some time — children, the elderly,
to Irish assimilation,
other groups that have successfully entered

and for
religious and political conservatives and li-

mainstream culture, are that they learned the
berals, the homeless, the disabled, students,
English language, improved their economic
professionals, the unemployed, the poor and
status, became active in politics, and looked
the rich, foreigners, Native Americans, Asian
much like members of the dominant culture.
Americans, Latinos, city or country dwellers,
But such advances came slowly and painfully.
people with southern accents, people with
Early Irish immigrants had no choice but
Brooklyn accents, and on and on until every
to live in poorly erected shantytowns where
person can find his or her own category.
squalor and disease were rampant. Their low
Irish, Jewish, and African Americans,
social status caused personal feelings of infer-
women, and homosexuals are good examples
iority. Because many escaped their depression
of groups that have long been discriminated
through alcohol and were arrested for public
against. Irish Americans have managed al-
drunkenness and fighting, the stereotype of
most completely to overcome initial negative
the lazy, drunken Irish person was born, with
stereotypes and discrimination against them.
help from editorial cartoons in publications.
Jews, African Americans, and women have
Job discrimination followed as "No Irish
made great strides to end prejudice and
Need Apply" signs were erected next to "Help
discrimination, but many feel that much
Wanted" signs by potential employers.
work remains to be done. However, gays and
Many of the Irish managed to find jobs
lesbians still face government acquiescence of
that few others would take. They worked
discrimination and extreme prejudicial atti-
long, hard, and dangerous hours constructing
tudes by most members of the majority 1
canals and railroad lines and laboring in
culture. Pictorial stereotypes presented in the
mines and mills. With employment eventual-
media of all these cultural groups shape the
ly came better living conditions. The Irish
public's perception of them.
tended to live together in separate communi-
ties and helped each other escape poverty.
They were imbued with the positive moral
values of the Catholic church. They soon
became adept at politics both in government
and in labor organizations. By the 1930s, in
several major cities the Irish were the domi-

nant political force and helped improve living
conditions for all residents — not just the
Irish. Better jobs improved their economic
Figure 7.6
position and status in the community, and
Irish Americans often are
education also aided assimilation. Today, the
stereotyped as drunken party
Irish are the second largest identifiable cul-
animals — an image not tural group in the United States. Consequent-
erased by newspaper pictures ly, media stereotypes of drunken Irish are
taken on St. Patrick's day. rare, except on St. Patrick's day (Figure 7.6).
Jewish-American stereotypes the morals of the country. When a Jewish
man in Georgia, Leo Frank, was arrested for
allegedly murdering a young girl, an angry

Prejudice often is sparked by outward, visible
mob broke into the jail and lynched him. The
symbols that identify a person's association
Ku Klux Klan used this case to inflame
with a particular group. Although its roots
hatred of Jews. The Klan erected burning
are based on religious teachings and practices,
crosses on the front lawns of Jewish families
persons of the Jewish culture are difficult to
and vandalized synagogues. Exclusive coun-
identify because the religion spans all coun-
try clubs and housing developments effective-
tries, races, and ethnic orientations. Even the
ly banned Jewish participation. Jews were
practiced by three different branch-
media — what
religion is
thought to control the was
es of the faith — Orthodox, Conservative, and printed, shown on TV, and presented in
Reform. As one writer noted, Jews "are peo-
movies.
ple who think of themselves as such." A
With the discovery of the massacre of
prejudiced person makes judgments based on
some 6 million Jews by Nazi Germany during
assumptions about physical appearances, ac-
World War II, the wholesale discrimination
cents, last names, occupations, and, of course,
practiced through the 1930s declined. Be-
places of worship (Figure 7.7).
cause most Jewish immigrants were highly
Government officials and ordinary citi-
skilled, they quickly assimilated into the
zens throughout history have used Jewish
people as scapegoats to divert attention from
dominant culture — often at a faster rate than
many other immigrant groups. However, me-
various economic and social problems. The
dia representations of Jewish stereotypes still
United States has received three major waves
appear. Recently, a character in the popular
of Jewish immigrants because of widespread
television program "L.A. Law" played by Figure 7.7
and often violent discrimination in their
comedian Shelley Berman was an obnoxious Jewish Americans march in
home countries. Unfortunately, they soon
Jewish stereotype. Money was the character's New Orleans carrying the
discovered the same type of discrimination
primary concern as he spat out Yiddish
that they were trying to escape. symbols of America, Israel,
A popular teaching of Christianity has and their religion.
long held the Jewish people responsible for

the death of Jesus without recognizing that he
was Jewish. Only relatively recently did a
convocation of Catholic cardinals, Vatican II,
renounce that teaching. But the biblical inter-
pretation created a historical trend to blame

Jews for all the problems suffered by any
majority in a country. Cartoon drawings in
major publications characterized Jewish peo-
ple as money-grubbing shysters with large
noses and funny accents. New York was

renamed "Jew York" in a cartoon published
in Life magazine. Editorials in newspapers
across the country denounced the assumed
racially motivated nationalism of Jewish po-
litical groups. Because many Jews were at-
tracted to the theatre, writers attacked Jewish
performers and producers for undermining

dialect in a throwback to the extreme car- Noah drank too much alcohol (in a nonflood
toons of the 1930s. Such a character only account, Noah was said to have invented
serves to substantiate a prejudiced person's wine), Ham happened to see his father naked.
view that all Jews have the same traits. When Noah awoke and saw his son staring at
him, he promptly cursed Ham and prophe-

sied that his descendants would always live in
African-American stereotypes
servitude. According to the Old Testament,
African-American history is directly tied to after the flood Ham became the ancestor of
past government-sanctioned enslavement. the original inhabitants of Africa. The literal
Since the early days of the slave trade, pictori- meaning of the word Ham is "black." But
al stereotypes have been used to maintain the most biblical scholars interpret the biblical
dominant culture's power over them. Conse- reference to it to indicate the black soil of the
quently, African Americans have faced tre- delta region of the Nile River rather than skin
mendous difficulty in overcoming stereo- color. Nevertheless, the myth linked the
types, despite legal, economic, and social words black, Africa, and slavery in a socially
reforms. acceptable way.

Racism is the belief that one race is better Those with economic interests in the slave
than another because of the genes in a trade used all these rationalizations. Think-
person's chromosomes. When European ex- ing of Africans simply as animals only a few
plorers came into contact with Africans in the steps up from apes and gorillas, or ordained
sixteenth century, many concluded that Afri- because of a curse uttered during a hangover
cans must not have the Europeans' mental to become eternal slaves, excused their severe
processing abilities because African societies treatment during capture, transport to the
lacked the technological advances common in New World, and enslavement.
Europe. Later, evolutionary theory became a From 1619 until the end of the slave trade
scientific justification for racism, with west- in 1808, millions of Africans were herded like
ern Europeans thought to be on a higher cattle from their homes, made to suffer in-
evolutionary plane than other races. credible hardships on slave ships crossing the
Prejudiced people also used the biblical Atlantic, and forced to live in English, French,
story of the curse of Ham as a way of linking and Spanish colonies (later the southern
skin color to slavery. According to biblical United States and Caribbean) under primi-
tradition, Ham was the name of Noah's tive living conditions (Figure 7.8). Although
second son. After a night on the ark in which an extremely small number of Southerners
owned slaves, they were the most wealthy and
politically influential persons in that culture.
Figure 7.8 As advocated by these individuals, slavery was

needed in order to maintain the economy of
A seventeenth-century
the South, which might collapse if fair wages
diagram of a slave ship
were paid to plantation workers. Slavery also
shows how African kidnap
was justified to preserve the Southern culture
victims were packed for their
from "contamination" by Africans.
transatlantic journey. But its
Unlike other ethnic groups that immigrat-
impersonal draftsmanship
ed voluntarily and retained their own cul-
cannot possibly detail the
tures, African Americans were not allowed to
horrors during such a re-create their own African cultures in the
voyage. slave colonies. The master-slave mentality
also made assimilation extremely difficult of racism. Many parents continue to pass
after the Thirteenth Amendment outlawed their prejudices on to their children and are
slavery following the Civil War (Figure 7.9). aided by media stereotypes that do little to
However, discrimination was rampant in portray African Americans as productive

the North. Few in the North had had any members of society.
contact with African Americans. Up until After the Watts riots in Los Angeles in
1860, there were over 500,000 free African 1965, political and religious leaders pointed
Americans living in the South. They had an accusatory finger at the nation's media
been born of free mothers, had paid for their for their stereotypical portrayals of African
own freedom, or had been set free by their Americans. Many critics thought that pre-
owners. In the South these freed slaves had senting African Americans only as train por-
occupations as diverse as architects and hotel ters, sports heroes, entertainers, or criminals
clerks. But in the North, discrimination in contributed to the frustration that led to the
jobs, housing, and education was much more violence. Much of the criticism stated that the
common and institutionalized, making the media had failed to report responsibly on the
assimilation of African Americans into the social inequalities faced by African Ameri-
dominant culture particularly difficult. Skin cans. In a University of Washington seminar
color helped make identifying and isolating report, for example, Lawrence Schneider re-
them from mainstream society easier than for marked that "although charged with the
other cultural groups with lighter colored responsibility of keeping a close check on
skin. government, of rooting out injustice, and of
In 1896, in Plessy v. Ferguson, the U.S. protecting the weak, the American press . . .
Supreme Court formalized segregation of the had not discovered the problems of the Black
races. Separate but equal (in reality, unequal) man in America, nor had it led in the struggle
railroad, restroom, hotel, and educational to solve the problems." The Kerner Commis-
facilities meant that discrimination had be- sion's report on civil disorders in 1968 was
come the law of the land. Despite their more emphatic when it simply stated that "it
unequal status in the culture, between 1899

and 1922 voluntary immigration of African
and West Indian people Figure 7.9
totaled about
150,000. Restrictive immigration laws passed With a bust of Caesar
in 1924, however, slowed immigration to a overhead — a symbol of

trickle of only 122 Africans a year. power — a nineteenth-
century plantation owner

The Lasting Legacy of Racism — Visual shocked from his reading
is
Stereotyping
when a nurse midwife
In Brown v. Board of Education the Su-
presents an African-
preme Court in 1954 signaled the beginning
American baby freshly
of the end of legally imposed segregation. In
delivered by his wife. Such
the 1960s, Congress enacted sweeping civil
images played on the fears
rights laws, and the courts relentlessly re-
moved legal barriers to equal opportunity of that many had at thi
minorities. However, 200 years of slavery about the consequences of
followed by 150 years of social conditioning different races mixing
that African Americans are biologically infe- socially.
rior to other races have maintained the legacy

is the responsibility of the news media to tell undercut the stereotype. Television producers
the story of race relations in America." and reporters recognized that his passionate
Typical of the views at the time were those speeches and act ion -oriented marches and
of Urban League Executive Director Whitney demonstrations often led to violence. They
Young. He commented that African-Ameri- were visually stimulating and necessary to
can pictorial coverage in newspapers and hold the viewer's interest in news programs.
magazines "was awful, is better, and has to Moreover, if viewers were riveted by news
get better." program controversy and violence, they
Twenty-seven years after the Watts vio- would also stay tuned and watch the com-
lence, South Central Los Angeles again was mercials.
the center of a tragic firestorm. Much has Pressure from civil rights activists helped
been written about the causes for the civil change the popular advertising image of Afri-
unrest following the not-guilty verdict in the can Americans as train porters or servants
trial of the four Los Angeles policemen in- (Figure 7.10). For example, the woman on the
volved in the arrest of Rodney King (see box of Aunt Jemima pancake flour originally
Chapter 14). Political and religious leaders was an ex-slave who was an excellent cook. In
have spoken eloquently about the causes of the 1940s, she became a "mammy" house
and possible solutions to the catastrophe. servant who used slang phrases that made her
Once again the media's coverage of African appear energetic, yet illiterate. In the socially
Americans is being analyzed and criticized. conscious decade of the 1960s, the symbol
Recent studies of African-American pic- was offensive to many and the manufacturer
torial coverage in print and broadcast media changed it to that of a housewife. To reduce
have noted little improvement in pictorial controversy further, the picture was reduced
stereotyping. Although more African Ameri- in size and placed in a corner on the box.
cans are seen in the media, the most common Currently, Aunt Jemima is a contemporary,
pictures of African American still relate to gray-haired woman who presumably shares
crime, sports, and entertainment. Having equal social status with any woman her age.
African-American entertainment and sports Motion pictures and television have come
heroes is important for children, but the a long way in eliminating many of the most
message being sent to these children is that blatant stereotypical portrayals of African
they can "make it" in society only if they Americans ("Amos and Andy" is no longer a
excel in those fields. program choice). Despite a few exceptions,
Before the enactment of civil rights legisla- African-American representation in the mov-
tion in the 1960s, the press largely ignored the ies presents a stereotypical pattern that con-
issue of pictorial stereotypes that perpetuated centrates on sexual and violent acts. Many
racism. Martin Luther King, Jr., helped critics are concerned that television's situa-
tion comedies also continue false impressions

Figure 7.10
| about African Americans (Figure 7.11).
With its image of a COMIC CARDS, 12 cents a Set. a.
I'm Engaged," 8 Awful Funny.

I The media are quick to report and con-
"comical, " open-mouth ||
fflE&liO|flB * Yachtsman and Sculler*" 8 very

4
s " demn such behavior in its overt form. For
African American and titles Comic. " Monkey*," 6 Holiday Cele-
&$9RBnH| bratlons. "Too Too," Mlndu r». Din- h g
example, in 1992, major league baseball's
such as "De Aesthetic KpgRj^D ner, 4 Comic. " Comic Billiard Play-
Council banned Marge
IKjSPJHB^W era," etc , 4 Comic "Tommy" Cat's | ~ Executive Schott,
Nigger," this early WCauaiB Night Out, 6 very Funny. "Girls with
Wsg=%iM Peta," 4 very elegant. "ComlcMan," I owner of the Cincinnati Reds, from baseball
twentieth-century vg moves
WH'^t'C
Eyes and Tongue. "De Ma-
Nigger/' Large Colored, 20c 3
I:
8
j for a year, made her attend a multiracial
IkL
Broke your Back Mania," " 80c.
advertisement is intended Entire lot for $1.00. Agent* wanted. | o awareness training program, and fined her
HAPPY HOURS BAZAR, 21 Beekmao Street, N. Y.
for a racist audience. £ <?! $25,000 after the media reported her use of
"racially and ethnically insensitive lan- Figure 7.1
guage." The media also excel at reporting During the taping of his
social problems that need attention. For ex- television show Bill Cosby is
ample, in 1992 in Orange County, California, surrounded by symbolism of

188 hate-related incidents were reported by a wealthy lifestyle — original
various people. Although African Americans
artwork on the walls of the
constitute only 2 percent of the population in
character's two-story house,
Orange County, they experienced 32 percent
well-made furniture, and
of the attacks, the highest percentage of any
magazines on a coffee table.
cultural group.
Some critics complained that
However, pictorial stereotypes subtly per-
"The Bill Cosby Show"
petuate misunderstandings about African
Americans and discrimination. And the me- wasn 't characteristic of a
dia often fail to report other subtle forms of typical African-American
racism that members of a minority experi- family because the sitcom
ence. For example, subtle discrimination was intended to attract a
against African Americans may take the form predominantly Anglo

of being the object of suspicions when mak- audience.
ing a large bank deposit, being followed and
stopped by the police for no apparent reason,
being followed by security guards in an
upscale department store, being ignored in but have little to say about how individual
certain restaurants, and being the target of cases fit into an overall pattern of racism in
jokes or insults that often are faxed to compa- America.

nies and then photocopied and circulated by One place to find numerous programs and
employees. In an action reminiscent ot pre- commercials that feature African-American
civil rights days in the South, a Denny's actors is on the cable network Black Enter-
restaurant in San Jose, California, received tainment Television (BET). Dramatic pres-
media attention when it learned that African- entations, situation comedies, sports shows,
American customers had to pay a cover discussions of social problems, and adver-
charge and prepay for their dinners. To head tisements help create a balance in the media
off negative criticism, many Denny's restau- for that cultural group. Unfortunately, the
rants display a sign on their doors that reads, number of viewers is limited because not
"All colors All people All of us together." The every cable company carries the network.
Denny's restaurant in San Jose should not be Nevertheless, the viewing base is growing so
singled out for criticism. Recent allegations of much that Robert Johnson, president of BET,
discrimination against African Americans plans to start a cable television jazz channel.
have been leveled at an International House Despite the efforts of BET executives and
of Pancakes in Milwaukee; a Red Onion others, for the most part, the media them-
in Anaheim; the Buffalo Room in an Au- selves rarely challenge media-created stereo-
gusta, Georgia, suburb; the Glass Menagerie types. Thus distorted, oversimplified images
in Covington, Kentucky; and the West- as a part of news or entertainment coverage

ern Kountry Klub in the Dallas-Ft. Worth by the print, broadcast, and screen media
metropolitan area. Newspapers and tele- constantly reinforce the prejudicial think-
vision are quick to inform their readers ing that perpetuates social discrimination
and viewers of such discriminatory practices, (Figure 7.12).
Figure 7.12
Yard ornaments in front of
houses in Garland, North
Carolina (left) and Chicago

( right) are offensive to many
because they symbolize a
time when racists thought
that African Americans were
useful only as servants or
had an intelligence level
only slightly higher than
monkeys.
m Female stereotypes their appeal as sexual objects. Men are valued
for their intelligence, strength, and energy.

Males in almost every culture in the world Cultural norms are learned behaviors and
and throughout the history of social interac- are based on several interrelated factors. A
tion have thought that they are the dominant study of 156 separate societies worldwide
and more important gender. Such patterns of revealed that cultures that had high inciden-
thought have led to prejudice and pervasive ces of rape competed for limited natural
discrimination against women (Figure 7.13). resources, tended to engage in wars, tolerated
At birth, girls are treated more gently than high levels of violent crime, and supported
boys. Girls are taught to stay home and attend the male (macho) image of toughness.
to household duties. Boys are encouraged to Aristotle was one of the first philosophers
be adventurous and active. Women are ex- to write about the difference between men
pected to find fulfillment in marriage and and women. He labeled women as naturally
motherhood. Men are expected to find fulfill- passive and men naturally aggressive. All
ment in their careers. Women are valued for major religions — Confucianism, Muslim,
Figure 7.13
Making generalizations
about a cultural group is
always problematic, but
pictorial stereotypes may be
found in the most innocent
of situations. Whether in
McClellanville, South
Carolina (left) or Elko,
Nevada ( right), boys often
play rougher than girls — but

not always.
Orthodox Judaism, and Christianity — sup- Figure 7.14
port the male-dominated social structure in Many women are forced by
which a woman must always obey her hus- religious and/or social
band. Her only purposes in society are to customs to cover their faces
have and raise children, preferably boys while in public, as this

(Figure 7.14).
nineteenth-century woodcut
Sigmund Freud and his psychological dis-
demonstrates.
ciples further separated the sexes with his
concept of "penis envy." Females, according
to Freud, feel shame and inferiority toward
men because women do not have penises. A
thrusting, vertical male organ symbolically
leads a man toward outward and dominating
pursuits. A female's hidden vagina symboliz-
es the fact that females must passively wait for
decisions by men. As a result of these stereo-
types, men are hunters and gatherers; women

are cooks and cleaners.
During the Industrial Revolution in the
nineteenth century, many poor women were

allowed to work in the factories for the first
time because of labor shortages. Despite this
advance in social thinking, women were still ber of children born during the late 1940s
not allowed to vote, own property, testify in and the 1950s.
court, make a legal contract, spend their During the 1960s, Betty Friedan's con-
wages without getting permission from their sciousness-raising book, The Feminine Mys-
husbands, or even retain guardianship over tique, again sparked social activism on behalf
their children. Abolitionist activism on behalf of women. Women compared themselves to
of freedom for slaves in the South led many

also to consider freedom for women in the Figure 7.15
North. Eventually, Wyoming became the first With so many young men in
state to give women the right to vote. In 1920, the armed forces during
the Nineteenth Amendment, which gave
World War II, women
women national voting rights, was ratified.
became assembly-line
Although voting reform was an important
workers. "Rosie the Riveter"
step, efforts to reform other discriminatory
poses in front of a ship's
practices were unsuccessful.
riveted steel hull holding the
During World War II women again were
needed in the factories, this time to produce tool of her trade. Although
armaments, to replace the men serving in the her hairstyle and clothes
armed forces (Figure 7.15). When the war connote a no-nonsense
ended, many women succumbed to tremen- working philosophy, her
dous social pressure to take care of their smile and makeup, along
returning men, have babies, and let the male with the halo effect of the
"breadwinners" have the jobs they needed in lighting behind her, play to
order to support their families. The result was her feminine characteristics.
"the baby boom," named for the large num-
Figure 7.16 have enough money to travel to a state or
Vincent Price plays the evil country where abortions could be performed
lead character in the legally and safely often attempted illegal,
forgettable Dr. Goldfoot

"back-alley," or self-induced abortions. Some
of these procedures ended tragically in steri-
and the Bikini Machine
lization or death. In 1973, the Supreme Court
while surrounded by
legalized abortions during the first few
actresses who have little
months of pregnancy in Roe v. Wade. But
purpose in the movie other
subsequent Supreme Court cases, state legis-
than to be sex objects for
lation, and obstructionist tactics by antiabor-
men.
tion activists has again restricted this medical
other groups discriminated against around practice.

Figure 7.17
the world. For the first time, women saw Media stereotypes of women in news,
This billboard for Mervyn's
themselves as victims of sexism. The National entertainment, and advertising contexts con-
department stores in
Organization for Women (NOW) was estab- stantly remind viewers of society's male-
southern California and
lished in 1966 to help change societal norms dominated view (Figure 7.16). Women often
Levi jeans presents at least and laws that maintained male superiority are portrayed as sex objects designed only for
two stereotypes: that old over women. The organization worked hard a man's pleasure, as wives whose chief duty is
men are content to fritter to pass the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to serve their husbands, and as mothers who
away the day in a pool hall to the Constitution to end discrimination often must rear children without a husband's
and that a young woman against all cultural groups, including women. help. Women are portrayed as being less
likes to pose seductively. Although passed by Congress, the amend- intelligent than men, being dependent on
Look closely: Is she posing

ment failed because strong lobbying efforts men for support, and thus being inferior.
against it persuaded enough state legislatures Obviously, such stereotypes do not portray
for a blind African-
to vote against ratification. men and women equally (Figure 7.17). Early
American man? Carefully
The National Organization for Women television situation comedies such as "I Love
composed advertising images
also was established to aid in the legalization Lucy," "The Adventures of Ozzie and Har-
are rich in semiotic
of abortions. Desperate women who did not riet," "Father Knows Best," "The Donna
meanings.
Reed Show," and "Leave It To Beaver" rein-
forced the view that the woman should stay

home and take care of the house and children
(Figure 7.18).
Sexism in Advertising
Nowhere is the unequal status of men and

women as obvious as in advertising. Images
in commercials show women as sexual ob-
jects to attract the attention of potential

customers to the product (Figure 7.19). Hair-
care, clothing, and make-up advertisements
MERm^ regularly give
they are inferior

women
if
the impression that
they do not measure up to
the impossible beauty standards demonstrat-
ed by high-priced models. Research on televi-
sion commercials reveals that men are used as
voice-overs when an authority figure is de-

SPECIFIC EXAMPLES OF STEREOT YPI NC 115
sired, women are portrayed mainly in a
family setting in which men are benefited,
women often are noticeably younger than
their male counterparts, and fewer girls and

women are used in advertisements than boys
and men.
In 1976, the U.S. Commission on Civil
Rights reported that "discrimination against

women exists in every facet of American
society." Although there are exceptions, for
the most part girls and women are faced with
subtle obstacles that prevent them from

achieving their full potential. At home, girls
learn to cook, but boys learn to play baseball.
In school, girls are cautioned to seek careers

that follow gender- role expectations, such as
nursing and teaching, whereas boys are en-

couraged to become engineers or business
executives. Boys dominate computer use be- their boss's behavior and risk losing their Figure 7.18
cause video games are action-oriented, vio- jobs. In this publicity still of
lent scenarios that attract their participation; Since 1973 the Supreme Court case that Donna Reed and Carl Betz
girls are left to look over their shoulders and legalized abortions, a woman's right to obtain
for the 1950s program "The
admire their dexterity. an abortion has slowly been restricted. Re-
Donna Reed Show," a
Although the Supreme Court outlawed cently, enacted laws in some states prohibit
woman's place is clearly in
gender discrimination in the workplace in a abortions except in extreme cases. Antiabor-
the home. The husband can
1971 ruling, it still exists. On the job, women tion activists regularly use sit-down tactics in
only hover while the house-
receive less men for performing the
pay than front of abortion clinics and intimidate worn-
wife calmly solves the problem.
same duties. Most women fill low-pay, low-
status secretarial positions. In 1986, women Figure 7.19
received average pay of $16,843, but men Student photographers often
received average pay of $25,894 — a difference mimic the sexist poses they
that has remained about the same for the past
see in advertising
twenty-five years.
photography. The woman's
Sexual harassment received media atten-
provocative stance serves no
tion briefly because of the Clarence Thomas
other purpose than to
Supreme Court nomination hearings in
objectify her.
which law school professor Anita Hill accused
Thomas of improper sexual behavior. One

positive outcome of the media coverage of the
hearings was that in 1991 women filed 15
percent more sex discrimination and 53 per-
cent more sexual harassment claims against
their employers than they did in 1990. Cop-
ing with sexual harassment in its various
forms is an unfortunate fact of life for many
women who can't afford to complain about
,
Figure 7.20
In this advertisement for
Cointreau liqueur, the shape

1
and position of the models
fingers and the bottle itself
are meant to link drinking
the alcoholic beverage with
sexual conquest.
Figure 7.21 A
Although at first glance the
&
man appears to be holding
Hold „
the woman's breasts in the
Seagram's billboard, she

^ everything.
is
SEAGRAM'S /GIN
actidally touching herself. "Everything they say.jjis trueT^J \\,
JVC «
Media critic Irving Goffman
has written that such a
gesture by women connotes
subservience to men. The

metonymic code of dress
en seeking legal abortions and doctors who cannot take responsibility for decisions about
style, jewelry, and
perform the procedure. Recently, more mili- their own bodies.
background details
tant individuals have bombed clinics, and one Although never the only cause for gender
communicates an upscale
even killed a doctor in Florida during an discrimination, print, television, and movie
environment. Ironically, the
antiabortion rally at the clinic where he images that show bikini-clad models holding
JVC advertisement displays worked. phallic-shaped beer bottles reinforce the idea
the words that Seagram Antiabortion activists cite the reason for that women are mentally inferior to men and
executives hope male buyers their behavior as an effort to save the life of good only for sexual pleasure (Figures 7.20
of their gin will believe, the fetus. But the general attitude against and 7.21). Such objectification of women can
"Hold everything." women who want to have or who have had lead to degradation, intimidation, stalking,
abortions coincides with the historical notion assault, rape, and murder (Figure 7.22).
that women are inferior to men and thus
Gay and lesbian stereotypes

Figure 7.22
This all too obvious example

If someone advocates that the disabled, Irish,
Jewish, African Americans, women, or others

of sexism advertises an
being discriminated against should be forced
automobile parts supply
facility in southern Pull Your Part to suffer the physical and emotional scars of
such acts, most people would roundly con-

California. Perhaps more
demn that individual as a crackpot. That is,
offensive than the actual

prejudice and discrimination generally are
image is the fact that it is
opposed on legal and moral grounds. How-
allowed to remain displayed ever, the approximately 25 million gay and
next to a major freeway. lesbian members of our society belong to one
SPECIFIC EXAMPLES OF STEREOTYPIC 117
of the few groups that can be discriminated Gays and lesbians were linked with these
against legally. Yet, gays and lesbians are the fears.
most diverse of any group. They cannot be Bolstered by the successes of African-
isolated by race, gender, economic situation, American and feminist activism in the 1960s,
social position, region of the country, reli- the gay liberation movement tried to erase the
gious belief, political orientation, or any other negative stereotypes. In 1973, the American
physical attribute. Recent fears about AIDS Psychiatric Association deleted homosexual
have increased discrimination against homo- behavior from its official list of mental diseas-
sexuals. Again, the media reinforce negative es. But "new right" and "moral majority"
stereotypes that perpetuate prejudice, causing conservative groups have reinforced negative
many gays and lesbians to remain extremely public attitudes about gays and lesbians.
hesitant to admit to their sexual orientation Simplistic, sensational press coverage con-
in fear of further employment, housing, and tributes to homophobia. Media reports con-
social backlash. vey the impression, supported by the audi-
Media critic Larry Gross suggests that one ence and advertisers, that homosexuals
of the most important roles communicated should be pitied or condemned, depending
within any cultural system is that of sexual on the assumed reasons for their behavior.
identity. He points out that the mass media Whether supported by facts or not, a homo-
regularly conveys visual information on sexual is to be pitied if
"how a baby will grow up, marry, have

children and live in a family with religion and 1. driven by a genetically based biological
state licensing." Gross argues that children need,
may be born gender neutral and learn their 2. persuaded by homosexual parents or other
roles of how to be boys and girls through environmental factors,
social conditioning. For him, "heterosexism

3. judged insane by other members of the
is a belief that culturally accepted sex and
community because urges cannot be con-
gender roles are natural and others are devi-
trolled, or
ant." As a belief, it can be challenged. Howev-
er, the history of discrimination against gays
4. a victim of HIV or AIDS.
and lesbians leading to recent "gay bashing" Press reports play to condemnation feel-
indicates that most members of society don't ings of mainstream society with sensational
accept his argument. stories of homosexuals as
At the beginning of the twentieth century,
gay men were a visible part of European and 1. self-indulgent egomaniacs who draw at-
American societies. Although they might tention to themselves by their outlandish
have been ridiculed occasionally in public, behavior,
the urban culture, for the most part, tolerated 2. irreverent, antireligious blasphemers who
their artistic and social contributions. The disobey God's heterosexual plan as de-
public's tolerant attitude changed during the tailed in the Bible,
1950s. An irrational fear that communists
3. perverted deviants who engage in anony-
had infiltrated every aspect of American
mous sex in public restrooms,
government and business led to the general
conclusion that people different from the 4. criminals who violate community sodomy
mainstream members of the culture were laws, and, most commonly,
potentially dangerous or subject to blackmail 5. predators who search for innocent chil-
if they held sensitive government positions. dren to corrupt.
—
The image of the male homosexual as a about an objective presentation. Indepen-

predator is one of the main reasons that a dently and well -financed videos produced
majority of military personnel and the gener- and distributed by conservative religious or-
al public oppose the lifting of the ban on gays ganizations who operate their own cable
and lesbians in the U.S. armed services, networks play on the fear of AIDS. Such
although other countries have done so with- programs include "The Gay Agenda" and
out incident. Recent surveys indicate that "Gay Rights/Special Rights." For example, in
some people believe that gays will attack "Gay Rights," an AIDS patient talks of having
unsuspecting heterosexual soldiers in the 50 sexual partners in one night, hardly repre-
shower. The Clinton administration pro- sentative of homosexuals as a group. Pro gay
posed a compromise with military officials by rights commercials — one featuring a gay sol-
which gays and lesbians may serve in the dier who was killed in Vietnam with the
military so long as they keep quiet about their ending message of "End Discrimination"
sexual orientation. Not surprisingly, many are seldom seen, as the major networks refuse
gay and lesbian groups view such a "Don't to air most political advertisements.
ask — don't tell" plan with skepticism. A A majority of people in Colorado in 1992
judge in California ruled the policy unconsti- voted for Amendment 2 to the state's consti-
tutional — a decision that is sure to bring the tution, which effectively prohibits enactment
issue before the Supreme Court. of local or state laws to protect homosexuals
With the AIDS crisis, media portrayals of from discrimination. Although the ban was
homosexuals are much more common. But overturned as unconstitutional by the Colo-
the homosexual in the story line is cast as rado Supreme Court, passage of the amend-
either a victim or a villain, with little concern ment in the first place indicates the strength
of feeling against homosexuals. Homosexuals

Figure 7.23 also face physical danger: The National Gay
Two women publicly and Lesbian Task Force reported a 30 percent
proclaim their love for each increase in the number of assaults and other
other by gestures and signs

hate crimes against homosexuals in five U.S.
during a gay and lesbian

cities in 1992, compared to the previous year.
Under the banner "Simply a Matter of

gathering in Houston, Texas.
Justice," hundreds of thousands of people
Images of homosexuals can
from all over the world converged in Wash-
depict sweet, personal, and
ington, D.C., in 1993 to show solidarity in
universal moments just as
their belief that discrimination based on
with everyone else.
sexual orientation is an outdated civil viola-
tion on a par with the discrimination of

African Americans that Martin Luther King,
Jr., spoke out against almost exactly 30 years
earlier. In 1993, Minnesota Governor Arne
Carlson signed a bill that protects homosexu-
als in the state from job, housing, and educa-
tion discrimination. Minnesota joins only
seven other states — California, Connecticut,
Hawaii, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Vermont,

and Wisconsin — to offer such protection.
CAN WE ALL GET ALONG? 119
Despite sluggish state legislative action, more Figure 7.24
and more private corporations follow nondis- Under a sunny southern

crimination policies that include sexual ori- California sky, a National
entation. In 1993, the Gay and Lesbian Task Guardsman stands guard in
Force recognized Apple Computer, Levi

front of a building — but too
Strauss, Silicon Graphics, Viacom, and Mi-
late to protect it. The 1991
crosoft executives for providing health and
Los Angeles riot and civil
other benefits to same-sex, domestic partners.
unrest cost 60 lives,
Overcoming ingrained stereotypes takes
thousands of injuries, and
many years for a culture to achieve. That
millions of dollars in
process could be speeded if the images of
and damage.
culturally diverse groups, including gays
lesbians, show ordinary people who have

ordinary needs, fears, and hopes and lead
ordinary lives (Figure 7.23).
Can we all get along?
In the middle of the civil unrest in Los

Angeles after the verdict in the Rodney King
police beating trial, King asked that question
in front of news reporters from the print and

broadcast media (Figure 7.24). His simple
question made many people think about the
Figure 7.25
This billboard for PruCare
of California presents a
positive example of racial
harmony.
reasons that most of us fail to communicate

or interact with cultural groups outside our
own. Although the question was reported in
newspapers and on television, few attempted

to answer it.
The only place where people regularly and

over a long time see members from other
cultural groups is in the pages of newspapers
and magazines, on television, and in the
movies. But when most of those media
Denna Shulman. Ph D Psychoanalyst and Professor Vivian Yacu. Staff System Designer
images are misleading, viewers aren't chal-
Fordham University Port Authority of New York/New Jersey
lenged to examine the bases of their prejudic-
es and do something about them. To change
people's minds about diversity may require
far-reaching changes in the entire culture.

Advertising executives occasionally get it
right simply by including a person who

happens to be a member of a little-seen
cultural group in an everyday situation
(Figure 7.25). The California Milk Board was

praised for its commercial that showed an
Asian-American teacher drinking milk. Kel-
Lnk Weihenmayer. Cnglish Teacher and Wrestling Coach

logg's Corn Flakes used a deaf teenage girl to
Don Wardlow, Sportscaster
Phoenix Country Day School (AZ) New Britain Red Sox describe the taste of the cereal. American
Express featured an African-American couple
in the same symphony orchestra box as an
Anglo couple to help sell its gold card.
In his book Theory of Justice, John Rawls
writes of the "veil of ignorance." He asserts
that members of all cultural groups must

retreat to an "original position" in which
cultural rules and social differences disap-
pear. When all barriers between individuals

are lifted, everyone is freed to experience
what it is like to be in the "other person's

Lou Calessti. Computer Systems Analyst Celeste Lopes. Asst District Attorr
Af&l Bell Labs Brooklyn. NY shoes." At that point, Rawls believes, every-
one in a society will have equal status and
NOT ALL BLIND PEOPLE SELL PENCILS access to the goods and services produced by
that society. The need is to build spiritual
Figure 7.26
bridges among people that are not based on
This American Foundation
superficial, stereotypical, and visible symbols
for the Blind advertisement
(Figure 7.26).
counters the stereotype of
Increased economic and political power
those who cannot see as
for disenfranchised groups is the best way to
helpless and dependent on combat prejudice. Unequal power, owner-
others.
CAN WE ALL GET ALONG? 121
ship, privilege, and respect are at the core of Figure 7.27
communication problems between cultural On the crowded steps in
groups. But conflict is the only issue that the front of the Dallas City Hall
media regularly report. during a civil rights
When the media regularly show images of demonstration, an

members of all cultural groups as normal,
African-American man
everyday people that are just like everyone
stares dully at the
else, the goal of ending prejudice and dis-
photographer (left). If this
crimination will come a little closer (Figure
portrait is the only image of
7.27).
the man, the viewer receives
a misleading and
stereotypical impression.
Fortunately, the
photographer made two

more exposures (below left
and right): one of the man

studying an object from
around his neck and the
other showing him proudly

displaying his religious
symbol. An image captures
but one of infinitely many

moments — some images are
more truthful about subjects
than others.
The Media
Through Which We See
Six perspectives for anal\ G ANY IMAGE
Critics throughout the history of literature tures. In the remaining chapters of this book,
have used many methods to analyze works we emphasize six perspectives for analyzing
created by others. For example, David Lodge images.
in his book Small World lists fourteen differ- 1. Personal: a gut reaction to the work based
ent analytical perspectives: allegorical, arche- on subjective opinions.
typal, biographical, Christian, ethical, exis- 2. Historical: a determination of the impor-
tentialist, Freudian, historical, Jungian, Marx- tance of the work based on the medium's
ist, mythical, phenomenological, rhetorical, time line.
and structural. To fully appreciate visual 3. Technical: the relationship between light,
communication, you must be able to use the recording medium used to produce the
some sort of critical method to analyze pic- work, and the presentation of the work.
124 THE MEDIA THROUGH WHICH WE SEE
4. Ethical: the moral and ethical responsibili- Before using any of the six perspectives,
ties that the producer, the subject, and the you should first look at all the major graphic
viewer have of the work. and content elements within the frame of the
picture. Graphic elements include the four
5. Cultural: an analysis of the symbols used
visual cues discussed in Chapter 4: color,
in the work that convey meaning within a
particular society at a particular time.

form, depth, and movement. Study the
graphic elements of a picture to see how the
6. Critical: The issues that transcend a par-
various visual cues interact and conflict. Ac-
ticular image and shape a reasoned per-
sonal reaction.
tively notice a picture's composition — the
use of shadows and lighting effects, utiliza-
By studying any image — whether still or tion of shapes and lines within the frame of
moving — from personal, historical, techni- the image, creation of depth, the use of
cal, ethical, cultural, and critical perspectives, color — and the way the eye actively scans the
you become intellectually involved with the image because of the elements within the
picture. Using the six perspectives will en- frame. Having accomplished that mental ex-
courage you to base conclusions about images ercise, record all the content elements within
on rational rather than emotional responses. the picture, listing separately elements that
You will find that any and all images have are meaningful and elements that are unclear.
something to tell you because every picture Spend time with the symbols that are confus-
created has some meaning to communicate. ing to figure out their meaning. Treat the
The producer of the image took the time to analysis of a picture as a game — as an exer-
frame and make the picture for a reason. The cise similar to a detective's challenge in
message that the artist wants to communicate trying to solve a mystery. If you don't under-
may simply be a literal summary, the hope stand the meaning of a content element, ask
that the viewer will appreciate the image's someone else or research the work in the
aesthetic beauty, or an underlying political library. If the picture is famous, chances are
agenda. Just because you cannot initially see that critical writers have analyzed the image
any purpose for the image is no reason to and explained the symbols used by the art-
discard it. Many large lessons are lost because ist. After identifying the graphic and the
of a failure to study small, captured moments. symbolic elements, you are ready to ana-
An image, regardless of its medium of lyze the image in terms of the six perspec-
presentation, is forgotten if it isn't analyzed. tives.
A forgotten image simply becomes another in
a long stream of meaningless pictures that Personal Perspective

seem to flood every aspect of communica-
tion. Meaningless pictures entertain a viewer Upon first viewing any image, everyone
only for a brief moment and do not have the draws a quick, gut-level conclusion about the
capacity to educate. But an analyzed image picture based entirely on a personal response.
can affect a viewer for a lifetime. Words and phrases such as "good," "bad," "I
Image analysis teaches two important les- like it," or "I don't like it" indicate that a
sons about the creation of memorable pic- person initially analyzes an image on a super-
tures: ficial, cursory level. Personal perspectives are

important because they reveal much about
1. a producer of messages must know the the person making the comments. However,
culture of the intended audience; and such opinions have limited use simply be-
2. the symbols used in the image must be cause they are personal. These comments
understood by that culture. cannot be generalized beyond the individual,
SIX PERSPECTIVES FOR ANALYZING ANY IMAGE 125
nor do they reveal much in the way of how a the categorical imperative, utilitarianism, he-
culture would view the image. A memorable donism, the golden mean, the golden rule,
image always sparks strong personal reac- and the veil of ignorance.
tions, either negative or positive, and also
Categorical Imperative
reveals much about the culture from which it
was made. A viewer who rests a conclusion Born in East Prussia in 1724, Immanuel
about an image on personal perspective de- Kant greatly influenced Western philosophy.
nies the chance of perceiving the image in a Communications scholar Clifford Christians
more meaningful way. noted that Kant's categorical imperative

means that "what is right for one is right for
Historical Perspective
all. 'Categorical' means unconditional, with-
out any question of extenuating circumstanc-
Each medium of presentation — from typog- es, without any exceptions. Right is right and
raphy to networked interactive multimedia must be done even under the most extreme
has a unique history of circumstances that conditions." Consistency is the key to the
were set in motion and fostered by individu- categorical imperative philosophy. Once a
als interested in promoting the medium. For rule is established for a proposed action or
typography, the history of writing dates from idea, behavior or opinions must be consist-
the dawn of recorded history. For networked ently and always applied in accordance with
interactive multimedia, the historical devel- it. For example, if a person decides to become
opments are relatively recent. A knowledge of a vegetarian, the categorical imperative phi-
a medium's history allows you to understand losophy applies as long as the person consist-
current trends in terms of their roots in ently avoids eating meat.
techniques and philosophies of the past. Cre-
ative visual message production always comes Utilitarianism
from an awareness of what has come before, British philosophers Jeremy Bentham and
so present applications also will influence John Mill developed the philosophy of utili-
future uses. tarianism, which is the belief in "the greatest

good for the greatest number of people." In
Technical Perspective utilitarianism, various consequences of an act

are imagined, and the outcome that helps the
You must know something about how each most people is the best choice under the
medium of presentation works. A thorough circumstances specified. Although an act
critique of any visual presentation requires a might not be beneficial to a few individuals, it
knowledge of how the producer generated the might result in helping many. Newspaper
images that you see. With an understanding editors frequently use utilitarianism to justify
of the techniques involved in producing an the printing of disturbing accident scenes in
image, you are in a better position to know their newspapers. Although the picture may
when production values are high or low, upset a few readers because of its gruesome
when great or little care has been taken, or content, it may persuade many others to drive
when much or little money was spent to make more carefully.
the images.
Hedonism
Ethical Perspective
From the Greek word for pleasure, hedon-
ism is closely related to the philosophies of
Six principal ethical philosophies can and nihilism and narcissism. A student of Socra-
should be used to analyze a picture. They are tes, Aristippus (who died in Athens in 366
126 THE MEDIA THROUGH WHICH WE SEE
Opposite: B.C.) founded this ethical philosophy on the seeing themselves on television is invoking
Andy Can, 11, lies in the basis of pleasure. Aristippus believed that the golden rule.
back of an ash-filled pickup people should "act to maximize pleasure now

and not worry about the future." However,
truck, a victim of the Mt.
Veil of Ignorance
St. Helens 1 980 explosion.
Aristippus, referred to pleasures of the mind
Editors for the San Jose

— intellectual pleasures — not physical sensa- The phrase "shoe on the other foot" is a
tions. He believed that people should fill their popular adaptation of the veil of ignorance
Mercury News published
time with intellectual pursuits and use re- philosophy. Articulated by John Rawls in
the photograph on the front
straint and good judgment in their personal 1971, it considers all people equal. No one
page because it was a strong class of people entitled to advantages over
relationships. His phrase sums up the hedonis
news picture (categorical any other. Seeing everyone as through a

istic philosophy: I possess; I am not pos- if
imperative). It also
sessed. Unfortunately, modern usage of the — without noticing
veil age, gender, race, and
communicated the tragic philosophy ignores his original intent. Phras- so on — an
results in attitude of respect for
result of not heeding official es such as "eat, drink, and be merry, for everyone. This philosophy may be one answer
warnings to evacuate from tomorrow we die," "live for today," and to prejudice and discrimination.
the area (utilitarianism). "don't worry, be happy" currently express By considering these ethical philosophies
Many upset readers, the hedonistic philosophy. In other words, if when analyzing an image you can become
an opinion or action is based purely on a much more aware of meanings and motives
however, were sure that the
image ran in order to

personal motivation — money, fame, rela- that may lie hidden below the surface of any
sensationalize the event

tionships, and the — the hedonistic
like phi- image (see photo opposite).
losophy is at work.
(hedonism). Readers also
were concerned that the Cultural Perspective

Golden Mean
published image deepened
Aristotle's golden mean refers to finding a Cultural analysis of a picture involves identi-
the family's grief (golden
middle ground or a compromise between two fying the symbols used in the image and
rule).
extreme points of view or actions. Formulat- determining their meaning for the society as
ed in about the fourth century B.C., this a whole. Symbolism may be analyzed through
philosophy of taking the middle way doesn't the picture's use of heroes and villains, by the
involve a precisely mathematical average but form of its narrative structure, by the style of
is an action that approximately fits that situa- the artwork, by the use of words that accom-
tion at that time. Compromise and negotia- pany the image, and by the attitudes about
tion are actions aimed at finding a link the subjects and the culture communicated
between the opposing viewpoints of two by the visual artist. Cultural perspective is
competing interests. closely related to the semiotic approach.
Golden Rule
Critical Perspective
The golden rule teaches people to "love
your neighbor as yourself." From Judeo- The final step in analyzing a picture is to
Christian tradition, this philosophy holds apply a critical perspective. That requires an
that an individual should be as humane as attempt to transcend a particular image and
possible and never harm others by insensitive draw general conclusions about the medium,
actions. A television producer who decides the culture from which it is produced, and
not to air close-up footage of family members the viewer. A critical perspective allows the
mourning the loss of a loved one at a funeral viewer to use the information learned about a
because their grief might be compounded by medium, its practitioner, and the image pro-
APPLYING ANALYTIC PERSPECTIVHS 127
duced to make more general comments about

the society that accepts or rejects the images.
As such, a critical perspective redefines a
person's initial personal perspective in terms

of universal conclusions about human nature.
Applying analytic perspectives
Your ultimate goal with regard to any analysis

of a picture is to understand your own
reaction to the image. David Lodge wrote that
"analysis is ego-driven. The main thing is
that it always reveals the person making the
analysis — not really the piece itself."
Through this analytical process, you review,

refine, and renew your personal reaction to
the image. Analysis of an image is therefore a
cyclic event in which you move from an

initial, emotional, and subjective personal
reaction to a rational, objective, and thought-
ful personal response. Being critical is a
highly satisfying intellectual exercise.

The nine chapters on typography, graphic
design, informational graphics, cartoons,
photography, motion pictures, television and
video, computers, and networked interactive
multimedia analyze images produced by each

medium of presentation within the analytical
framework described. Although analysis is
time-consuming at first, practice reduces the

amount of time required. Because most visual
messages are shown with little or no verbal

information, you are once again left with the
old adage, "The more you know, the more
you see." It is up to you, and only you, to find
meaning in and use for any image. If you take

the time to study images carefully, you will
become a much more interesting and knowl-

edgeable person. You will also be more likely
to produce images that have more meaning
for more people.
CHAPTER 8
Typography Typography is to
writing what a
soundtrack is to a
motion picture.
Jonathan Hoefler,
DESIGNER
The next time you walk through a library or THE GUTENBERG BIBLE
large bookstore, notice how most everyone
maintains a reverent silence. When words The Lilly Library on the campus of Indiana
must be spoken, they are usually brief, whis- University in Bloomington has a copy of
pered sentences. If someone forgets this tradi- Johannes Gutenberg's 42-line Bible — one of
tional code of hushed communication and the first books ever printed with a successful
speaks aloud in a normal conversational commercial printing process. There is no
voice, a librarian most likely will issue a clearer indication of the religious roots of
critical "shush" warning followed by an index books and the power of the printed word.
finger pointed skyward over the lips. It is a Also in the lobby of the Lilly Library is a
simple and common gesture well understood replica of a seventeenth-century wooden
in Western cultures as a desire for silence, but press similar to the one Gutenberg used to
it also is an indication of the original reason produce the pages (Figure 8.1). But just like
for the hushed tones in a place where books viewing a camera obscura, an antique motion
are housed — the finger points to the sky picture camera, a small-screen, black-and-
where the gods live. The gesture and the code white television set, or one of the first room-
of silence where books are kept remind us sized computers, we are not so much in awe
that libraries originally were located in mon- of the machine as we are of the product that it
asteries and other places of worship. Books creates. Although we may admire the tech-
once were religious artifacts produced by nique required to produce the sturdy printing
monks in isolated abbeys to please the power- press, our attention is immediately drawn to
ful, either living or dead. the colorful, 500-year-old book that is kept in
129
130 TYPOGRAPHY
process could produce work as beautiful as

that of a monk. German scribes most com-
monly used a typeface called textur. It is a
square, compact typographical style with lit-
tle space between individual letters to get as

many words on a page as possible. Because of
Gutenberg's artistry, his printed version of
textur was almost indistinguishable from the
hand-drawn letters.
Each page of text for the Bible is set in two

completely justified columns with a wide
alley between them. At the beginning of each
chapter, a large, hand-drawn and colorfully
decorated letter introduces the text. Guten-

berg allowed blank spaces in the copy to
accommodate this artwork. The red, blue,
and gold hand-drawn illustrations show

characters from biblical stories. Large mar-
gins around the text often are illustrated with
elaborate vines, flowers, colorful birds, and
1 other decorative drawings (Figure 8.3).
The justified columns set in the middle of
each page give the work a formal balance that
Figure 8.1 a protective display case. The Lilly Library corresponds with its religious importance.
What Gutenberg's press has a paper copy of the first volume with only Printed in Latin, the lines of type could be
might have looked like is fourteen pages missing. While studying the easily justified because the written Latin of
demonstrated in the lobby of

open pages of the book, our silence shows the day contained many ligature characters
respect not only for the content of the materi- that allowed for hyphenation or the abbrevia-
the Lilly Library on the
al presented, but also because the work repre- tion of words with as many as six letters. The
campus of Indiana
sents the end of the Dark Ages and the tiny ligature symbols appear above the letters
University in Bloomington.
beginning of a revolution in communication. at the end of each line of text.
The two bell-shaped
Gutenberg's Bible is impressive not only as Although the first nine pages have only 40
structures sitting on the
a symbol for the dawn of modern civiliza- lines and the tenth page 41, the work is called
press at the left were used to
tion, but as a work of art (Figure 8.2). It was a 42-line Bible because all the other 1,282
ink the metal type.
produced at a time when words and images pages have 42 lines of type in each column.
were recognized as equal partners. In medie- The change in the number of lines probably
val Europe, religious scribes living in monas- was an efficiency measure to save paper.
teries spent their entire lives copying the The Latin version of Gutenberg's Bible
words and illustrations of previously copied comes from the one translated by St. Jerome
books for abbey libraries. They copied by in the fourth century. Called the Vulgate, it
hand, using calligraphy, which means beauti- was used by the Roman Catholic church at
ful writing. They hoped that their efforts the time. When Harry Truman took the oath
would please their God. of office in 1949 for President of the United
Gutenberg fashioned metal type to mimic States, he used a Protestant Bible and a
the hand-drawn writing of scribes. His goal reproduction of the Vulgate to acknowledge
was to show that a mechanical printing both constituencies.
, 1
THE CURIOUS HISTORY OF JOHANNES GUTENBERG 131
The book is printed in two volumes that

together weigh more than fifty pounds. Each
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printing a page took about three minutes.
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ly expensive parchment (vellum) made from
more than 5,000 carefully prepared calf-
skins.
Today, only 47 copies of the work are

known to exist — 35 on paper and 12 on design and practice of his press remained Figure 8.2
vellum — but only 32 are complete copies. virtually unchanged for the next 350 years, The 42-line Gutenberg Bible
Fourteen copies of the book are in the United but Gutenberg never received any royalties is an excellent example of
States. The first Gutenberg Bible to come to from his invention. As an indication of his typography and graphic
this country was sold at an auction in 1847 lack of fame during his own lifetime, no design. The text is set in a
for $2,600. Today it is housed in the New York portrait painter ever thought to capture his
blackletter typeface family
City Public Library and is worth millions of profile on canvas. If it hadn't been for the
and uses tight kerning.
dollars. But Gutenberg never made a guilder kindness of an Archbishop, he would have
However, there is enough
from his Bible or the innovative press on died penniless (or guilderless). His death, like
leading to include the
which it was produced. his birth, went largely unnoticed, and his
ligawre characters necessary
Gutenberg's Bible was introduced to the place of burial has been long forgotten. But
world in 1456. At the time, Gutenberg was the name Johannes Gutenberg has become a to abbreviate and hyphenate
about 55 years old. Leonardo da Vinci was 3 symbol for a communication medium that the Latin text in order to
years old, Christopher Columbus would not married typography — the printing of words have justified columns. The
make his first voyage across the Atlantic until — to pages to form a book. His innovation balanced composition of the
37 years later, and William Shakespeare revolutionized education, scientific explora- columns with ample white
would not write his first sonnet for another tion, artistic expression, business dealings, space connotes the visual
100 years. Unlike those and other famous and society itself. However, like so many messages of formality,
people of his and subsequent times, there is other great inventors, he led a troubled life.
seriousness, and reverence.
little official record of his achievement. No
known book contains a printer's mark with Figure 8.3
his name on it to indicate that the work was THE CURIOUS HISTORY OF
See color section following
his. In fact, the famous Bible contains the JOHANNES GUTENBERG
page 210.
logo of two other printers who won his books
and his equipment in a financial judgment by Johannes Gensfleisch zum Gutenberg is be-
a court. The court order even locked Guten- lieved to be the third son of wealthy parents,
berg out of his own printing establishment. Friele and Else Gensfleisch. Some have specu-
Less than 50 years later, print shops had lated that his birth was illegitimate, since no
sprung up throughout Europe. The basic official record of his birth exists. He was
132 TYPOGRAPHY
thought to have been born sometime between marriage, for he remained a bachelor his
1387 and 1400 in Mainz, Germany. Although whole life.
unusual for someone of his social standing, The next year he needed money to contin-
but explained by the fact that his uncle was ue his printing experiments, so he agreed to a
the master of the mint at Mainz, early in his five-year contract to teach two partners his
career he apprenticed as a goldsmith. He secret printing method. When one of his

learned metalworking, engraving skills, and associates died, his former partner's sons
the arts of mirror making and decorating sued for the advance their father had given to
objects with precious stones. Sometime dur- Gutenberg. Court documents reveal that he
ing this early period, he dropped the unflat- won the case. An important part of the
tering family name of Gensfleisch (or goose official court document, an inventory of his
flesh in German) and took the name of the workshop, showed that it included a press,
town of his mother's birth, Burg Guttenberg. various examples of type, and a "mysterious
At the time, the aristocracy and trade instrument" that was probably a device for
guild members were locked in a bitter strug- casting type molds in metal. For historians,
gle known as the "guild rebellion." The trade this record is crucial in establishing the fact
unionists wanted a greater say in their politi- that Gutenberg was indeed a printer because
cal future. Gutenberg's upbringing and out- there is little other evidence.
going personality earned him a leadership During that time he also borrowed a large
role in the dispute, but he and his father were sum of money from the Church of St. Thom-
forced to leave Mainz in 1428 because they as in Strasbourg, which he failed to repay.
feared for their safety. The two settled in The church elders took the drastic and unsuc-
Strasbourg, France, about 100 miles south- cessful step of suing Gutenberg for the mon-
west of Mainz, leaving his mother behind to ey. Either because of embarrassment over his
manage the family's home. personal and business dealings in Strasbourg
In only fifteen years while living in Stras- or because the political climate had calmed in
bourg, he made a name for himself as a his hometown, he returned to Mainz in 1443,
metalworker and a gem cutter — and as a where he lived the rest of his life.
quick-tempered litigant and borrower of large Knowing that he had an invention that
sums of money. He invented improved meth- could drastically change the method of writ-
ods for polishing precious stones and manu- ten communication and yet not have the
facturing mirrors. Court records suggest that funds to produce a working model must have
he also was working on a "secret art," which been exceedingly frustrating. By this time, his
most likely was an early version of his print- family's fortune had greatly diminished, so
ing press. But his personal troubles kept he could not expect any help from his par-
interfering with his work. In 1434 he embar- ents. The funds required to support his ex-
rassed city officials when he had a municipal periments were enormous, and trying to
officer of Mainz, who was visiting Strasbourg, secure enough money to continue his work
jailed under an old law that allowed such an caused most of the troubles in his life.
action if money was owed between private Although the popular assumption is that
citizens from two different towns. In 1437, a Gutenberg invented printing, that isn't the
respectable woman, Anna zu der Iserin case. His genius was in combining what was
Thure, sued him for breach of contract when known at the time with some of his own
he changed his mind about marrying her. At ideas about
his trial, he so berated one of her witnesses
that the man later sued Gutenberg for
1. a type mold acceptable for printing,
libel.
The experience must have soured him on 2. a suitable meta! alloy,

3. ink manufacture, hard enough to withstand several thousand

impressions on sheets of paper, and that
4. paper and parchment use,
would not shrink when it cooled in a type
5. book-making, and
mold. For the press to be successful, every
6. a press to make mechanical printing com- letter had to maintain a consistent height and
mercially possible. width. Through hundreds of experiments,
Gutenberg developed a mixture of lead, tin,
Gutenberg wasn't the first to use movable and antimony that satisfied his strict require-
type as a substitute for writing by hand. In ments.

1908 an Italian archaeologist found a clay Fortunately, printing inks and paper were
tablet on a Greek island that indicated the use common printing tools by that time and
of movable type to print characters as early as easier to adapt. The Egyptians and Chinese
1500 B.C. However, Pi-Sheng probably in- had used writing ink as early as 2600 B.C. By
vented movable type in China with characters the eleventh century, inkmaking in China
made from hardened clay and wooden blocks was a treasured art in which earth colors were
in the ninth century. A famous work of the mixed with soot and animal fat and used to
period, the Diamond Sutra, was a roll of produce colorful documents. European relief
paper sixteen feet long printed with writing block printers made their own inks from
from wooden blocks. Marco Polo reported secret formulas probably learned from paint-
the Chinese use of printed money in about ers of the day. However, inks used for wood
1300. The Koreans developed separately cast blocks that would soak into the grains weren't
bronze and copper type characters in 1397, appropriate for printing with metal type from
and they were widely used in China and which they'd simply run off. The ink formula
Japan. However, Gutenberg, and everyone that worked for Gutenberg was one developed
else in Europe probably were unaware of the by the Dutch artist Jan Van Eyck twenty years
extent of printing developments in Asia be- earlier. Van Eyck is known for his painting
cause of the limited communications of the The Marriage of Giovanni Arnolfini and Gio-
time. vanna Cenami, a wonderful collection of
Gutenberg was well aware of the method symbolism in the form of gestures, objects,
of relief printing from wooden blocks used in and colors rendered in a linear perspective
the Netherlands, France, Italy, and his own probably obtained through a camera obscura
country to produce popular holy images, device. His ink formula called for the boiling
playing cards, and advertising handbills. But of linseed oil and lampblack or soot that
wood wasn't acceptable for a mechanical produced a thick, tacky ball that could be
printing process because it tended to warp smeared on the metal type.
easily. He may have learned of experiments Another piece of the printing puzzle was
by Propius Walkfoghel of France, who was the use of paper. Although the Egyptians had
supposedly working on "alphabets of steel" in long used papyrus, a crude paper made from
about 1444, but with no known result. One reeds that grew along the banks of the Nile
Dutch historian reported that Gutenberg ac- River as a substrate for their writing, paper
tually stole the idea for a metal, movable type probably was invented in China by the eu-
printing press from his teacher, Laurens Jans- nuch Ts'ai Lun for the emperor's court in
zoon Coster of the Netherlands, but that A.D. 105. Tragically, Ts'ai Lun did not get to
report has been largely discredited. enjoy the fruits of his invention. He soon
Gutenberg most likely used his skills as a killed himself after an argument with the
metalworker to invent a metal alloy that was empress and the emperor's grandmother.
soft enough to cast as an individual letter and Paper as a medium for writing gradually
—
134 TYPOGRAPHY
made its way to the West. When Arab warri- tax records show that he had a wine cellar in
ors defeated the Persians at the battle of Strasbourg that contained 420 gallons. Not
Samarkand, they brought the craft of paper- surprisingly, his printing press was a modifi-
making as far west as Spain. By Gutenberg's cation of wine presses in use at that time: It
time, paper mills were well established in was simply a large screw that lowered a weight
Germany, Spain, France, and Italy. The mills onto a sheet of paper or parchment against a
used about the same process as the Chinese, plate of inked type. This basic design re-
but the paper was fragile and, when printed mained the same until the invention of
on both sides, the letters showed through. steam-powered presses about 350 years later.
Although it was vastly more expensive, But the last pieces to the printing puzzle
Gutenberg preferred the use of parchment as the ones that Gutenberg never found and that
a printing substrate. When Egyptian leaders eventually caused his downfall — were the
in the second century had refused to sell coins needed to pay for all his experimenta-
papyrus to their rival civilization, Pergamon tion during the twenty years required to
to the south, the scribes were forced to switch perfect his printing press. All his experiments
to leather. The word parchment comes from with metal alloys, type molds, paper, and
the Greek pergamene, which literally means inks and the rent for his workspace, wages for
"a skin from Pergamon." Vellum is the name his assistants, and room and board for him-
for the highest quality parchment made from self required money that he simply did not
the skins of young or stillborn calves. The have. Consequently, he was forced to borrow
Old French word velin means "calf" and is from others.
the basis for the English word veal. Vellum is a In 1450, Gutenberg borrowed 800 guilders
long-lasting substance that can be printed on at 6 percent interest from a wealthy Mainz
both sides. Because it doesn't soak up print- merchant, Johann Fust. Gutenberg used his
ing inks and because inks are better preserved printing equipment as collateral. Soon after-
on its surface, it was used for the most

colorful illustrations.
The modern concept of books in which

individual pages are sewn together and
bound by front and back covers also was quite
well known to Gutenberg. Every abbey library
contained a collection of handwritten books.
Figure 8.4 For example, the abbey library at Canterbury
Early publications often housed more than 2,000 books. The most
contained the marks or logos common type of book was religious in con-
who created the

tent: Bibles, collections of psalms, and other
of printers
documents. These marks

religious works; most were written in Latin.
By 1450, some 30 to 40 percent of the

became as recognizable to
population in many areas of Europe could
knowledgeable readers and
read. However, writing, like art, was consid-
collectors as the names of
ered a craft and only a few practiced it.
the printers themselves. At

Printing also requires a press. The ma-
the top right is the famous
chine had to be sturdy enough to withstand
logo of the printers Fust and the weight of the platen and the type itself.
Schoeffer — the only printer's Presses at the time were used to produce
mark in Gutenberg's Bible. wine, cheese, and bailing paper. Gutenberg's
wards, he borrowed another 800 guilders financial support to open another print shop
from Fust. In 1455 with the work nearly in 1460. In this new establishment, he might
completed on the Bibles that could easily pay have produced a 36-line Bible and an ency-
off any debt owed, Fust grew impatient or clopedia titled the Catholican, although his-
greedy and brought suit against Gutenberg for torians are not certain (Figure 8.5). If he did
2,026 guilders covering the loans and interest publish such works, he clearly did not receive
payments owed. Gutenberg claimed in court much money from their production because
that their agreement was for Fust to supply he was almost destitute. Perhaps feeling sorry
300 guilders a year for supplies and that they for Gutenberg in his economic plight and as a
would split the profits. The court didn't tribute for his great contribution to commu-
believe Gutenberg, gave Fust the presses and nication, Archbishop Adolf of Mainz gave
all of the work in progress, and locked him the rank of nobleman with an annual
Gutenberg out of his own print shop. pension that allowed him to live the last years
Fust immediately formed a partnership of his life in relative comfort. He is believed to

with one of Gutenberg's assistants, Peter have died on February 3, 1468, and was
Schoeffer. Their printing establishment lasted buried somewhere in the cemetery of the
as a family business for the next 100 years, as Franciscan church in Mainz. No marker was
Schoeffer married Fust's daughter. Instead of erected to identify his grave.
using Gutenberg's printer's mark, the two For several years after Gutenberg's death,
designed their own logo and imprinted the movable metal type printing was centered in
Bibles with it (Figure 8.4). Fust traveled to Mainz. But warring German factions caused
several European capitals selling the books. many people — printers included — to leave
Although there were few buyers of the Bibles their homes for safer countries. Consequent-
at first, the growth of universities and the ly, print shops opened in France and Italy and
interest in texts printed in Latin created a quickly spread throughout Europe. By 1500,
market for the books. there were 1,120 print shops in 260 towns in
To make them look handmade, Gutenberg 17 European countries. More than 10 million
purposely had omitted a title page or page copies of 40,000 different works had been
numbers to mimic the style of handwritten printed by that year. As books became plenti-
books. But when French officials noticed the ful and inexpensive, literacy and educational
number of volumes and their conformity, opportunities quickly grew as societies
they accused Fust of witchcraft. To avoid moved from oral presentations to reading as
prison or possibly death, he was forced to the primary method of teaching. As people
reveal the secret of their production. Some became better educated, democratic ideas
have claimed that Goethe's story of Doctor
Faustus, in which a man sells his soul to the Figure 8.5
devil, was inspired by Fust's dealings with Although we don't know

Gutenberg. This story may also be the origi- exactly what Johannes
nation of the term devil's error, referring to Gutenberg or his printing
typographical printing mistakes. Fust died in press looked like, this early
Paris in 1466, most likely of the plague, while woodcut portrays the
trying to sell additional volumes.
inventor of the press as one
After losing the court case to Fust, Guten-
of the first copy editors in
berg quickly fell into bankruptcy, unable to
» the history of printing.
pay even the interest on previous loans.
O U
Miraculously, a Mainz doctor offered him 2 U
—
136 TYPOGRAPHY
spread. Secularism challenged traditional least three technical achievements: its type-
ideas about religious attitudes. Business op- face, its longevity, and its design. Gutenberg
portunities and cities expanded as printing magnificently mimicked the textur typo-
sped the recording of transactions. More than graphical style of the abbey scribes. The
any other single invention, the printing press book's longevity is another credit to his craft
signaled an end to the Dark Ages that fol- because few books in human history have
lowed the collapse of the Roman Empire and lasted as long. Finally, the design, probably
the beginning of the Renaissance. Peter Schoeffer's work, is a pleasing combi-

The Gutenberg Bible not only showed the nation of text and graphic elements arranged
world the potential of the print medium, it to connote power, prestige, and artistic
also signaled the start of typography — the beauty — a perfect fit for the content of the
reproduction of words through a mechanical work.

process. Typography, as exemplified in Gut- Production of the Gutenberg Bible marks
enberg's work, gave printed words an equal the start of commercially viable printing, but
artistic footing as hand-lettered words. A few it also is a commentary on ethical business
years after Gutenberg's achievement, typo- practices. Both Fust and Gutenberg were
graphic artists — specialists in the creation tarred by their business dealings with each
and use of various typographical styles other. Fust should have been more patient
combined the craft of sculpture with the art and allowed Gutenberg to finish his work
of graphic design to produce lettering that instead of locking him out of his own print
was both practical and beautiful. shop and trying to take credit for printing the
Typography, of course, has its roots in book. Gutenberg should have been more
writing. The story of writing is the gradual careful about handling other people's money
acceptance of the idea, over thousands of in the operation of his printing business. The
years, that words and images are separate and church or various rulers could have contrib-
different. Writing and reading without a uted funds for development of his earth-
knowledge of design reinforces the notion shaking invention, but there is no evidence
that words are more important than pictures that Gutenberg ever solicited their help. At
in formulating messages. Typography re- the time, Germany didn't exist as a nation; it
minds us that words are graphic elements was a region of Europe divided into many
with pictorial qualities as important as any duchies. Perhaps he did not seek such aid for
illustration. fear of losing his machine to a patron. Ironi-
cally, he lost both his books and his equip-

ment anyway. If he had been born a few years
later during the Renaissance, he might well
Analysis of the gutenberg have been supported by wealthy patrons, as
bible many artists and scientists were. But the
Renaissance would have been delayed had it
Whether or not you agree with the Bible's not been for his printing press.
content, Gutenberg's work is a beautiful com- The hedonistic philosophy is dominant in
bination of words and pictures. Without this tale because Gutenberg naturally wanted
question, it began a revolution in literacy as it to make money with his Bibles and his
demonstrated the commercial opportunities printing press to escape gnawing poverty. By

of the printing press and the desire of indi- 1455, Latin no longer was a common lan-
viduals to possess their own books. guage of the people. Local pride in various
Gutenberg's work should be praised for at regions after Rome's fall led to the develop-
ANALYSIS OF THE GUTENBERG BIBLE 137
ment of many separate languages. Latin was ialism in which other countries' innovations
reserved for services of the Catholic church, either were not communicated or were dis-
probably in honor of the Roman Emperor counted.
Constantine, who officially sanctioned the The commercial printing press demon-
Christian religion. If Gutenberg was con- strated how much people of the day yearned
cerned about spreading the word of God, a for reading matter beyond the simple printed
book written in a German dialect might have playing cards or religious works available to
been more appropriate. Nevertheless, because them. When more and more persons learned
Latin was still a popular language for Catho- to read, writers supplied them with words.
lic mass, the need for Bibles printed in that For example, humanist writers supported by
language was great. However, textur script is the Pope believed that all ethical dilemmas
exceedingly difficult to read, even for some- could be solved by turning to the Greek and
one quite familiar with Latin. Gutenberg Roman philosophers for answers. The hu-
wanted his book to look like the hand-drawn manist movement became the dominant phi-
work of monks to make a point about the losophy during the Renaissance, but was later
viability of his invention beyond his Bible. denounced by the Catholic church when the
Neither utilitarianism nor the golden rule humanist writers questioned the content of
guided his choices of language and typeface. the Bible. "Since the advent of movable
Gutenberg, like any business person, tailored type," writes Elizabeth Eisenstein, "an en-
his product to fit the market. hanced capacity to store and retrieve, preserve
The final reason for choosing the Bible to and transmit has kept pace with an enhanced
be the first printed book relates to the culture capacity to create and destroy, to innovate or
of the day. At the end of the Dark Ages, the outmode." Printing not only increased the
once thriving world center of Rome was but a need for more printing, but also increased the
hamlet of 20,000 people living among the need for more critical thinking. Stated anoth-
ruined monuments of a great empire. The er way by media critic Marshall McLuhan,
Catholic church filled the void left by Rome's "Print created national uniformity and gov-
collapse and created its own city, the Vatican. ernment centralism, but also individualism
Gutenberg chose to print a Bible because he and opposition to government as such."
was betting on the stability of the church. Scholars have concluded that Gutenberg's
Cities and countries came and went, but the work was legally stolen by two rival printers.
church had established itself as the leading Researchers have rightly corrected history by
center of economic, political, and social pow- giving the high honor of the invention of the
er of his day. If any organization could first commercially viable printing press to
provide a market for his work, it would be a Gutenberg. His book and his life should never
religious one. Ironically, the church support- be separated from historical accounts about
Figure 8.6
ed Gutenberg in his later years. printing. He was a person with all too human
This woodcut faithfully
The story of Gutenberg's Bible also dem- frailties. Despite the events in his life, or
re-creates the statue erected
onstrates how little the people from different because of them, he accomplished what he set
in the town of Mainz,
cultures separated by extreme distances knew out to do. Perhaps in the end he dedicated so
Germany, that honors the
about each other. Marco Polo and others had many years of his life to producing a Bible as
told of Asian wonders waiting to be exploited, an act of contrition for his relationships with
memory of Johannes
We will Gutenberg. Note that his left

and Columbus's dream was to get rich from other people. never actually know his
the treasures of the Indies. The lack of motives because, ironically, the inventor of hand holds his Bible close to
understanding between the peoples of Asia commercialized printing left no printed re- his heart and that his right
and Europe represented a kind of anti-imper- cord of his own life (Figure 8.6). hand holds type molds.
138 TYPOGRAPHY
Typography and the six Historical Perspective
perspectives
Although the art of typography officially
began with the first edition of Gutenberg's

Because words are so important in communi-
Bible, typography is linked directly to the
cative messages, the way those words are
history of writing. The placement of symbolic
presented form a vital link between what the
messages on a medium of presentation is a
words mean and how the words are seen.
practice about 20,000 years old. The linking
Readability refers to how easy a text is to
of writing and typography involved four
read. Legibility means the speed with which
developmental stages:
each word is recognized. If words printed on
1. painting,
a page or presented on a screen are the wrong
style, the wrong size, or the wrong color, the 2. writing,
message might be misunderstood or lost.

3. hot type production, and
Typography is the art and practice of making
4. cold type production.
words both readable and legible.
Painting
Personal Perspective Graphic designer and researcher Georges

Jean in his book Writing: The Story of Alpha-
Most people do not think of typography
bets and Scripts wrote that "writing cannot be
when they read, but it determines every
said to exist unless a symbol system is agreed
aspect of the way printed words are presented.
upon." Beginning about 20,000 years ago,
Look at the way the words are placed on this
humans began to preserve their observations
page. A typographical designer for this book
and thoughts by drawing pictures on the
has
walls of caves, on mountains, on desert pla-
1. determined the style of the typeface that teaus, and on the bones of slaughtered ani-
best reflects the content of the verbal mals. Petroglyphs (rock drawings) and other
message, illustrations were a realization by early hu-
2. made decisions about the various sizes for mans that spoken communications were
headlines, subheads, captions, cutlines,
ephemeral — they could not be made perma-
and the body of the text,
nent. Oral statements also could not fully
3. decided the color for the words (black) describe what people saw in their daily lives.
and the attributes used (italics, boldface, Drawings of human figures and symbols
reverse, etc.), and for the sun and moon abound, but over-
4. determined the length and width of the whelmingly the main subjects were the ani-
text blocks, the style of justification (left, mals that were hunted in the part of the world
right, centered, or fully justified), and the where the drawings were found (Figure 8.7).
white space between individual letters
In the Lascaux caves in southern France, for
(kerning), lines of type (leading), and example, early artists mixed charcoal or col-
columns of type (alleys). ors from the soil with animal fat or their own
The average reader seldom notices such saliva. They spread these paints with their
decisions — they simply make the text easy to fingers or crude reed brushes to produce
read. But not being aware of the many typo- paintings of animals with remarkable clarity
graphical choices available to a designer is like and artistry. These drawings represent the
watching a motion picture only because of its first known attempts to create a written
plot — much that is there is missed. language. As readily identifiable icons, they
TYPOGRAPHY AND THE SIX PERSPECTIVES 139
Figure 8.7
You may find it hard to
believe that the words you
are presently reading evolved
from cave paintings on walls
in prehistoric times, but they
did. Space is at a premium

on a section of wall in a
cave in the Lascaux region
of southern France.
represented a language that everyone from but they could not easily paint animal images
the area understood. on a wall. Moreover, caves weren't the best
Researchers hold mixed views about the way to preserve portable records for a large
intent of the drawings. The purpose of the civilization because they have consistently
paintings might have been simply to add proved to be difficult to transport.
beauty to their lives, identify the animals
easily killed in the area for subsequent no- Writing
madic travelers, or gain mystical power over

The Sidmerians Like the animals they hunt-
the beasts by capturing their image.
ed, for thousands of years early humans were
The drawings represent two kinds of visu-
wanderers who constantly searched for food,
al messages: pictographs and ideographs. Pic-
shelter, and water in small tribes of individu-
tographs are pictures that stand for objects,
als with similar interests. But in about 8000
plants, or animals. Ideographs are images that
B.C. in what is now Iraq, thousands of these
represent abstract ideas. Modern humans can
nomads started to congregate in the fertile
easily understand ancient pictographs, but
Figure 8.8
the ideographs created by early humans re-
petroglyph examples Throughout the world,
main a mystery (Figure 8.8). Hence one of the
writing systems were
problems with early iconic communication is
that the images used in this form of written

north America invented to describe and
explain personal
communication were not standardized, mak-
ing translation difficult or even impossible.
observations and thoughts.
Spain
Another problem was that producing the Many of the symbols have
images required a skilled artist — everyday California

little literal meaning for us
cave dwellers could throw spears at animals, today.

140 TYPOGRAPHY
valley between the Tigris and Euphrates riv- symbols to 560. The famous Code of Ham-
ers. For more than 7,000 years these Sumeri- murabi, a detailed system of justice, was
ans lived in Mesopotamia or "the land be- written on stone tablets in cuneiform in
tween the rivers" and planted crops, about 1900 B.C. Along with cuneiform writ-
domesticated animals, initiated the Bronze ing, the Assyrians developed their own postal
Age when they mixed copper with tin for service using clay envelopes, cattle brands to
stronger tools and weapons, invented the protect the ownership of their animals, de-
wheel, created a complex system of religious sign trademarks on objects of art, and per-
and social discipline, buried their dead in sonal identification seals that were worn
organized services, and invented the first around the neck. Babylon, the capital of the
system of writing. region, had a population of more than a

At the temple in Uruk in about 3500 B.C., million people by 538 B.C. But the Sumerians
scribes wrote on clay tablets for the first time and Assyrians were conquered by the Greeks
in history. This monumental step in human and later by the Romans. By the time of
development took the form of crude picto- Christ, the once thriving metropolis had been
graphic text arranged in columns from right abandoned. The Phoenician alphabet eventu-
to left. The words described the agricultural ally replaced the Sumerian cuneiform writing
lives of the people and reported the number system.
of cattle and sacks of grain that people
possessed. The Egyptians Stretching more than 4,000
Specially educated scribes used a sharp- miles, the Nile is the longest river in the
edged stylus to make impressions in damp world. Along its banks a civilization as inno-
clay tablets that they later dried by the sun or vative as that of the Sumerians emerged.
in kilns. In about 2800 B.C., the scribes About 3500 B.C., the Egyptian and Sumerian
started to turn the pictures over on their sides cultures peacefully overlapped. Sometime in
to ease in their production. Three hundred 3100 B.C., Sumerian ideas about writing
years later, the scribes replaced their pointed reached the Egyptians. But the Egyptian
sticks with triangular-tipped styluses that writing system that evolved was different
they pushed into rather than dragged through from the Sumerians in two important ways:
the clay. This innovation, along with more 1. unlike the Sumerians who eventually re-
abstract representations of objects and ideas,
placed their pictographic system with ab-
meant that those with less artistic skill than
stract symbols, the Egyptians never lost
earlier pictographic scribes could produce
the illustrative quality to their writing;
Sumerian writing. Nevertheless, this writing
2. instead of using clay tablets as a substrate
style called cuneiform (Latin for "wedge-
for their writing, the Egyptians used papy-
shaped") required strict schooling from
rus reeds that grew plentifully along the
childhood on, because there were hundreds of
Nile.
characters to learn.
When the Assyrians invaded Sumeria, one Hieroglyphs remained the chief written
of their first acts was to try to simplify language of the Egyptians until the Romans
Sumerian writing because the Assyrians rec- conquered the area in A.D. 390. The name is
ognized the importance of such a system to derived from the Greek words hieros for
their continued success. By using phono- "holy" and gluphein for "to engrave." This
grams, or graphic symbols that stood for the "writing of the gods" reveals that Egyptian
sounds they made when they spoke, they culture was much more sensitive to the pic-
were able to reduce the number of Sumerian torial qualities of writing than the Sumerian
culture. Egyptian hieroglyphics not only told

the story of their culture, but did so in a
poetic, beautifully visual way (Figure 8.9).
From an initial symbol set of 700, hiero-

glyphs eventually expanded to over 5,000
characters. Hieroglyphic writing actually was
more complicated than the Sumerian system
because it was a combination of pictographs,
ideographs, phonograms, and determinatives
— symbols that indicated whether a character
should be read as a picture or as a sound.
Scribes were so highly respected for their
mastery of the language and their artistic
talents that they were one of the few groups

that were exempt from taxation. The script
was difficult to translate because it could be

read from right to left, from left to right, from
top to bottom, or from bottom to the top,
depending on the scribe who produced it. By hieroglyphic text. Just before his death at age Figure 8.9
1500 B.C., hieroglyphic writing divided into 42, he published a dictionary to enable As with the petroglyphs in
two forms: hieratic and demotic scripts. The Egyptologists to learn about the ancient cul- caves throughout the world,
hieratic form is the most familiar style of ture. the meaning of hieroglyphic
writing and was used for official business and What experts found were documents writing would have been
religious documents. The demotic script was mostly written for religious purposes. But
impossible to decipher had it
more popular for everyday types of writing there were also business accounts, laws, and
not been for the discovery of
because it was less illustrative and its charac- marriage contracts. During the thirteenth
the Rosetta stone. Oval
ters were highly abstract and symbolic. century B.C., the most popular form of reli-
outlines mark the names of
For hundreds of years, the meaning of gious writing was the Books of the Dead.
important political and
Egyptian hieroglyphs remained a mystery for These beautifully illustrated funerary scripts
religious figures in this
researchers. But in 1799, during Napoleon's charted the progress of great leaders and
expedition to Egypt, the Rosetta stone was ordinary citizens after their deaths. When the Egyptian reproduction. The
found near the port city of Rashad. Written in Egyptians switched from a lunar to a 365 rough background texture
196 B.C., the stone contained the same infor- 4-day modern solar calendar in the third comes from the papyrus
mation in Greek, hieroglyphic, and demotic century B.C., that fact was recorded in hiero- paper used as a writing
versions. It had been written to honor the glyphics. substrate.
arrival of 12-year-old Ptolemy V to Egypt. In The Books of the Dead, along with many
1808 Jean- Francois Champollion in Paris dis- other texts, were written on papyrus. The
covered the two secrets of hieroglyphics: Egyptians put that plant to great use. Papyrus
many of the characters were phonograms and roots were used for fuel, and the stems were
were meant to be spoken aloud, and the woven into ship sails, floor mats, clothes, and
direction of the pictured lion's gaze indicated sandals, and, of course, were used for making
how the text should be read. Because Cham- paper. Scribes used long scrolls of papyrus as
pollion knew Greek well, he was able to a medium for their writing. This substrate
translate the Rosetta stone. The stone is now obviously was much easier to manage than
on exhibit in the British Museum in London. the awkward and heavy tablets used by the
By 1822, Champollion could translate any Sumerians.
142 TYPOGRAPHY
5C Jf*-
Figure 8.10 In 1992, archeologists uncovered the communication known (Figure 8.10). It was
"Mountain and River tombs of the pyramid workers, which were never reduced to abstract symbols as were
Landscape," from the early filled with written messages. These texts many of the other systems; it remained a
Ching dynasty ( 1630 to

revealed much about the lifestyle of the written language comprising more than
ancient Egyptians. For example, hieroglyphic 44,000 individual symbols for centuries. As
about 1707). Note how the
text indicated that most of the workers were in other cultures, scribes who knew the lan-
three separate panels
not slaves, as popularly assumed, but free guage were highly respected for their intelli-
contrast with the thickly
Egyptians who enjoyed three rations of beer a gence and wisdom. They also possessed much
drawn black letters of
day. The small grave sites were decorated with political power, since they controlled the in-
Chinese calligraphy and the
the title of the person buried there. Many formation that became recorded for history.
fine lines of the wood block
cemetery plots even held messages in the Chinese pictographs, known as logograms,
seals.
form of curses. One reads, "I have been a are symbols that represent an entire word,
good man all of my life and have never hurt just as the symbol "%" stands for the word
anyone. If you disturb my tomb, you will be "percentage." The main reason for the com-
eaten by an alligator, a hippopotamus and plexity of Chinese writing was that none of
other animals." the symbols represent the sounds the Chinese
make while speaking; the spoken and written
The Chinese The Chinese invented the languages are completely different. By royal
compass for navigational purposes and gun- decree in 210 B.C., the Chinese writing system
powder for fireworks to celebrate their return was simplified to about 1 ,000 basic characters
to land. In 1800 B.C., Ts-ang Chieh, after that are still in use today.
noticing the footprints left behind by a bird, Such a writing system made use of the
supposedly invented calligraphy. Chinese cal- language in mechanical presses difficult. De-
ligraphy is the most complicated form of vising metal typefaces, as Gutenberg had
1
done, for every Chinese character simply was development of alphabets Figure 8.1
too costly and time-consuming. Chinese

A > A D Development of the
printers would spend all
and sorting symbols. Consequently, the Chi-

own
their time finding
i M )l A L alphabet.
haphazard
From the almost
strokes of the
nese developed their pictorial calli-

? ?r rp it p Phoenician letters, the
graphic style that is praised as an art form
Western alphabet gradually
throughout the world. U S £ s became standardized and
The Phoenicians Between Egypt to the west

-\ /r
iarl\
<c
early
r
late
G
late
symmetrical.
Phoenician Greek Roman Greek Roman

and Sumeria to the southeast, the great socie-
ty of merchants known as Phoenicia pros-
pered along the Mediterranean Sea in the tern. It also meant that more individuals
area now known as Lebanon, Syria, and could produce writings that a large audience
Israel. By about 2000 B.C., the Phoenicians would read (Figure 8.12).
possessed some of the fastest sailing ships

known and traded goods throughout the The Greeks Because the Greeks obtained
world. They learned the Egyptian and Su- their papyrus from the Phoenician capital of
merian writing systems in order to trade with Byblos, they gave their papyrus writing paper
them successfully, but cultural pride led the same name. The English word bible is
them to develop their own system. from the Greek phrase that means "a papyrus
The Phoenician culture is forever linked to book." The Greeks also learned the Phoeni-
one of the greatest advances in the history of cian alphabet sometime between 1000 and
communication: the alphabet (Figure 8.11). 700 B.C. The Phoenicians had little use for
Derived from the first two words of the Greek vowel sounds, but the Greeks did and they
alphabet, alpha and beta, an alphabet is a changed five consonants to the vowels a, e, i,
collection of symbols in a specified order that o, and u and added two other vowel sounds
represents the sounds of spoken language. for a total of 24 characters.
Simply put, an alphabet is a group of ordered The Greeks not only advanced world civi-
phonograms for a language. Researchers be- lization with their writings about philosophy,
lieve that the idea to use phonograms exclu- science, and government with the alphabet Figure 8.12
sively as a written language might have come they used, but they also advanced the art of A system of letters gradually
from the demotic script of the Egyptians or typography by combining their ideas about replaced the native
the cuneiform of the Assyrians. Regardless of the beauty and symmetry of nature with the innocence of pictographic
the exact inspiration, the genius of an alpha- letters they used in writing. Greek letters communication. An
bet was that it reduced to a handful the advantage was that more
number of characters needed to write a lan-
pictograph demise, people could learn to read
after Davies's The Teltini> Image
guage. The Egyptians used about 5,000 sym-
and However, the
bols, the Assyrians about 600, but Phoeni- r bird
write.
cians only 22.
sarcophagus
Found in the limestone of a
in the Phoenician city-state of

& food
word fish and the picture of
a fish conjure two completely
Byblos, the 22 abstract symbols represent the \\ ff water different emotional responses
from a viewer. With the

final phase in the transition from pictorial to i fish
invention of cuneiform,
purely symbolic characters.
x> ox
A compact, easily learned alphabet ended
the political power of well-educated scribes,
o
original
o
early late
cow
modem
words and pictures became
forever separated in the
because anyone could learn the writing sys- pictograph cuneiform cuneiform meaning minds of literate people.
2 5
"
144 TYPOGRAPHY
mimicked the natural forms around them: lage in 750 B.C. on the Tiber River in what
the letter "M" was based on a perfect square, now is central Italy in a region known as
"A" was inspired by the shape of an isosceles Latium, these "Latins" built and ruled an
triangle, and the letter "O" was based on a empire that stretched from England on the
nearly perfect circle. The Greek letters were north to Egypt on the south and from Spain
set on an imaginary horizontal baseline to on the west to Mesopotamia on the east by
achieve a sense of order by their alignment. the first century A.D. As with all the peoples
The individual strokes of the letters were they conquered, when they overwhelmed the
uniform in weight, unlike calligraphy and Greeks, the Romans absorbed much of Greek
other forms of writing. They also introduced culture, including its alphabet.
uppercase and lowercase letters; capitals were The Romans made many adjustments to
reserved for writing on stone, whereas lower- the Greek writing system. From a basic alpha-
case letters were used on papyrus. bet of 21 letters, they replaced the Greek letter
The Greek sense of natural beauty and "Z," which was not a sound in their lan-
order brought an artistic style to the symbolic guage, with the letter "G" in about 250 B.C.
letters. But they also were the first to recog- But by the first century, "Z" was restored to
nize that alphabetic letters possessed infor- allow pronounciation of the many Greek
mational as well as aesthetic qualities (Figure words used in the Roman language along
8.13). with the letter "Y." Late in the tenth century
A.D. the Latin letters of "U" and "W,"
The Romans Roman society was one of the variations of the common letter "V," were
largest and most influential in the history of added. Finally in the fourteenth century,
Western civilization. From a sleepy little vil- some 400 years after Latin had died as a
spoken language, the 26th letter, "J," was

added to complete the alphabet.
Figure 8.13
As the Greeks had done, the Romans used
"Votive Stele [a vow — as
uppercase letters (usually painted red) on
indicated by the upraised
buildings and lowercase characters when
hands on a stone pillarj
writing on papyrus rolls or wax tablets.
with Four Figures in Relief.
This Hellenistic marble from Hot Type Production
the fifth century B.C. uses The printing revolution inspired by Gut-
letters with serif enberg's invention has its roots in much

embellishments. The piece earlier attempts to produce books. Ptolemy V
clearly reflects the culture's
of Alexandria and King Eumenes II of Perga-
appreciation for the natural

mon were locked in a bitter battle, not over
land holdings, wealth, or political status, but

beauty of common
— over who had the largest library. When Ptole-
shapes triangles, squares,
my stopped delivery of papyrus to Eumenes,
and circles.
he thought he had ended the argument. But
with this action, he contributed to his own
papyrus library's downfall. When Pergamon
scribes switched to parchment, they discov-
ered that the pages could be folded and

stitched together in a codex, or book, of 2, 4,
or 8 sheets. Papyrus scrolls were too fragile to

be folded. For the first 400 years of this Figure 8.14
millennium, scribes used scrolls and codices. High above and isolated
Book-like codices eventually replaced scrolls C - from the chaos known as the
because Christians associated the higher Dark Ages, monks worked in
quality parchment sheets with a love for their

scriptoriums, tediously
God. Papyrus scrolls were of inferior quality
> 2 copying religious hooks for
and thought to be used by pagans. When the
monastery libraries.
Emperor Constantine made Christianity the
official religion of the Roman empire in 325,
codices became the official medium for writ-
ing. 2 S
With the fall of the Roman empire, the

Dark Ages descended on Europe. It was a a scribe to copy anything from a recipe to a
time of rampant lawlessness, disease, and scientific treatise. If their funds were limited,
rebellion throughout much of the world be- they could copy books themselves at a much
cause the Roman legions were no longer reduced price.
around to keep order. For example, during As indicated earlier, Gutenberg combined
the reign of the Roman emperor Marcus several different operational steps — ink, type
Aurelius Antonius, the smallpox virus alone production, paper, and a press —to develop
killed 2,000 people a day. Many escaped the first commercially successful printing
disease and criminals by joining religious method. Printers commonly used his basic
orders, which usually occupied isolated procedure without any major changes for the
mountaintops. Almost every abbey and mon- next 350 years (Figure 8.15). One of the great
astery by the tenth century had its own early printers was the Venetian Aldus Manu-
scriptorium where monks with quill pens tius. His Aldine Press published high-quality
would copy existing works for the library works by Greek and Roman philosophers and
(Figure 8.14). These copyists, or scriptores, illustrated works of fiction. In 1498 he fin-
were at the bottom of the monasteries' social
order and led a hard life. Only prayers, meals, Figure 8.15
and sleep interrupted their grueling schedule. This woodcut portrays a
Although the alphabet had simplified writ- typical print shop during the
ing, most manuscripts required a high degree century after the
first
of skilled, artistic talent to complete. Copyists
invention of the commercial
were responsible for the words, and illumina-
printing press. Typesetters in
tors and miniaturists drew the decorative
the background set the
letters and elaborate borders. Leading clergy
printing plates with metal
and the nobility took good care of these
type tnolds. Meanwhile, the
specialized artists.
By the thirteenth century, trade guilds,

man in the front right inks
including some for scribes and later for a plate of type with two
bookmakers, began to be organized in com- ball-like pads. After he
munities. Relatively large numbers of books lowers the platen, the other
on a variety of subjects began to be available man removes the printed

to more people. These guilds usually were work from the press.
located in a bookstore in towns with universi-

ties. Students from the local school could pay
146 TYPOGRAPHY
Figure 8.16 gtonofamortc.miferamcmcuiuciulonoaquiflj.Hcumcrepenrcin nic 1726 and published the Pennsylvania Gazette
l.\rJi;ioiKr«'iprocatJ,cuni<]udtiabfiiri)imalii)ic)i,contraljniijI ,oIij
One of the first printed imprccati.ln mcgli ritorqucua.Hc: Poliphik.contn il mo bcne.aducr- and the famous Poor Richard's Almanac.
unima in a.contra il core tuo.ot aducrfo la ma fpcrancia fi
books with woodcut
fo
merammcntcbiarUmirc! lit quel tacrario diomniuutute (Quale Hero

i Hi aufo tc-
When the French Revolution erupted in 1789,
foatoJmalcdiccndoncpluriamentcinuadcrc.-'Damnauadunquc lara' a call for the freedom of the press was
illustrations is Francesco bia amorola chc me di furorccxarfc,& chc mc cufi dtmcntaua prccan- ,
doghOn pofcupaclTatuttoilcontrario.&tuttoin bcncdiftionernio- answered with the establishment of more

Colonna's The cando. Hora Ron piu apprcciando il monre.chccuii uiucre, difpoumi
dmtrouarc aflat habile&honcllocomcntodidarlinoticia hogimaidc- than 300 newspapers in France the next year.
Hypnerotomachia Poliphili
glimcimoleflt&infupportabtli langon.&contcrirliil mioctcrno con
cepto.PcnCindo rccâmctc.chcil imccofaramo dura nd core humano The principal invention of the Industrial
(The Dream of Poliphilus). concrcta.chc curl foculo damorcnofcmollcfca.uinca.&doma-Ei lari
Revolution (1760 to 1840) was James Watt's
couda Pilaaptadtrotarfc (labile pfifte. Machighdalo Impulfo.f.iclof'
The 1499 edition was
jicio dclla fuacircinau forma, Per tale argumt-rocc git u di fcriucrli,&di steam engine, invented in 1769. Transporta-
produced in the print shop
of the Venetian Aldus
Manutius by
Press.
his Aldine
Notice that in only a

n
jrJj_2..
—J
&\>i?M I
f if
11 '
)
tion radically changed
ert
when America's Rob-
Fulton used the engine to power a steam-
boat in 1807 and Britain's George Stephenson
built the first practical locomotive in 1829.
few years after Gutenberg's Johannes Gutenberg's quaint wooden press
Bible, the difficult blackletter _^ L. k I
I
became a historical relic in 1814 when the
typeface is replaced by the German Frederich Koenig used the steam
highly readable roman type engine to power a printing press in London

that could print 1,110 sheets a day. Police had
family.
to guard the press from printers who feared
Ktare.qualelitullclaniniodllinopucK liigciiiiai\)mpna,miraracco the loss of their jobs and were angry about
politodiomniuiriute&pra-rtantia,M.iad mcdimiiioccr(.'minc&tur-
bidafcditione.ailidueaiixicraie.&coiuinuodolrire.fanuliarcrriorte fen this technological development. In 1828, Au-
cia pnuatione, per la pnuationc di una cola tanto elegante, optabile
8camata£tdicto no mi fuadeua raleopinameto.chc in cllaaltro fe ritro- gustus Applegath and Edward Cowper in-
vented a four-cylinder press that could han-

dle 4,000 sheets a day for The Times of
ished a five-volume set of Aristotle's works. London. Later improvements increased that
He also published The Dream of Poliphilus, a output to 8,000 sheets per hour! The Ameri-
curious tale about a young man searching for can Richard Hoe introduced the rotary press
his lover. The book is noted for its sexually in 1847 (Figure 8.18). With invention of
explicit illustrations (Figure 8.16). His type lithography and the halftone photoengraving
designer, Francesco GrifFo, helped develop screen (see Chapter 9), color illustrations and
the first font for the title page of Virgil's photographs could be printed during the
Opera. Early italics was not designed to em- same press run as the copy. By the late 1880s,
phasize a certain phrase as it is today but to most high-circulation newspapers used the
make more money for Aldus. The slanted web perfecting press with coated papers that
italic script allowed pages to be filled with allowed high-quality, fast-paced printing on
more characters, thus using less paper. Opera both sides of a long roll of paper. The advent
was also innovative because it was the first of stereotyped plates further sped the print-
pocket book, measuring only 3^ by 6 inches. ing process, as several duplicate pages could
Evidence of Gutenberg's legacy is found be printed on different presses at the same
throughout the world. In the sixteenth centu- time.
ry, the first newspapers in the world were Faster presses drastically reduced the cost
printed in the Netherlands and in Germany. of each page. Newspaper publishers added
In 1704, the Boston News- Letter became the more pages, increasing the amount of adver-
first single sheet American newspaper (Figure tising space available — and profit. They also
8.17). Benjamin Franklin returned to Phila- set back their deadlines to allow printing of
delphia with a press after a trip to England in more up-to-date news in each edition. For
—TYPOGRAPHY AND THE SIX PERSPECTIVES i
147
:
toimb.
the consumer, efficient presses made newspa- |.
Figure 8.17
pers and other publications much more af- The Bofton News-Letter. The first American
fordable. The faster presses were the name- pubiltycD br Zutljojirp. newspaper with a regular
From HhmCaP May I. to BPofttOf May I 1704.
sake of the "penny presses." But as Rolf Rehe circulation. With its two
kUi Gtltur, from * • I'
foe iV Civil (fOvrrnBKM are dmiinilnt l>y tht UV
hire, in ConuoAion * rtli (he iiutt CmtW, Con-
notes in his book Typography: How to Make It WrflnilaAcT, >*-».,
I
rritnjl'-a >Mt of My Own

Rt-vxnur towirdi (mat
columns of aligned type
Most Legible, they also were responsible for
the unattractive, old-style, and vertical look
T
hOffty it iht
IE t*rli*
surf> turn
M
I fir*
H~fi
'I*
*f
- mm
a /W*ik TV— - IU>H*,*t

wkk im a/ad
Bl^k.
C mmm;
inr fi«
<*<
""fi
'*»
A*
npWrAtf tk'u At.
W"
•f
C*w/«-an
»« t
r
*
Pud irk Servicer, and particuUrU rhr SuatpufTof (be
Cioli- oTSmAmj whofc limi Adherence to oV ln-
hj.it of the Alln* mdrr itu Kfrite* Prttiurea, did
very wellUefcrve tajr SufmubJ* AHjlancr
1 ftull
Uqnto ffary Exprncr uf M» Own, Jur 1 may kin

And
flill be Careful qor re rn|a#rMy Self in any
thr, more v» Spare (beard* the Cafe of Sty Subject).

. introduced by an enlarged
letter, it is similar in style to

l.>.Wri«fIfN*V'r mkithml*) -trnt utm-
common to early newspapers. Because cylin- JJ^jf/,ami lUr Mm/'JIj msi ft**j*4 «•
Crttini Spmti i* kvti nfca/it, wiw* /dao.
* Gr» Inwi,'
rkinJy With Tame n£e mtf kf» cham-ibae
I
Method uuld he fund for the bperdy »n4 £ifou-

i
Gutenberg's Bible.
der presses ran faster, type had a tendency to A
h}j*r Called you u^ctber afton M I thought
•1 Mi/mint of
I muff
oftheFWt
mull alTo RrOTmmcnd S> J ou k> sake (box R*.
lffb Ri
|[
you
au f Mawiwi *~«roe
ouU conveniently
could Coroc out
oui 01 uun
your Coun
of your fulation the rjin£iVT mce
fularwn for Prrresung ITK Piv* of Lc+i\
of Coils uniin
fly off the rollers unless it was secured with riul no Time cay be loft io mik-mi Our Pre-
Hum
.
_rw liw Carjyin,—. ibe Prefca War.in which

lut Cirrj'irifon
'
T
Ore
Examined thi» Mailer, ind ukra pirtvular
to zppvini Conroyi (or chat Scr*k> , bur ti>?
1 du m>r Doubt ofjwn Cheerfvl Concunrna, Gntr r*nce hai not been in the Inft
Abated norvitUbuial-
Img a very confidenble efanciry hai been Ivjomd
vertical rules or wedges. vou can't t** be rrofiblr, thji OB the Swocefa of it
«Vf«odi Our Ova Safety tad Happinrii and (hat of fincc that tint ; Tha giwi |not ot Sufbici' Bowd
«11 f*'ff*. j on there may hr a Crabioaoon of Coaoe Prrfcen s
High-speed presses wouldn't have been of oT^d
I H> -ir
in
(
Me
hove Improved the Confidence you Re-
lad for. to your SoanfaftMn ml the '
Enrich thaofrlvct by a gmcnl OpsrciCoe of orhm
and partiadiJ-ly the poor Twill dJcrvp yourQ*-
Advantjpe of lb NM Our Ailica, by the Treaty ftdcmiM bowtoRrmrdy this frnt bNCOoeajicoce.
n
much advantage if printers still sorted and set wi.-lttbcKina; t£ Pmnd. rod the DecUratrM of
w
du DuLe 5"^, which >b jrem Mrafore may be
I And all your AfTJVi,
you aa much DiTpa'**1
1 MMR R^comanend to
»
*p Nature- of them wv!l
Unpured to the CbeerUnrawcrh which ) ou S»p adrak [ Thu » NeCeJTanta make Our Prepanikarif
on which in pot Vealurr Drpcsdacbc food
the many typeface styles by hand as in ponri Me in rhj* Ww. and the Aflurance wirh
which you TruRed Me id the Conduct »( it And :
early,
Sutaefi of all Out tnicrptiio
I want Word* t» Crwrela lo you My earceil Da-
We cannot lufneiemly Acknowledic tlu Coodocf*
Gutenberg's day. A skilled person could set of Abni|hty God, Who a plrafcd Co Afharl lb U fam of Socmuj all My bubyfcli in pctfef3 Peace and
far a Profptcl a* Wc ito« have, of brkujiafl. k *> a Union wrona tbemkWn I have norVunf fo tmich
Qormi and Sfeedr CoodufioB. at Hon at their jeocral WeJbM and Happinrft
Qtht reujCnaWhwaa mf ah» iW* Ln Me iherefart Defer y» til Thit yon would
1,500 letters per hour by hand. But in 1886 a I mJt tbarefere
e'Cwnr loflmt Me fuch Supplies « flwJl be Carefully A raid any Htaa or Dtviuotu hai may I
uJitfio Defray trrNevB^ Qaarje of rheVVai Difappoint Me aa* thai S^nfaciicm, and GiveEn-
Ow
caarageaent ta the Connion Enmua* of Our
32-year-old inventor named Ottmar Mergen- t Yev, with retard, not amy to »li
hVn>tLri|pyTt>rraxbui particularly n r AUnnc* Church and St-atc.
lately m.ide \nrh the Kini of rVnwW foe rcct7rrrm|
the >1<imrchy of Sf* hoai the Moulc id Lud«a, Orrmk* p.
thaler from Baltimore introduced the Lino- w
the Hcufe of '•ajhan, which /**N Monday the Maroweile *tHi*cm*t, a French
Treaty
Remind «
•nd Re'
iry V* Ing lo it fellof dac huAefl lmpomme
'
^
PruteUaw Rvfugfe, depanrd thu Lifej'n the y»
year uf hit Aft, leaving bvktnd him a very fnad
itnaaitubli ,«id renuirin| all poflibU Difpacchtn the
type automated typesetting machine, which Exeeuiion of it, hai NotriLnJ r Occafaon'd a |urJl Naenc, foe hia an-ai Pirry and Othrr Virtue*, tmly
Eipacccven in rhiiprcfesi Y*ar,lbo' nut i» much houwimR nun. A* hehaacherrfuJJy taadc »NuW
a»* will Raejuire. oo/tot which, hoe*. tbajl Wc
a SacriS^- of aâxeat Llbi< tu hiaRrlifun. hckvrd
could set 9,000 letters an hour. It cast a whole he amply Rccanprnfcd in (he next.
I
|
mh.t t-xnc A" < fu Eaemplary a manner, (hat jufth/
Tht SuliUin whk-h willnuwhr immedurrly |atned hm lU dttfto of all that knew htm.
line of type in lead from letters typed on a Required U
the Amftance of the l>uke of Sm>'.\
H"» E«r.llcnry J OS BP H Dt OLE TEfij
wilftihrw.le Orcafaw afunher NecrfLry Oi»rjr Ri
I imdrTjfceN'«icecr.you.Th»tih.r wiwnaiki Captain (jener jI jkH Gofrrnuut in Chief, ia
Provifion «t» made idthc bftVltun. nihil hw the and i».r >krM..yr|tieaPro«eM(. Htg*.
keyboard. When an entire story had been set, Chary of Oi'r prrfmt Eaped'ttiun tn P-ftf*. or in M»£^M.
ul the
(ortW of iIk AuKmenutKO I roopi drf rrd b) the

baan Cn>i<i' yet the Fundi f iveo by Pariument A PROCLAMATION fur a General FAST
Figure 8.18
the type could be fitted onto a form for have held out iu »
ll.and the Veudufo -f nV Priae*
rW T TP- C~i>dr,*,.m 4 ,h rnLMmm fan - Europe,
,
Km Pnw d To Conf.c.ubk. Out you will find '
Puhlick w,i: not ba in Debt by lUafuOof mher h"</"V'«c^ w -*^^.aw> ^ .
The Hoe press was used

printing with other stories. After printing, theTc Additional S^hj, « i^V^ t/ W<*-. — ¥ «n
Imay hflTheroMcTvc ioyou,T>al tbo' the F»a»da /ej»wi C-«*» lirrrfi tkntU
'
d>*if*im f*fm
1
— '
'
primarily to publish Sunday

the lead was simply melted and used again
newspapers that used color.
the origination of the term hot type. The next hundred copies of Frank Dobie's adventure
year, Tolbert Lanston introduced the Mono- about the Southwest, Coronado's Children, The symmetrical
type machine, which could set individual printed on handmade Italian paper and hav- composition of this woodcut
letters. Corrections were much easier than ing initial letters printed in 22-karat gold, helps organize the
with the Linotype machine because a mistake were sold for $700 each at Neiman- Marcus complicated structure of the
did not require that a whole line be reset. In department stores. steam-driven press.
1928, Walter Morey introduced the Teletype-
setter, which used perforated tape similar to
that used for years for printing stock market
prices. When attached to a Linotype ma-

chine, the Teletypesetter automatically pro-
duced the copy in lead slugs. Noisy and huge

Linotype machines were still common in
newspapers until the 1960s when they were

replaced by cold type technology.
Printing with traditional materials and
methods is still an honored craft that a few
individuals around the world practice. For
example, Andrew Hoyem of San Francisco

produces high-quality, limited edition books
that he sells for as much as $1,000 each. Three
148 TYPOGRAPHY
Cold Type Production until 1954. It had more than 100 variations in
In a print shop the space needed to store type styles and functions.
all the lead slugs that represented not only Digital typesetting is similar to photo-
every typeface, but every size and attribute typesetting except that an operator uses a
variation of that font, was enormous. Print computer to generate letters. The computer
shops therefore usually specialized in certain creates a series of dots that represent charac-
kinds of typeface styles. Inspired by the ters stored in its memory. The words created
relatively new invention of photography, pho- are projected onto a video monitor where the
totypesetting, or cold type, was a method for operator can view and edit them. When the
creating typeface letters without the need for operator is satisfied with the text, a helium-
metal. The transition from metal hot type neon laser can output to photosensitive pa-
methods to photographic and later digital per, toner-based printers, positive or negative
cold type procedures produced a radical film, or a printer's engraving plate directly (a
change in typeface design. Fonts could be process known as stereotyping). Recent ad-
made cheaply, quickly, and with nearly the vances in digital technology have merged
same quality as with metal. More important, typesetting and publishing into a single oper-
designers could create and manipulate type ation — desktop publishing.
placement easily once the physical limitations Initially, only governments and large cor-
of metal type were eliminated. porations could afford digital typesetting and
Cold type is produced in two ways: type- the elaborate equipment necessary for the
setting without a computer (phototypeset- printing operation. But in 1984, the Apple
ting, photocomposition, and photo-optic or Computer Company introduced its Macin-
filmsetting) and digital typesetting using a tosh computer with on-screen layout capabil-
computer. Phototypesetting works on the ities for the production of words and graphics
principle of photography. Depending on the on the same, inexpensive system (see Chapter
system, typefaces may be stored on punched 15). Desktop publishing was born. The quali-
tape, film, disks, grids, or drums. The type- ty of digital output is measured in dots per
setter uses a typewriter keyboard to select inch (dpi). An average laser printer will
individual letters. When the machine turns to produce 300 dpi printouts. However, profes-
the appropriate letter, a strong beam of light sionals use expensive laser printers with reso-
shines through the letter, exposing a sheet of lutions of 2540 dpi or higher.
photographic paper. A fixed focal or zoom Digital typesetting has been a boon to
lens built into the device controls the size of typographical designers. On many profes-
the typeface. When developed, the positive sional systems, 30,000 characters can be sent
printed letters are cut, pasted up (keylined) to a printer in less than a minute. With type
on a layout, sent to a printer where an and graphics in digital form, satellite connec-
engraving of the page is made, and then tions make it possible for the Wall Street
printed. Journal and USA Today to transmit pages to
Experiments with phototypesetting began printing plants throughout the United States
as early as 1893, but early efforts weren't for the next day's editions. With old photo-
successful. In 1912, William Huebner made typesetting systems, typeface sizes were limit-
the first practical photocomposition machine, ed from 6 to 72 points in large 6-point jumps.
but it cost more that $50,000 — too high a With digital technology, type sizes typically
price for most printers of the day. The first range from 4 to 127 points and can be varied
commercially successful phototypesetter ma- by less than a point. In addition, without the
chine, the Photon 200B, wasn't introduced placement restrictions of metal type, design-
ers can condense, expand, and position type 3,000 typefaces are commonly used today. If
in unusual configurations. One of the early a previously published style doesn't fit the
masters at type manipulation was Herb Luba- requirements of a piece, an artist simply uses
lin, who co-founded the International Type- a computer program to create a specialized
face Corporation in 1970. His designs show a typeface that does. During the past ten years,
creative merging of form and content and some 300 typefaces have been invented with
have inspired many other typographical de- computer technology. So many choices re-
signers. quired that a method be devised to group

Digital designs also make typeface creation typefaces into categories or families. The
much easier. Typographical artists use com- resulting six basic typeface families are:
puter software to invent their own styles. blackletter, roman, script, miscellaneous,
Roger Black, one of the most successful new square serif, and sans serif. Think of each
typographical designers, has created the type- typeface family as separate colors, each with
faces used in such diverse magazines as Roll- their own mood and purpose, depending on
ing Stone, Newsweek, and Esquire. the culture in which they are used.
The price of typefaces has fallen drastical-
ly. With metal typefaces, one font often cost a Blackletter Sometimes called gothic, old
printer more than $200. With the new tech- style, renaissance, or medieval, the blackletter
nology, four typefaces can cost less than typeface family is highly ornate and decora-
$150. The ease in working with type on a tive. Individual strokes that make up the
computer also allows words to be used more letters are thick and have sharply diagonal
often in screen presentations. lines. Many of the strokes in capital letters are
connected with thinner supporting lines. The

Technical Perspective ends of the letters usually have small stylized
strokes that were early predecessors of the
In order to analyze the use of typefaces in serif. Because it happened to be the style that
print or screen communications, you must be scribes in monasteries used for their hand-
aware of the various choices available to the written works, Gutenberg fashioned his metal
typographer. A designer who uses words in a type characters accordingly. Consequently,
piece must make choices about various type- the family is associated with traditional, con-
face styles in relation to overall size, color, servative, and religious content. Blackletter's
attributes, text block size, justification, and use in body copy is limited because of its low
white space. level of legibility. However, for large head-
lines the use of this typeface connotes classi-

Typeface Families
cal values and historical importance (Figure
Typography is a big business. Frank Roma- 8.19). The most common use of the blacklet-
no, editor of Typeworld magazine, estimates ter family of type is for the names of newspa-
that computer companies, typesetters, print- pers and on diplomas and certificates. De-
ers, publishers, advertising agencies, and signers may change typeface families in a
writers spend more than $300 million a year paper to give it a modern appearance, but the
to purchase type. Johannes Gutenberg had an nameplate remains blackletter to symbolize
easy time selecting the typeface style for his traditional values and stability. As text in
Bible because there was only one — textur. printed books, blackletter had a relatively
Since Gutenberg's day, at least 40,000 differ- brief Within twenty years of
life. its use by
ent typeface styles have been invented, with Gutenberg, most printers had abandoned it
over 176,000 attribute variations. About for the roman family style.
" .
150 TYPOGRAPHY
Figure 8.19 MERCURY CENTER - Today's Paper time the roman typeface was introduced in
The editors of the electronic 1465. During that period, three forms were
San 3ose Utercura flfeuis
version of the San Jose 0- Front Page introduced: old style, transitional, and mod-
National
Mercury News, as seen on International
ern.
Local & State
the America Online bulletin Editorials & Commentary
1. Old style: Two Venetian printers, Nicolas
Business
Jenson and Aldus Manutius, working sep-
board, try to maintain the Sports
Entertainment arately realized that the blackletter type
link with a paper version by Living
was fine for Bibles, but they had other
using a blackletter typeface
works in mind that needed to be read
for the name.
more easily. The two shaved the metal of
ToUToTh* Novs Lltxxj Entot Sovch Papoi
KtofCury News Cod. the blackletter characters so that the
strokes were not quite as thick or ornate.
The public and other printers immediately

Roman In a tribute to the Roman civiliza- favored this design change. In 1475, Wil-
tion that gave the world a modern, 26-letter liam Caxton of Great Britain printed the
alphabet, French designers named a major first book in English, a translation from
typeface family in its honor. The roman the French of Recuyell of the Histories of
typeface family is the most commonly used of Troy (Figure 8.20). One hundred years
all the typeface families. It is used almost later, one of the greatest typeface design-
exclusively for body copy in books, maga- ers, Claude Garamond, who established
zines, and newspapers because it is familiar to the first type foundry, developed a roman
readers and exceedingly legible and the gently typeface in which the lowercase letters
curved serifs create lines that are easy to read. were considered more beautiful than the
Development of the style of roman used uppercase letters. That led to printing the
today took approximately 300 years from the titles of books in uppercase and lowercase
Of ban «*? f» *P *""«

Figure 8.20 » ffi, <*
tttio G> *B» mopittie
£>i
The old style roman C4 tturn «ni>? <<<»

M? 6 °f "*'*.fry*
typeface
<e «f s«*7 g# »*• **« ^ ^J, h, toft of K**
family is represented by
twfSt oo ««D —t " *
fcm" r
S>«-
these two pages from a first

«(k
IKirft
lim »«°? «•** "fi? P*"*
f>
yftfr
T S3**" m fct *"* *'
(MSon of ftitfi tfc 50* KO^MmmH

jC h fco tut tfetStontfr h»
edition of Chaucer's «•»«« CurtT (tton* on&)
too** &n> fBt frft
«n» M» *** m fct o:ifo«o ft W
(XnW at* (• » 'Mi p6>rofcp6BO«n* S, SiWontjt
Canterbury Tales printed in tr w!%m » Pf» "Tie* ""V**
3 nôt •»!•«*'<' ft** "*
oe S»
?«» 1
f8'
*«6tfo'««(ta*
5
C«B Ski m»«cc
fiuf&nat i* *
jdar fMtf At (or* * 6w •»")
.
<tut ffcft «*; Hhkmuiv m
«nt>»5!
England by William Caxton p Hit SfftHiiioo^ frouft an
«i » a oomfif «i«n p ttot in it
§2 » *>« r
«"* fct I* gg
W, tAA *t n^C* (ipi ] SW« to >»u Cm
in 1477. Because the English mot56»u
1 '«&«*'
0ol*iffiftSfitp<4ir it nof 6ctfc»
Iim nUntR (W""?8 (»*?!•
<3no?It«fcoymi«fift'» '- !
Kuh»i; tjoi)
;
M« to lit fSnt
,
language does not contain , ttfel f» no owo nt t^mjp riot n«5ftt
the ligature characters of OMg Km ««»* * W*?m m *

™ (v +f f 1 nan to nont &Scrps) &i
Gm) fiipoi (ftt
QlnO; tfei) at ttft to
3Swk an awjtf ffiâV tfet liui<fi nw

Of oifiont» feai Bio soffit "J* ibi ffiitR ?it< liut Sfti E J tSoEt ct fttpi
«* nuitt fitto' oe ] Sn«n fjma oscst 3t mi a)) m7 fe%)9 ^tto Crpi
Latin, the text is set in
Of hi MiM ontr. ?oW to Tout on*
SnO- jf Itt (t mai. ft&i) out of ran
(BtftW Bn» to -to: B* t«i * m< toutfit gg but tnWonf
ragged right instead of t?i*> 9) «6i» im* f»*» *"*> * WJ
justified columns. This
technique conveys a more
informal design to the work
than Gutenberg's product.

letters for the first time. In the United Figure 8.21
States in 1722, William Caslon applied a atlp dtan After fires in 1993
different design philosophy to old style devastated parts of southern
roman typeface. In an early example of the California, The Daily Titan,
gestalt
have beauty
approach, he wanted his type to
when all the letters were
Ml student newspaper of
printed together. The appearance of indi-
vidual letters wasn't as important to Cas-

lon as the total effect. The Declaration of
i NGF ROMTF i
California State University,
Fullerton, printed a special
edition. The all-capital,
roman typeface headline is a

Independence and the Constitution were
perfect choice for the front
printed with Caslon 's typeface.
page. It is as if the letters
2. Transitional: The typeface of John Basker-
themselves are "rising from
ville of England in the eighteenth century
the ashes" as much as the
best exemplifies the transitional period for
spirit of the people.
the roman typefaces. Baskerville trans-
formed Caslon's type by making the let-
ters more vertical. He also allowed a bit
more contrast between the thin and thick ments and publications that want to promote
strokes and gave the type flatter, less a high-quality, high-class appearance. Wed-
ornate serifs. ding invitations and licenses, for example,
3. Modern: One of the most prolific early

commonly are printed in script because the
fineline letters, perhaps more than any other

typeface designers was the Italian Giam-
family's style, give the piece an air of hand-
battista Bodoni. He produced more than
100 different alphabet collections. In 1768, made attention to detail (Figure 8.22).
his roman typeface became the standard

Miscellaneous Sometimes referred to as
style for the family, which is still used.
novelty or display type, the members of the
With Bodoni's type, the roman typeface
miscellaneous typeface family, as the name
style lost its early link to blackletter and
suggests, cannot easily be sorted into the
became a distinctive family. Its letter
other families. Miscellaneous type first began
strokes changed from thick lines with little c j j Fi 9 ure 822
appearing tor advertising purposes during
contrast to thinner strokes with a notice- The script typeface family
the Industrial Revolution. As more people
able difference in width (Figure 8.21). "
made more money because of the efficiency R" reinf° rced hY an italk
of new machines, they demanded more prod- roman ^head lends an air
Script Cursive writing is defined as letters ucts. Printing came to be thought of as not of sophistication to a story
that are linked. In 1557, Robert Granjon of simply for disseminating information and on a bed and breakfast.
France introduced the first typeface designed
to mimic the handwriting of ordinary people.
"The idea of a theme Is unusual," says owner Trudy Barash (above). "We've heard of one other
literary bed and breakfast In the state of Washington. In each room, a hand-painted mural depicts
High-priced scribes usually used the blacklet- a scene from the traveler's story from 'The Canterbury Tales.' "
ter style, but Granjon developed the delicately

graceful script style in which the letters,
whether uppercase or lowercase, were joined

by elongated and connecting serifs. Ironically,
the script typeface family, which originally

was intended to look like ordinary handwrit-
ing, is now used almost exclusively for docu- A Madison Bed & Breakfast with a literary twist
152 TYPOGRAPHY
Figure 8.23
The Health Jolting Chair
COFY1IQHT.
three-dimensional type were used in adver-
Many nineteen th - centu ry g
JlieraoBt Important e all h Til ec h nn ism toer produced
tisements on printed pages, tin cans, and
CI %Mticat 3Couo»',ofb Slt&atUut. for, trV. 8<iii>£ t -3Coto4.
advertisements used billboards— often in graphically unpleasant,
It afford. a PERFECT
typography to attract a meene of erring EFFICIENT but certainly eye-catching, combinations
cxerciee to the ESSEN-
reader's attention. In this
TIALLY IMPORTANT (Figure 8.24). The Industrial Revolution also
NUTRITIVE ORGANS OF
THE BODY In the moat
DIRECT, CONVENIENT, spurred the final two typeface families.
typical example, five of the COMFORTABLE, ml IN-
EXPENSIVE muuef.
six typeface families are £m lnblf far nil »gr» anil lor
moil plural lonbilione. Square Serif In 1815, probably inspired by
represented: sans serif (The INDISPENSABLE TO THE
HEALTH AND HAPPINESS the architecture and other sights reported
OP MILLIONS OF HUMAN
Health Jolting Chair), BEINGS WHO MAY BE LIV-
ING SEDENTARY LIVES after Napolean's conquest of Egypt, Vincent
roman (COPYRIGHT), through choice or necessity.
|! rti7»<r»« gealtlt, Figgins designed a typeface similar to the

blackletter (The most tnrt;8 giseaBe, MIO
prolong* %tfe. modern roman but with right-angle curves
An lnff-ni«,it, rational,
important Health . . .
), tdenttfic, mechanical otuu jutting from the letter strokes. Sometimes
o( overcoming those impediments
to the taking of proper exercise,
script (A Practical erected hy the artificial method* called 3-D, slab-serif, or Egyptian, the square
of modern society.
Household . . . ), and lor rrrjsin (losses of serif typeface family is intended, as is the
inunlibs n ucrilabla
square serif (PERFECT). By 5rea8nre»5roue. miscellaneous family, to draw attention to
A CONSERVATOR of
today's standards such a NERVOUS ENERGY. itself and the product it is helping to adver-
No dwelling-home le com-
pletely fornlahed without The
mixing of typefaces might be Health Jolting Chair.
tise. Square serif is the least used typeface
family today because of its bricklike appear-
called a "typographic car
news through books, magazines, and newspa- ance, which gives it an unpleasant rigid look.
wreck" or considered
pers, but also as a way to attract potential Curiously, in American culture this typeface
modern when used in a
customers through advertising (Figure 8.23). family is associated with the wild West be-
"garbage font" publication.
The miscellaneous family's unique feature cause it was used commonly on storefronts in
is that its style purposely draws attention to pioneer towns in the Western movies made in
itself. For example, creative typographers Hollywood.

even designed typefaces with letters formed
by collections of flowers or contorted human Sans Serif In 1832, the great-great-grand-
figures. During the Industrial Revolution, de- son of William Caslon, William Caslon IV,
signers also created several specialty type ef- designed the last type family. The sans serif
fects. In 1803, Robert Thorne made the lines typeface family was immediately controver-
of Bodoni's modern roman type much thicker sial. The French word sans means "without."
and produced a type attribute he named Caslon simply took existing letters and
"fat face." Today the popular style is called trimmed off all their serifs. The result was a
boldface. Other specialty attributes such type style that Caslon named "block type."
as reverse, light, condensed, expanded, and Typographical critics of the day immediately
voiced their objections to the type family as
Figure 8.24
being too simple and without style.
Although this typeface
Despite the early criticism, sans serif type-
generated by a computer
faces have enjoyed several periods of popular-
program has roots in the
ity. Printers in the 1880s liked the new style.
sans serif family, it is
Many felt that the streamlined, clean-looking
considered an example of a
letter strokes fit the new, fast- paced machine
miscellaneous typeface
age. The architectural and graphic design
because its metallic style of art deco in the 1920s revived interest
appearance matches its in the type. In the 1970s, newspaper publish-
verbal message. ers asked designers to modernize their front
TYPOGRAPHY AND THE SIX PERSPECTIVES
— 153
DANE COUNTY'S AFTERNOON NEWSPAPER Figure 8.25
TOP 100 In order to connote a
The Capital Times MADISON, WISCONSIN * * THURSDAY, FEB. 18, 1993 50«
BASKETBALL
SCORERS
modern appearance,
natneplate for this
the
newspaper is taken from the

LATE NEWS
sans serif typeface family.
Clinton hits road
If we do not act now, Senate OKs

Further proof of a
Hard we will not amendment

forward-thinking approach
to typographical design is
on gambling
recognize this the use of illustrations, text,
part The Wisconsin Senate took
legislative action today
stitutional amendment
final
on a con-
to limit and white space on the front
country 1 0 years gambling, the final step before
voters deride Its fate In the
page layout. Newspaper
begins from now.
April 6 general election. The
Senate accepted on a voice vote
the Assembly's version of the
front pages usually are
wording that will appear on the
By Steven Komarow
ballot. An additional change in
the wording was rejected. tightly packed word and
WASHINGTON — President Clinton
moblli/ed tils administration today 10 sell
Ills (lay-old economic program In the face picture displays with little
of Republican attacks Hint It relics Loo lit-
tle on spending cuts nnri loo much on lax
2 workers free
IncreiMi
When the While House released details after top pops room for white space.
of the jtlnii the morning utter Clinton's
speech, the numbers appeared less opti-
mistic lhan the (..nr.- used a duy earlier
offchemical tank
In administration briefings. Bone-chilling cold was the big-
The new documents show that instead gestenemy this morning when
of reducing the deficits by almost u liall-
trllllon dollar* over the next four yean,
two workers became trapped in
the actual deficit reductions will mttuunl an nnheated room at Royster Co.
to a smaller S32f> billion
The president and Cabinet official*
With temperatures hovering
were heading across the country to boost around zero and wlndchllls 30 Figure 8.26
the plan. Hut (hose who begun their mis- below or worse, the cold was
sion on Capitol Mil clashed rcpealedly
more threatening than the leak-
with Republican critics
ing tank of hazardous chemicals
In this promotional
Rep. John Ka.slch. R-OHo, ranking Re-
nnrt Httmntfprl wnll f W
hnrl tltp
photograph for Apple

pages. Many turned to the sans serif family about six major type attributes: size, color, Computer's Newton
for headlines and photo outlines to offset the font, text block size, justification, and white MessagePad, a stylus
roman type of the body copy (Figure 8.25). space. We discuss the graphic design consid- reminiscent of the cuneiform
Screen media presentations again have dem- erations of text placement and style consis- period is used to write text
onstrated the importance of the sans serif tency in Chapter 9.
on a small screen of the
style (Figure 8.26). Roman type, with its
portable computer.
delicate serifs, often is hard to read on a
1. Size: Type is measured in points. A single
point 0.0138 Interestingly, the best
screen unless it is quite large. Consequently,
is inch. For printed text
blocks, the best type sizes are between 9 typeface family to use on a
sans serif typefaces are used most often in
motion picture titles and credits, in identifi-
and 12 points. Display type is considered Newton is the same as that
cation cutlines for television news programs, to be anything larger than 14 points. employed by the machine's
and for menu and text announcements on a Banner newspaper headlines for some sig- designers — sans serif.
computer screen. Without serifs, the type

nificant event may be 72 points or larger
style connotes a no-nonsense, practical ap- (Figure 8.28). Screen presentations require
proach to lettering in which a viewer a type size twice that of printed body
isn't
distracted by the addition of serifs. For that copy. Size also is related to uppercase and
reason, street signs and warning lowercase letters because uppercase letters
labels most
often are printed in the sans serif style (Figure take up more space than lowercase letters.
8.27). As a general rule, reading text that con-

tains both capitals and small letters is
Typeface Attributes much easier. However, uppercase letters
Whether for print or screen presentations,

work well with any short line of text.
a typographical designer must make choices 2. Color: Actually two colors are implied
Frank Pryor, courtesy of Apple
Computer. Inc.; used by permission
154 TYPOGRAPHY
Figure 8.27 type is difficult to read. For cutlines set
The sans serif typeface

inside pictures (not recommended), mo-
tion picture subtitles, or identifying text
family is used to
for televised images, a designer must take
communicate a serious
care that the color of the type does not
message. This warning sign
match the color of the image because the
appears on the fence that
words will be hard to read. Graphic artists
surrounds the center of
for motion picture previews often make
downtown Belfast, Northern
movie credits white and the title of the
Ireland. movie, the most significant part of the
copy block, another color. Television
graphic artists often place white text on

top of a colored box or banner to identify a
person speaking in the frame.
Font: Typically, a font refers to all of the

letters and symbols that are possible with
an individual typeface. For many typo-

graphical designers, font also means the
attributes of plain text, boldface, italic,
the color of the type and the color of the underline ©Mftfed, and any other atten-
,
background. Research on type consistently tion-grabbing graphic devices available
shows that the most legible combination of (Figure 8.29). Most designers, whether for
Figure 8.28 colors for long blocks of copy is black type print or screen mediums, use such fonts
The streamlined and bold against a white background. Any other conservatively. Plain text with boldface
headline across the entire combination is hard to read and becomes headlines and italic fonts for book titles
tiring. For eye-catching headlines, design- should be enough font choices for most
width of the page, with
ers occasionally use white type against a designs.
illustrations and text in
black background (called reverse type),
separate modules, gives a Text block size: Two factors are involved
colored type against a white background,
modern look to this early
with the text block size: line width and
or white type against a colored back-
twentieth-century
column length, both of which are mea-
ground. A long copy block set in reverse
sured in picas (a pica contains 12 points).
newspaper.
For the best reading width, lines should be
no longer than 24 picas or contain no
THE CHICAGO DAILY NE¥S L more than 12 words. Two columns are
more readable than one wide column
NORTH POLE IS DISCOVERED (Figure 8.30).
POLE DISCOVERER. HIS ROUTE \Nl) AGENCIES THAT AIDED ARCTIC DASH. ~Trjp |T Justification: Text may be set aligned imag-
^ QQQ|( DINNER
inary left and/or right or centered mar-
IN THE ARCTIC QUEST
gins. Left justified text is the most com-
Cotonul Otftrt DwmwW Informed Tral
American
<t
tiokrw Succmdxt
Is
in Hri low-
mon style, with the right side of the text
nty on Apnl 21, 1908.
not justified (also called ragged right).
Such a justification connotes an informal,
modern, and highly readable style. Right

justified or ragged left and centered type
O jo
are seldom used for long passages of type
Figure 8.29 (left)
As its largest ever

A drop shadow box behind
rVEW-VOBK rHlBO. MiHTNULB en. Iflfla
exhibit opens, is the

"—"'I IHAI MUMI UD WWW the capital "Q" gives a
Elvehjem Museum of Att's
three-dimensional illusion to
place in the city's cultural
life on the wax or wane.' the layout, helping to attract
attention to the display.
Note that the typeface

uestions family for the story (roman)
is different from that for the

DISPLAY
photograph's cutline (bold
Elvehjem Museum of An
The looms fortress-like on Univer-
sity Avenue. Down at the
sans A typographical
other end of Stale Street, the
serif).
Madison Art Center Is neatly
tucked Inside the Civic Center
The two museums are vital cultural
—
designer often will use such
complements for this city Its major
outlets for contemporary and 20lh
century art.
But are Madison's two leading a subtle technique to
visual arts institutions headed in dif*
ferent directions? U
The Elvehjem's strong public pro-
file has been weakened KU b % tan t tally
separate the two text
In recent years In fnct, in a new Dane
County Arts Survey, the museum is
characterized as the city's best-kept messages.
cultural secret.
So what arc the best, and the
worst, of its secrets?
Beneath the polished surfaces of
impressive exhibits and reflections
are patterns of declining attendance,
internal strife and slaFt turnover, and
recent questions about its operations
Figure 8.30 (right)
and place In the University of Wiscon
sln-Madlson and state community.
The Madison Art Center, by con-
trast, has taken root in the city's cul-
The New York Times was
ture and Is flourishing In an age
when many arts Institutions struggle
to maintain support, the Art Center created in response to the
has had three years of rising attend-
ance and a growing track record of di- Moat observers agree Elveh|em Director Russell
verse and stimulating exhibits, educa- Panczenko (above) Is a forceful, knowledgeable
leader. His position allows him great autonomy but little
sensational illustrations and
stories in many publications
of the day. As indicated by
because a viewer has trouble determining the conservative nature of
when the next line starts. Completely

THE DANGER OF the layout, this publication
EXPLOSIVES
justified type, as used by Gutenberg, has a was meant for those who
rigid, organized appearance (Figure 8.31). J
wanted to read long,
6. White space: Areas not filled with text or

V in-depth stories.
graphics, regardless of the color of the
paper or the frame, are called white space.

Space between individual letters is called • «. NO MATTER THE SIZE K*
<r f*
kerning. A modern, informal appearance

can be achieved the kerning made an NO MATTER THE SHAPE
obvious design
if
factor. When
is
kerning is
§
YOUR LIFE THEY WILL TAKE A Figure 8.31
too little or too much, however, the copy
Whether in English or
may be difficult to read. Leading (pro- DO NOT TOUCH OR MOVE
Arabic, centered text in a
nounced "ledding") is the word used to
symmetrical layout
describe the white space between horizon- REPORT SUSPICIOUS ITEMS
J
tal lines of type. Boldface, or any heavy •or IMMEDIATEI Y TO THE I! i).
communicates a conservative
typeface may require

MILITARY OR CIVIL
W IIIOKIT1ES
& -'I 1 »
and no-nonsense message-
style, additional
leading for readability. The space between here a warning to Kuwaiti
two columns of type is called the alley, residents to look out for
and the space between the pages of a book abandoned armaments after
or magazine is called the gutter. the Gulf War.

Courtesy of Murder Can Be Fun; used by permission
—
156 TYPOGRAPHY
publishing technology. In print and screen

Ethical Perspective
presentations, the use of type in a cacophony
Typographical designers usually invent and of mixed colors, styles, and sizes is not unlike
use typefaces that combine utilitarianism other expressions inspired by dada art. Maga-
with the golden rule. In other words, a design zines aimed at young urban audiences, such
is both useful and adds beauty to our lives. as the defunct Beach Culture or the current
But if typefaces are made to draw attention to Ray Gun, Wired, and Mondo 2000, as well as
themselves or to satisfy a designer's personal MTV-like videos and commercials, present
needs, hedonism is at work. the latest fads (Figure 8.32). Other people will
The Altsys Corporation makes a popular learn how to read these typographical ar-
typography software program called Fonto- rangements, or the fad will simply continue
grapher. Designers can express their own to be a part of an urban youth subculture.
typographical ideas much easier than with After trying to read articles produced by
traditional methods. Philip Meggs, author of "garbage font" designers, you probably would
A History of Graphic Design, envisions easy- yearn for the simple lines and classical use of
to-use computers with sophisticated typogra- white space of the typography in the New
phy software as a way to make everyone Yorker magazine. But Jonathan Hoefler, who
artists and ordinary people alike — sophisti- invents typefaces for Sports Illustrated and
cated about the use of type. Designer Roger other magazines, likes "unusual fonts that
Black predicts that by the year 2000 everyone challenge typographical assumptions. After
will know so much about typefaces that all, design is about breaking the rules. Rule-
people will have their own favorite styles. breakers become rulers." Acceptable typogra-
With newspapers in the form of networked phy styles often are a matter of what the
interactive multimedia (see Chapters 15 and dominant culture deems acceptable. Typog-
16), viewers will be able to select their favorite raphy critic Kevin Barnhurst in his book
typeface. Personal selection of the fonts used Seeing the Newspaper writes that "from the
for electronic mail and other computer func- earliest manuscripts and books to the twen-
tions already is possible. tieth-century typographic movements, peo-
But graphic artist Milton Glaser, responsi- ple have pushed for expression while society
ble for the design of New York magazine and pulled them toward uniformity and clarity."
the A&P supermarket logo, among others, The world is certainly large enough to sup-
warns that "there's a tremendous amount of port both dynamic, cacophonous displays
garbage being produced under the heading of and quiet, traditional typographical presenta-
new and innovative typographical forms." tions.
Despite the danger of typefaces being de- Another serious problem for typographi-
signed solely for the amusement of a particu- cal designers is protecting their creative out-
lar graphic artist, others predict that the put. Creating unauthorized versions of other
prevalent use of typographical computer pro- designers' type styles is unethical and in
grams will produce ways of thinking about some countries illegal. FontChameleon, re-
the use of type never before imagined. cently introduced by the Ares Software Cor-
An extreme example of personalized type- poration, can make "billions" of variations of
face styles is the trend in typography called a master typeface from an outline of the type
"garbage fonts." With names such as "degen- style. Strict copyright laws in Germany and
erate," "international disgrace," and "futile," the United Kingdom make such manipula-
people create such typefaces from bits and tions of a typeface designer's work illegal. But
pieces of established fonts by using desktop in the United States, where copyright laws for
typefaces are less restrictive, the product

could find a ready market despite the unethi-
cal nature of the practice.
Cultural Perspective
Because typography gives the artist's style to
a text, it is linked, as is any art form, to a
particular culture at a particular time. The

history of typography may be divided into
four major typographical styles: pre-Guten-
berg, Gutenberg, industrial, and modern
(Figure 8.33).
1. Pre-Gutenberg (before 1450): For the most

part, typography wasn't thought of as a
design element separate from illustrations.
also was a goal of the cultures that pro- Figure 8.32
Words and images were linked as equal
partners in communication. Egyptian hi-

duced such works. As with the quick editing
eroglyphics, Greek and Roman letter- 2. Gutenberg (1456-1760): This is the "gold- cuts of an MTV-style music
forms, and the illustrative works of reli- en age" of typographical design when the video, Wired, a magazine
gious scribes during medieval times are word became the chief means of commu- produced for those interested
particularly good examples of early texts nication. Printers such as Aldus and type in new communication
that were functional and attractive at the designers such as Garamond knew that technologies, features
same time. Combining form and function words were worthy of the best presenta- typographical displays that
break many accepted rules.
The magazine's table of
contents, for example, uses

i
illustrations, alignment
differences, and leading

variations.
Figure 8.33
Somewhere in the deserts of
Arizona (left) and Texas

(right) are two typographical
designers with different

Is
opinions about the proper
typeface for attracting the
attention of tourists.
158 TYPOGRAPHY
tions possible for readability and legibility. cause of that link, we discuss them in
The rise in literacy and the need for books connection with graphic design in Chap-
of all types produced a tremendous explo- ter 9.
sion in the number of publishing houses.

Unfortunately, pictures were reserved for
illustrative decorations around text blocks
or for medical and other scientific text- When the history of typography is viewed as
books. part of the larger history of writing, it be-
comes clear that words in the print or screen
3. Industrial (1760-1890): This period is
media are expressive, graphic elements with
known as the "dark ages" of typographi-
emotional qualities that transcend the actual
cal design. Machine mentality ruled style,
meaning of the words themselves. Early
and efficiency in design rather than the
scribes lost much of their political power
appearance of a typeface was praised. For
when alphabets were invented. But they
example, designers criticized the sans serif
gained much of their status back when they
family for its unattractive appearance, but
developed calligraphic and illustrative skills
printers praised it. Printers were tired of
that turned words into works of art. Today's
replacing letters in the roman family style
scribes are the typographical designers who
because their serifs broke off easily. The
can use a computer to make sure that the
increase in all kinds of printed advertising
words match the style of the illustrations and
called for typefaces that customers no-
the content of the piece.
ticed. Elaborately shaped typefaces, often
used in combination with several others
and sprinkled around the images of prod-
Future directions for
ucts in an advertisement, gave the appear-
typography
ance of a "typographical car wreck." But
the style was popular in an era of fast-
Two trends concern typography presently and
paced efficiency.
for the future: computer digitization and the
4. Modem (1890-present): A problem for return of the "verbal" pictograph. As we
typography during the Industrial Revolu- show in the subsequent chapters, every medi-
tion was that the most respected art move- um of presentation — from typography to
ment of the time, Impressionism, rarely networked interactive multimedia — has been
was expressed in poster form. Henri de influenced by computer technology. All are
Toulouse-Lautrec was the exception: He becoming digital media. We discuss the im-
painted posters for theatrical openings. plications of such a technical convergence in
Typography as a respected art form was Chapter 15. When individuals are linked
first expressed with the art nouveau deco- around the world via a home computer and
rative style. Later, several modern art telephone line, electronic mail not only will
styles in the twentieth century (dada, de reveal a person's character by the services
Stijl, Bauhaus, art deco, pop art, and post selected and the messages sent, but also by the
modern) were linked with specific cul- way those written messages appear. Many
tures and expressed specific messages re- people complain that literacy is on a down-
lated to political content, architecture, ward spiral, but computer technology proba-
product design, and art in general. These bly will spark a rebirth in writing and reading
art movements used typography as an just as Gutenberg's invention did fifty years
integral part of their graphic design. Be- later.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR TYPOGRAPHY 159
For example, an estimated 20,000 home- Figure 8.34
made magazines are produced in the United A low-cost version of the
States alone every year in garages, dens, and so-called garbage type style
bedrooms with pens, typewriters, and com- is demonstrated by the cover

puters. With names like Technology Works,
of Mudflap magazine —a
Mudflap, and Murder Can Be Fun, these publication printed through
specialty publications called zines (pro-
the use of pens, typewriters,
nounced "zeens") identify fringe cultures,
computers, and photocopying
products, and lifestyles (Figure 8.34). Some
machines.
graphic artists voice concern about the ama-
teur use of typography created on computers.
However, photography, motion pictures, and
television didn't suffer when still, movie, and
video cameras became readily available for
amateur use. There will always be a need for
experts who are competent in any part of
visual communication. Likewise, there will
always be a need to teach amateurs to produce

images that combine form with content.
Another trend in typography is to com- graphic designers that eventually led to a
bine type and images into a single message. complex pictographic language called isotype
In the 1920s, Viennese philosopher and social (international system of typographic picture Figure 8.35
scientist Otto Neurath began work with education) (Figure 8.35). Charles Bliss from
The key to understanding
the pictographs developed by
Otto Neurath and Ins team
of graphic designers is their

THIS IS A MULTI- USE
TRAIL
use of simple, high-contrast
RULES OF THE ROAD APPLY
KEEP TO THE RIGHT images. Left: These religious
PEDESTRIANS USE SHOULDER
BICYCLE SPEED LIMIT
isotypes are easily
• 10 MPH n
* ""EN PEDESTRIANS
;>"«J
ARE PRESENT identifiable because of a lack
BICYCLES YIELD TO
PEDESTRIANS
of graphic embellishment.
Right: The photograph
shows a modern use of
Neurath's isotype symbol
system in which a cocktail
glass (with an olive) and

liquor bottle signs are
slashed with a drag
"no" line. Neurath's isoi
are used most commonly in
areas (streets, airports, etc.)
where people may not be
able to read the dominant
culture's language.
160 TYPOGRAPHY
Figure 8.36
Charles Bliss attempted to n -F1 n-

develop a pictographic door entrance exit fire exit
language that could be
understood around the

O Q CD
earth sun day Thursday
world. Note how the
symbols combine to form ~V

more complicated concepts.
letter telegram wings airmail letter
/ rr •/rr
knife plow grain harvest
the 1940s until the 1970s developed his own

pictographic alphabet of 100 symbols (Figure
8.36). The dream of Neurath and Bliss was to
develop a picture language that anyone from

any country could understand regardless of
their spoken language. If such a language
were developed and used, the goal of univer-
sal understanding of people from all cultures
might be achieved.
Neurath was more successful in getting his
ideas adopted around the world. For example,

street signs, symbols in airports, and the
popular pictographic/ideographic symbols
that show a silhouette image with a thick
diagonal "NO" line reflect the pictographic
ideas of Neurath and his artists. Information-
al graphics (see Chapter 10) also have been a

popular medium for pictographic communi-
cation. As more visual messages are produced
and disseminated through computer technol-
ogy, we may assume that pictographic sym-
bols, with roots dating back to the Sumerians,
will become more commonly understood.
Words once again might be thought of as
pictures.
CHAPTER 9
Graphic Design Design is thinking made
visual.
Saul Bass,
DESIGNER
Although you may not know it, your life is 15, and on the daily two-hour train trip from
unavoidably connected to a Bronx-born his home to his first job at a Manhattan
graphic designer in his seventies by the name design firm, he read the complete works of
of Saul Bass. You see his pictures in your Sigmund Freud, among other books. He
kitchen, on your television screen, on chari- worked as an apprentice in the art depart-
ties' stationery letterheads, on grocery store ment of the New York office of Warner
shelves, in magazines and newspapers, in gas Brothers Studio. His job was to help create
stations, in movie theaters, atop corporate movie posters used to promote motion pic-
buildings, and on airplanes. Bass has de- ture new releases.
signed packages for everyday food products Movie posters in the late 1930s and 1940s
and corporate trademarks for Fortune 500 tried to show as much of the content of a
companies. He has designed gasoline stations movie as possible, considering the limited
for major oil companies. He has made an space. Large, miscellaneous typeface family
Oscar-winning film and has produced the lettering usually identified the movie's title.
titles and ending credits for numerous well- Close-up colorful paintings of the film's stars
known motion pictures. Unlike many other captured during an emotional moment usu-
designers, Saul Bass is equally at home with ally were surrounded by smaller drawings of
print and screen media presentations. other scenes from the movie. These posters
Born in 1921 to immigrant parents in were important marketing pieces before the
New York, he earned an early reputation for advent of television; they were used in news-
spending all his free time drawing whatever paper advertisements and adorned the front
he saw and reading whatever he could find. of movie theaters to attract ticket buyers.
He cannot be accused of being a light reader Almost always they were graphically extrava-
because he finished high school at the age of gant and appealed to the emotions.
161
162 GRAPHIC DESIGN
One of the books that Bass read on his thing but a champion. The design shocked
daily commute changed his life. It was Lan- advertisers because it was a visually dramatic
guage of Vision by Hungarian Bauhaus in- departure from previous movie posters. But it
structor Gyorgy Kepes. The Bauhaus art cemented Bass's idea that graphic design
movement advocated focusing on essentials. should reduce a subject's elements to one
For movie posters, the philosophy implied dominant idea.
that instead of throwing in every possible Despite the success of the Champion ad-
significant scene in a movie, as in many vertising campaign, Bass generally was forced
previous and modern-day previews or trail- to make posters in the traditional form and
ers, a poster should feature a single idea or quickly became frustrated. A year later, at the
theme expressed in the film that would catch age of 29, he moved to Los Angeles. He soon
the imagination of potential customers. Bass landed a job working for Howard Hughes and
decided to follow the Bauhaus design philos- his movie studio, RKO. But Bass again be-
ophy for movie posters and title sequences came frustrated when he realized that
and in all the other graphic work he pro- Hughes controlled every aspect of his compa-
duced. ny and allowed few ideas other than his own
to be used. In 1952, he quit and formed his
own design studio. His first employee, Elaine
BASS'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO Makatura, later became his wife.
GRAPHIC DESIGN
Movies
The first movie poster Bass designed was for
the Kirk Douglas film Champion in 1949. It In 1954, Bass met famed film director Otto
was one of the first antiboxing pictures made Preminger and designed a poster for his
and the first commercial success for producer movie Carmen Jones. Preminger liked it so
Stanley Kramer. In an ironic twist on the much that he used it as part of the title
title, Douglas played a fighter willing to do sequence for the movie. Until that time, the
anything to reach the top of his sport. At the titles for motion pictures were, for the most
time, Life magazine was a major national part, one of the last decisions a director made
advertising medium. The week before Bass's about a movie. Title and credit graphics
ad ran, the film received free advertising in simply were not a high priority. When films
the magazine. Life published a glowing re- were first introduced, movie titles, as in The
view with ten pictures from the film. In the Birth of a Nation, one of the first feature-
next issue, Bass's ad appeared among the length motion pictures, were little more than
other traditional advertisements for refrigera- display posters with bad lettering. Titles rare-
tors and cigarettes. It was a startling, full-page ly set the mood of a picture. An exception
demonstration of reductionism. Centered were epic dramas that showed a well-mani-
within a black page was a tiny image of cured hand turning the pages of a book that
Douglas and actress Marilyn Maxwell. Inter- contained the title and credits. Titles almost
estingly, the text above the embracing couple always were typeset on neutral colored back-
was a compromise to previous sensational grounds and never ran during the movie, as is
displays. The copy read, "Fighting or loving common today. In 1955, Bass inspired the
he was the . . . CHAMPION." But the total creative design of future movie titles with the
visual effect was anything but traditional. The opening sequence for the film The Man with
small amount of text and the tiny picture of the Golden Arm. Bass admits that he used the
the stars surrounded by black supported the title sequence "to create a little atmosphere."
theme that the Douglas character was any- The mood that Bass established in the
"
BASS'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO GRAPHIC DESIGN 163
bolically presented the essence of the plot. Figure 9.1
Theater owners were uncomfortable with the The opening sequence for
posters because they wanted traditional works The Man with the Golden
with large, close-up images of the stars. But Arm by Saul Bass conveys
when Preminger threatened to pull the movie
the desperation and
from theaters that didn't use the posters, the
confinement of drug
owners capitulated. The public had no objec-
addiction. As Bass explains,
tions to the new poster presentations and title
"The intent of this opening
sequences (Figure 9.2).
was to create a mood . . .
For the next thirty years, his firm (known

spare, gaunt, with a driving
today as Bass/Yager & Associates) made title
sequences for many major motion pictures. intensity. The staccato
At first, Bass was nervous about designing for movement of white bars
the motion picture medium. He once admit- against a black background
ted that "I . . . found myself confronted with creates a strident geometry
a flickering, moving, elusive series of images that finally forms 'The
that somehow had to add up to communica- Arm,' the symbol of the

tion." But the success of his work, as noted by distorted, disjointed life of a
historian Estelle Jussim, demonstrates "the
drug addict.
ingenuity of a brilliant graphic designer con-
quering the difficulties of a new medium." In
1960, Bass created the emotionally charged

title sequence for the film Exodus, with raised
arms holding a rifle in triumph. In a 1962
movie, Walk on the Wild Side, the opening
Figure 9.2
Saul Bass was the first

animated sequence perfectly matched the
designer to create a visual
story line for the movie. In the film, Frank
message that was used in an
Sinatra plays a drug addicted poker dealer.
advertisement and opening
Backed by Elmer Bernstein's staccato jazz
sequence for a movie — the
score, white bars with text moved across the
poster for The Man with
screen in a tense, abstract dance, eventually
forming arm the Golden Arm.
a pictographic that became the
symbol for the film. In 1959, Bass again used
jazz music, this time by Duke Ellington, to
introduce another Preminger movie, Anato-

my of a Murder. Both title sequences were
inspired by the Bauhaus art movement in
which music, animation, and graphic design

were forged into a new way of visual presenta-
tion (Figure 9.1).
Besides creating the title sequences, Bass

also designed the advertising posters for the
movies, using minimal pictographs that sym-

164 GRAPHIC DESIGN
sequence showed a cat fight that was a meta- their work in Demme's Something
Jonathan
phor for the street life of New Orleans por- Wild (1986) and Swimming to Cambodia
trayed in the motion picture. He also made (1987). The ending credits in John Sayles's
the titles for the movies The Seven Year Itch Matewan (1987) also follow the tradition
(in which the "t" in "itch" scratches itself, begun by Bass.
1955), Around the World in 80 Days (1956), For Bass, title sequences are the first
The Big Country (1958), Vertigo (1958), chance to set a mood for the motion picture.
North by Northwest (1959), Psycho (1960), Consequently, a film director should never
Ocean's Eleven (1960), It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, lose that opportunity. "Titles can be suffi-
Mad World (1963), Bunny Lake Is Missing ciently provocative and entertaining to in-
(1965), Grand Prix (1966), That's Entertain- duce the audience to sit down and look," he
ment: Part 2 (1976), Broadcast News (1987), explains, "because something is really hap-
War of the Roses (in which the titles are pening on screen."
supposedly in front of a red, satin sheet, Because of his success with titles, Bass
which turns out to be Danny DeVito's hand- became interested in directing his own short
kerchief, 1989), Martin Scorsese's Goodfellas films about the creative process. He won a
(1991), Cape Fear (1992), and The Age of Grand Award at the Venice Film Festival for
Innocence (1993). Searching Eye, a Gold Hugo award at the
His title work inspired other designers to Chicago Film Festival for From Here to There,
follow his lead. Robert Brownjohn created the and Oscar nominations for his films The
famous opening sequence for master spy Solar Film and Notes on Popular Art. In 1968
James Bond. The audience, through a lens he won an Oscar in the short subjects catego-
opening, sees Bond shoot an opponent. Blood ry for his film about human creativity, Why
drips from the top of the frame to cover the Man Creates.
aperture. The sequence began the thriller Dr. A little known fact is that Bass also is
No (1962) and was used in subsequent 007 responsible for one of the most memorable
movies. R/Greenberg Associates West pro- visual messages in the history of motion
duced the computer-generated title sequence pictures. After he created storyboards for the
for Superman (1978). Tibor Kalman and "shower scene murder" with Janet Leigh and
Alexander Isley of M&Co. won awards for Anthony Perkins in the movie Psycho, Alfred
Hitchcock asked Bass to direct the scene
Figure 9.3
(Figure 9.3).
After Saul Bass designed the
storyboards for the

Television
memorable shower murder
scene in Psycho, Alfred Saul Bass's movie work also inspired televi-
Hitchcock asked him to sion title graphic artists. Opening and closing
direct the classic sequence. credits for television shows also have been
vital in setting the mood of the program. The
sight of Andy and his son Opie walking down
a country lane with a catchy whistling tune
establishes their closeness and family oriented

subject matter in "The Andy Griffith Show."
The lanky Rob Petrie tripping over an otto-
man on his way to greet his party guests is
important for "The Dick Van Dyke Show."

"Cheers" producers set their mood with
BASS'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO GRAPHIC DESIGN 165
historical photographs that resembled charac- Figure 9.4
ters in their situation comedy while Jerry The Quaker graphic reminds
Seinfeld always opens his show, "Seinfeld," the consumer of the

with a monologue before an audience while company's link to its oats
the credits roll. However, economic decisions breakfast cereal product, but
force some television producers to open a also conveys a modern,
program with a strong joke or dramatic
forward looking message.
confrontation in order to catch the attention
of the viewer and avoid channel switching.
But most executives view opening credits as a
way to fuse the show's name and content in
Quaker
the minds of repeat viewers.
Figure 9.5
The round shape to the
Packaging and logos General Foods logo conveys
wholesomeness.
As much recognition as he has received for
contributions to the movie industry, Bass is
just as well known for his packaging and

corporate trademark designs. He designed the
visual elements seen on such diverse products GENERAL
as Wesson oils, Lawry's seasonings, Northern FOODS
towels, Ohio Blue Tip matches, and Instant
Quaker Oats. In 1970, he redesigned the logo Figure 9.6
for the Quaker Oats company to give it a The United Airlines logo
more modern look (Figure 9.4). In an ulti- uses long, curved lines that
mate design package, he and his firm de- simulate flight.
signed the entire visual system, including

architecture, for the BP America and Exxon
worldwide networks of service stations.
Before being acquired by Philip Morris,

General Foods had Bass redesign its logo. The
leaf pictograph within a thick black, open-
ended line symbolizes wholesomeness,
growth, strength, and dynamism (Figure 9.5).
Figure 9.7
He has also designed logos for the United
Way, the YWCA, the Girl Scouts, Continental The AT&T logo with its
pulsating horizontal lines

Airlines, United Airlines, Warner Communi-
cations, and Minolta (Figure When U.S.
9.6).
within a circular shape
District Judge Harold Green ordered AT&T to connotes the worldwide
break up into regional telephone companies communication network of

in 1983, he also demanded that the parent the telephone company.
company change its "bell in a circle" logo
(designed by Saul Bass in 1969). Bass came

up with a blue globe encircled by white lines
varying in width that connotes a worldwide

network that cares about its customers
(Figure 9.7).
166 GRAPHIC DESIGN
Saul Bass is a master at distilling a visual directors, theater owners, the public, and
message to its most essential part. He under- other graphic designers the value of text and
stands the importance of visual communica- graphics in telling the story of the movie from
tion in gaining a viewer's attention and the first second that light hits the screen in a
keeping the message in a person's long-term darkened theater. If nothing else, it helped
memory. Because of Bass, graphic designers ensure that theater-goers were in their seats
and corporate executives have learned that and quiet by the time the movie started. The
the proper display of words and images is Man with the Golden Arm as a title sequence
vital to the success of a presentation. and as a poster used for the marketing
campaign made clear for many that graphic
design, simply by the choice of elements and

Analysis of the man with the the way they are used, can convey meanings
golden arm as complicated and emotional as those in the
movie itself.
In 1955, Rosa Parks refused to move from her Bass had to simplify numerous compli-
seat on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama, and cated movements of text and graphic ele-
the United States agreed to help train South ments and tie them to the musical score. He
Vietnamese troops for the first time. Al- applied all four of the suggestions for good
though never as significant as the civil and graphic design explained later in this chapter
social upheavals ignited by those two deci- (contrast, balance, rhythm, and unity) to
sions, that same year Saul Bass inspired a match the movie's tense theme. He made the
revolution in graphic design. The 1955 title contrast stark between the white pictographic
sequence for The Man with the Golden Arm drawings and the credit text. He used asym-
demonstrated that graphic design elements metrical balance to create a tension that
could match the content of the piece. Words matches the movie's theme. He utilized ani-
and pictures, in other words, complement mation in which lines and text dance to the
rather than conflict with each other. Bass not staccato jazz beat to emphasize rhythm. And
only influenced others, but established him- finally, he established unity by making all the
self as an important contributor to popular drawings and text used in the sequence look
culture. He single-handedly created a graphic- like they belong together. Bass presented a
design specialty — the movie title sequence clear, noticeable, pleasing, and useful image
designer. in a brief moment and with only a few,
The title sequence, however, now seems well-chosen graphic elements.
dated. It has a jazzy, beatnik, 1950s feel that is The title sequence is a model for the
slightly old-fashioned. Nevertheless, it is a ethical combination of utilitarianism, the
direct ancestor of the current hip hop style. golden rule, and hedonism. The sequence
Like viewing the opening credits to the 1955 communicates the literal content of the mov-
television show "I Love Lucy" with its orches- ie well — the tense subject matter of the
trated sound track, large script lettering, and movie is obvious. The jazz-inspired graphics
schmaltzy valentine's heart, you know that are pleasing designs. The pictorial elements
you are watching something completely dif- grab the viewer's attention and create a
ferent from anything previously produced. In unique style unlike any opening title se-
that sense, Bass's title sequence has a lasting, quence previously seen. The equal application
memorable effect. of the utilitarian, golden rule, and hedonistic
The opening title sequence will always philosophies in graphic design is a visual
have a place in history because it showed manifestation of the golden mean philoso-
GRAPHIC DESIGN AND THE SIX PERSPECTIVES 167
phy. Bass showed that graphic designers can probably was determined by economics. With
be innovative and at the same time sensitive most of the budget slated for high-priced
to the way of life inspired by the teachings of actors, producers could no longer afford to
Aristotle. spend the money for a graphic designer to
The title sequence for The Man with the create an elaborate sequence.
Golden Arm is an example of the Bauhaus The movie poster also has steadily de-
style brought to life in a moving picture. clined as an art form and an advertising
Instead of randomly located in order to create vehicle for motion pictures. The motion pic-
tension in the dada tradition, word and ture industry advertises coming attractions in
picture elements are purposely presented in action -filled previews in theaters and on TV
the frame in a tightly controlled manner. Bass that often show all the best scenes in a film.
bridged the gap between print presentations Newspaper advertising has re-embraced the
used in movie posters and kinetic designs traditional technique of showing the faces of
that are a part of the motion picture. He the leading characters large and in the center
extended the life of the Bauhaus design move- of the frame. However, a new twist has been
ment by incorporating its philosophy of re- given to the traditional formula. Instead of
ductionism into a popular visual art form. scenes from the film placed around the heads
But his title sequence would not have been of the stars in a circular pattern, positive
possible without a strong and successful di- comments from reviewers are sprinkled on
rector advocating its use to overcome the the ad. Film producers apparently do not
objections of those with economic interests trust people to make up their own minds
tied to a movie's advertising — the theater about the content of a motion picture from
owners. the visual messages alone — they must rely on
the influence of words (and the words of
"experts," at that) to convince people to see
the movie.
Recent trends in motion Fortunately for the graphic design profes-
picture visuals sion, Saul Bass still produces creative opening
credits filled with text and pictures that
At present, movie title sequences generally are communicate a sense of the movie's content
not separate from the filmed action part of without compromising to other interests.
the movie. The extreme is represented by the

films Apocalypse Now and The Last Action
Hero in which the titles aren't presented until
the last explosion has occurred. When open- Graphic design and the six
ing sequences are separate in today's movies, perspectives
they usually don't add much to the viewer's
understanding of the film. Although the Graphic design is the art and craft of bringing
credits in The Man with the Golden Arm organized structure to a group of diverse
identify the general theme of the motion elements, both verbal and visual. Graphic
picture, they do not take place during the design usually is thought of with regard to the
actual film. Today a movie commonly begins print medium, but because of the spread of
with the viewer reading the title and names of design applications to all the media, its mean-
the stars and key production figures superim- ing has expanded to include the use of words,
posed on areas in the frame. One reason for a pictures, and even sounds in motion pictures,
shift in the presentation of opening credits on television, and through computers.
168 GRAPHIC DESIGN
symmetry based on their observations about

Personal Perspective
the natural world. They identified certain
The next time you look at a print page or basic shapes as pleasing to the eye. Later,
view a screen presentation, take the time to Roman artists developed symmetric arrange-
note the various graphic elements within ments of letters and graphic elements, a
your field of view. Most people are unaware of practice that spread throughout the Roman
the many decisions a graphic designer makes Empire. After the collapse of Rome, clerics in
in order to communicate the literal message monasteries managed to produce colorful,

of the design and also to convey the emotion- hand-drawn illustrated religious works with-
al quality or mood of the piece. Selecting and in codices. They paid careful attention to the
placing all the word and image elements of selection and placement of each graphic ele-
a presentation is the task of the graphic de- ment on a page and to maintenance of a
signer. consistent style throughout the work.
Gutenberg
With the invention of the commercial
Designer W. A. Dwiggins first used the term printing press, less time was needed for the
graphic design in 1922. During his career actual production of lettering. Consequently,
Dwiggins worked on more than 300 book more care could be given to typography,
designs for the Alfred A. Knopf publishing illustrations, and graphic design. A publisher
company. Although the term may be relative- or art director for a book had assistants
ly new, the practice is as old as recorded design pleasing typefaces, arrange the text in
history. As with the history of typography, functional and aesthetically pleasing ways,
the history of graphic design may be divided draw elaborate cover, border, and whole-page
into four periods: pre- Gutenberg, Gutenberg, illustrations, and put all these elements to-
industrial, and modern. gether in a unified format. In Germany,
enlarged letters, colored borders, and wide
Pre-Gutenberg alleys and margins were the common stylistic
elements in books. In Italy and France, roman

Graphic design probably was not a consid-
typefaces were commonly used to improve
eration for prehistoric rock painters. Al-
readability. Pages were illustrated with floral
though the animal drawings are noted for
decorations or drawings related to the story.
their variety in size and placement, the only
Leading for title pages and body copy was
design consideration these cave artists seemed
standardized in order to present a unified
to be conscious of was the need to start a
look.
drawing on a blank portion of a wall so as to
not overlap another painting. The Egyptians
were the first culture to produce illustrated Industrial
manuscripts and wall decorations that com- Steam-powered printing presses, mechan-
bined their writing system with illustrations. ical typesetting machines, and a great need
The Books of the Dead (2300-1200 B.C.) are for advertising materials promoted the idea
excellent examples of illustrated scrolls that that graphic design's sole purpose was to
were commonly used for both exalted and attract the attention of potential customers
less well known members of Egyptian society through advertising. Two important inven-
(who could pay for the service). In the fifth tions — lithography and the halftone printing
century, the Greeks introduced the concept of screen — expanded the range of graphic de-
sign by making easier the use of images with photographic print made because it involved
words. Before those inventions, pictures the use of sensitized plates inside a small
could be included with their verbal counter- camera obscura and a photochemical reac-
part in print material only through hand- tion to light.
drawn illustrations or crudely fabricated In 1837, Godefroy Englemann of France

drawings in wood or metal. invented color lithography. Magazines soon
There was no method for easily printing began to exploit this new technology, com-
text and images together until a mother bining words and images in a single press run
called out a shopping list to her dutiful and (Figure 9.8). In 1857, one of the first illustrat-
inventive son in 1796. Aloys Senefelder of ed magazines, Harper's Weekly, employed the
Munich happened to pick up a grease pencil first "visual artist," Thomas Nast. He was
to write down a list of items needed by his famous for his sketches of Civil War battles
mother at the local store on a slab of lime- that were published on the cover of the
stone sitting on a bench of his crowded magazine. President Lincoln called him one
workshop. Senefelder later noticed that the of "the best recruiting sergeants" in the
grease marks did not mix with water-based service of his country because his drawings
inks. In 1800 he patented the lithographic had great emotional impact. Nast also is
process, which is a printing method based on known as the founder of American political
the principle that oil and water don't mix. cartooning as he drew the popular "Uncle
The word lithography means "writing on Sam" and Republican party "elephant" icons
stone" (from the Greek lithos for "stone"). (see Chapter 11).
The artist draws with a grease pencil on a In 1868, Richard Hoe made improvements
smooth limestone surface that is then wet to his steam-powered press so that color
with a solution of gum arabic and water. Only lithographs could be easily and economically
the blank, or negative, space on the stone reproduced in great numbers. From 1860 to
absorbs the solution. When a printer applies 1900, lithography was used to place images
ink to the surface of the stone, it adheres to on paper and tin for art reproductions, politi-
the drawing and not the blank areas. The cal posters, all kinds of novelty items used as
printer reproduces the drawing by pressing souvenirs, and for greeting and business
the stone against a sheet of paper. cards. Printed, colored greeting cards became
Beginning in 1813, a Joseph Niepce of enormously popular gifts when they were
France substituted pewter plates for the Mu- distributed by the American printing firm of
nich limestone used by Senefelder. Niepce Currier and Ives in the middle of the nine-
would invent photography fourteen years lat- teenth century. Nathaniel Currier and James
er (see Chapter 12). Niepce and his son Ives published more than 4,000 color draw-
Isadore were independently wealthy inventors ings that pictured everyday and historic
who made lithographs of popular religious American events. These early postcards are
personalities of the time. But as the two valued collectors' items today. But until the
weren't artists, they had to pay others to invention of the halftone engraving process,
create the drawings. The elder Niepce invent- printing high-quality photographs along with
ed photography as a way of making drawings the text on a press was still impossible.
directly from nature without having to hire
an artist. He used a pewter plate coated with a Modern

photosensitive emulsion to make a print of The modern period is known for the
Cardinal Georges d'Ambroise, the minister to widespread use of images because of the
Louis XII, in 1826. The etching was the first invention of the halftone screen for the print-
170 GRAPHIC DESIGN
Figure 9.8
Before the use of the
halftone printing process for
photographs, engraving
artists for newspapers and
magazines often made
images more dramatic
through "artist license." The
horror of the dead soldiers
and horses after a Civil War

battle originally seen in
Harper's Weekly is
intensified because it is a
combination of several
photographs and eyewitness
accounts.
ing of still photographs. It also is noted for duced the first crudely reproduced photo-
the use of visual materials in motion pictures graph using a printing press. On March 4,
and television and on computer screens. 1880, "A Scene in Shantytown," photo-
Although lithography is fine for black and graphed by Henry J. Newton, was printed in
white or color drawings, it cannot be used to the New York Daily Graphic. It was not part of
make high-quality photographic reproduc- a story about a troubled area in the city but
tions. Hence lithography today is used mainly simply one of several printing innovations
for high-priced color art prints. The halftone being demonstrated on the newspaper's
engraving process uses a screen to transform presses under the general heading "Fourteen
a photograph into a series of small dots. Variations of the Graphic Process." In short,
When a halftone plate is inked, dots close one of the first published photographs was
together produce dark tones and dots separat- used as an advertisement for the newspaper.
ed by blank spaces produce lighter tones in The shantytown image was produced by
the picture. William Talbot of Great Britain, lithography from a crude engraving plate
who invented the calotype photographic based on the photograph (Figure 9.9). This
process in 1839 (see Chapter 12), also experi- method wasn't practical for rotary web press-
mented with the halftone screen printing es that used curved printing plates, so Horgan
process for his pictures. In 1852, Talbot used adapted his invention for such a purpose in
a fine sheet of gauze as a screen between a 1897. By then, other inventors had made
metal plate coated with light-sensitive emul- their own improvements. In 1881, the first
sion and one of his photographic negatives. color photographs were reproduced in a Paris
Although his experiments were successful, magazine, V Illustration, but the process was
the quality of his halftone prints was not much too complicated and costly for wide-
good enough for practical use. spread use. Frederick Ives of Philadelphia
An American, Stephen Horgan, intro- introduced a halftone screen composed of
horizontal and vertical lines printed on a creative and effective combination of size and
sheet of film in 1885. When a photoengraved placement. Television news graphic artists
plate was used with such a screen, the result have learned to organize complicated visual
was a much higher quality image than messages. They make bold presentations that
Horgan was able to reproduce. Two other combine the on-screen elements of announc-
Philadelphians, Max and Louis Levy, intro- er or reporter, moving video shot at a story
duced a halftone plate in 1893 that repro- scene, icons or logos, and textual information
duced high-quality printed images. Such ad- all within the small, television format. Desk-
vances in photoengraving and halftone top publishing, presentation graphics, and
techniques allowed the regular use of photo- educational and entertainment programs
graphs in print media by World War I, which have introduced sound and user interactivity
continues to this day. Because of the comput- as design elements for computer programs
er, however, the methods for working with that graphic designers must incorporate into
and presenting photographs are changing their work.
radically. Halftone screens can now be simu-

lated with computer programs that sidestep
the entire photoengraving process.
^ Technical Perspective
In screen media the concept of graphic Attempting to identify "good" graphic design
design is influenced by the width of the is always dangerous because, like beauty, it is
screen and the possibility for motion within often a highly subjective determination.
the frame. Movie titles and credits have to be What is considered good design changes over
large enough to be viewed from the back of a time and varies among cultures. Styles, as do
theater and yet arranged efficiently so that the fads, can capture immediate interest but
text doesn't take up too much time. The work become outdated just as quickly. But humans
of Saul Bass and others demonstrates the are rational and need to quantify all types of
Figure 9.9
Henry Newton of the Daily
Graphic took this
photograph of a
"shantytown" village near
the newspaper's office.
Stephen Horgan used it to
demonstrate his halftone
printing process in 1880.
Note the crude vertical lines

172 GRAPHIC DESIGN
things, including what constitutes good Contrast

graphic design. One method for determining Contrast refers to differences in color, size,
good design is to be aware of the visual cues symbolism, time, and sound in print or
that the brain most readily responds to screen designs. A lot of contrast among ele-
(Chapter 4) and the sensual and perceptual ments signifies a busy and youthful design.
theories (Chapter 5). Without question, some Little contrast among elements usually indi-
designs are noticed more than others, some cates a no-nonsense and conservative ap-
designs are remembered longer than others, proach. However, length of time is an excep-
and some arrangements of words and images tion. For screen media, little time between the
soothe but others cause nervous tension. showing of images indicates highly dynamic
Ben Blank and Mario Garcia in their book displays.
Professional Video Graphic Design note four A good design will usually use colors that
design concepts specifically related to screen complement each other slightly rather than
presentations: simplicity, boldness, aesthetic contrast with each other greatly. For example,
value, and functionalism. In other words, a a colored rule used to separate a headline
design should be clear, noticeable, pleasing, from body copy should be close in hue to the
and useful. All four design considerations dominant color in a photograph that accom-
refer to how quickly a viewer sees and under- panies the story. A design with colors that
stands a message within a frame. A sensitivity contrast with each other (e.g., yellow and
to the viewer's need to understand the mes- blue) will create tension in the viewer. Of
sage being presented, regardless of the medi- course, if that kind of an emotional reaction
um of presentation, is essential for the graph- is desired, such a design strategy is called for.
ic designer. The size of the graphic elements should

Clear, noticeable, pleasing, and useful de- vary, but be proportional to the overall frame
signs result from an understanding of how of the design. Proportion, or scale, refers to
the brain responds to the visual cues of color, the spatial relationship between design ele-
form, depth, and movement; the gestalt prin- ments and the size of the page or frame.
ciples of similarity, proximity, continuation, Sometimes a small element within a large
and common fate; and a semiotic analysis of frame has more visual impact than a large
the symbolism inherent in the elements of a element that fills the frame.
design that combine to create memorable Designer and educator Mario Garcia as-
messages (Chapter 5). Out of that mix of serts that every design should have a "center
sensual and perceptual elements, most graph- of visual impact." A design should have one
ic design experts have come up with four element that is emphasized, most often by its
suggestions that lead to the concept of good dominant size, more than the others. That is
design: contrast, balance, rhythm, and unity. the element the viewer notices first. For the
Because good graphic design can follow or most part, viewers prefer a design that pre-
challenge them, they are called suggestions, sents the most important element in an
not rules or principles. The discussion of the obvious way because it minimizes the frus-
four suggestions that follows is in accordance tration that occurs when they must hunt for
with mainstream graphic design thought. A the significant elements.

designer should always have a clear reason for White space is related to size because the
using each one in a presentation; the design scale of the elements determines how much
should never be more important than the white space is available. Spaces among the
message it is supposed to communicate. various elements keep the eye from becoming
fatigued. The front pages of most daily news- the edges of a frame and not trapped in the Figure 9.10
papers have little white space because they are center. A design with a lot of white space is Although both layouts use
filled with stories and pictures. White space is considered modern or classy, whereas a well-executed photographs,
sacrificed in order to fit as many important crowded design with little white space is
the design on the left is
news stories as possible on the page. Inside viewed as traditional and serious (Figure
much more unified. If there
each section the stories tend to be more 9.10).
is too much space between
feature-oriented and thus allow the designer Designers also use content contrast to
graphic elements, as in the
more freedom in using layouts with white create emphasis. A familiar face or object
layout on the right, the
space separate from typographical white usually rivets the viewer's eye on that part of
images seem to be floating
space (kerning and leading). As a general the design more than any other element. A
on the page rather than
rule, white space should be present around symbolically significant image will attract
linked into a coherent whole.
Amish
auction
Doctor teaches lesson in black pride

1
174 GRAPHIC DESIGN
more attention than an image that the viewer another has a romantic, restful connotation;
does not understand. A designer therefore quick cuts signify action and energy.
must carefully select symbols that the viewer When designers work with screen presen-
will understand. Recall that meaning is high- tations, sound becomes an important consid-
ly dependent on an individual's culture. eration. Sound refers to all the audio aspects
Words help explain the meaning of an image, involved with a presentation — music, narra-
which is why cutlines accompany most pic- tion, dialogue, and sound effects. Sometimes
tures used in the print media. Television news television commercials are slightly louder
often is criticized because many of the images than the program in order to gain the atten-
are shown without any verbal explanation. tion of potential customers. Robert Altman,
With large, high- resolution monitors, words director of M*A*S*H (1970), The Player
can be added to help explain the images used (1992), and many other movies, is known for
in screen media, particularly for broadcast his use of sound to make smooth transitions
news. between scenes. Graphic designers who use

Designers of screen presentations also have computers have a wide variety of sound
to deal with decisions related to contrasting options for their educational and entertain-
lengths of time and sounds. An element ment programs. Digital music and sound
shown on the screen for a long time gains effects add drama, realism, and explanations
emphasis over one that flashes on the screen to interactive multimedia presentations (see
and quickly disappears. Transitions between Chapter 16).
various segments may be long with slow fades

or quick editing cuts (see Chapter 13). A Balance
long, fading transition from one scene to Balance refers to the placement of ele-
ments within a design's frame (Figure 9.11).
A design is considered balanced if it equalizes
Figure 9.1
This symmetrical front page

~-
iimgiumniMi
TlMESUNION mroiw mil
the weight between the
(vertical) axes. A
x (horizontal)
single design element set in

and y
design intelligently conveys

ISRAEL, PLO SIGN HISTORIC ACCORD a square, rectangle, or circle midway along
2
the message of Israel and the both axes results in a perfectly symmetric
PLO coming together in a

WViT peace design. The frame, like the human face, may
Occasion 'Enough be divided into two similar parts. Leonardo
historic peace accord. The of history of blood
and hope and tears' da Vinci's famous drawing of a person sym-
headline (with the word
bolizes the human connection with symme-
PEACE in three languages),
try. Symmetry may also be expressed with
the composition of the
differently sized design elements separated by
dominant photograph with
enough white space to give psychological
its centered placement, and
balance. Think of a large refrigerator shipping
the position of the stories on SnHf:™ Now it's Clinton's turn to carry the ball
TV
carton and one that could hold a set. If
the page all give an both cartons sit on the same end of a seesaw,
impression of balance and the overall design is asymmetric and the end
continuity. falls to the ground. But if the smaller box is
placed at a certain point on the other end, a

Judge rejects verdict,
finds four cops guilty degree of physical and psychological balance
is achieved. A balanced design is most appro-
priate for formal and classy presentations in
which a traditional or conservative approach

is desired. Like the square from which it
GRAPHIC DESIGN AND THK SIX PERSPECT IVES 175
comes, a symmetric design is stable, but a bit
dull. Asymmetric designs are less formal and SStoriO

create dynamic tension within the frame.
Gowrnor Upholds M'Avoy;
Worses Transit Findings;
MW Collins Found Starved to Death
gf After 17 Days in Cave Prison;
Rhythm Caffs on Legislature to Act
Rescue Party 24 Hours Too Lat
Rhythm refers to the way design elements I MID IH lOVaitST' TOM h„.i.., x*,, u.,
movement of T.77 r
are combined
viewer's eye
to control
from one element to another

the
mm
(Figure 9.12). Sequencing and simplicity help
determine a viewer's path through a piece.
Sequencing is the positioning of individual
elements so that a viewer naturally views one
and then another element in the order desired
by the designer. Placing material on separate SaFINSIKGW AS A RADIO
pages naturally sequences newspapers and

magazines. Because motion pictures are a
collection of moving, single frames, they are
automatically sequenced as well. But within a

usssa
single page or frame, elements also can be
positioned to lead the viewer through the
design. A large, banner headline attracts the
and the placement of

reader's attention, a
U» Ito Sat W . taaW f*a> *aaat a. Da, faaa, .
photograph and the story close to the head-

sm mm* luo ~- ~ ~~-
line provide a sequence for the three ele- noaumtftu
WJT t'a»
itt sxsns uxiMJ.
ti
MM »rf*w
mi nwi 09 two mr
i
i m
ments. A sequence also can be initiated
••-sJ*.~-i.
within an image. The direction of a person's

eyes or hands in a picture will cause the
viewer's gaze to move toward that part of the
frame. A designer should be sure that it
makes sense for a viewer to look in that
direction (Chapter 4). pieces within a frame. Elements are consid- Figure 9.12
Simplicity is part of the rhythm of a ered unified if they are similar, close together, Until the 1960s, newspaper
design. A simple design — one that contains form links, have the same direction, are front pages usually were
few elements — will attract little viewer eye familiar, and are understood (Chapter 5). But eight, highly vertical
movement. But a complex design with several good designs in advertising contexts often
columns of text with small
units will create tension as the viewer's eye exhibit elements in which the center of visual
photographs, as in this 1923
dances from one element to another. impact is separate from the other graphic
issue of The World. Readers
parts that have been combined according to
Unity were expected to start at the
gestalt principles. Journalism art directors
top left and read down each
Unity refers to the overall coherence of the generally are conservative about emphasizing
column of text.
graphic elements in a design. A well-designed a single graphic element. But editorial design-
piece will not contain elements that do not ers make use of gestalt principles when they
belong. Moreover, an element's contrast, bal- publish an important photograph that is
ance, or rhythm should not distract the larger than any of the other visual elements
viewer because the literal message of the on a page. The use of a dominant image on a
design might be lost. The gestalt approach page is a time-honored journalism design
often is utilized to link and separate graphic tradition.

176 GRAPHIC DI SIGN
Unity is a matter of related content as well losophy, then, the designer must reach a
as stylistic consistency. Elements within a difficult compromise by juggling the purpose
design should all be similar in content, with of the piece, the need for it to be noticed, the
words and pictorial elements fitting the same idea that it should be pleasing to look at, and
mood. For example, a bright color used as a the need to create a unique style. Because
background for a somber subject is not ap- innovation seldom comes from designers who
propriate. Stylistic consistency refers to a follow the "middle way," being sensitive to
design concept in which multiple pages or conflicting ethical philosophies is one of the
frames of a piece appear to be unified. reasons that the field of graphic design is
Magazine designers take great care in orga- challenging and rewarding. As Saul Bass says,
nizing typographical and pictorial elements "Sometimes we design for our peers and not
so that pages appear to belong together to solve communications problems." Com-
Figure 9.13 (Figure 9.13). Newsweek, Life, Interview, and municating visual messages — not winning
See color section following Mondo 2000 all express different styles. How- awards — should always be the graphic de-
page 210. ever, within each magazine its pages maintain signer's ultimate goal.
the magazine's individual approach to graph- Graphic designers and all other visual
ic design that fits the editor's purpose for the communicators also must be sensitive to
publication. Motion pictures almost always other ethical considerations: the perpetuation
are directed by one person in order to main- of negative stereotypes, the promotion of
tain a consistent style throughout. Having to products that are harmful to people, and the
change directors in the middle of shooting appropriation of previously presented graphic
usually results in a lower quality film. designs. Because the combination of text,
Contrast, balance, rhythm, and unity are graphic elements, and images forms a power-
guidelines for designers to either follow or ful communication link, a print or screen
challenge. But they are design considerations media message can easily persuade a viewer
that can result in clear, noticeable, pleasing, by its content. A graphic designer's choices
and useful visual messages. Remember that can reinforce stereotypes in the media that
good design is culturally dependent — what can leave lasting impressions.
works in one context may be confusing or Many products that are sold legally to
'
silly in another. consumers are harmful if used regularly and

over a long period of time. Cigarettes, alcohol,
and other drugs certainly fall in that catego-
Ethical Perspective
ry. The production or use of some products
A graphic designer must balance three con- harms the environment. Every graphic de-
flicting approaches. Utilitarianism stresses signer must decide whether to work for a
"the greatest good for the greatest number." company that sells such products to consum-
In the context of graphic design, it means that ers. There is a growing trend among graphic
a design should be readable, legible, and designers to pay attention to this issue when
useful. But hedonism can lead to designs that selecting clients. For example, Saul Bass and
attract attention only for the purpose of his associates make a conscious effort not to
satisfying commercial interests, shocking work for companies that make harmful prod-
viewers, or expressing a personal statement. ucts. Subtly referring to this issue is a type-
Between those two extremes is the golden written message on a wall in Bass's office:
rule approach, which advocates design deci- "They need us more than we need them."
sions based on adding beauty to a person's The concept of fair representation involves
life. To achieve Aristotle's golden mean phi- giving credit for a design when credit is due.
Most graphic designers are not geniuses that The free form artistic styles of art nou-
are suddenly inspired to produce a completely veau, dadaism, art deco, pop art, and post
new style of design. Most graphic design ideas modern are noted for their free-flowing
are variations of previously created composi- placement of text and other graphic elements
tions. A graphic designer who reproduces within a design's frame. Their practitioners
wholesale someone else's work is acting un- intended to turn established rules about the
ethically and courting legal problems. De- traditional placement of visual elements on a
signers should be inspired by other work, but page on their head. In many of their graphic
not directly copy it. messages, designers communicated angry re-
bellion and frustration over political and
social structures that allowed world wars and
injustice to flourish. They hoped that, by
Steven Heller and Seymour Chwast in their calling attention to obvious hypocrisies of the
book Graphic Style identify eleven graphic society, people would act to change such
design trends of the past 150 years: Victorian, conditions.
arts and crafts, art nouveau, early modern, The grid artistic approach exemplified by
expressionism, modern, art deco, dadaism, the de Stijl and Bauhaus styles was less
heroic realism, late modern, and post mod- obvious in its political message. Nevertheless,
ern. In addition to these major approaches to their practitioners believed that technology
art and design, artists from different coun- when wedded with artistic sensibilities could
tries, because of their different cultures, ex- bring world harmony through their graphic
press unique variations of each major style. designs. The grid styles attempted to give
Each art movement not only changes the way objective, unemotional organization to
words and images are used for print and graphic design. Designers developed a geo-
screen media, but also has significantly influ- metric approach based on horizontal and
enced architecture and the design of furni- vertical lines and the basic shapes of squares,
ture, clothing, and even household objects. rectangles, and circles and combined the use
Most of the trends in graphic design initially of the colors red, yellow, and blue with black,
began as styles for political and advertising gray and white. They carefully placed each
posters that were nailed to walls in cities with design element within a frame to ensure
large numbers of pedestrians. After a time, unity in the gestalt tradition — individual
the styles were adopted by other designers elements are not as important as the whole
and mainstream media outlets. design.
Seven of the principal art movements, or
trends, of the last 100 years have had the most Free Form Approaches
influence on graphic design. They may be Art Nouveau The coronation of Queen Vic-
divided into two main groups: free form and toria of England in 1837 gave the Victorian
grid. Leading proponents of both groups have era its name. It heralded the rise of technolo-
expressed not only aesthetic foundations for
gy and the hope that it would improve social
their art, but political intent as well. Most conditions. But the Victorian age was a bleak
design trends initially expressed the hope that time for artistic sensibilities as commercial
the world could become more unified and interests used words and pictures almost
peaceful if graphic design were a part of exclusively as advertising devices to attract
everyone's lives. The way to achieve that lofty the attention of potential customers. Modern
goal marked the most striking difference graphic design was saved with the introduc-
between the two groups. tion of the art nouveau (or "new art") style
178 ckaphk: dksk;n
in 1890. Art nouveau artists disliked the director for The Chap- Book, where he worked
injection of crass commercialism into graphic with other art nouveau artists such as Henri
design. Consequently, it was the first com- de Toulouse-Lautrec and Aubrey Beardsley.
mercial art style intended to make products Bradley also created his own striking covers
and their advertisements more beautiful. for the literary journal. He later became art
Art nouveau was highly influenced by director for Collier's magazine, and in the
traditional Japanese art (Figure 9.14). Borders 1920s he supervised all the graphic produc-
were marked by stylized plantlike vines, and tion for William Randolph Hearst's newspa-
typography mimicked the flowing curves of pers, magazines, and motion pictures.
the graphic elements. At first, critics severely Although the movement lasted only two
criticized art nouveau, using such phrases as decades, it inspired other designers to link
"linear hysteria," "strange decorative dis- artistry with functionalism for the first time
ease," and "stylistic free-for-all" to describe since Gutenberg's time. It was a revolutionary
the art style. Eventually, however, it was art movement because it rejected the Victori-
accepted. Although much more popular in an traditions of commercial excesses and a

Europe, the movement was best demon- machine mentality.
strated in the United States on the covers of
Harper's Monthly. Artists in the mid- 1890s, Dadaism In 1916 Europe was preoccupied
such as Will Bradley and Maxfield Parrish, with the horrors of World War I. Dadaism
produced graphic designs for advertisements emerged as a critical examination of the
that were so praised for their beauty that they social structures that allowed such an event to
soon became collectors' items. Parrish was occur. It expressed artists' rage with political
known for his dreamy landscapes filled with leaders by the use of absurd, asymmetric
golden nymphlike characters. Bradley started designs (Figure 9.15). Writings and graphics
as an errand boy and apprentice to a printer were intended to confuse, educate, and gain
in Chicago and went on to become art attention. One of the founders of the move-
ment, Hungarian born poet Tristan Tzara,
Figure 9.14 said simply that "dada means nothing." The
"Divan Japonais. 1892. name supposedly came out of a meeting of
Lithograph: 31 X 23 Z." poets, painters, and graphic designers at the

J g
Cabaret Voltaire in Zurich, Switzerland, in
With tlicir flowing graphic
1916. The social gathering was sponsored by
elements and matching
the German refugee Hugo Ball. Opening a
typography, the posters of
French dictionary at random, one of the
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
members quickly pointed to the word for a
are excellent examples of the
child's hobby horse: dada. Its practitioners
art nouveau movement that
viewed harmony and symmetry as stifling.
propelled graphic design out For the dadaists, graphic design elements
of the "dark ages" of reflected the way modern life actually was
advertisements inspired by lived — quickly paced and tense. By such
the Industrial Revolution. designs they communicated criticism of the
many hypocrisies they perceived during and

after the war. Politicians and wealthy individ-
uals were particular targets of dada publica-
tions.
Graphic designs consisted of typography

of different sizes and styles randomly distrib- Figure 9.15
uted on a page. At first glance, such designs "Die Kathedrale. 1920.
are extremely difficult to read. However, Mar- Lithograph: sjj x 5j." The
shall McLuhan argued
tradition of reading from

that
way to escape the confines of the Western

dadaism showed
left to right
a
in
MERZ anti-establishment energy of
the dada art movement is
evident in this piece by Kurt

tightly controlled rows as the only way to
Schwitters.
present verbal messages. He preferred the
"words in liberty" demonstrated by dada

artists.
Dada designers also experimented with

nontraditional ways of displaying images.
Painter Marcel Duchamp, famous for his
Nude Descending the Staircase, stretched the

boundaries of acceptable fine art. Dada de-
signers introduced montage techniques in
which they cut out and arranged pieces of

pictures on a page. In film, this photomon-
tage innovation was best demonstrated by
Sergei Eisenstein's classic 1925 film Battleship
Potemkin (see Chapter 13). Later, the Nazis

also used the photomontage technique effec-
tively in their propaganda posters. Ironically,
it was the Nazi party that ended the dada ical lettering had a modern graphic look that
movement and forced its leaders to flee from appealed to both left-wing and fascist propa-
Germany. Dadaism evolved into the surreal ganda poster designers. Advertisers at first
art movement and later influenced the pop didn't like the style because the conservative
art and post modern styles. nature of U.S. design at the time favored
function over form. Critics viewed art deco as
Art Deco Called "the last of the total antiutilitarian. Nevertheless, Harper's Bazaar
styles," art deco united buildings, objects, signed one of the most famous art deco
fashions, typographical, and graphic designs artists, Erte, to a ten-year contract to make
by its stylish and distinctive look. Art deco erotically styled drawings for its covers
(called art moderne in Europe) takes its (Figure 9.16). Today his posters are valuable
name from a 1925 exhibition in Paris titled collectors' items. As the public embraced the
Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs et style, advertisers started using art deco de-
Industriels Modernes, which covered both signs. Use of the style spread to department
banks of the Seine River. Art deco began stores, corporate headquarters, and even au-
because designers concluded that middle- tomated vending machines. The Chrysler
class consumers were put off by tense dada Building in New York City is a classic exam-
designs. The public seemed to want a less ple of art deco architecture, as are the multi-
threatening style that was both noncontrover- colored hotels and apartment buildings on
sial and new in its approach. Hence art deco's Miami Beach.
purpose was largely commercial. The stock market crash of 1929 signaled
The distinctive art deco style with stream- the beginning of the end of the architectural
lined shapes and curved sans serif typograph- excesses of the art movement. The last major
180 GRAPHIC DESIGN
The poem Howl by Ginsberg, the novel On

the Road by Kerouac, the peace sign designed
by Gerald Holtom (1956) as a nuclear dis-

armament symbol, and the photographs pub-
lished in Robert Frank's The Americans
(1956) were verbal and visual examples of
artists questioning traditional cultural values.
In the 1960s, pop art combined grass roots
political movements concerned with civil
rights and anti-Vietnam War opinions with

the "hippie" culture, centered on the corner
of Haight and Ashbury streets in San Francis-
co (Figure 9.17). Posters that advertised rock
concerts and political rallies displayed psy-
chedelic art that tried to represent the visual
sensations that people experienced after tak-

ing a hallucinogenic drug. Intensely contrast-
ing colors in vinelike forms with hand-drawn

lettering in the same style were visually
arresting, but hard to read for a viewer not
part of the culture. Consequently, the designs

were a symbolized code that relayed factual
Figure 9.16 art deco exhibition was at the New York's information but also served to link those
The French art deco master, World Fair of 1939-1940. The conservatism within the culture. Artist Peter Max brought
Erte, poses with a model of World War II and its aftermath dealt the pop art into the mainstream with his colorful
and examples of his graphic

final blow to this decorative style that gave a posters, as did New York artist Andy Warhol,
modern look to the free- flowing ornamenta- who used innovative printing techniques of
design work.
tion of art nouveau. common American icons (Campbell soup
cans and Marilyn Monroe) to create striking-
Pop Art The pop art movement combined ly visual works of art (Figure 9.18). By the
the organic vines of art nouveau designs and early 1970s, pop art had reached its peak, but
the rebellious philosophy of dadaism. Pop art not before influencing everything from fast
gets name from a group of London artists

its food restaurants to comic books to supermar-
and designers who met in the mid-1950s. ket product packaging.
Pop, short for "popular," was the label given

to objects — from sensational movie posters Post Modern In the late 1970s, a new form
to the tail fins of Detroit automobiles — that of graphic design, initially called neo-dada
were viewed as unworthy of serious artistic and punk, emerged. Practitioners of the post
attention and yet were a part of a society's modern style placed typographical and other
popular culture. In the United States, pop art visual elements on pages in angry, rebellious,
can be traced to the time when San Francisco and random ways in the style of "ransom
was the capital of "beat" generation poets note" cutouts. Underground comic books
and writers such as Allen Ginsberg and Jack were one of the first outlets for this art form
Kerouac. The style was connected with alter- (see Chapter 1 1 ). Post modern artists were
native lifestyles and rebellion against authori- critical of the lavish spending habits of the
ty demonstrated by the "beatnik" culture. wealthy, as were their dada predecessors.
Punk, as with many other art movements, Figure 9.17
quickly became absorbed into mainstream "Love Festival. 1967.
culture and renamed new wave and most Silkscreen: 29^ X 40." The
recently hip hop. Cartoonist Gary Panter organic shapes of art
decries the transition into respectability when nouveau inspired artists
he says: "Punk was an honest expression,

such as Michael English in
while New Wave is a packaging term."
the 1960s to create posters
The new wave and hip hop styles are
f-Jl tot.et.td lo to»dtt$t\aut>Utt
that combined text and
highly influenced by the ease of typographi- W.bomo doc, eoo ittih
jofcfttOH
band.
bank dtctMf .r | MM
f (MM jia\*da\ou \altiador Aati,
f€b n muchim indian mutic.
images in dynamic ways.
cal and visual manipulations made possible disney
\
carioani math boil, f,

-»tut *
movU.
by computer technology. New wave is con-

nected with a youthful culture that views all
Figure 9.18
new technology as exciting. The colorful Greeks used grids to plot perspective points
Andy Warhol, the
cutout titles that Kalman and Isley made for for their buildings and coordinates for their
undisputed master of the
the movie Something Wild are examples of maps. Gutenberg used a grid to outline where
pop art movement, created
new wave that have been critically praised. he wanted the enlarged letter, each line of
this icon of Marilyn Monroe
Hip hop started as a fashion, graphic text, and border illustrations to fall on pages
titled, "Untitled from
design, and dance accompaniment to rap of his Bible. Renaissance artists, particularly
Marilyn." At the Museum
music. The quick editing of visual messages Leonardo, used scaling grids to make sure
to the beat of pulsating rhythms is combined that their drawings were in proportion of Modern Art in New York
with pictographic images on walls and cloth- (Figure 9.19). City, the painting hangs on
ing. The 1993 comedy Who's the Man? was The idea of a grid came from careful a wall where it can be
designed to attract moviegoers sensitive to observations of nature. The Greek philoso- viewed or ignored.
hip hop culture. In addition, quick editing
techniques are the hallmark of music videos,
as shown on cable networks such as Music
Television (MTV) and Video Hits 1 (VH1)
and have influenced the way television com-
mercials and programs are produced (see
Chapter 14). Unfortunately, the art style is
also associated with wall graffiti "taggers"
who walk the line between urban folk art

admired for its originality and criminal van-
dalism frowned upon by most people.
Grid Approaches
Allen Hurlburt in his 1978 book The Grid

recounts the history of the use of a grid to
organize design elements. Like margin and
column imaginary lines, a grid is any combi-
nation of horizontal and vertical lines that
creates negative spaces composed of squares
and rectangles in which words and pictures
are placed. Grids are the unseen foundation
for visual elements used in architecture, map-
making, and graphic design. The ancient
182 GRAPHIC DESIGN
believed that an unemotional use of lines,

Xi
common shapes, and the colors of red, yellow,
I I
'i f
''l"* 1 '-^V »«»*t»i f*f rttJ*r.
and blue would usher in a new Utopian spirit
of cooperation among the people of the

world. Thus de Stijl, translated as the style,
introduced contemporary graphic designers

to the grid format through a journal of the
same name. Today, editors commonly use a

variation of the grid format for newspaper
front pages to express a modern approach.
Mondrian composed abstract paintings of
thick black horizontal and vertical lines that
divided his canvases into basic shapes, which

he filled in with colors (Figure 9.21). His
artwork inspired graphic designers to use the
same system with text and images. Stefan
Lorant, an editor for London's Lilliput and
Picture Post magazines in the 1930s, used the
grid to showcase what he called "the third

effect." Two photographs printed the same
size and side by side created new meaning in
the mind of the reader that each photograph

alone could not achieve. To voice his criticism
of the Nazi appeasement policy of the British
government just before World War II, for
example, Lorant ran a picture of Neville

Chamberlain next to that of an ostrich. The
Figure 9.19 pher Plato and the architect Vitruvius ex- third effect created by the two equal grid
/« order fo demonstrate the pressed a "dynamic symmetry" composed of spaces produced a "critical comment about
natural symmetry of the natural shapes found in the world: the square, Chamberlain's action. It was an opinion
human body with its
the triangle, and the circle. In architecture, deeply felt by Lorant, who had recently fled
relationship to circle and

typography, and graphic design, naturally from Germany because of Nazi party abuses.
occurring objects inspired designers. Even in Architect and designer Le Corbusier made
square shapes, Leonardo da
the twentieth century, the circular shape of a an important contribution for the use of the
Vinci made this famous
common seashell, for example, led the ar- grid in architecture with his 1948 book Mod-
drawing of a man.
chitect Le Corbusier to develop a floor plan ulor and the design system of the same name.
for a museum exhibition that combined the Le Corbusier was a pseudonym, taken from
strength of square and rectangle shapes with the name of a maternal relative, of Swiss-born
the dynamic flowing character of a spiral Charles Edouard Jeanneret. He was known
(Figure 9.20). for his innovative designs of high-rise build-
ings surrounded by parks. By the 1960s

De Stijl In the summer of 1917 several modular design, named after Le Corbusier's
Dutch painters, including Theo van Does- book, became the dominant force in moder-
burg and Piet Mondrian, perceived the use of nizing the front pages of newspapers around
the grid as a way to search for universal the world. In modular design, text and im-
harmony in the wake of World War I. They ages for each story are placed within rectan-
gular shapes called modules. The "J" or

reversed "J" shapes, sometimes called "dog
legs," were abandoned as being old-fashion-
ed. A newspaper redesigned modularly has
more of a horizontal than vertical orienta-
tion.
Kevin Barnhurst in his monograph News

as Art noted that the transition from vertical
to horizontal modules began as early as the
1890s when banner headlines crossed over

several columns. In the 1930s, newspapers
started to change from centered headlines to a

design style called streamlining in which
headlines were justified to the left, the most
common practice today. One of the first
newspapers in the 1960s to be redesigned in

the modular format was the New York Herald
Tribune. Peter Palazzo gave the front page a
more contemporary look by creating horizon- design look the same, regardless of location Figure 9.20
tal rather than vertical text and graphic and differences in community interests. Many of the letter and
modules. Will Hopkins, art director for Look Motion picture title and credit designers, graphic design concepts
in 1969 and later for American Photographer, television graphics editors, and computer invented by the Greeks were
did the same for magazine design. programmers also have been influenced by
inspired by natural forms
Through his 1981 book Contemporary the modular approach introduced by the de
found in nature.
Newspaper Design and workshops at newspa- Stijl movement. Frames can be divided into
pers around the world, Mario Garcia spread grids as easily as the printed page. Although
the modular design approach. When the
national newspaper USA Today was intro- Figure 9.21
duced in September 1982, its design was "Textual. 1928.
heavily influenced by the philosophy of Gar- Photolithograph: 24~ X
cia and other modular advocates (Figure
The basic shapes,
16~J2-"
9.22). Newspaper editors around the world
simple colors, and aligned
ordered redesigns of their publications be-
text, as seen in this poster
cause modular design attracted new and
by Piet Mondrian of the de
younger readers with its horizontal orienta- anderi* «*. i» ffTi'tl
unnoir *tlt soldi tout ftu
Hoot W
1
i lynotynas fccrfiruT1 soge»
Stijl art movement, inspired
tion that many compared to television, im- '. pes eonfondn ttrott
the modular design style

proved readability with clear and simple story
placement, and sped composing room pro- favored by newspaper layout
duction because the design elements were artists.
easier to formulate.
However, critics of modular design com-

plain that the style homogenizes newspapers.
The graphic design technique, although effi-
il
iirt d«j»
gals
'n.
f>'t
.!).*.:..
il f«l la. I
-
ea: rhoisir
prmare conUrt
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M^ttr kn st*°p* *t sous 1* Just* li&nr
cient and modern, gives a bland, cookie-

cutter appearance to a publication. Conse-
quently, most newspapers that use modular
184 GRAPHIC DESIGN
Figure 9.22 designers. Therefore, to refer to Bauhaus as

r 3-WAY WINNERS
FAWN'S
LfNOl Mrs
The front page of the fifth 1
no u
opwttiu.
s.
i ik
SIDE .
one, unified style is misleading. Nevertheless,
anniversary issue o/USA its product, industrial, and graphic designs
Today is organized with the are characterized by their emphasis on useful,

Rather vs. CBS Sports: Tough rematch
simple, and clearly defined shapes. Designers
same modular design NEWSLINE
favored squares and rectangles created with a
concept used in all of its
Bork seat 'still to be won, lost' T-square and curves accurately drawn with a
issues. The cover story is
compass. They also preferred the sans serif
always in the middle of the
typeface family because most of its letters
page, a USA Snapshots
could be drawn with right angles, making a
5S . -rr.z. -a
infographic is always at the
good fit with the basic shapes used in their
lower left, and political,
designs.
sports, and entertainment Gropius was purposely anti-academic, or-
mug shots are always ganizing the Bauhaus school as a Renaissance
presented in the same workshop. He preferred that his teachers be
Smokeless*
^ reasons why S|r a'
sladon ^ rmed
and students were apprentices
'
locations. called masters,
who worked not in studios but in workshops.

Gropius wanted to enhance the notion that
the school graduated designers capable of
making significant contributions to the real
world. Three of the most famous masters at

the school were abstract painter Paul Klee,
designer and photographer Laszlo Moholy-
Nagy, and his assistant, designer Gyorgy
de Stijl did not continue as an organized Kepes, who is the author of ten books,
design movement after the death of its found- including The Language of Vision (1944), The
er van Doesburg in 1931, it remains an Vision Arts Today (1960), The Nature and Art
influential design format for all media pres- of Motion (1965), Module, Perception, Sym-
entations. metry, Rhythm (1966), and Sign, Image, Sym-
bol (1966).
Bauhaus In 1919, architect Walter Gropius Moholy-Nagy experimented with all types
headed a design workshop and think-tank in of art — still and moving images, painting,
Weimer, Germany, called the Das Staatliches and graphic design (Figure 9.23). He was
Bauhaus. Bauhaus comes from the German particularly interested in the poster as a
words bauen for "to build" and haus for medium for expression. He called the combi-
"house." Although originally intended as an nation of type and images on a poster "the
architectural school, Bauhaus design quickly new visual literature." One of his photo-
embraced the de Stijl concept of creating graphic innovations was the "photogram" in
harmony in the world through unifying art which objects are placed on photosensitive
and technology. Although similar to de Stijl paper and then exposed to light. Moholy-
in its use of the grid, Bauhaus allowed more Nagy thought, as did many of the Bauhaus
individual freedom. designers, that because of its truthful repre-
Bauhaus design began with a set of formal sentations, photography could be a positive
ideas about the function and production of influence in the world. As with de Stijl,
objects, but its different political purposes Bauhaus was a reaction to the horrors of
during its history influenced the work of its World War I.
FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR GRAPHIC DESIGN 185
In 1932, the Nazi party, disturbed by what

Future directions for
it considered to be liberal ideas, closed the
graphic design
school. Many of the faculty fled to Switzer-
land and the United States. Gropius taught
In the near future, computer programs will
architecture at Harvard, and Moholy-Nagy
make it possible for every individual to -create
started a New Bauhaus school in what is now Figure 9.23
his or her own graphic design style for
part of the Illinois Institute of Technology in "Z //. 1925. Oil on canvas:
whatever purpose. Whether the style is free
Chicago. The first Bauhaus art exhibition in 37- x 29j." Laszlo
g
form, grid, or a totally new kind of graphic
the United States was at the Museum of Moholy-Nagy was a
innovation, a person's selection and place-
Modern Art in 1938. For the first time,
photographer, painter, and
ment of pictorial elements within a frame will
American designers were introduced to and
When teacher for the Bauhaus
express the individual's personality.
inspired by a style that, unlike dadaism,
the computer, television, and telephone are school. His use of basic
presented clear messages without drawing
merged into the same machine (most likely to forms and colors attempts to
attention to itself.
be called a teleputer), sophisticated home convey a sense of inner and
design studios will be linked to other work- outer vision.

What is considered good graphic design al-
ways depends on the cultural values of the

audience. As with different generations that
often do not appreciate the musical tastes of
younger or older generations, design sensibili-
ties are shaped by the values expressed by the

producing and receiving cultures. The free-
form and grid approaches to graphic design
clash because one set of styles is meant to
draw attention to itself, whereas the other

maintains that the message is more important
than the design.
A graphic design style, whether classified
as free form or grid, will not last long unless a
large number of designers take it up and use it
in presentations in ways that make sense to

their audience. Because the dominant, prod-
uct-oriented culture in the United States
relies on television and other screen media for
educational and entertainment purposes,

marketing personnel, not artists or their fans,
make many of the decisions that determine

whether a graphic design style remains popu-
lar. But computer technology, which allows
everyone to produce works easily that are
sensitive to graphic design issues, may take
style decisions out of the hands of the com-
mercial interests. If not, graphic design may
revert to the consumerism of the Victorian
period.
186 GRAPHIC DESIGN
shops throughout the world. Information in designer actually becomes a visual element
the form of textual and visual materials will within the frame. Marshall McLuhan once
be obtainable from databases located every- spoke of the global village as a metaphor for
where on the planet. For example, letters to new technology that links the world's citizens
family members and friends will be sent into one giant community. Perhaps the Utopi-
electronically and will be elaborate, interac- an dreams of the early twentieth century
tive multimedia messages in which images, free-form and grid designers will be realized
both still and moving, will be transmitted in when communication equipment is com-
a format that accommodates many types of bined with an aesthetic sensitivity to graphic
typography and graphic design decisions. design. As professionals, educators, students,
Virtual reality technology may further revo- and the public become more visually aware
lutionize interpersonal communications by and literate, such dreams can become reality.
creating "cyberspace" worlds in which the

CHAPTER 10
Informational Graphics God is in the details.
Mies van der Rohe,
ARCHITECT
H istorians and critics sometimes divide the newspaper market. The United States had no
study of informational graphics into two time national, general interest daily publication.
periods: BU and AU (before USA Today and The closest competitors were the Wall Street
after USA Today). Although the use of infor- Journal, exclusively a business-oriented news-
mational graphics in newspapers and maga- paper, and weekly news magazines such as
zines and on television had increased before Newsweek and Time. Aimed initially at highly
introduction of the national newspaper on educated and wealthy business executives and
Wednesday, September 15, 1982, USA To- travelers, USA Today provided national news
days colorful edition undoubtedly quickened along with short, local stories from every state
the pace. But the increase in the use of in the country. To avoid circulation prob-
informational graphics by the print and lems, initially the newspaper was sold almost
screen media also is a result of the desktop exclusively at airport terminals and from busy
computer revolution and the popularity of downtown sidewalks in only a few cities.
visual messages generally. Informational Its eye-catching design, low cost, and easy
graphics (or infographics) are primarily visu- reading style eventually made the Monday
al displays with accompanying labels and text through Friday daily newspaper a financial
that help explain an illustration's meaning. success.
In one sense they are extensions of still However, the publication has been called
photographs published in newspapers with the "Rodney Dangerfield of newspapers." In
captions or cutlines that give explanatory terms of journalism, the newspaper does not
text, but they go further in providing infor- get much respect because of the brief and
mation. informal style of its stories. The Washington
The Gannett newspaper chain headed by Post called it "a paper for a nation with a
Allen Neuharth saw an unfilled niche in the 30-second attention span." The New York
187
'
188 INFORMATIONAL GRAPHICS
Figure 10.1 Times dubbed it "McPaper," comparing it to L/SA Today s "major contribution to journal-
See color section following the food served at a McDonald's restaurant. ism is, of course, its graphics. And it has
page 210. The news content, according to one critic, is helped bring a lot of newspapers into this
"bland, predictable and easy to digest." Al- century."
though critics conceded that the paper was The most striking graphic feature in the
attractive, they complained that it contained newspaper is the infographic on the back
little news. One journalist joked that the page of the first section (Figure 10.1). The
newspaper was likely to win a Pulitzer Prize large weather map has received universal
for the "best investigative reporting para- acclaim since its introduction. Media critic
graph." The tersely worded writing style has Peter Boyle called the map "the most imitat-
even been blamed for helping to initiate the ed feature in American journalism." In a
short and catchy "sound bite" used by politi- 1987 poll of newspaper editors, more than
cians and other public figures. half had increased their weather coverage
But from the start, the newspaper was not since the introduction of USA Today and 25
created to please traditional word-oriented percent of them admitted that it was because
readers, but to attract the attention of the of the popularity of the large, colorful weath-
generations brought up on television. USA er map. Soon after its introduction, newspa-
Today is a kind of printed version of the Cable pers around America started printing their
Network News (CNN) channel. Its brief story own version of the map — but in regional
treatment combined with multicolored versions more suited for their readers (Figure
graphic illustrations pays tribute to the print- 10.2). Such imitators never bothered the
ing industry's chief rival — television. Even iconoclast Neuharth. After all, he admitted,
the paper racks designed by Fred Gore resem- the weather page "is a direct absolute steal
ble television sets. George Cotliar, managing from Willard Scott [NBC's weather person
editor of the Los Angeles Times, admits that on "The Today Show"] and other TV weath-
ermen."
Figure 10.2 Weathen Chance of afternoon showers. High near 66.

Yesterday's n*gh 64° Wisconsin forecast
TT*smomng's low 38"
Although unable to afford
A-U. '"Mil
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swi is-ao TBfi
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U.S. data map supplied by TTm sbs3 i>i50 Last year 11
a favorable and persistent following or is so
the Associated Press.
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The first map did not show

printed weather
high and low temperatures or warm and cold
fronts. Drawn by Edmond Halley in 1686, its
symbols simply indicated wind directions

"aw euw over the oceans (Figure 10.3). Based on
reported observations, his graphic was a
WEATHER MAPS 189
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crudely drawn map of part of the world, time experiment in 1876, the Herald pub- Figure 10.3
which showed the direction of trade winds lished America's first weather map. On May One of the first data maps,
and monsoons. As such, it was an early aid to 9, 1879, the Daily Graphic first began regular in which a map was
mariners. Halley is best known for the comet publication of a weather map. Stephen combined with statistical
that bears his name: In 1682, he accurately Horgan, inventor of the halftone engraving data, was this 1686
predicted that the comet would return in screen, made the weather maps for the Daily
infographic by Edmond
1758. Halley also created the first accurate Graphic.
Halley. Prevailing wind
map of the stars (long before the creation of By 1910, the newly formed U.S. Weather
currents throughout the
Hollywood) that were visible in space from Bureau had been placed in the Department of
world are indicated by the
the Southern Hemisphere. Agriculture. The bureau supplied 65 newspa-
direction of the tiny strokes.
More than 150 years would pass before pers with national and regional weather in-
weather maps would be used regularly. Intro- formation via telegraph. Two years later the
duction of the telegraph in 1848 allowed bureau provided service to 147 newspapers in
weather observations from around a country 91 cities. But like many innovations, the
(and later the world) to be depicted on a map. weather map fad quickly diminished in pop-
The 1851 Great Exhibition in London's Crys- ularity.
tal Palace not only was where people could The conservative New York Times signaled
see examples of the newly invented photogra- the beginning of the weather map's come-
phy medium, but they could also read daily back when it published its first map on
weather reports imposed on a map of En- August 4, 1934. The next year, the Associated
gland for the first time. Press (AP) Wirephoto network began trans-
Newspaper publishers needed a little time mitting weather maps electronically via tele-
to warm up to the weather map. On April 1, phone lines to its member newspapers across
1875, The Times of London printed the first the country. Publishers liked the AP maps
daily weather map composed by a pioneer of because they could use them in local newspa-
statistical presentations, Francis Galton. But pers almost without alteration.
because of its larger land mass, getting weath- In 1960, NASA launched the first geosyn-
er reports for the entire United States was chronous weather satellite, TIROS- 1, which
much more difficult. However, the U.S. sent back pictures of the United States from
Weather Service, formed in 1870 as a branch 22,000 miles in space. The National Weather
of the U.S. Army Signal Office, supplied Service provided the images to newspapers
weather information to the New York Herald and television stations for use in their weath-
and the New York Daily Graphic. As a one- er coverage (Figure 10.4).
-| >upii|iu.mmvii miofiimiiim Mm>i»ji:i

Figure 10.4 I ilr | r|,l II. I,, £ painted green or blue, and the director
Subscribers to the I merged a slide of the United States from

llrqlonnl Wi:»llit;r Mtlpo
CompuServe electronic 1 another video camera so that an announcer

'
Location: |
noiunum, U II . urn u n mum-.
| appeared to be standing before a huge weath-

network can get recent news
~ er map.
and weather reports at the
I The weather segment of a newscast is now
touch of a mouse button.
Uipt. | n-pnrl*.
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nwiotlon
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| the most visually dramatic part of the pro-
Here, a viewer using
's
g
gram. In a three-minute time period, as
Microsoft Windows on an
c I
many as twenty different maps and infogra-
IBM PC can see weather & ^ phics may be presented in colorful, often
activity for the United
mobile, displays. In 1982, John Coleman, the
States. weather personality for ABC's "Good Morn-
Television weather segments
ing America" initiated the first nationally
Before the 1970s, weather segments of local broadcast 24-hour cable weather service, The
TV news programs were intended as light- Weather Channel. Coincidentally, USA Today
hearted diversions from the other, more im- began publication that same year.
portant news and sports segments. Sexy

women with no other apparent qualifications
Impact of technology
than their appearance or people dressed up in
clown suits and makeup read the weather Allen Neuharth has been in the newspaper
reports in a comical way. Despite the fact that business since he was an eleven-year-old
some stations still hire weather people to be paper carrier for the Minneapolis Tribune. In
stand-up comedians and announce 100-year- 1979, Neuharth sent some of his key staff
olds' birthdays (the talk show entertainer members to a window-covered (to avoid
David Letterman began his television career spies) bungalow a few blocks from his Cocoa
explaining the weather for an Indianapolis Beach, Florida, home to develop the national
station), the trend is toward more profession- newspaper. One of the experts in the early
alism among weather personnel. Many now days was graphics editor George Rorick, who
have degrees in meteorology and receive the had been recruited specifically to create the
"seal of approval" from the American Mete- weather map. As the innovative art director
orological Society after finishing a training for the Lansing (Michigan) State Journal,
session for television meteorologists. Rorick was an excellent choice. His first
Before computer graphics, the TV weather weather map took a day and a half to finish.
announcer often used hand-drawn symbols But in only a short time, improvements in the
on chalkboards and Plexiglas sheets. Magne- process allowed the complete weather page to
tized strips that indicated weather fronts were be finished in only half an hour. Computer
stuck on large boards and sometimes would and satellite technology made this speedy
fall off. But viewer surveys revealed that 70 process possible. Weather information, now
percent of the audience tuned in to news received from a private company, the Weather
programs to learn about the next day's weath- Services Corporation, is sent automatically in
er. Consequently, station managers began to digital form to correspond to the format
invest in expensive computer graphic equip- requirements of the page.
ment to make the weather more dramatic and Journalism critics cite the innovative use
attract more viewers. In the 1970s, stations of digital transmission to aid production of
started using the chroma keying electronic the paper as one of the newspaper's major
effect. The announcer stood in front of a wall achievements. After the newspaper is com-
ANALYSIS OF THE INFOGRAPHICS IN USA TODAY 191
posed on computers at its home office in Learn to think, learn to write, and then learn
Rosslyn, Virginia, facsimile (FAX) scanners to use a computer.
convert entire pages into an electronic code
that is beamed to a satellite and sent to thirty
printing sites throughout the United States Analysis of the infographics

and foreign locations. By using existing Gan- in usa today
nett printing locations, the chain saved itself
millions of dollars in start-up costs. Never- Communications experts link the future for
theless, Gannett spent about $50 million on newspapers to networked interactive multi-
the first two years of operation. media. Hence, USA Today is a cheery, easily
After the introduction of USA Today, readable example on paper of what one day
newspapers throughout the country began may be offered on a portable computer

dropping their drab, black and white satellite screen. The stories are written in a short,
photographs and introducing spot color feature-oriented style that could easily fit on a
graphic elements, color pictures, and a variety few computer frames. The headlines are easi-
of infographic illustrations. Color, comput- ly distinguished from the other elements on

ers, and satellite delivery now are common- the page and are written in a light, casual
place elements of newspaper technology. style. The typography is a mixture of the sans
George Rorick left USA Today to become serif and roman typeface families, which
graphics director for the Detroit News in creates variety on the page and makes it
1986. Soon after, however, the Knight- Ridder eminently readable. Photographs, infograph-
newspaper chain, Gannett Company's main ics, and most rules are in color to maximize
rival,named him director of its Knight- visual impact. Graphic elements are selected
Ridder/Tribune News Graphics Network for their eye-catching impact. Consequently,
(KRTN) based in Washington, D.C. The a reader needs to expend only a little more
KRTN graphics wireservice furnishes stories, effort than when watching thirty minutes
photographs, and infographics to subscrib- worth of national news on television.
ing newspapers, businesses, and individuals Although the newspaper has been criti-
via telephone transmissions. A new service cized for its abbreviated writing style, its
for television stations includes full-motion more important contributions are its use of
infographics for news stories through colorful graphic elements and method of
its dedicated electronic network, Press- distribution. The latter innovation receives
Link. most of the attention from traditional schol-
At KRTN, Rorick continues to be a techni- ars. For example, Michael and Edwin Emery
cal innovator and teacher. He spends a great in their widely used textbook The Press and
deal of his time teaching artists how to use a America label the publication as "the national
computer to produce graphic illustrations satellite newspaper." But just as important

that don't look as if they were created with a was the newspaper's effect on other print and
computer. However, for Rorick the computer screen media when it showed that informa-
is only a tool in the communication process. tional graphics could be a vital and accepted
"Information is the first and most important way to tell stories. Its large-scale weather
word of information graphics," he says. "First map, USA Snapshots that feature a pictograph
you need a researcher, then a graphics editor. on the first page of every section, and sophis-
Then hire an artist. Then get a computer. ticated use of other types of informational
People do it backwards." The implication for graphics are a tribute to newspaper graphic
a visual communications student is simple: designers of the past.
Figure 10.5 Through the use of computer technology, such a low statistical infographic percentage
See color section following an enormous number of infographics can be is that readers never learn to make complex
page 210. created and printed in each day's edition. For associations if multivariate data aren't pre-
example, a content analysis for June 2, 1993, sented.
reveals that the forty-page edition contained Furthermore, Richard Curtis, managing
208 stories, 80 photographs, and 202 infor- editor of graphics and photography for USA
mational graphics — an average of 5.2 info- Today, promotes the use of "stand-alone"
graphics per page (Figure 10.5). With all the graphics as a way to put more news on a page.
box scores during baseball season, the sports Consequently, infographics that do not relate
section had the largest number of infograph- to a nearby story are quite common. In fact,
ics (118) of any. The editors of USA Today within that same 1993 issue, 74 percent of the
demonstrate their faith in the newspaper's graphics were of the stand-alone type. Typical
designers by publishing almost as many in- of the genre is the pictograph on the front
fographics as stories. page of the first section. With a pie chart in
An emphasis on national news means that the form of a gray-colored boulder and two
local events and concerns receive less atten- large pink-faced prisoners wearing prison
tion. Although USA Today shouldn't be ex- stripes and carrying sledge hammers, the
pected to report all the news everywhere, its pictograph shows that 99 percent of all state
emphasis on short, easily digestible stories prison inmates in 1991 had been in jail or on
designed for those too busy to read a long probation before their latest incarceration.
analysis inevitably leads to shortcomings in Such an incredibly high percentage demands

coverage. more written explanation. The journalistic
The philosophy that justifies the use of "why" can never be answered by such super-
paragraph-sized stories also leads to photo- ficial coverage.
graphs and infographics that lack insightful On the first day of publication, Allen
content. For example, in the June 2, 1993, Neuharth wrote a front page letter explaining
edition, 70 percent of the editorial photo- his philosophy for the national newspaper,
graphs printed were head-and-shoulder saying in part that "USA Today hopes to serve
"mug shots." The use of these setup, public as a forum for better understanding and
relations-pleasing portraits is an indication unity to help make the USA truly one na-
that the editors think of photography in tion." His sentiment was not unlike that of
terms of brightening a page by making it Henry Luce's 1936 mission statement printed
more pleasing graphically. in the first issue of Life magazine: "To see life;
Photojournalism suffers in its profession- to see the world; to eyewitness great events; to
alism when photographers are forced to focus watch the faces of the poor and the gestures of
on the public facade of a person in the news. the proud ... to see and be instructed."
Such a trend, unfortunately, is common to Both publications have been criticized for
many other newspapers that have followed in inadequate multicultural coverage. Such an
the USA Today graphic page makeup ap- omission perpetuates the stereotypes of
proach. groups that are different from the dominant
In the June 2, 1993, edition, only 10 per- culture.
cent (22) of the graphics were statistical. All As a newspaper admittedly aimed at the
of the others were simple tables (106), fact upscale and active segment of the U.S. popu-
boxes (50), locator maps (10), and other lation, USA Today has been criticized for
nonstatistical images (14). The problem with marketing and slanting its news product to a
ANALYSIS OF THE INFOGRAPHICS IN USA TODAY 193
largely white, upper-middle-class audience.

One researcher discovered that a passerby was
far less likely to see the "space age" newspa-
per's boxes in African-American neighbor-

hoods than in more affluent areas. To the
editors' credit, they have responded to early
criticism and have placed newspaper racks in
more diverse areas. A publication that calls
itself a "national" newspaper has the obliga-
tion to make sure that all cultural groups are -
How often rt freezes
represented on its pages and in its marketing

plans.
The weather map infographic receives the
most praise (Figure 10.6). It is a tribute to the

3 1
efficient, competent, and innovative use of "'_".! i asm; ] a
computers, which allow such technological

marvels to happen daily. We can hardly
imagine how page colors first viewed on a
computer screen can be transmitted so accu-

^»^-«^ WeFlyNonstopToMoreCitieslnEurope
rately by satellite to printing presses thou- r
i <
j ThanThe Europeans.
* • .* /\T~\T?TT'A
sands of miles away. The map itself is pro-
*i _ .... . . .. .
ADELT4
tected by a copyright. The copyright symbol

appears on the map in the ocean near Neu- weather page and elsewhere in the paper.
harth's hometown of Cocoa Beach, Florida. The page also acts as a giant advertisement
The map itself takes up approximately 34 for the USA Today's 900 telephone number
percent of the page. It is a bold, three- news and weather service. As if the page
dimensional rendering of the United States doesn't give enough weather information,
that bows slightly in the midwest. Separate two text blocks explain how to access a
boxes with blue-colored backgrounds show "weather hot line" for 24-hour information
Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. Logically, for $0.95. In fact, the large table outlining
cool colors on the map represent lower tem- Four-Day Highlights includes forecast infor-
peratures than yellow and red high-tempera- mation for almost every major city in every
ture hues. Tables, a diagram, a weather- state along with each city's area code. A caller
related story, and fact boxes constitute about also can get weather information and curren-
48 percent of the rest of the weather info- cy exchange rates for every major capital in
graphic on the page. An advertisement added the world and news, sports, and entertain-
to the page in February 1986 runs along the ment information through this touch-tone
bottom of the page to complete the layout. service. Because of the $0.95 a minute charge,
Color certainly is used on the page not critics contend that the telephone service
only to show in an instant the high tempera- perpetuates the idea that the newspaper is
ture in Shreveport, Louisiana, but to attract intended only for the affluent. Nevertheless,
attention to the page and the newspaper. If with its mix of education, entertainment,
business executives notice the newspaper be- advertising, and unabashed self-promotion in
tween flights, they may decide to purchase a visually stimulating package, USA Today is
advertising to run along the bottom of the an unmistakable product of the USA today.
"When we want information, we say show

Informational graphics and
the six perspectives
—
me don't tell me."
Infographics combine the aesthetic sen-
sitivity of artistic values with the quantita-
Statistical designer and Yale University pro-
tive precision of numerical data in a format
fessor Edward Tufte estimates that between
that is both understandable and dramatic. A
900 billion and 2 trillion informational
company's growth and decline over several
graphics are published annually worldwide. If
years can be communicated simply with a
television and computer use is included, the
line chart that replaces several thousand
number may be half again higher. Television
words. It may be impossible for a photogra-
meteorologists stand before colorful animat-
pher to capture the scene of a late-breaking
ed weather maps. Presidential candidates use
news story in some remote part of the world,
multiple-colored charts when making cam-
but a locator map can at least let a reader
paign infomercials. Corporations regularly use
know where the event has occurred. Info-
computer-generated infographics for business
graphics combine the intellectual satisfaction
presentations. Almost every page in maga-
of words with the emotional power of visual
zines, newspapers, corporate annual reports,
messages.
and textbooks seems to have some type of
statistical graphic. The informational graphic
helps tell a story that is too tedious for words,
yet too simplified for photographs alone.
The petroglyphic artists of 20,000 years ago
might have been the first infographic com-
municators. Anthropologists have found
spearpoint dents near the necks and heads of
Besides creating a record of a society's major animals painted on some of the rock surfaces.
news and trends, the media also provide a Some have reasoned that those early paintings
place for corporations to advertise their goods might simply have been produced for target
and services. But one of the main utilitarian practice. Small and large animal drawings
missions of the media is to educate. Reporters would have offered varying degrees of diffi-
attempt to construct stories that answer the culty for the cave dweller spear throwers.
six journalistic questions of who, what, when, The first clear-cut use of informational
where, why, and how. The first four satisfy graphics by an advanced civilization took the
the basic requirements for most news stories, form of maps. Carved in the Sumerian clay in
but why and how are part of the educational about 3800 B.C., crude maps showed a vast
function of journalism and require more agricultural estate in Mesopotamia. Two
space or time. Research indicates that a reader thousand years later, the Egyptians used
or viewer learns and remembers better if simple maps to denote boundaries between
the journalistic questions are answered with properties. When the Greeks invented the
a combination of word, images, and info- concepts of latitude and longitude for divid-
graphics. In this increasingly visual age, coming the world into coordinates in about the
municators find that images and graphics sixth century B.C., their maps became much
often help clarify factual accounts that in the more accurate. That innovation enabled mar-
past were the domain of word descriptions iners to explore farther regions of the world
alone. As Tim Harrower in his workbook The with the confidence that they could find their
Newspaper Designer's Handbook reports, way home. Much later, in the eleventh centu-
INFORMATIONAL GRAPHICS AND THE SIX PERSPECTIVES 195
ry, a three-foot square stone was the medium

for a detailed map of the eastern coast of
China. The map, called the "Yii Chi Thu"
(Map of the Tracks of Yu the Great), was
produced with a sophisticated grid system for

an accurate representation.
In the West during the same century, a
monastery's educational textbook contained

the first line chart ever recorded (Figure
10.7). It showed the orbits of the known

planets and the sun as a function of time. The
chart has always mystified statistical histori-
ans because nothing like it was used until
about 800 years later. With the spread of

printing during the Renaissance, maps and Political Atlas, he printed forty-four charts Figure 10.7
detailed medical illustrations were regularly that gave details about the British economic Eight hundred years before
included with text. Sketch artists often used a system. But one of his charts was unlike any the use of time-series charts
camera obscura to render accurate diagrams graphic previously seen (Figure 10.9). Be- became common for business
of the human skeletal system. In his note- cause he had only one year's data for Scottish
purposes, this plot of the
books, Leonardo often illustrated his innova- exports and imports, a time-series line chart
movements of the sun, the
tive ideas with diagrams. A 1546 edition of was inappropriate. Consequently, Playfair in-
moon, and five planets was
Petrus Apianus' Cosmographia contained a vented a graph that used black bars for
found in a tenth-century
map that showed many details of the Europe- exports and ribbed bars for imports. He
textbook at a monastery
an continent (Figure 10.8). showed dollar amounts at the top and listed
school. Although historically
individual countries down the right side. His
Informational Graphics Pioneers innovation became the relevant, the chart is
first bar chart, show-
Informational graphics might forever have confusing because of its
been limited to simple maps or diagrams if seemingly partial erasure of
not for individuals who had the creative s' Ecceformulam.vfumjatcjue the path of the sun in the
intelligence to understand that graphics could Itrufrurjm Tjbularum rtolomii.cum quibufdjm Iocis,m middle.
")uibiu ftuiofuj Gtogr jphu fc farii cxcrccrc poccft.
be more than simple drawings. The power of
a graphic representation of empirical data lies SEPTENTR I O.
par, fupenor
in its explanation of complex processes by an Figure 10.8

immediate visual message. William Playfair,
Map accuracy improved
Dr. Robert Snow, and Charles Minard, in
greatly when locations were
particular, had the insight to link numbers
superimposed on a grid
with traditional graphic forms to tell complex
representing latitude and
stories with eloquent simplicity.
longitude. In his 1546
Playfair, an English political economist, is
edition of Cosmographia,
considered by many to be the founder of
Petrus Apianus plotted the
infographics. He was educated by his brother,
a mathematician at the University of Edin- location of various European
burgh, and learned drafting while working cities with the help of
for an engineering company in England. In bodiless hands holding

par, infrnor.
^
his 1786 publication The Commercial and MERIDIES. U threads.
CHART .fa// Me- IMPORTS EXPORTS .we/ ^rm ElfGLAXD

e> when he plotted each death on a street map of
Frrm teie Xeur ///"/" ie- A ff /Ventaw
/?t<'i
a tiny section of central London, the visual

representation of the data clearly showed the
deaths clustered around the Broad Street
water pump and not any other source (Figure

10.10). Snow ordered the pump handle re-
placed, and the plague was arrested.
As with Snow, French engineer Charles

Minard in 1869 combined statistical infor-
mation and a map to tell a complicated story
simply (Figure 10.11). Minard created an
infographic of Napoleon's disastrous march
to Moscow and retreat during the War of
1812 that has been called "the best statistical
He Dlrtswns a/ /Ae ftdfrm. euy re/i YEARS. M lAnsr en l/le /ti<;A/A4jii/JfILlJ0.VSijFl>ry/)S 2 $ graphic ever drawn." Historian E. J. Marey
complimented the infographic as "seeming to
defy the pen of the historian by its brutal

Figure 10.9 ing that infographics could convey complex
eloquence." Minard told the incredible story
William Playfair is an messages powerfully and simply. Today, bar
of the loss of more than 400,000 soldiers in
important figure in the charts are one of the most common elements
one military campaign through an info-
history of informational of infographics.
graphic that combined six different series of
graphics because he was one
London in the 1850s, like many overly
information. He showed the size and the
crowded and unsanitary cities, was ravaged
of the first to substitute time location of the army and the direction of its
by several outbreaks of cholera, which killed
and money data for the movements on a two-dimensional surface, as
thousands of people. Dr. Robert Snow, a
latitude and longiti4de well as the temperature on various dates.
physician concerned about the cause of the
coordinates of maps. Charts, Minard proved that a complex story could be
dreaded disease, obtained the names and
then, may be thought of as reduced to its simplest elements in a compel-
addresses of about 500 of those who had died
maps that plot economic ling visual format.
during an 1854 epidemic. When faced with
positions against time rather
all the street numbers written on several
Newspaper Infographics
than geographic locations. sheets of paper, Snow could make little sense
Unfortunately, most newspapers and mag-
of the data and could discern no patterns. But
azine graphic designers in the nineteenth
Figure 10.10
century didn't have the same enlightened
Dr. John Snow identified the philosophy. Nevertheless, highly skilled visu-
Broad Street water pump as al artists fashioned maps and illustrations
a cholera culprit when he from eyewitness accounts and photographs

combined the addresses of for numerous publications. In the United
those who had died with a States, two leaders in the use of illustrations
map were publications established in 1850: Frank

of central London.
Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper and Harper's
Weekly. With the halftone engraving process
for photographs not becoming standard prac-
tice for another thirty years, the Philadelphia
Inquirer and other newspapers used maps
mostly to tell about important Civil War
Figure 10.11
CARTE FIGURATIVE det pertet succastives tn hommt* de I'Armte Franâit* dans la campagn* dc Rutsit 1812"T8I3.
Charles Minard eloquently
OrttHeptr M .Minard, Insptcteur Genertf d«s Ponts H Chtuuets *« retm'u.
portrays Napoleon's
disastrous military advance
on Moscow in 1812 in an
information graphic that has
been called the best ever
produced. The width,
shading, and position of the
horizontal lines indicate
troop strength, direction,
and position. This single

a ex
TABLEAU CRAPH1 }UE dt U ttmpirAtur* degr+t dt th+rmotr etrt dt Rt*tu-*ur au dt sjomi d* i«r»
visual message clearly shows
t/i
II
1 3
S 5 why Napoleon started with
422,000 troops and ended

•ta?uT??"
with 10,000.
Figure 10.12
battles (Figure 10.12). Large, horizontal maps In the early days of television news, an-
Before the halftone printing
caused front page designers to rethink the nouncers sat behind a desk and held a photo-
process, photographs could
customary rigid, vertical column look of graph or chart so that the camera could zoom
not be used to illustrate
newspapers of the day. Because these hori- in on the image. In the 1970s television
news stories. In one of the
zontal, hand-drawn maps had to extend stations started to use the chroma key tech-
bloodiest battles of the Civil
across more than a single column, designers nique to add infographics in its weather
War, Antietam, the horror
of front pages let headlines and stories follow reports and later in other news segments.
that same pattern. Consequently, the use of Computer technology gradually became of the fighting could only be
maps encouraged the advent of a more mod- affordable and easily manageable allowing described by words and a
ern look. newsrooms to produce custom-made illustra- map.
Maps always have been the chief info-

graphic in wartime. During the two world
wars, hand-lettered
inated the pages of newspapers

maps and diagrams dom-
zines as readers eagerly sought information
about military actions around the world.

and maga- _
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THE BATTLE FIELD OF ANTIETAM.

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Inprrr.
PRICE TWii CENTS
Wednesday September 17th. 1862-

With Americans unsure about the location of
battles during the world wars and later the
geography of Korea and Vietnam, maps were

the main type of infographic used during
those conflicts (Figure 10.13).
Before the 1970s, editors often combined
photographs and diagrams into one info-
graphic, with drawings and lettering super-
imposed on the pictures. The "X marks the

spot" and "arrow" drawn on a photograph
were common graphic devices. Fortunately,
the style is no longer popular.
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tions. Television stations or graphics firms Apple's LaserWriter fine-grain printer (intro-
0 JOO S«ufh Ci.oo 5*o
SI *IUT( MIllV
under contract made logos, titles, and other duced in 1987), allowed an art department to
Figure 10.13 graphics for TV shows. The introduction of have a sophisticated system for producing
Maps /iflve always helped sophisticated switching software allowed spe- infographics for less than $10,000. In the
readers understand conflicts cial visual effects. An electronic frame or 1960s, such a setup would have cost more
in foreign locales. Many viewport that included a map or other graph- than a million dollars. Personal computers
battlefield stories were

ic could easily be included in the same frame introduced by IBM, Apple, and many other
as the news anchor. As a result of the new companies have made fast machines with
illustrated with maps during
emphasis on graphic design in television, large memories commonplace. An operator
the Korean War (right) and
newspaper editors saw a need to give their can now create and print infographics in a
the Vietnam War (left).
newspapers a more modern appearance. matter of minutes instead of days. Computer
Arrows and shading often
Graphics editors were hired to oversee both technology leveled the playing field for artists,
are used to show troop
the photography and graphics departments. who can now produce sophisticated illustra-
movements and areas In 1974, the Chicago Tribune, a leader in tions regardless of whether they free-lance or
secured. graphics production since before the Second are employed by companies of any size.
World War, became the first newspaper to Infographics came of age in January 1991,
hire a graphics editor. By 1988, 340 members, during the Gulf War. Because of the isolated
or 17 percent, of the Society of Newspaper desert battleground action and government
Designers classified themselves as graphics press restrictions, journalists had trouble ob-
editors. In addition to the artist, who is taining pictures, both still and moving. Con-
responsible for production, the graphics re- sequently, graphic artists for print and broad-
searcher has become a vital part of the cast media produced infographics to tell the
infographic team. The researcher seeks re- story of the war. The difficulty of getting
source material from databases and libraries visual messages from the battleground, a
for use in word and image descriptions. greater awareness of infographics generally,
Newspapers lagged behind television in and the prevalence of desktop computers led
the use of graphics until the early 1980s. to the explosion of infographic production
Charts and tables generally were reserved for during the Gulf War.
the business and sports sections until the Once infographics are created they can be
introduction of USA Today. Graphic produc- stored in the memory of computers or on
tion got a big boost when Apple Computer disks and distributed to other computers
introduced its Macintosh personal computer anywhere in the world. In the 1980s, compa-
in 1984. The Macintosh featured a tracking nies began to take advantage of the growing
device called a mouse that controlled move- need for all kinds of informational graphics
ments on a monitor. The Mac, combined with for use by the print and screen media. For
example, the Associated Press, KRTN (the loaded into the designer's computer and used
Chicago Tribune Graphic Service), Info- in infographics.
graphics (a service of North American Syndi- But infographics need to be more than
cation and King Features), and many other graphic devices that simply attract attention
companies supply text, photographs, and and make the reader curious enough to read a
graphics to subscribers via satellite, telephone story. An infographic designer has the diffi-
modems, and express mail delivery. USA cult task of creating pieces that sum up
Today offers its newspaper online to custom- complex information simply and in an aes-
ers through various bulletin boards, includ- thetically pleasing format. Because newspa-
ing America Online, Datatimes, Dialogue, per and television consumers are accustomed
Mead Data Central, and Vu/Text. Many aca- to seeing stories explained many ways (head-
demic and corporate researchers, as well as lines, copy, photographs, captions, and info-
free-lance artists, are connected by telephone graphics), presentations often involve combi-
modems or direct fiber links. They can re- nations of several different elements. A single
ceive and send text and high-quality info- story may feature fact boxes, diagrams,
graphics by direct file transfers or facsimile charts, and tables on the page or frame in
machines (see Chapter 16). addition to the traditional story-telling devic-

Computer technology not only makes poses of headlines, subheads, copy, voice-overs,
sible the easy and economical production and still and moving pictures. Consequently,
and distribution of infographics, but it also print media editors must be sure that all the
educates producers and consumers in the graphic elements used contribute to the story
ways that data and images can be combined and do not overwhelm a reader. Television
to communicate complicated information producers must take care that infographics

quickly and memorably. remain on the screen long enough for the
viewer to absorb the information. Ben Blank,
ri^ Technical Perspective managing director of ABC Broadcast Graph-

ics, asserts that the message contained in a
Images alone never fully describe a complex televised infographic will be lost if it doesn't
process, so words must always be a part of stay on the screen for at least thirteen sec-
infographic design. Headlines, subheads, call- onds. A rule of thumb probably learned from
out boxes (also called factoids), and legends silent movie days is to leave words on the
must be clearly written. The reader or viewer screen long enough for an average viewer to
should never have to guess about the meaning read the copy twice. Consequently, television
of a particular infographic. does not usually broadcast complicated in-
The graphics staffs of USA Today and TV fographics. They are best used in the print
networks work around the clock to produce media because readers can study the presen-
informational graphics. For example, CBS tations at their own pace. Infographics that
News designers typically make 35 infograph- require much viewing time to understand the
ics a day — almost all on the computer. In subtle details of complex infographics usually
addition to newly produced designs, their are lost on television viewers. However, inter-
computer library holds as many as 70,000 active multimedia systems will let viewers
different graphic elements that they can select stop and repeat any infographic they choose
from and alter for a particular purpose. (see Chapter 16).
Telephone modems connect them with other There are two main types of informational
computer databases so that stock market graphic: statistical and nonstatistical. Statisti-
weather and other information can be down- cal graphics are visual displays that present
empirical, quantitative data. Nonstatistical displayed along the x axis and should be
infographics are visual displays that rely on a consistent and evenly spaced to avoid visual
visually pleasing arrangement of verbal and misrepresentation of the data.

visual qualitative information. In contrast to line charts, which best show
broadly based trends over time, relational
Statistical Infographic Elements show
charts best significant changes in two or
The two main types of statistical info- more specific items during a particular peri-
graphic elements are charts (also called od of time. For example, gold and silver prices
graphs) and data maps. Charts may be line, for a particular year would be represented
relational, pie, or pictograph. Data maps best by two bars of different heights, if set on
combine numeric data on a simple locator the x axis, or lengths, if placed on the y axis.
map. When the amounts are presented by horizon-
tal boxes the chart is called a bar chart. When

Charts Much of the news contains numeric the amounts are represented by vertical bars,
information. The president's budget, the val- the chart is called a column chart. Whether
ue of the U.S. dollar compared with the the graphic is a bar or column chart depends
values of currency in other countries, the on the designer's preference.
increase or decrease in criminal activity, and Pie charts are so named because a circle is
election results are examples of stories that are used to represent 100 percent of something
primarily about numbers. Reading a story and the individual items that make up that
that simply listed in sentence form all the total are identified by pie slices, or wedges,
figures generated by such stories would be that are proportional to their shares of the
Figure 10.14
tedious and mind-numbing. Charts (graphs) total (Figure 10.15). Thus a pie chart com-
This line chart instantly
were invented to display numerical informa- pares amounts individually and with the
shows the reader the rise
tion concisely and comprehensibly and to whole. The only way that pie charts can be
and fall of the Dow Jones
show trends in the data that a reader might used to show complex trends is to use several
Industrial Average (stock
overlook in a verbal format. pie charts, which isn't very effective. Design-
prices) on a particular day. The technical term for a line chart is a ers usually avoid pie charts because they often
Note the subtle decisions by rectilinear coordinate chart (Figure 10.14). have to show too much information or are
the infographic designer that Other names for it are fever charts (data rises misleading. A pie chart shouldn't have more
make it easy to read: and falls as if on a thermometer) and time- than seven slices, and no slice should be
background shading, sans series plots. A line chart contains a rule that smaller than 1 percent of the total; a pie chart
serif typefaces, careful connects points plotted on a grid that corre- with too many or too small slices is difficult
alignment, a grid, and a sponds to amounts along a horizontal, or x, to read. Colors of individual slices should
bold, black data line.

axis and a vertical, or y, axis. Designers often contrast, and each slice should be labeled
use line charts to show variations in quanti- clearly. Finally, all the wedges should be
ties over a period of time, they are most drawn accurately to correspond to the per-
The Dow Tuesday effective when the quantities change dramati- centages they represent. Use of computer
3580 cally over time. A significant upsurge or graphics software ensures pie-slice accuracy.
decline in a company's sales, for example, can However, slanting or canting a pie chart for a
/i
3560
be easily shown on a line chart. Occasionally, may
3540
3520
J \_
graphic designers will color the area below
the line of the chart for a more dramatic
three-dimensional effect
acy in pie-slice
distinctive
sizes.
and immediately
lead to inaccur-
Although pie charts are

attract attention
<
-5,
e
effect. The graph then becomes an area chart. by their round shape, as Edward Tufte points
3500
close Although it depends on the type of data out, "a table should almost always be used
"I'liiiliiiiil Mill Mill Hill
3480
10 4 used, the y axis for line charts usually should over a dumb old pie chart."
a.m. pm I i
Source: Reuters
begin at zero. Intervals of time usually are Nigel Holmes invented the pictograph. In
1964, he was an illustrator for the Sunday Data maps can represent hundreds of figures
Times magazine in London. The graphics in a visual format that an unsophisticated new tax plan
editor at the time was Harold Evans, author of reader can instantly analyze. Data maps President Clinton's
stern new economic
a landmark book on newspaper graphic de- combine the drawing techniques used in dia- package will raise taxes on all
American households earning
sign, Pictures on a Page, and husband of Tina grams with quantitative data to help tell a more than $30,000.
Brown, who later became editor of Vanity Fair complicated story in a simple presentation. Percentage of all U.S. households:
and then The New Yorker. Evans created an The USA Today weather map with colored Households making $100,000 or more
Will be bearing 70% of the tax burden
atmosphere of mutual respect for words and strips representing different temperatures is "^S 4.4%
pictures in communicative contexts. As the data map most commonly used in the
Holmes says, Evans was "busy knocking media. The maps produced by Dr. Snow and
down the barriers between the picture and Charles Minard are classic examples of the
49.8% i
word departments." Holmes later became an use of numbers and simple geographic maps.
artist for the British Broadcasting Corpora- Investigative reporters have discovered the
tion (BBC) publication of Radio Times. He power of visually combining numeric data
Households Households
created innovative icons that helped identify and geographic locator maps in telling their making $30,000 making $30,000
to $100,000 or less
the content of a story, which came to the stories. For example, cancer death or crime Will be bearing will bear no
30% of the tax additional tax
attention of Time magazine executives. He statistics in the form of columns and keyed burden burden
joined Time in 1978, became the executive art to specific geographic locations enable read-
director, and now heads his own design firm ers to notice patterns that words alone could Figure 10.15
while working on a book on creativity. He not emphasize as well. Pie charts are best used
has written two popular guides about creat- when they comprise five or
ing pictographs: Designer's Guide to Creating Nonstatistical Infographic Elements
fewer classifications. Note
Charts and Diagrams and Designing Pictorial Although not as sophisticated as the statis-
how the infographics
Symbols. tical infographic elements, nonstatistical in-
designer attempts to add
A pictograph uses a representative draw- fographic elements are a vital part of story-
interest to the chart with
ing of the items the graph explains in the telling in this visual age. They comprise fact
upright and
production of the graph itself (Figure 10.16). boxes, tables, non-data maps, diagrams, and
three-dimensional
For example, instead of showing the shrink- miscellaneous formats.
orientations.
ing costs of computer hardware on a line or
relational graph, the designer shows the cost Fact Boxes Fact boxes contain a series of
differences by using smaller and smaller com- statements that summarize the key points of a
puter monitors. Pictographs are the most story (Figure 10.17). These boxes catch the
criticized of all graph forms because they reader's attention in a graphic and entertain-
often employ cute, contentless drawings to ing way. They closely resemble the journalis-
represent numerical information for the sole tic sidebar— a short article that elaborates on
purpose of attracting the reader's attention. a specific topic mentioned in a longer story.
These visual representations often are mis-

Figure 10.16
leading and wrong. Although pictographs are Sports-drink rivalry heats up
Coca-Cola and PepsiCo Pictographs combine the
criticized for insulting the intelligence of have entered the $405
million-a-year sports drink statistical information of a
readers, they are widely used. For example, market, but Quaker Oats'
Gatorade is still tops
USA Today features pictographs in the bot- chart with the artistic
10K,
tom corner of the first page of each of its $15 million rendering of a diagram
4%
sections. Here, an innovative pie
Power Ade
(Coca-Cola), "H S
$9 million
chart/bottle combination
Data Maps Maps that combine geographic 2% displays the market shares of
*0 T3
Sport
All
information with numeric data can be the (PepsiCo), sports drink competitors.
most eloquent type of infographic produced. $7 million 2% Other 4% 1 - year ended Oct. 16
Figure 10.17 Zen and the Art of Making a Living population, economic, or weather infor-
Fact boxes are studies in the Instant Recall (Page 1S5)
Reviewing highlights from your past may reveel dues to your Ma t '
jjj
mation and are common in geography
work AddrOonaty. the questions may help you get a feefang tor what It
visual organization of would be Ike to actuary be engaged m your He s work Whan goring your
|
u textbooks and encyclopedias.
answers to the questions below, do not mni yourself to previous work ex- —
textual information. A penence Draw upon your entire Me experience
Recall times when you have been most creative These are tanee
_g-
6. How it works: often included in a diagram
whan you created something (an event a thing, a product, a system) j!
reverse, sans serif typeface Recafl times when you have been most committed These are times a to help explain a complicated process.
when you were deeply involved emotionaty committed, and determined -
makes to persist m spite of at obstacles £

this headline stand Recall times when you were most decisive these are times when £
you knew exactly what to do. You knew you were nght. and you acted -~ Fact boxes rarely stand alone; they usually
out. The text is justified on deatoeratety and confidently perhaps even m spite of the doubt and oojec- §
Dons of others
-
are part of a story. However, television and
Recall a time when everyone said you couldn't do it. but you knew
both sides, with equal white you could, and you dkt it anyway. What was it? How did it feet? v
Recan times when you have been so absorbed m what you were - presentation graphic frames often use a varia-
space around doing that you he/ay noticed the time What were you doing' ^5
its edges. The
"You w* hno as you look back upon your kfe that the moments when >- tion of the fact box as subject headings for
you have realty lived are the moments when you have done things ma a
leading is tight, but square sptntof love.''
— Henry Orwmoni
3 voice-overs by announcers. Fact boxes in
Q
bullets instantly identify print media often are used with photographs,
each fact presented. Finally, icons, and other infographics.
the name of the person Fact boxes first appeared in newspapers dur-
quoted is set in italics and ing World War II. Fighting fronts in Asia and Tables Tables simply display numbers or
justified to the right. These Europe generated a lot of news, and fact boxes words in an orderly format of rows and
visual elements attract were a convenient way to summarize events.
columns, with enough white space for reada-
readers to a quick synopsis When paper had to be rationed because of bility (Figure 10.18). The most familiar types
shortages and the number of newspaper pages of tables in print media are baseball box
of a longer story.
reduced, fact boxes sometimes replaced long- scores and stock market results. Although
er stories altogether. A fact box, as the name they are the least visually appealing of all
suggests, simply lists the key points that the graphics, tables are useful in presenting large
accompanying story explains in detail. It

amounts of information in a logical and
serves the same function as a headline or
ordered way. Headings run horizontally along
photograph in that the top and identify categories of information

it entices the reader to
read an entire article. However, fact boxes placed under them in vertical columns en-
have been criticized because they may enabling the reader to compare numbers or
courage a reader to skip the longer story for items easily. Tables are considered to be half
the information contained in the fact box text and half chart and are best used when
alone. Tim Harrower lists six different types
many items have to be displayed. If three or
of fact boxes: fewer numbers or items are presented, text is
the best choice. A chart should be used for

1. Story summary: lists key points about a more than three but not more than twenty
topic (the most common type).
items. A table is the best choice for more than
2. Event summary: lists the major actions that twenty items. Try to imagine a complete list
will occur after some kind of planned of stock market results in text or chart
event. formats! Obviously, the best choice for such a
3. Background: historical references about a

large amount of data is a table with carefully
aligned rows and columns that neatly orga-
topic or subject of the main story, allow-
nize the information.
ing the writer to concentrate on contem-
porary topics.
Non-Data Maps Research supports the
4. Chronology: gives a list of key dates related
widely held belief that Americans generally
to the subject of the story.
lack geographic knowledge. Ironically, people
5. Location: lists facts about a specific coun- have a fascination with maps — from globes
try, state, or city, which might include to road maps that are maddingly awkward to
36 Y> 71*4 NYSECi li 67 0 71 *
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17V*
NBA TEAM COMPARISON
13 KIM — 4311 I1»4 - H 51* 771* NwmlC 05 S3 413 4S'«
71' 14'* K mm 94 43 11 4311 724 51* 34 V* NwmlMO. 60 I I 55 2317 55 Points Fiekl goal Turnovers Rebounds Below OT Decided by
Gms 3 ptslOpts
51 'i 41'* t rm a> 341 7 4 504 16 . 43 Vi 34 NfWlCp .14* J II 7715 41* m Per game Percent Per game Percent 100 pts
2J** 17* KM En i ». 3J 14 144 U2I* 4-1 35'* 18* NiaMP 100 10 II 3511 20 f Own Opp. Own Opp. Own Opp. Off. Dei". Tot Own Opp. W-L W-L W-L
*
J2H 24* KU Enoy 160 13 14 196 ts* 31* 23* NICOR 1 1 22 15 15 554 27
AHants 95.3 962 .422 452 17.6 18.7 iSO 519 485 7 7 0-1 2-1 1-2
1*1 4* KlisAJ 2434 9V| + V* lO' 1* 43' 4 Nike 8 80 11 II 2115 50'* "S
Boston 1029 10O.1 501 483 •13.0 17.6 265 686 .486 3 3 0^) 2-2 1-0
I* 7* KiaAJ pi IS 74 3124 UlU + 35 17* NlneWest _ 17 IM 30'* 2 Chanotto •114.6 1052 523 443 16.0 13.1 287 .676 .481 1 3 0-1 1-1 44
3* 7* Kin«e - 7 1071 314 - 1* 31 15'* NotXAt 14 i 57 497 76* y Chicago 96.7 989 466 456 183 14.9 .340 678 509 6 6 1-0 3-3 1-2
24'* 21 1
* KCNPL 1 41 41 13 17779 21'* - '* In NordlfJ 1151 5'*
| Cleveland 1006 1044 480 .485 16.6 US 299 .659 .479 3 3 0-1 0-1 0-2
44'4 73'* KCSou S JO 7 34 193 45* - 1 69'* 37 <4 NtlkSo 192 2 8 II 1612 47* & Dallas 912 990 439 5" 16.9 17.1 .354 691 522 7 4 04 0-1 1-4
11'* 7 Kiiktr 10 1 4 13 243 7". - * 30* 20'* Norik tic li _ 317 71'* . Denver 95.0 97 JJ 422 .438 16.8 15.4 354 .680 517 5 5 ChC 2-0 1-2
21'* 20'4 KlVn 35 1 0 35 731 75* - 34*4 14'* NAMIrje 24 1.0 I 2J37 244% > Detroit 102.7 102.8 .471 462 14.0 14.6 '271 671 .471 4 4 0-0 0-1 1-2
22'i 14* KlulBH M 1 i ro 645 19'* - '* I3"4 6'* NoFkBc . 13 226 10* S GolrJen State 96.8 98.3 .451 .449 17.0 16.4 360 .640 .500 s 4 0-0 04 1-2
71 47* U4 u 73 SITS 41'* 4 2* 71'* 23 Nonryt 176 71 16 2640 23% O

>-
Houston 101 .0 •893 .482 .425 172 17.1 .316 .699 .507 4 9 0-0 04 4-0
40* TP" 80 l\ IS 440 31'* - < 28' 4 25'* NBorflr n 511 27rt Indiana 975 104.5 .460 486 165 -17.4 .348 .697 523 4 2 1-0 14 0-2
4J 25* Kanptr n u 770S 33* -3 47 10'* NoStPw 151 4.2 II 413 41* < LA Cfippers 980 100.6 .466 •419 20.0 180 246 624 .435 6 5 0-1 2-2 12
10^1 in KmpHi to 97 331 1". - Hi 44 21* NorTd J4 U _ 3o74 21 % LA. Lakers
Miami
99.1
103.9
108.1
100.6
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16.6
17.3
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15.7
366 .628
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MSwaukee 972 105.0 .431 517 15.7 17.0 561 567 514 5 3 04 1-1 0-1
n* 10* UN 94 444 t«<* - H 47* 27'* Nortrp I 60 4i » 1 899 35'4 S Minnesota 98.9 104.6 .464 .468 180 14 1 309 .676 .492 6 2 0-0 0-1 0-3
I3>* 13' KmoMo n 4.9 359 13* - '* 71 70* Norvnt 64 19 II 4SO 23 2 ^48w Jersey 98.1 95.5 .432 .449 14.7 155 548 .696 522 6 5 0-1 1-3 2-1
27* 30 KmtEl 31 771 77* + <» 7'* 4Vi Novt a J4 541 4<* _ Hew York 97.8 91.8 .475 443 162 186 320 .699 .509 5 7 1-0 1-0 3-1
54 41". KerrAAc 1 S3 V 37 1405 41 + Vt 74"4 II* NovsCre 1119 12'* @ "g
Ortando 1022 101.3 .475 .454 17.4 15.3 .326 .596 511 3 6 oo 1-0 3-2
14 77* k*vcp 134 34 9 1303 34* - 'li 57'/. 33 Nucor s 16 J 1234 50'* » g PhiladeiprHa 93.6 982 437 .460 18.5 16.4 296 .674 485 9 6 oo 1-2 1-3
21'* 73 77 3J 71 715 35* IS* 1* Nutmeg 340 14* V jj Ptwerrix 112.0 103.3 .497 .474 15.0 14.8 523 .715 .519 1 4 04 0-0 4^3
43'» 44* KlmoCI* 1 77 33 36 7444 51'* - I7V4 15". NvCIO 103a 311 15* M
u a Portland 1036 1008 447 473 16.9 18.9 •392 716 •554 4 4 04 1-1 3-1
39'i 27\* KlmtO 1U SJ 19 135 32H + Vi 11V* IS'* NCMM IJJI4 142 14* . Sacramento 105.0 113.1 478 488 15.3 15.7 277 .646 .461 2 1 04 2-0 1-4
34 n* Klmt pU in 23H - '4 I7'4 10* NovCsl 64 San Antorao 91.6 92.1 428 440 142 13.9 341 699 .520 8 9 04 0-2 2-1
43* 3li KlnqWd 14 I3U 37'* - •4 17* 15". NvCPP 1.03a 351 15* £ » Seattle 110.4 94J3 •523 .434 165 •21.0 .358 623 .491 2 S 1-0 2-0 54
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45 SO* Krortt« 1 40 7J 22 137 56* 4 H 14"4 13'* 94a 310
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fold — and yet have trouble identifying the and identify each one with a circle on a map. Figure 10.18
capitals and outlines of states in this country If a major news story happens anywhere in Tables, like fact boxes,
and major countries around the world. One the world, a locator map might be the only simply organize words in a
of the reasons that so many maps are pub- visual information available until pictures visual format and are found
lished during times of war in the New York can be taken at the scene. Explanatory maps most often in the business
Times, other newspapers, and magazines is not only reveal where a news story has
and sports section of a
that the American public needs to be educat- occurred but also tell how a series of events
newspaper. Alignment of
ed about foreign locations. But simple maps have taken place. Usually designated with
rows and columns,
also may be used to answer an important numbers, events leading to the arrest of a
consistent spacing, and
journalistic question: They show immediately serial murderer, for example, are plotted on a
viewer interest in particular
where a news story has taken place. One of locator map. Readers not only learn where
maps published newspaper was items are keys to a successful
the first in a a news story has broken but also discover the
The Times of London on April 7, 1806, as background and time frame of events leading table. Shown here are stock
part of a story about a murder (Figure 10.19). up to it. market qiwtations (left) and
The simple floor plan of a house printed on With computer technology, mapmaking National Basketball
the front page revealed, in almost Clue-like has become much simpler. Published maps in Association team statistics
fashion, that Richard Patch shot Isaac Blight atlases cannot be directly printed or broad- (right). The misalignment
in the back parlor. It was used for the same cast without permission from the mapmaker. and Washington
for Utah in
reason similar maps are used today: Words However, a map can be traced by a graphic
the overtime ( OT) games
are too tedious and photographs are impossi- designer, digitized by a flat-bed scanner, and
column in the NBA team
ble to obtain. Maps enable understanding at a stored in the computer's memory. The info-
comparison is all the more
glance. graphic artist can then include the map in the
obvious because of the
There are two types of non-data maps: layout of a story. Companies also sell to
careful structure for the rest
locator and explanatory. Locator maps show a media outlets high-quality maps that can be
geographic location or a road system in a placed on a page or frame by a telephone of the items.
simplified design that lets the reader or view- modem, input directly from a hard drive or
er know where something of importance has CD-ROM disk, or scanned as if it were a
occurred (Figure 10.20). In large cities televi- traced image. By these methods, maps that
sion news programs include a traffic report used to take several hours to draw can now be
about which highways are heavily congested produced in a matter of minutes. Computers
.
underground bunker. Obviously, photo-

graphs could not show the details of his living
PRICE SIXHENC .
quarters. But a cutaway diagram simply and

eloquently revealed what could not be seen
on the surface. Because diagrams are com-
plex, designers often prepare them in ad-
vance. A team of graphics researchers and
artists works with the graphics editor to find
verbal and visual resource materials that will
ensure accuracy. Although maps were the

first choice of editors for the New York Times
and the Los Angeles Times during the Gulf
2 o War, diagrams that showed everything from

.5
how a "smart bomb" looked to the details of
i S poison gas protective clothing for military
1
I personnel appeared on the pages of the two
and many other newspapers. Because dia-
grams can be quickly prepared on desktop
2 £
computers, they have become an everyday
Figure 10.19 also make it easy for a designer to add color, part of newspaper and magazine coverage of
One of the first diagrams labels, and special effects, such as tilting, important stories.
ever printed in a newspaper slanting, and three-dimensional perspective.
was the floor plan of a Miscellaneous Formats Infographic artists
house in which a murder

Diagrams Some of the most dramatic and also are asked to produce a variety of designs
artistically rendered infographics involve the that don't fit any of the preceding categories.
had been committed. The
use of diagrams. Diagrams can reveal the Again, because of the widespread use of
Times of London in 1806
details of how processes and machines work desktop computers, print and screen media
satisfied curious readers with
with line drawings and color (Figure 10.21). regularly present these types of graphics to
its illustrations.
For example, during the Gulf War news catch the viewer's attention and help explain
reports asserted that Iraqi leader Saddam a story. Miscellaneous formats include photo
Hussein was safe inside a specially prepared labeling, comic strips, silhouette identifica-
tions, courtroom drawings, television sched-

Figure 10.20 N. Korea and nuclear weapons ules, calendars, icons, logos, flowcharts, time
Most respondents a recen
in
Two locator maps with poll said the United States rasa lines, and illustrations. We discuss cartoons,
should take military action Lv.'t
different scales remind agamst North Korea if it is
building a nuclear weapon:
GALLUP li an information-laden type of illustration, in
readers where North Korea Yes
Chapter
wmmmmmmsmt 1 1
is located in this
infographic that also

USA Today
33%
No
No opinion Labels and Comic Strips Although seldom

18% done today, before the 1970s editors often
includes two bar ch But they don t want the United
Slates to use military force it
N Korea invades S Korea had labels and drawings added right on
Use Its. force*
photographs (Figure 10.22). Currently, info-
I 31%
U.S. forces
graphic artists draw a diagram based on the
Nc opinion photograph or include both the picture and a
6%
diagram to help explain a news story rather
than combine them. Telling a story comic

By W«6 Borant. USA TODAY
strip style also has gone out of fashion. An
IMt£> =>UINUAT, JULY ^b, lyyj
Journey of a suitcase
After you check your suitcase at a Delta ticket 4. The scanners miss some suitcases
counter, it embarks on an adventure through
because the labels tall oft or get attached lo
computerized scanners and sophisticated conveyer the wrong part of the bag Those bags
belts. It takes 10 to 12 minutes to get to the plane automatically go to the "run-out" area where
baggage handlers sort them by hand and
CONCOURSES drive them back to the correct pier
3. The bag room has 12 "piers"

where baggage handlers are
waiting, with each pier handling live
6. A driver In a "tug"™
or six domestic llights When the
takes the c^rt out to the
suitcase reaches the correct pier, a
waiting plane where
machine pushes down to the
it
baggage handlers load the
Delta employees waiting below
suitcase on to a conveyer
and into the plane *
.
1. The journey begins at the ticket 2. A laser scanner reads the bar code and
counter The Delta agent places a remembers the location of the suitcase on the
bar-code sticker on the side of your conveyer belt The computer can simultaneously
suitcase that identifies the area where keep track of hundreds ot bags and make sure 5. Baggage handlers on the pier pull bags trom the conveyer
your plane is parked. they're sent to the correct baggage handlers.
beltand place them on the correct cart.
Source Delia Air Unes Times art — DAVID W1LUAMS
explanatory map or a detailed diagram looks ings during a trial. A good artist reveals not Figure 10.21
more professional than comic strip characters only what the principals look like, but how Diagrams are useful because
acting out events in a simplified line drawing. they feel about being called to testify. To they can explain
However, social workers often use education- protect the identity of those involved, some complicated information
al comic books to convey information to judges do not allow sketch artists to reveal
that would be difficult or
illiterate people. identifying facial features. The media must
impossible to describe in any
respect the privacy of the persons involved
other way. This St.
Silhouettes Occasionally a graphic will take when the court orders them to do so or they
Petersburg Times
the form of a silhouette line drawing of a may be held in contempt of court.
infographic explains the
group of people from a photograph accompa-
mysteries of baggage
nied by a legend that identifies each individu- Television Schedules A common info-
al. Such a technique is necessary when the graphic element is the television schedule handling by the airlines.
group is so large or the arrangement so (Figure 10.23). The wide-scale use of cable
complicated that the simple "left to right" or broadcasting since the 1980s made the task of
"clockwise from the top" format for identifi- designing the TV program table much more
cation would be too tedious. However, most complicated than when there were only three
photographers take group portraits with the
understanding that the individuals need to be
Figure 10.22
easily identified. Consequently, the need for
Generally out of fashion for
silhouettes is seldom necessary these days.
newspaper photographs is
Courtroom Drawings Sensational court- the distracting graphics
room trials generate communitywide and gimmick of drawing lines
even nationwide interest. Most readers and and arrows directly on

viewers want to know what the participants photographs.
in a trial look like and how they acted.
Unfortunately, many courts still do not allow

still or moving pictures of the proceedings. A
sketch artist is a highly specialized individual, Figure 10.23
usually hired on a free-lance basis by a media See color section following
organization, to produce courtroom draw- page 210.

major networks. A large community may son will draw the background template or
have several competing cable companies that shell for the calendar and reuse it each
offer different services and as many as fifty month. New information is written in the
separate channels. Color coding and align- days of the calendar.
ment aid in the readability of these complex
tables. But with the advent of 500 to 1,500 Icons and Logos In the past thirty years,
channels via networked interactive multime- executives have realized the importance of
dia in the near future as some predict, the visual symbols that identify their companies
weekly television log may have to be as thick and products. Such symbols, or logos, are
as a telephone directory or be accessed important visible links to consumers. Graph-

through a television's remote control in order ic designers such as Saul Bass and Paul Rand
Figure 10.24 to save paper. have created eye-catching icons and logos for
Icons and logos some of the most important businesses in the
communicate vital messages Calendars Business meetings and other world (Figures 10.24 and 10.25). Print and
visually, as demonstrated by kinds of events often are shown in a calendar screen media infographic artists have extend-
these examples. A format because it is a graphic design that ed those ideas to simple line drawings that
well-designed logo not only everyone understands. An artist or draftsper- attract attention to a story, briefly summarize
presents a clear message, but
can also provide a memory

link to the company, service,
or function. Top left: Sports
pictographs by Time
magazine graphics director
Nigel Holmes. Top right:
The familiar handicapped

parking icon, overlooking
Hoover dam. Below left:
Representing the visual
elements of a camera's lens
is the Minolta logo by Saul
Bass, and examples of

distinctive computer menu
choices on CompuServe
(below middle) and
America Online (below

White House Forum Message Boards
right) electronic networks. Categories: Postings: Latest:
5 2631 05/1 3/93
Discuss the policies and actions of the Clinton Administration.
ft
List Categories Find New Find Since.. Help & Info
MINOLTA Date of LastVisit: This area is new to you.

its content, and help anchor a reader or data transfer, can be stored in a computer, Figure 10.25
viewer to the page or frame. and can be altered easily to correspond to See color section following
changes in page or frame requirements. page 210.

Flowcharts Depending on the type of story, Infographics evolved from simple maps
an infographic artist may also be called upon and line charts to complex combinations of
to produce a flowchart that shows a corpora- visual and textual elements. Many newspa-
tion's organizational structure, a series of pers and magazines seldom use one type of
mechanical or chemical processes, or steps in infographic to tell a story anymore. For a
a decision-making process. Most flowcharts complex story, diagrams and icons might be
use a specialized symbol system that must be combined with fact boxes, line and pie charts,
explained to the novice reader in order for the and tables. Television producers still hesitate
labels and the connections between them to to use many infographics because viewers
have meaning. need time to absorb a complex array of
information. Networked interactive multime-
Time Lines Some stories that detail events dia services, however, will allow television
over a long period of time benefit from a viewers the option of repeating frames for
more graphic representation than a chrono- better understanding.
logical fact box. A time line shows significant
events along a horizontal or vertical line on
Ethical Perspective
which important dates are indicated. Some of
the most effective use of time lines involves a Queen Victoria's favorite prime minister, the
combination of two or more such lines, flamboyant and controversial Benjamin Dis-
making relationships between them visually raeli, often is quoted in discussions about the
obvious. ethics of statistics because of his famous line:
There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned

Illustrations Illustrations are the least fac-
lies, and statistics.
tual form of graphics. They instantly attract
readers' attention and make them want to That quotation makes the valid point that
read the accompanying story (Figure 10.26). statistical representations of numerical facts
Illustrations usually exhibit traditional artis- can easily distort the truth. Ironically, the
tic techniques. Illustrators favor pen, ink, British leader probably never uttered the
brushes, and paints over computers because
they more easily can create pieces that have a Figure 10.26
unique style. Computer-generated illustra- NGUYEA.U lliltLFlY As during the nineteenth
tions often are criticized because they have a
century when hand-drawn
mechanical sameness about them. However,
illustrations were the norm
recent developments in hardware and soft-
for newspapers, artistically
ware make determination of whether an illus-
rendered drawings often
tration was created with traditional or inno-
illustrate an editorial or
vative tools much more difficult. Pressure-
column that would be
sensitive styluses used with large tablets can
now simulate any type of pen, brush, or spray difficult for a photographer
device. In the near future editors may request to capture or set up.
that all artwork be created with a computer

because such pieces can be moved more easily
from one location to another by electronic By l*<* QaWlanotns. USA TOD A!
famous phrase. Mark Twain in his Autobiog- Envisioning Information were instant classics
raphy gives Disraeli the credit, but the quota- because of the combination of useful infor-
tion or the context cannot be found in any of mation and pleasing graphic design presenta-
the Prime Minister's writings. Nevertheless, tion. Tufte travels around the world giving
through accident, ignorance, or intent, visual workshops in how best to link graphic design
representations of empirical data can easily and statistical information. For Tufte, a high-
mislead unsuspecting and trusting readers quality infographic should
and viewers.
1. have an important message to communi-
Daryl Moen, professor of journalism at the
cate,
University of Missouri, noted that when the
Dow Jones Industrial Average fell 508 points 2. convey information in a clear, precise, and
on October 20, 1987, 60 percent of the efficient manner,
newspapers he studied used an infographic 3. never insult the intelligence of readers or

about the crash on the front pages. However, viewers, and
13 percent of the infographics contained
4. always tell the truth.
factual errors, and 33 percent had design
errors that visually distorted the figures. Tufte argues for a conservative approach in
Writers in the field cite two main reasons why which the presentation is never more impor-
errors and visual distortions occur so fre- tant than the story. "Ideally," he admits, "the
quently: design should disappear in favor of the infor-

mation." Tufte calls infographics loaded with
1. few infographic producers have much ex-
gratuitous decorations or window dressing
perience with statistical information; and
"chartjunk." Such graphic devices merely
2. many infographic producers believe that if
serve to entertain rather than educate readers,
the sole purpose of infographics is to grab
he maintains.
the reader's attention, presentation errors However, Nigel Holmes sees nothing
and decorative flourishes can be over- wrong with entertaining his audience. Read-
looked. ers conditioned by television to see dramatic,
It is the rare staff member of a newspaper, colorful, and entertaining illustrations won't
magazine, or TV station who has taken a want to buy a newspaper or magazine that
statistics class. Moreover, infographics pro- doesn't reflect those same characteristics.
duction usually isn't offered as a separate Holmes justifies his pictographs with the
university course. Consequently, few individ- argument that, in the realistic world of com-
uals are knowledgeable enough about words, merce, a company must tailor its product to
numbers, pictures, and computer operations its customers' desires. Not surprisingly, it is
to know when an infographic is inaccurate or the pictograph that arouses the most criti-
misleading. cism.
Political science and statistics professor At the very least, charts should accurately
Edward Tufte is one of the more vocal critics reflect the numbers that they portray. For
who favor more education for infographic example, dollar amounts over many years
producers. He has been a consultant for the should be adjusted for inflation, and mone-
visual display of empirical data for such tary values of different currencies should be
corporations as CBS, NBC, Newsweek, the translated into one currency value. Because
New York Times, the Bureau of the Census, images generally have a greater emotional
and IBM. His self-published books The Visu- impact than words, the potential to mislead
al Display of Quantitative Information and with visual messages is higher. Inappropriate
symbols used to illustrate an infographic can Charts are easily misleading Nasdaq drops
be confusing. A serious subject, for example, Ifthe y-axis begins at any
number other than zero, a Mon.:
demands serious visual representation and misleading chart Is the result. 790
738.13
not cartoon characters. Such graphic devices Nasdaq "drop" looks alarming when 780
the y-axis starts at 730.
may attract attention, but the risk is that the 790
770 1
audience will be offended.
760
The pictograph is one of the toughest Nasdaq
infographics to produce because converting 750 stock
index
numerical data to pictures with depth often 740
yields misleading results. Relational charts
But the actual trend Is hardly a worry. 730
almost always present numbers in two di- 800
700
mensions because of the nature of the data. 600
10/11 11/22
Source: USA TODAY research
But when three-dimensional pictures are 500
400
used to illustrate data, an infographic design-
run into problems with misrep-
300
200
pre
er can easily
100
resentation. All three dimensions — height, GALLUP

width, and depth (and therefore the volume) Likewise, Clinton's popularity rides Clinton's approval
— of images must be accurate and match a
like a roller coaster ...
A USA TODAY/ CNN/
Poll shows
Gallup
that nearly half
viewer's perceived difference in sizes. Line approve of President
Clinton's job performance, a
chart pictographs therefore tend to represent drop from \\hen he entered
office in January
data more accurately than do relational chart
pictographs.
Inaccurate charts can be produced inad-
vertently when the y axis does not have a zero
base. Lines in a chart have more dramatic
upward and downward swings when the y
axis isn't zero based. But because of space
1/26/93 11/21/93
limitations, using a zero base for certain Source A USA TODAY .'CNN/Gallup
graphs — of stock market data, for example
national telephone poll ot 1 .003
adults conducted Nov 19*21 1993
Margin ol error t 3 percentage
might take up too much space. Often a points
By Nick Galifianakis USA TODAY
designer will insert a line break at near the
bottom of a chart to indicate that numbers space representing five years will give a mis- Figure 10.27
have been removed. However, the lines in the leading picture of a long-term trend. A serious problem with
chart still should be produced on a scale that Although computers have greatly aided the charts can be the misleading
begins at zero and not on some higher production of infographics, the technology visual representation of
number above the break. In the former, the also makes easy the inclusion of decorative
data. Although omitting
line will be a visually accurate representation devices that distract the reader from the
part of a scale to save space
of the data. In the latter, the data are con- chart's message. Three-dimensional drop
is acceptable (as indicated
densed and the line is a distortion (Figure shadows, colored backgrounds, icons, and
by the zig-zag line at the
10.27). Also, when more than one chart other illustrations may catch the reader's eye
bottom of many charts),
appears on a page or frame, the scales should but not engage the brain. Tufte notes the
constructing a chart from a
be the same or proportional and have the trend in television and computer presenta-
same starting point. Similarly, time scales on tions in which the numbers get lost in ani- y-axis point other than zero
either the x or y axis should be complete and mated, colorful effects. Weather maps for can drastically change the
consistently spaced. For example, a space television or newspapers sometimes are so visual message and is not
representing one year next to the same size crowded with cute illustrations that their acceptable.
informational content is lost. Data maps and

pie charts with several categories may be hard
to understand when their band or wedge Computer technology makes using words and
colors are too similarly shaded. In fact, most numbers with pictures to produce sophisti-
viewers have difficulty seeing the difference cated visual messages in the form of informa-
between pie slices that make up less than 30 tional graphics easier than ever. Computer
degrees of a circle (the distance between the hardware and software can make up for a lack
numbers on a watch). of artistic talent. Unfortunately, much of the

Infographic designers should avoid the power of the computer is given to the creation
temptation to base designs solely on aesthetic of entertaining, decorative illustrations on
or entertainment criteria, a hedonistic ap- subjects of little social importance. The com-
proach. Designers miss an opportunity to puter can be used to make associations and
educate a reader or viewer whenever they rely inferences about seemingly incomprehensible
on decorative tricks. At best, such gimmicks data only if an operator has the skill to work
distract from the message and at worst give comfortably with numbers.
wrong information. Tufte said it best: The best infographic designs "draw the
viewer into the wonder of the data" and
Consumers of graphics are often more intel-
represent the true merging of word and
ligent about the information at hand than
image. The convergence of verbal and graphic
those who fabricate the data decoration.
reasoning should be a prime concern of
And, no matter what, the operating moral
educators, students, professionals, and con-
premise of information design should be that
sumers. Mark Monmonier in his book Maps
our readers are alert and caring; they may be
with the News makes the point that most
busy, eager to get on with it, but they are not
individuals view infographics as "a means of
stupid. Disrespect for the audience will leak
analysis, not of communication." A simple
through, damaging communication.
locator map, argues Monmonier, is equiva-
lent to third-grade prose. And yet, a graphic is
praised as if it were a thing of wonder simply

because it can be produced quickly. If words
and pictures are united in form and function,
The key to understanding infographics from the typical locator map suddenly becomes
the cultural perspective is to know the cul- ridiculously rudimentary. Locator maps that
tural context of sign use and interpretation show meaningful physical relationships, re-
(Chapter 5). veal an event's sequences, and explain com-
Austrian statistician Otto Neurath wrote plicated patterns within a specific area are
in 1925 that "words divide, pictures unite." intriguing and challenging. Infographics run
As they become more visually literate, people the risk of becoming an entertainment medi-
from different cultures may be united in their um when only entertainers use computers.
common understanding of the information
conveyed by the pictures contained in infor-
mational graphics. Infographic designers Future directions for
need to be concerned that mass audiences can informational graphics
understand their work. Carefully choosing
the symbolism for communicating a message A 1988 survey of newspaper editors found
is vital in infographic production. that 90 percent of them were certain that
Figure 2.2
In Las Vegas, colored
flashing lights are used to
attract gamblers and

photographers.
Figure 2.7
In this publicity still
for the 1991 movie.
Terminator 2, actor Arnold
Schwartzenegger fights off
the T-1000 chrome entity
(see Chapter 15). Because of
the symbolism attached to
the color red, the warning
light and its reflection add

tension to the scene.
Figure 3.2 (left)
Window to the soul: The eye

not only absorbs light, but
also reflects it.
Figure 4.3 (right)
Three-dimensional
the result when

blue color is >
backgrou
Figure 6.1
David Kirby, 32, is on his
deathbed surrounded by
grieving family members.
Therese Frare's photograph
is an unforgettable
emotional moment. But the
green logo of Benetton
makes it clear that the
image is intended not only
to make people care, but to
remind viewers to buy
clothing.
Figure 6.13
David Kirby's private family
tragedy was published
originally in a November
1 990 issue of Life magazine.
The black and white tones

give a documentary look to
the photograph but contrast
starkly with the brightly
colored holiday
advertisement insert.
Figure 8.3
Gutenberg made white space
gaps in the layout so that
artists could include
enlarged letters and other
decorative features on the
pages. Note how the red ink
color demands your

attention while enlivening
the tedious blackletter text.

Figure 9.13
Above: The cover of Wired
magazine, a publication
devoted to innovations in
communication technologies,
is an example of words used
as pictures to attract
attention. Top left: The
magazine's table of contents
can be a confusing array of
illustrations, colors, and text
attributes for the
uninitiated. Nevertheless, the

5TE\'E 11FCK: Well, lo paraphrase Bun
highly infectious because Iherc are over

carefully planned graphic
US alone— Hut's TVand computer mi
its own language. .1 visual language, wi

elements are meant to
syntax. It is, arguably, the glnh.il language.
heard you video a drug...

convey a modern, energetic
M2: I've call
SB a drug, only more powerful and more add

It's like
style. Left: Text and graphics
chemical substance Children today are exposed to ov.
letdals before the) ev en begin reading.

are merged into a single
Ml So how docs the virus invade 011
systems?
visual message in this
SB?" Video is the only visual medium that uses
emitted light. Raw. pure, colored light emitted from theCRT screen. It
two-page Wired spread. The
glows in a dark room. All other visual media— print, movies, painting,
sculplure. billboards, wen magazines— are imaged by reflected light

orange headline color
M2: I'd never thought of that.
SB: Besides the emitted light <>! video there is the scanning of the Raste coincides with the dominant
This scanning is a very last sweep ol the electron beam (cathode rays)
across the screen, left to right, top to bottom It is the modem version c color in the manipulated
Mesmer 's watch swinging on a chain
Essentially, this dot of light is moving back and fortli across the sere, photograph.
al high Velocity, impinging 011 your photo receptors with these period it
signa Is, and lhat in turn creates a -ort of mind s
butt, and delta waves. Somen! these scanning
closely related in their sub- harmonics to delta b
You can really lock in.
Figure 10.1
HOW TO USE THIS PAGE
WEATHER
ACROSS The USA Today weather
THE USA
map is an excellent example

I
h 1 of a visual message that
= » combines high information 1 '
~ jjj
and aesthetic quah
.a § use of color, for c
graphically pi
^ I
I g instantly te
"o -a that this was published
duri winter.
§ £
u a
— -
Figure 10.5 (left)

WMG
The June 2, 1993, issue of
m muss »«M iMONinil »MIUMUM> MO* I MIMA »*•* — —. > • »»"
NO FUSS ! IM ».J© »4W Mt IOOO ttM 11.10 IMO ia> JO I.-0O 1 JO J-OO
5<
USA Today a typical

2
example of the newspaper's \irlirkV îmlili : ( ulliv. k-.i or |X)ker? mk — • •
V7-- a 1
— - - -
NEWSLINE
style and content.
— — — ——
mm Serbs kill 15 in " «~

'
!— *
MedicalMystery at Sarajevo
Figure 10.23 (right)
soccer game
Note how color is used to steroid inconm — '
i-~ — — '\~'T"
mwtddfect
it ^ Li
rûr 'dramatic'
help organize the daily s
a»w
JO*HOOn«l Ml
«xixa.
————— . -
~ ex.
njh> - ~i • — — -
television schedule in USA OVKT r n i 1 1

- '
i
UAMM
r
1 if
Today. Movies and sports : - "/c/

<r
1' 1
a
programming, for example, • , < :
*D D
are given differently colored 81"o of MOB — — - ——• il
SSif ~ •
arrows. £srrr£jr cownsToirr

OH — »-»—
• "
—
>
— ——
—lawn jtww^*—
m Wl f*—
~* . .
i
r
Clues sought
in blood, soil,
-
j even animals
<.«m ciu^Vwim OAK
l 1
S I •-;.f ,
:-"OTS-
Figure 10.25
Probably the most
recognizable corporate
trademark worldwide is the
white, stylized script »
typeface of Coca-Cola on a
red circle, shown here in

a m
"8
front of the Coca-Cola m
museum in Atlanta.
m
1
Figure 10.28
THE 6 Cwwlnx {
OK I Hl.RN
Rick Smolan's From Alice NUMBERED RECTANGLES SlofV Ko«<li-/ I.KRI I'OBY Z
to Ocean intei
TO VIEW THAT PART i
OF THE JOURNEY
multimedia prest
/ a:
El! ^"p
, —fc_^S «
I
*-
Mourn
Mount
0>RJ
-
^
2 °
an innovative way • ^* Alice Spring*
animated maps on u
iv I Utnclin r««l Wiluiu ;
computer.
click either or these

PICTURES TO VIEW
THE INTRODUCTION OR
EPILOGUE TO THE STORY
FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR INFORMATIONAL GRAPHICS 211
infographics would have even greater impor- ample of a locator map that comes alive Figure 10.28
tance in story telling by the end of this through user interaction is the CD-ROM See color section following
century. But producers of entertainment and program From Alice to Ocean: Alone Across page 210.
education messages understand that images the Outback. The disk tells with written and
alone do not convey enough information to narrated text, music, and still and moving
be fully comprehensible. Words always will be images the journey of Robyn Davidson across
a vital part of communication. When all Australia's outback (Figure 10.28). Viewers
media — newspapers, magazines, books, use a mouse to click on parts of a map of the
movies, television, and computers — become interior of Australia in order to learn more
combined through networked interactive information about each area (see Chapter 16).
multimedia devices with touch-screen and Many experts believe that such interactive
voice-activated commands, viewers will be multimedia presentations are the future for
able to learn as much as they want about each books, magazines, and newspapers. Designers
infographic element. Infographic designers need to be prepared to supply the words and
will need to know how to work with sound, pictures that will be needed when readers and
music, and times sequences when graphic viewers are transformed into users.
presentations become animated. A recent ex-
CHAPTER 11
From a purely semiotic Cartoons

point of view, comic
strips constitute one of
the most complex and
sophisticated areas of
drawn communication.
Clive Ash win,

Tod examined him eagerly. He didn't mean such television characters as Fred Flintstone,
MEDIA CRITIC to be rude but at first glance this man who was a brontosaurus operator for the local
seemed an exact model for the kind of per- quarry in the cartoon hit "The Flintstones";
son who comes to California to die, perfect Ralph Kramden, the bus driver in "The
in every detail down to fever eyes and Honeymooners"; Archie Bunker in "All in
unruly hands. the Family"; and most recently Dan Conner

"My name is Homer Simpson," the man in "Roseanne" and Al Bundy in "Married
gasped, then shifted uneasily and patted his with Children." Homer's wife, Marge, is a
perfectly dry forehead with a folded hand- hardworking but dull homemaker — with a
kerchief. blue-colored beehive hairdo. She memorizes

Jell-O recipes and has a bowling ball engraved
The shy, tragic figure in Nathanael West's with her name. The three children in the
novelette The Day of the Locust was the Simpson household are Bart, Lisa, and baby
inspiration for the name of the lead character Maggie. Ten -year-old Bart (an anagram for
in the popular cartoon program on the Fox Brat) is easily one of the most popular
television network, "The Simpsons" created troublemakers on television. The yellow-
by Matt Groening (rhymes with raining). headed kid's singular ambition is to become
The Homer Simpson in the cartoon, how- immortalized in the Guinness Book of Bad
ever, is markedly different from the Homer in Boys. Lisa, the troubled, saxophone-playing,
> story (Figure 11.1). Instead of the intellectual younger sister is a favorite of all
, insecure, and psychopathic character viewers who are sure that, when born, they
in the novelette, Groening's Homer is a were switched with another infant in the
beer-and-bacon-loving family man. As a hospital. Maggie's main personality trait is
haphazard safety inspector for a nuclear pow- that the only sound she ever made, other than
er plant, he has working-class roots linked to from constantly sucking on a pacifier, was
212
CARTOONS 213
Figure 11.1
Two of the most popular

cartoon characters on
television are Homer and

Marge Simpson, here
painted on the window of a
comic book store.
"Daddy" (with Elizabeth Taylor supplying Nevertheless, the program has sparked an
her voice), around which an entire episode unprecedented marketing bonanza as its pro-
once revolved. The Simpsons live their ordi- ducers license everything from T-shirts to
nary lives in the middle American town of talking Bart dolls.
Springfield. Not coincidentally, it is the same "The Simpsons" is a result of three power-
city where Jim Anderson and his family lived ful television forces: producer-director James
in the television classic "Father Knows Best," Brooks, writer Sam Simon, and creator Matt
with grown-up equivalents of Bart, Lisa, and Groening. Brooks, three-time Oscar winner
Maggie. No one would ever say that Homer for his movie Terms of Endearment and nine-
knows best, however. time Emmy winner for television hits such as
In only two months after the show was "The Mary Tyler Moore Show" and "Taxi,"
introduced in 1990, its Nielsen rating placed asked Groening to produce twenty-second
it among the top fifteen programs in the animated cartoons for showing between seg-
country — a remarkable feat considering that ments of the short-lived Fox comedy series
the independent Fox network reaches only 80 "The Tracey Ullman Show" in 1987. Simon is
percent of the homes with television in the a respected and creative situation comedy
United States. Young viewers who idolize the writer who now acts as the show's executive
mischievous antics of their hero Bart and producer. But Groening gives the show its
adults who enjoy the social satire disguised irreverent energy and goofy, if somewhat
as brightly colored cartoons love the Simp- bent, emotional appeal.
sons. But other critics dislike the Simpsons Matt Groening is the son of retired film-
because the program satirizes their beliefs maker and cartoonist Homer Groening (one
and customs, makes a hero out of a wise- of the cartoonist's sons also is named Ho-
cracking delinquent, and (perhaps worst of mer). His family resembles his cartoon cre-
all) laughs at American institutions such as ation in name only — his mother is named
the family, religion, and nuclear power. Margaret, and his sisters are Lisa and Maggie.
214 CARTOONS
"When I was a kid," Groening says, "my comical troubles of the Simpson family and
friends and I used to put on puppet shows, the show's large collection of supporting
make comic books, and I decided that's what characters. For example, former L.A. Laker
I wanted to do." Groening did well in school, basketball player Byron Scott admitted that
although he was frequently sent to the princi- "when we practice on Monday, it's all we
pal's office for uttering wisecracks in class. talk about." Even Roseanne Arnold, star and
After briefly attending a local college, Groen- producer of "Roseanne," the live action ver-
ing moved to Los Angeles to become a writer. sion of the cartoon, is addicted to the pro-
One of his first jobs was a low-paying posi- gram.
tion for a photocopying shop. His southern One of the reasons for the show's success is
California experiences, however, gave him a that it regularly spoofs celebrities such as
lode of rich material for his first cartoon, Johnny Carson, Hugh Hefner, Bette Midler,
"Life in Hell." The satirical comic featured and others, who supply their own voices for
the characters Bongo, Akbar, and Jeff. When their cartoon equivalents. When the youngest
asked if the latter two characters are lovers or daughter Maggie starts talking, Whoopi
brothers, he answers, "Whatever offends you Goldberg wants to supply her voice. "The
the most." "Life in Hell" was originally Simpsons" even makes fun of the cartoon
published in the Los Angeles New Wave medium — the characters often watch an ex-
graphics innovator, WET magazine. In 1980, tremely violent cartoon parody that features
the cartoon was sold to the more establish- the adventures of "Itchy and Scratchy" on
ment newspaper, the Los Angeles Reader. their cartoon television set. The show is an
When his girlfriend (now wife) Deborah international success, with German and
Caplan published a collection of the cartoons French versions. Beginning in 1994, syndica-
in a book in 1984, the cartoon's popularity tion of reruns will mean an even wider appeal
soared. Groening still draws one "Life in for the program.
Hell" cartoon a week for The Village Voice Although originally involved in all aspects
and other publications. of the production process, Groening is now

When Brooks, a fan of Akbar and Jeff, pursuing the international marketing of
asked Groening to create the animated seg- Simpson products and other television and
ments for his Gracie Films company, he had movie ideas. Each show takes about six
initially thought of using the "Life in Hell" months to produce (incidentally, one of the
cast. But Groening wisely decided to resurrect producers, Conan O'Brien, replaced David
the Simpson family, which he had created Letterman as the host of NBC's "Late Night"
originally while in high school. He admits show). After a script is written (which in-
that the show is a perverse takeoff of a pop- volves nine or more writers), actors make a
ular television family when he was a child, soundtrack of the characters' voices. About 80
the Cleavers of "Leave It to Beaver." "Bart," artists at a Los Angeles animation company
he confides, "is like what would happen if draw 2,000 individual drawings, which are
Eddie Haskell [the "bad boy" influence in the sent to Brooks, Simon, and Groening for
early sitcom] got his own show." review. After editing, all the material is sent
"The Simpsons" first aired on January to a South Korean production company

is a separate series and won an Emmy where about 100 workers complete the thou-
ir that first year. After every episode, sands of drawings necessary for a show.
rsations in schoolyards, college dormi- Groening expected criticism of merchan-
and around coffee tables and water dising the characters and of the antisocial
coolers across the country centered on the content of the program. He believes that one
ANALYSIS OF "THE SIMPSONS" 215
of the reasons for the negative reaction by quently featured in storylines, the history of
some critics is "because animation was always the caricature is evoked. Former "Tonight
seen as a medium for kiddies." Although Show" host Johnny Carson was a Simpson
somewhat uncomfortable about merchandis- character, and the cartoon character expertly
ing the program because of his decidedly mimicked his nervous mannerisms. The rich
counterculture roots, Groening admits that "I tradition of the editorial cartoon is featured
feel like it's a tidal wave I'm surfing on. And in situations that comment on political is-
to be honest, the whole Simpsons project was sues. For example, Homer's careless attitude
a project to see how far I could go in the when it comes to working with highly toxic
mainstream. I may be going to hell, but I did nuclear waste reflects Groening's view about
embrace all the stuff — the T-shirts, the Bart the dangers of the nuclear power industry.
phone, the chess set, all of it." If Groening is Viewers can easily identify the influence of
"going to hell," at least he will travel in humorous cartoons that ridicule social hy-
comfort. The profits from his program pocrisies in the comical situations, dialogue,
allowed him to trade in his Dodge Dart for a and graphic style of "The Simpsons." Comic
brand new BMW. strips that make viewers laugh, think, and feel
are popular among both children and adults.
The yellow hair of Bart Simpson reminds us
Analysis of "the simpsons" of one of the earliest wisecracking cartoon
characters published, Richard Outcault's
Reaction to the barely functional cartoon "Yellow Kid." Finally, comic books and mo-
family is as varied as the life experiences and tion pictures are merged into a single medi-
attitudes of the viewers who watch it. If you um in which viewers relate to the family
are a fan of animated films, the cartoon may members as if they were live actors. But
be appealing because it reminds you of your unlike many animated films, the action that
childhood. If you grew up in a similar home, occurs is almost always physically possible in
you may laugh about like situations involving the real world. No character in "The Simp-
your family. If you enjoy watching the sym- sons" can fly or dematerialize into another
bols of popular culture being gently nudged being, and, as of yet, no one has died a violent
off their pedestals, you will appreciate the death on the program. As a result, the num-
humor of the program. But if you think ber one rated show in the Fox lineup parts
cartoon characters should be reserved for company with Saturday morning cartoon
children and their concerns, you probably characters such as Bugs Bunny and Daffy
will be offended at the many adult themes Duck. When Bart learns a lesson or when
and jokes expressed during the half-hour. If Homer hugs his daughter Lisa, the cartoon is
your opinion is that television should always closer in historical roots to the family values
show ideal families, as in the live television expressed in a Disney movie than to other
shows in the 1950s and 1960s, you will not cartoons.
favor a household in which one of the father's "The Simpsons" is drawn in a decidedly
primary concerns is to make sure that he has elementary graphic style. As Groening says,
enough beer to drink with his pork chops. "I've been drawing this way since fifth grade
As one of the most recent examples of the — people with big eyes and overbites." His
cartoon art form, "The Simpsons" has roots "Life in Hell" cartoon also is marked by a
in every type of comic presentation, both minimalist style. "The Simpsons" are com-
single- and multiframed. When the drawings posed of such simply rendered images for
match the faces of media personalities fre- three important reasons: time, money, and
216 CARTOONS
intent. Detailed, realistic drawings require an However, ethicists are justified in finding
enormous additional output from animators fault with two aspects of the program. One
and cost far more. Spending less time on the criticism involves the way the shows are
visual message allows the producers to con- produced; the other is the way the program is
centrate more on the writing and acting. marketed. A South Korean animation compa-
Besides, if complete realism were desired, ny completes the thousands of eels necessary
Groening would have advocated a live-action for each program. The only reason for this
version of the family. But an animated sit- long-distance arrangement is that Asian
com, the first such successful prime-time workers are paid much less than U.S. anima-
program since "The Flintstones," has a built- tors. Even though the South Korean workers
in "curiosity factor": new viewers will tune are given specialized skills and money that
in just to see what all the fuss is about from they might not have any other way, the cost of
the critics. Besides corresponding to Groen- the exploitation is too high. Those in a
ing's drawing style since his earliest school position to hire others have the moral respon-
days, he makes the characters look ordinary sibility of paying a fair and living wage to
(some might say unattractive) on purpose. workers for their efforts. Hedonistic or utili-
The cartoon is deliberately in opposition to tarian arguments used to support such hiring
the 1950s and 1960s family- oriented situa- practices promote racist stereotypes of Asian
tion comedies on television in which, in the workers as worthy only of working in highly
words of radio personality Garrison Keillor, pressured animation sweatshops.
"all the women are smart, the men are good The other criticism with the series is its
looking and the children are above average." blatant self-promotion. At one point, Simp-
In both look and deed, "The Simpsons" son family T-shirts were being purchased at a
celebrates all who are plain and average. rate of 1 million per week. Presently, more
There is nothing ethically wrong with a than seventy different products are licensed
television program that features police offi- for sale. Bart is featured in video games
cials as doughnut-eating goofs, teachers and created by Nintendo such as "Bartman Meets
principals as easy targets for a mean-spirited Radioactive Man," "Bart vs. the Space Mu-
boy, and parents as insensitive egoists. After tants," and "Bart Vs. the World." So much
all, such character types occasionally exist in money is being made from merchandising
the real world. Plots that involve the overt that the British comedienne Tracey Ullman
manipulations of people by an evil nuclear sued (unsuccessfully) Gracie Films to get part
power plant owner or Marge's nearly con- of the profits because the characters started
summated love affair with her bowling in- on her show. There is no limit to the market-
structor may reflect unethical behavior in ing ploys the producers have in mind. Besides
society, but including such story lines in a a spinoff that may feature the character Krus-
television show is not unethical. In fact, the ty the Clown, Groening says, "I tell Fox to
height of unethical behavior and cynicism think of us the way Disney does of Mickey
may be that of television producers, worried Mouse and to do for Bart what Walt did for
about bad ratings and losing advertising sup- Mickey. We've talked about a theme park and
port, who ignore social problems by exclud- a theatrical movie." That's just what the
ing them from adult-oriented programs. Crit- world needs, a BartWorld outside Orlando,
ical reactions from viewers would drive "The Florida, where parents are subjected to all
Simpsons" off the air if it were a Saturday kinds of embarrassing humiliations to the
morning cartoon. But when run in prime- utter joy of their misbehaving children.
time, the dialogue and plots are entirely If only a small portion of the profits from
appropriate. merchandise sales were used to hire U.S.
CARTOONS AND THE SIX PERSPECTIVES 217
animators, more jobs could be created in the is okay) are symbols that transcend this one
country where the show is produced, or at family. As television entities, the Simpsons
least Asian workers could be paid equitably are cultural artifacts that perpetuate negative
for their talents. attitudes. They become the culture's family
As a blue-collar, middle-class family, the and are thus reduced to a status symbol by
Simpsons follow in the comedic footsteps of those willing and able to purchase a Bart
Jackie Gleason in "The Honey mooners." Up- Phone.
per-class, white-collar baby boomers and "The Simpsons" is an amusing, fun, col-
their children constitute the primary audi- orful, and lively half-hour of television that
ence for the program because they enjoy often features stories and characters that
laughing at these cartoon oafs. Although entertain as well as educate countless viewers
many real-life working-class families do not of almost every age and background. Univer-
appreciate most of the cynical jokes that are sity of Wyoming communications professor
directed at them, they still watch the show. Ken Smith writes that viewers easily recog-
University of California sociology professor nize the offensive behaviors exhibited by the
Mike Moore believes that "unlike other [cul- characters and know that such activity is
tural] groups, [blue-collar families are] not unacceptable in the real world. Part of the
on an upward path." Consequently, shows amusement of the show also comes from
like "The Simpsons" exploit "the working identifying all the mass media references and
class's inferiority complex. A lot of these popular culture hypocrisies that the sitcom
people feel that they don't have what it takes satirizes. Thus the cartoon is a complicated
to be a perfect family — to get it right or do it collection of visual and verbal symbols that
right. 'The Simpsons' buys into that pattern." are used to tell the story of this Springfield
Besides cultures based on economic and family. But let there be no misunderstanding:
work-related factors, ethnic differences be- The animated situation comedy divides peo-
tween cartoon characters, as in real life, ple by ridiculing those who have neither the
sometimes are featured. But for the program, social position nor the economic means to
multicultural sensitivity is just another defend themselves.
punchline. Once again the society's domi-
nant culture has its way with those who
diverge from the mainstream. An East Indian
manager of a convenience store perpetuates Cartoons and the six
an offensive stereotype, and an African- perspectives
American doctor (included perhaps only as a
cynical nod to the show's early competition

— the Bill Cosby character of Dr. Huxtable)
are about the only nonwhite characters in the For most of the history of cartoons, research-
fictionalized midwestern town of Springfield. ers have considered them unworthy of serious
The show teaches that rich people are attention. Few academic programs or private
greedy, politicians are corrupt, police officials art schools offer courses in the production or
are stupid, teachers and parents are easily theory of cartoon art. Comic strips, comic
manipulated, and children are devious. At the books, and animated movies are considered
same time, Homer's love for bowling, beer, by many to be junk for children and unwor-
and bacon, Marge's simple-minded support thy of serious attention. But with the rise in
of her sexist husband and ungrateful chil- the use of visual messages in all media, this
dren, Bart's smart-aleck retorts, Lisa's angst pictorial art form has gained new converts,
and alienation, and Maggie's . . . (no, Maggie, with serious studies begun by social and
218 CARTOONS
artistic scholars. Although often mislead ingly humorous cartoons published in The New
simple in their artistic execution, cartoons Yorker magazine are excellent examples of this
reveal complex attitudes of certain people at a genre.
particular time through the use of complex Multiframed cartoons are more complex,
visual and verbal symbolism. Stories in combining the narrative structure of the
books, magazines, and newspapers may con- short story with the visual elements of the
centrate on opinions of the elite in a culture, motion picture. In fact, many filmmakers
but cartoons are the best indicators of the have been inspired and have learned their
concerns of average citizens. As John Geipel craft by studying the artistic techniques uti-
in his book The Cartoon has stated, cartoons lized by multiframed cartoon artists. Comic
"are a potent weapon of ridicule, ideal for strips, also known as the funnies, almost
deflating the pompous and the overbearing, always are printed together in a special sec-
exposing injustice and deriding hypocrisy." tion of a newspaper. Comic strips feature
Cartoons tell as much about the audience as continuing characters in multiple frames that
they do about the artist. show action and often are published as a
The study of cartoons is complex because serial. Humorous comic strips seldom show
the art form has several variations. Cartoons situations that extend beyond the daily joke.
may be divided into two major groups: sin- Adventure and soap opera strips, however,
gle- and multiframed images. Single-framed feature situations that may run serially for
cartoons include caricatures, editorial car- months or even years. Comic books are a
toons, and humorous cartoons with their form of the comic strip in which the entire
messages inside a separate, usually framed, story is printed in a single issue of a maga-
area. Multiframed cartoons are comic strips, zine. Comic books almost always are action-
comic books, and animated motion pictures oriented narratives, although they may also
that have two or more frames. be humorous and educational. Comic books
Caricatures, the oldest form of cartoon, brought to life through motion picture tech-
are exaggerated portraits usually of well- nology are called animated films. They are
known figures for the purpose of (almost the most complex form of cartoon art, com-
always) eliciting a humorous response from bining the elements of motion and sound
the viewer. The purpose of a caricature, with symbolic visual messages. From simple
however, may be anything but humorous, as black and white line drawings to complex
satire usually is the motive for these unflat- computer-generated digital images, animated
tering pictures. An editorial cartoon is politi- motion pictures are a popular and vital form
cal commentary in the form of a drawing and of communication in film, television, and
almost always is reserved for the editorial or computer media.
opinion page of a newspaper. Editorial car- Single-framed cartoons rarely have con-
toons satirize current political issues, events, tinuing characters, whereas readers of multi-
and figures. Many of the most memorable framed cartoons almost always come to know
editorial cartoons are devastatingly serious in the continuing characters invented by the
their approach and intent. They often help cartoonist. Another distinguishing feature of
bring current events into sharp yet distorted the two groups is that single-framed cartoons
focus, depending on the artistic style and almost always contain the dialogue for the
political leanings of the cartoonist. Humor- characters under the drawing as cutlines.
ous (also called gag) cartoons almost always Multiframed, print cartoons usually have a
satirize popular culture, poking fun at com- character's dialogue drawn above the figure
monly accepted social conventions. The within encircled spaces called balloons.
their Hindu god, Krishna. Greek terra cotta

vases and wall paintings often were decorated
It is perhaps hard to believe, but the elabo- with profane parodies of overweight Olympi-
rately animated characters in motion picture, an gods. Greek actors used caricature for
television, and computer programs all started more positive reasons. Actors wore highly
as crudely rendered line drawings. Conse- stylized and distorted tragic and comic masks
quently, it is important to know how car- to make a character's personality clear to the
toons developed in order to fully analyze audience. Much later, an anonymous Roman
present efforts. soldier in A.D. 79 scratched an unflattering
portrait of a strict commander on the wall of

Single-Framed Cartoons his barracks that was preserved for centuries
The historical roots of cartoons can be when the eruption of Mount Vesuvius buried
found in simple, unsigned visual messages Pompeii. Examples of sexually explicit pub-
that poked fun at others. Scrawled on walls by licly displayed graffiti on houses of upper-
untrained artists (today we call such exam- class residents of Pompeii were so shocking
ples graffiti), these single-framed cartoons when uncovered that an early excavator "cov-
reveal an average person's opinion about ered them with sheets so that his working
someone in power that is missing from many men might not be debauched by them."
mainstream historical documents. There are Early Romans also ridiculed religious lead-
three types of single-framed cartoons: carica- ers. For example, the Christian Alexamenos is
tures, editorial cartoons, and humorous car- shown in a drawing standing at the crucifix-
toons. ion of Jesus, who has the head of an ass
(Figure 11.2). Most Roman caricatures were
Caricatures As an artistic and communica- aimed at socially despised members of the
tive medium, the cartoon began as a carica- society. Frescoes in private homes and on
ture. Cave drawings from 20,000 years ago public walls showed beggars, thieves, slaves,
featured not only detailed paintings of ani- the handicapped, pygmies, and even drunken
mals but also highly stylized likenesses of old women in unflattering poses for comic
people. Because these cave dwellers could
paint animals accurately, anthropologists be- Figure 11.2
lieve that they distorted profile portraits be- Dating from about the third
cause they believed that an accurate picture century, this anti-Christian
might bring harm from supernatural forces.
graffiti found in a military
The oldest known caricatures clearly intend-
barracks reads, "Alexamenos
ed to ridicule the individuals portrayed were
worships his god. " Note
drawn in Egypt. In about 1360 B.C., some
that, as with children's
unknown cartoonist painted an unflattering
drawings, there is little
portrait of Ikh-naton, the unpopular father-
attempt to create the
in-law of King Tutankhamen. Artists sati-
perception of depth.
rized the actions of other unpopular Egyp-
tian leaders by drawing animals performing
similar activities. Even Cleopatra is portrayed
in a caricature in which she is seen drinking
too much wine.
Throughout the world, visual ridicule was
appreciated. In India, cartoonists made fun of
—
220 CARTOONS
purposes. Respected members of society all from Bologna, Italy. The term comes from
caesars, generals, and senators — rarely were their family name and the Italian verb cari-
satirized visually. care, "to load." The Carraccis "loaded" their
During the Middle Ages, grotesque Gothic naturalistic paintings with exaggerated yet
imagery in the form of macabre wall gar- recognizable human faces from their commu-
goyles was popular as outside decorations on nity to entertain their friends.
buildings. Priests considered many of the With the invention and widespread use of
carvings obscene and obliterated them. In the the printing press, religious icons carved in
margins of illustrated religious books monks wood and stone and crafted as stained glass
sometimes made sacrilegious drawings that windows could be converted to drawings and
were never erased. One of the most famous printed by the hundreds as handbills and
drawings by Leonardo da Vinci is a study of passed around. For the first time, people
unflattering portraits made in 1485, which could take the time to study these illustra-
probably were figments of his imagination tions without feeling inhibited as when stand-
rather than based on actual observations. He ing before the artwork within a church. When
also made the best defense of the combina- people spent more tune viewing illustrations
tion of pictures and words to describe the and cartoons, criticism in the form of carica-
traits of a person when he wrote, "And you tures of religious and political leaders soon
who wish to represent by words the form of followed.
man and all the aspects of his membrifica- Political caricature came of age in the
tion, relinquish that idea. For the more mi- 1600s during the controversial reigns of Louis
nutely you describe the more you will confine XIV in France, Queen Anne in England, and
themind of the reader, and the more you will the Prince of Orange of the Netherlands. For
keep him from the knowledge of the thing the first time, artists drew caricatures with
described. And so it is necessary to draw and obvious political intent, not simply to amuse
to describe" (Figure 11.3). rich patrons or friends. Surprisingly, almost
Modern caricature reportedly was invent- no political caricatures were drawn during
ed in about 1590 by Annibale Carracci, her this time in Germany. In Japan, caricature art
brother Agostino, and her cousin Ludovico was for amusement rather than for political
purposes. In England caricatures (called anti-

Figure 11.3
portraits) were used to make satirical com-
The notebooks of Leonardo
ments about current events and public fig-
da Vinci contain examples
ures.
of caricatures of ordinary
The art of the caricature eventually be-
and famous people of his
came fused with cartoon representations of
day. Some of the drawings public figures as a part of editorial cartoons.
are quickly composed However, a single-framed caricature is an
sketches; others are more important illustrative device. Recent carica-
carefully rendered. ture artists include David Levine, Dorothy
Ahle, and Al Hirschfeld. Hirschfeld started
his long career in 1926 drawing caricatures
for Broadway theatre stars. His distinctive
< graphic style sometimes appears on the pages
2
z
3 of The New Yorker magazine and the New
York Times.
Editorial Cartoons The founder of the En- Franklin's most famous cartoon is a rallying
glish editorial cartoon is considered to be cry for unity. It depicts a divided snake
William Hogarth. Fascinated with drawing representing the American colonies with the
since his early childhood, he became an label "JOIN, or DIE." Published on May 9,
apprentice to an engraver and later started his 1754, in the Pennsylvania Gazette, it was the
own print shop at the age of twenty-three. first political cartoon printed in America.
Hogarth established a solid reputation for Paul Revere, known for his metalwork and
creating illustrations for coat of arms, crests, revolutionary horse riding, also was a car-
bookplates, and advertisements (Figure 1 1.4). toonist. His best known work is an artistic
He created ads for companies that were print- rendering of the Boston Massacre of 1770 in
ed on handbills, posters, and hand-held fans. which British soldiers killed unarmed colo-
Hogarth also, as did other London print nists (Figure 11.5). However, American cari-
shops during the early 1700s, displayed ready- catures and cartoons during this period were
made artwork (called clip art today) from poor in quality compared to their English
which patrons could select drawings to make

their party announcements more visually Tha lyth Rtrhririit 111M an.., .... mii !.< 1 _,Ui
Rejimtiu ><i if.j)owi i( tUtm, fo iS*t rxpnt the Tovra
appealing. After Hogarth became enthralled «m Coon be char «r a u the Twop. The Wifta'nl Figure 1 1.4
Polity or' hit Mijetly't Coim.il ud Col. Dairjrnplt the Cum-
by a set of political cartoons smuggled from rntnftr »ppc jr. 'in thii kfeafarc. i Two
Reairacats at the
William Hogarth once
midt ci tttT; M>*M»|ou« dry; and fl.r lelaakrunti /iftlr in-
France, he started to create his own satirical Mafal ; TWs
of chf, nr^bkoann; Ts«u equally e'niff
bragged that, by using only
AirM upe.l the «r.1 Rrruri of rhr MiflKrt. irvj the Signal
drawings. In 1731, he published his most onV wi.rm* tt tuna, in I ft* Hcarj to t.i» Corn «F tblf
Cry ratnj Th-varand* *( ojr breve B'trhrtA In the Ounrry, three pen strokes, he could
<rrj!r aêtiM w.fh our D^h-trTet, end tn *ho-n we art
famous collection of drawings, A Harlot's
greatly Mifti on tU'.i OttafiM— Tea one hr>C»i >»fit.-< 1jii< draw a soldier walking into
•rovU !n»c cV: I, «rj « bj; Imreitoni C«nf<«»rnrti errs te>
Progress. Because he was appalled by the l!ie wiioic Unfi.h Empire nvfiic lit»e folio which our a pub with his rifle and dog.
Medtr4i»j.i iij Lsyally «|K»n fii. Irvine; in Ocratlioa, an! cut
living conditions of the poor of his day, he rami i" rhe Ceeaerind^t'i AT'ClMci have haaaily prevented.
LaR TVirfiir, i(>e:aUe le 1 (fnr'jl >X«)i*«tt of IU Inheb-
intended his drawings to be moralistic lessons f.:m;i, ani by i"-r Cctfr.tl q'" Potent, end F"cWi. wet* tar-
nee U tlie.r o'"i < in Siactrflion.lhe tUdio of jenirr/ (7'«/.
1
rather than entertainment. His artistic style SlAttr/ Atjrrritt, Jtmn Co.di'rU,' InJ OjffMt jUfntt, the
and social message brought him immediate

unhjrpy VKIMTn »h» fell in ihc bloody MaJUttCOt tit ilW
elay i'verur^ (-rcc«irr».(
success, but he soon became controversial

s
because he didn't respect anyone's rank. Un-
fortunately, the political and business leaders
he ridiculed didn't appreciate the attention.

Their influence caused others to question
Hogarth's reputation and his artwork was
parodied constantly. Even his name was em-
barrassingly punned as "Hog-arse." He died On ttaia Occafien mod or" ihe Skoyi in TV** ererc Aal,
bli the Belli were ore'ereat in toll. a loUron rW, were alfa u Figure 1 1.5
in 1764, a financially ruined and broken man. Haefe hi the ncifbVaHne; T.wna of CherltfWrv Aoebwy, fce.
Tot Pto:rff:Mi btjen to move h<t*e_-« ihe Howry erf 4 toe' c Paul Revere not only warned
Nevertheless, his consistent style combined (a Ihe At'icmooti j r»o of |ti» enfenurwtr Su.Tertra, *ii. MeC
with political intent inspired generations of
We CilJvHI mi O-ifftt m he) net* Jtranjett,
Ah*i;, the city of Boston of the
K»»e from'»'aar*.l-KaU,a.tia^ ey-a. oemirtra*. jtarn 0/
r*nfanf of all Rtnlu ; and i!w oirwr (»<', rie, Mr. 3*atrt coming of the British, he
cartoonists. Grjt,:U»m ihe Hju^. tf M.-. B*n>aatiin Cra<r* (kh-tniihtr)
M.tB£,tterrh-ai*c ike. Ewh.ofr, <M
M-J.Wir*, froaa also illustrated stories with
The last letter Hogarth received while on Cie Houfc of. Jail •iOrrOrJ MfAkei Mn. Afory Afcwrie, <n
nwn-J;r»ri, rich Uanoaal *y ikear •e'oretine ReWiane ani
his deathbed was from Benjamin Franklin, Fritndt r, TV
leTtnl Heerfei Oraiine 1iJamOual io K'nkif cartoons. Here, his simple
Street, the Theatre of ihtt iahanua Yitt J, | oroceeieaj
the founder of American political cartooning. front theoteekrVthc M<>*-S(rr<T.knatlkfM« byaa irMacafe coffin design and skull-and-
Coe,*erCt of Fmplr, f„ auaientia ai at kr jkVUf*e1 <• felto*
Franklin, the seventeenth child of a Boston la Realu a/ «a. aaal tevaaht of by a haa Ttaia uf. Cart iaen crossbones symbolism
tWJooj oj in tke pt.ixif el Ocniry wf rate Town. Toe tedeao
candlemaker, ran away from his crowded writ itytiiti m
one Vbalt ia the naille D.T'Ht}-(xoert« t
combine to remind readers
The if jnrjrrd CVtum*»i.»« tt ykett' Dtath; ihe IXtrtS
M.Son.tta eifable ia c»trj Caontroonte; op\tm with lb*
home at the age of twelve and eventually
pn Jiar feicmairjr »itji tahaLh [he et> e FunrraJ oris <sta» of the deaths of four early
•«cVd, fatoaft Ikfcriptieeu
started his own print shop in Philadelphia. American patriots.
222 CARTOONS
counterparts. Apparently, the early American The meaning of cartoon before the 1840s
political leaders were too sacred to ridicule. was the same as during the Middle Ages.
In England, at the end of the eighteenth From the Italian, cartone, for "a large sheet of
century, one of the first major figures to paper," it meant any line drawing used as a
follow in Hogarth's tradition was James Gill- preliminary sketch for a finished piece. For
ray. He was the leading cartoonist during the example, Michelangelo and other fresco art-
reign of King George III, whom he labeled ists drew cartoon outlines on paper that they
"Farmer George." Gillray bitterly opposed transferred to the walls and ceiling of the
the king's intervention in the affairs of the Sistine Chapel. The word was first used to
American colonies. Gillray also was famous describe editorial drawings in 1843. After
for his satirical portraits of Napoleon, whom completion of the Houses of Parliament in
Gillray and other cartoonists called "Little London, Prince Albert asked for cartoons, or
Boney." The French general reportedly un- drawing ideas, for interior decorative art. In
derstood the power of the caricature for an article the editors of Punch objected to all
propaganda purposes and encouraged French the sketches submitted and used their own
artists to support his political policies. Napo- cartoons. From that moment on, the word
leon enjoyed caricatures except those of him- was associated with satirical or political illus-
self. Gillray was such a famous cartoonist trations and not preliminary layouts.
that, in anticipation of his drawings, crowds Lithography promoted the work of Honore
gathered in front of his publisher's window Daumier of France because his painterly
where his cartoons were displayed. At the top forms and colors could be accurately repro-
of his form, however, Gillray went insane. In duced. His bitingly sarcastic political draw-
1811 he tried to kill himself by jumping from ings so enraged King Louis Philippe that he
a barred widow, but his head became caught. had Daumier imprisoned briefly. A one-time
Two years later, he died. But his strong bookseller and law court messenger, Daumier
graphic style combined with a powerful polit- combined his love for sculpture with drawing
ical message influenced many subsequent to produce works of great three-dimensional
cartoonists. depth. His artistic , approach to cartooning
With lithographic printing firmly estab- helped remove the barrier between fine and
lished by the early 1800s (Chapter 9), car- comic art. During his career he completed
toons began to appear more often in maga- more than 4,000 lithographs. One of his most
zines and newspapers and less often on famous shows photographer Gaspard Felix
handbills or posters. For example, caricatures Tournachon, or Nadar, taking the world's
of President Jackson in newspapers during his first aerial photograph from a hot air balloon.
two terms (1828-1836) were the first printed In 1872 Daumier's eyesight started to fail. In
in America. In the 1830s Joseph Keppler six years he was totally blind and desperately
established Puck, a humor magazine first in needed money. Although the public at that
Germany and later in England. His popular time could not see the value of his work,
feature called "Puckographs" presented cari- today his paintings and drawings are valuable
catures of famous citizens. In 1841, journalist collectors' items.
Henry Mayhew and engraver Ebenezer Lan- The most famous American editorial car-
dells began another humor magazine, Punch toonist during this period was Thomas Nast.
-a respected humor magazine that was A native of Landau, Germany, Nast was
published for well over 100 years. Vanity Fair brought by his mother to America when he
was started in 1859 in the United States and was six years old. At the age of fifteen, he was
contained numerous illustrations. employed as an illustrator for Frank Leslie's
Illustrated Weekly. In 1862, Harper's Weekly

hired him as a battlefield artist to cover the
Civil War. His drawings improved morale

enormously as they were circulated in Union
towns, encampments, forts, and ships. Gener-
al Grant praised Nast as having done "as
much as any one man" to preserve the Union.
President Lincoln called him "our best re-
cruiting sergeant."
But Nast is best known for his campaign to
bring down the corrupt politician William

"Boss" Tweed of Tammany Hall. Tweed and
his Democratic cronies stole as much as $200
million from the New York County treasury.
Nast drew more than fifty editorial cartoons
for Harper's Weekly criticizing Tweed. During
his fight with Tweed, the magazine's circula-
tion tripled. His cartoons prompted the poli-
tician to make the famous statement, "I don't Although mistakenly credited for creating Figure 1 1.6
care what they write about me . . . most of the donkey as the symbol for the Democratic As "Emperor" Tweed looks
the constituents can't read any way — but party (the symbol was used before Nast's on, the Tammany tiger, a
them damned pictures!" A Tammany banker time), he is responsible for the popular ele- symbol created by cartoonist
reportedly offered Nast (who made about phant symbol used by the Republican party Thomas Nast to graphically
$5,000 a year) $100,000 to study art in (Figure 1 1.7). In 1902, he was appointed U.S.
illustrate the corruption in
Europe. After Nast facetiously upped the Counsel for Ecuador, a position he was forced
New York, devours Liberty,
bribe to half a million dollars, he turned to accept after losing all his money in finan-
a symbol of democracy and
down the offer. cial speculation. As he predicted before his
freedom in the United
One of his most powerful cartoons ap- departure (in a cartoon), he died of yellow
States.
peared in 1872 just before an election. It fever soon after his arrival.
portrayed a Tammany tiger mauling the sym-

bol of Liberty in the Roman colosseum, with Figure 1 1.7
Tweed as Emperor Nero (Figure 11.6). The Uncle Sam and the
cutline read, "What are you going to do about Republican party elephant
it?" Tweed lost the election but still kept his walk hand in hand along a
power. However, an 1876 cartoon led to boulevard. This
Tweed's downfall. It showed a good likeness nineteenth-century woodcut
of the politician holding two scruffy children
by an unknown artist
by their collars. It made the point that the
symbolically links America
Tweed organization was content to catch
and the GOP.
small-time thieves but let more serious crimi-
nals continue their illegal activities. After
Tweed fled the country because of a criminal
investigation, a police official in Vigo, Spain,
recognized him from Nast's cartoon. Tweed

was returned to America and put in the
Ludlow Street Jail in New York City in 1878.
—
224 CARTOONS
At the turn of the century, newspaper as a powerful tool of persuasion. Three of the
publishers used cartoons for propaganda pur- top editorial artists in the United States — Bill
poses, and editors of literary magazines used Mauldin, Herbert Block, and Paul Conrad
them as humorous diversions. William Ran- rebelled against the propagandistic use of
dolph Hearst asked artists to draw cartoons of cartoons.
fake Spanish atrocities to whip up support for Sergeant Mauldin drew cartoons for Stars
a war against Spain (Chapter 6). In 1904, the and Stripes magazine while a soldier during
humor magazine Life employed its most fa- World War II. His popular characters "Willie
mous cartoonist, Charles Dana Gibson, and Joe" boosted morale while letting the
whose graceful drawings also were used as readers back home know what the average
classy and sophisticated advertisements. Gib- foot soldier thought. After the war, he worked
son also created popular caricatures of Presi- for the Chicago Sun-Times. His most famous
dents Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roose- cartoon probably is the 1963 drawing of the
velt. Lincoln Memorial grieving the death of Pres-
During World War I, blatant propaganda ident Kennedy (Figure 11.8). Mauldin also
for the war effort replaced the earlier creativi- was known for his devastating attacks against
many cartoonists. Typical of this genre is

ty of the Ku Klux Klan and other segregationist
James Montgomery Flagg's famous poster for groups.
Figure 1 1.8 (left)

George Creel's governmental agency (Chapter Herb Block, professionally known as
6) in which an aggressive Uncle Sam icon "Herblock," was the editorial cartoonist for
After President Kennedy was
points at the viewer and says, "I want you for the Washington Post and was at his best when
assassinated, Bill Maiddin
the US Army. Enlist Now." Influenced by the taking on the politically powerful. He invent-
drew this famous cartoon of
dada art movement (Chapter 9), World War ed the word "McCarthyism" to describe the
President Lincoln's statue
II propaganda posters combined cartoons and Wisconsin senator's Communist witch hunt
hiding its face in sorrow. At
photo montages. Totalitarian, as well as dem- (Figure 1 1.9). His drawing of the shifty-eyed,
such times words would ocratic, governments embraced the medium unshaven Richard Nixon became an unshak-
serve only to diminish a
highly emotional visual
message. Rl
Figure 1 1.9 (right)
This cartoon is an example
of Herbert Block's famous
cartoons from the hysterical
McCarthy era when many

patriotic Americans were
accused wrongly of being
Communists. Here, Herblock
uses symbolism to make his
point: The open-mouthed

man with "HYSTERIA"
written across his pants and
a water bucket spilling its
contents suggest a rush to
douse the flame of Liberty.

Figure 11.10
Paul Conrad, retired
cartoonist for the Los
Angeles Times, uses both a
reductionist drawing style
and humor to add impact to
his messages. Left: In an
obvious link to the Rodney
King videotape by George
Holliday, Conrad symbolizes
the poverty program
cutbacks by recent
Republican administrations.
Right: Conrad comically

vioeo tafe op -rue REAjSAM-eusH-Qaa.ytE apmimi-strstioNS o contrasts the different
campaign styles of Bill

able symbol of that political leader from early submits cartoons for publication occasion- Clinton, George Bush, and
in his career. Before Nixon's 1968 presiden- ally.
Ross Perot.
tial campaign, a public relations expert ad- Other contemporary editorial cartoonists
vised him to come up with a new image for of note include Pat Oliphant, Jeff MacNelly,
himself. "I have to erase," he said, "the Jack Ohman, and Garry Trudeau. Trudeau's
Herblock image." "Doonesbury" comic strip often acts as an
Conrad, the angry and insightful liberal editorial cartoon because of the tough politi-
voice of the Los Angeles Times, graduated cal issues he features.

from the University of Iowa and worked for Many critics have noted a significant de-
the Denver Post before starting with the Times cline in the number and quality of editorial
in 1964 (Figure 11.10). Conservative publish- cartoons since World War II. Some of the
er Otis Chandler constantly asked him to reasons they cite are
tone down his cartoons. In 1969, former
1. a general drop in the number of newspa-
mayor Sam Yorty sued the Times for $2
pers,
million for libel (and lost) because of one of
Conrad's cartoons. Ronald Reagan, governor 2. the rise in the number of newspaper
of California before becoming president, syndicates,
complained many times to Chandler that 3. few new editorial cartoonists learning the
Conrad's cartoons were "ruining his break- art form, and
fast." In an effort to divert criticism, Chan-
4. newspaper publishers cautious about neg-
dler moved the cartoon from the editorial to
ative reactions from cartoon subjects,
the opinion page, where comments from
readers, and, perhaps more important,
nonstaffers usually are printed. Conrad's
advertisers.
stark visual style and direct messages are an
outgrowth of his philosophy about cartoons. Presently there are only about 130 full-
He once said, "I figure eight seconds is the time newspaper cartoonists. Almost all are
absolute maximum time anyone should white males who work for newspapers in
have" to understand a cartoon's meaning. In cities of over 200,000 population. Most news-
1993 he retired from the paper but still paper publishers prefer to purchase cartoons
226 CARTOONS
through a newspaper syndicate rather than for hiring excellent personnel. One of his first
hire their own artists at a higher cost. Under- hires was art director Rea Irvin. Irvin not
standably, most cartoonists would rather only created the cartoon character for the first
work for a syndicate where the pay can be cover — the aristocratic, top-hatted "Eustace
many times higher than the salary at a daily Tilley" — but established the style for typog-
newspaper; however, most cartoonists work raphy and graphic design that continues to
for individual newspapers. Syndication tends this day. Some of the most famous New
to generalize and sanitize cartoon symbols Yorker cartoonists include Charles Addams,
and messages in order to make them accepta- of "The Addams Family" fame, Gahan Wil-
ble to a large and diverse audience. Conse- son, and, more recently, George Booth, Roz
quently, much of the anger that a cartoonist Ghast, Edward Koren, and Edward Sorel. The
feels about local issues doesn't get expressed. magazine is credited with having almost
Editorial cartoonists find employment op- single-handedly developed the art of the
portunities even scarcer in the television humorous cartoon to its highest intellectual
industry. Only 8 percent of all U.S. television potential. Early in its history, however, the
stations have cartoonists on their staffs. Few magazine regularly carried editorial cartoons.
public or private schools offer a cartoon One of the leading political cartoonists dur-
production curriculum. Consequently, caring the 1920s and 1930s, Reginald Marsh, was
toonists must learn the craft almost entirely called "the pictorial laureate of the sidewalks
on their own. Furthermore, as corporate of New York." His etchings and oil paintings
interests assert more influence over editorial were known for their accurate rendering of
decisions (Chapter 6), cartoons become the various emotions expressed on the human
blander and less controversial. Nevertheless, faces he observed. An enormously popular
well-crafted and thoughtful editorial cartoons contemporary humorous cartoonist, whose
still have the power to compel readers to art is inspired from the bizarre New Yorker
confront important issues of the day. cartoons of Addams and Wilson, is Gary
Larson. "The Far Side" is a syndicated car-
Humorous Cartoons In 1905, Sigmund toon that people often cut out of newspapers
Freud published a monograph entitled "Wit and tape on the office doors of science
and Its Relationship to the Unconscious." In professors and engineers because Larson fre-
the article he made the distinction between quently pokes fun at research methods.
humor that is meant to give harmless pleasure Clifford Berryhill was the cartoonist for
and satirical humor that often uses vulgar or the Washington Evening Star until his death in
grotesque images. For Freud, aggressive im- 1949 when his son, James, replaced him (the
pulses are safely released by individuals when two were the only father and son combination
they are allowed to laugh at unthinkable or ever to win Pulitzer Prizes). Clifford Berry-
socially unacceptable situations. The famous hill, who created the "teddy bear" icon that
psychologist's work was an important devel- later because the popular nursery toy, con-
opment in the history of humorous cartoons firmed the power of the cartoon when he
because it encouraged artists to include ab- wrote in 1926, "There is no doubt that a
surd and disturbing imagery in their work. serious political issue, when presented in the
Humorous cartoons received another form of a telling cartoon, will be borne home
boost with the introduction of The New to the minds of a far larger circle of average
Yorker magazine in 1925. Harold Ross, a high every-day men and women, than it ever could
school dropout who learned journalism copy be when discussed in the cold black and
editing while employed by the U.S. govern- white of the editorial column."
ment's Stars and Stripes magazine, had a gift Whether as a caricature, editorial cartoon,
or humorous cartoon, the emotional power of Greek temples also contained drawings that
images combined with content that critically depicted sequential movement when viewed
examines social or political behavior pro- horizontally. Japanese continuity paintings,
duces memorable cartoons that reflect accu- called emakimonos, simulated motion. These
rately the culture from which they are pro- sequential drawings appear to move when the
duced. viewer unrolls the long scroll. Completed in
1067, the Bayeux Tapestry is a huge woven

Multiframed Cartoons wall decoration that depicts actions by char-
Currently, the differences between comic acters within separate frames or borders. In
strips, comic books, and animated films are the Middle Ages, Leonardo da Vinci created
the medium of presentation, the pace at drawings showing the hands of a person in
which the drawings are shown, and the various sequential poses. In the 1500s, inven-
amount of effort required of the viewer. In tors created hand-held novelty toys for chil-
comic strips and comic books, the images are dren that simulated motion. Chinese and
usually printed on cheap newsprint, and the Indonesian dancing silhouette toys, called
transition from one picture to the next is ombres chinoises, inspired film animator Lotte
determined by the person who turns the Reiniger's early films. The European version
page. They require a moderate amount of was the cruder "flipbook" — a series of small
effort on the part of the reader. With animat- pictures drawn on separate sheets of course
ed films, images can be shown by film, video, paper. When the holder thumbed the pages,
or computer media; the pace can be as quick the images moved. Many of the drawings
as thirty images per second; and the presenta- were adult-oriented and showed women
tion of animated movies is controlled by a dancing or undressing. Later, the drawings
machine that requires little effort from the were modified for children's viewing. The toy
viewer. As the line between print, television, helped inspire Max Wertheimer to write
and computer technology dissolves, so too about the gestalt approach to visual commu-
will the differences among the three types of nication (Chapter 5).
multiframed cartoons. But 200 more years passed before artists
Comic strips, comic books, and animated used the idea of sequenced images to tell
films all have similar historical roots. The stories. In 1744, John Newbery of London
concept of combining several pictures in a published children's illustrated stories as in-
horizontal configuration is as old as the cave expensive pamphlets under the title Little
drawings in France and Spain. In 1962, Pretty Pocket Books. "Penny Dreadfuls" and
French researchers made still photographs of "chapbooks," named for the slang word for
several different bison drawings on cave walls. peddlers who sold them (chapmen), were
When they spliced the pictures together to soon introduced. These cheaply produced
create a short, animated film, the animals works usually were sensational adventure or
moved with incredible lifelike qualities. The romantic stories, richly illustrated and sold as
demonstration proved that cave artists' obser- serials. By the time people had read an
vations of moving animals were extremely episode, the peddlers were out hawking the
accurate. Egyptian scholars found papyrus next one. Magazine publishers, comic strip
paintings from about 1300 B.C. that showed and comic book writers, and movie and
two wrestlers fighting one another in several television producers all adapted the concept
sequential frames. Many Greek vases decorat- of the continuing story. Modern "soap oper-
ed with circular drawings of fighting warriors as," many prime-time television programs,
or gymnasts have been found. Turning the and motion picture sequels (Jaws, Rocky,
vase gives an illusion of movement. Friezes on Superman, etc.) have chapbook roots.
228 CARTOONS
Comic Strips The German Wilhelm Busch Publisher James Gordon Bennett's New
has been called the founder of the modern York Herald was the first newspaper to begin a
comic strip because his cartoon, "Max and Sunday edition in 1841. The first color Sun-
Moritz" was the first published in a newspa- day comic strip section was published in
per in 1865 (Figure 11.11). Following Busch's Joseph Pulitzer's Sunday World. The first
lead in the 1880s, A. B. Frost created sequen- color comic strip was Richard Outcault's
tial drawings for the newspaper, but they "Hogan's Alley," first published on May 5,
were simply commentaries about social man- 1895, and it instantly was a smash hit. The
nerisms without plots. cartoon provided social commentary dis-
During the last decade of the nineteenth guised as a collection of orphaned, unkempt
century, William Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer children living among the tenement houses in
were locked in a bitter circulation war in New New York City. The central character was a
York (Chapter 6), and they believed that towheaded, unnamed boy in a nightshirt who
graphics were important to gaining reader- smoked cigars. A printer in Pulitzer's back-
ship. Although magazines had started using shop originally gave the boy in Outcault's
color in the 1870s, not until 1893 did news- cartoon a blue nightshirt. But as he became a
papers in New York begin to use color press- central character, yellow was selected to help
es. him stand out in the crowd of children. Soon

afterward the strip became known as "The
Yellow Kid of Hogan's Alley." The sensation-
Figure 11.11
al tactics that journalists used to increase
Created by Wilhelm Busch,
circulation were thereafter labeled "yellow
the childish imps Max and
journalism."
Moritz have found a way to
In a battle between the two giant egos,
steal chickens from a Hearst and Pulitzer publicly bid for Out-
woman busy washing dishes cault's services. Hearst's New York Morning
in her cellar. Instead of Journal hired the famous cartoonist, but he
horizontal movement of the later returned to Pulitzer's paper at a higher
action as in most comic salary. Hearst was determined and hired
strips, this cartoon uses a Outcault back.
vertical cut-away view of Although Pulitzer lost Outcault, he still
the house.
retained the rights to the popular strip. He
hired George Luks to continue to draw the
"Yellow Kid" (Figure 11.12). For all the
attention that Outcault received over the
comic, he expressed annoyance that he was
known only for that one strip. He once wrote,
"When die don't wear yellow crepe, don't
I
let them put a Yellow Kid on my tombstone

and don't let the Yellow Kid himself come to
my funeral. Make him stay over on the east
side, where he belongs." In 1902, Outcault

turned his attention to another popular car-
toon, "Buster Brown," about the adventures
of a mischievous rich kid living in a neigh-
borhood far different from that of the Kid.
A colorful Sunday comics section proved Figure 11.12

to be enormously popular with the public. Although Rtchard Outcault
Hearst described his paper's comic strip in- was the original artist for
sert as "eight pages of iridescent polychro- "The Yellow Kid of Hogan's

mous effulgence that makes the rainbow look
Alley," George Luks
like a piece of lead pipe."
continued drawing the
Many other successful comics were intro-
character after Outcault
duced in the highly popular color comics
went to work for William
section in Sunday newspapers. Most of the
Hearst. This drawing by
cartoons featured continuing characters, but
Luks shows the frenetic,
the story lines weren't in serial form. The
grandfather of Charles Schultz, creator of three-ring-circus atmosphere
"Peanuts," created "Foxy Grandpa." The of the cartoon. The alley is
Grandpa wasn't meant to be sexy, but con- a noisy, crowded place ruled
stantly played tricks on little boys. Winsor by children.

McCay drew one of the most artistically
rendered cartoons ever to grace the pages of a
comic section. His "Little Nemo in Slumber-
land" was about children who dreamed of ran it as a daily cartoon feature in all his
flying over cities and exploring buildings and newspapers that same year. Originally the
back alleys. But one of the most popular strip was named simply "A. Mutt" and re-
cartoons (begun in 1897) was drawn by a counted the ups and downs of an unsuccess-
German immigrant artist, Rudolph Dirks, ful racetrack gambler. In 1917, Mutt's part-
who developed "The Katzenjammer Kids." ner at the track, Jeff, was added to thename
Inspired by Bush's "Max and Moritz" car- to acknowledge their vaudevillelike comedy
toon, the strip told the often humorous team.
adventures of a group of children living on an In the years following the introduction of
island. The cartoon went through several "Mutt and Jeff, many long-lasting and influ-
name changes. When Dirks abandoned ential cartoons were introduced. The "Krazy
Hearst for a lucrative contract from Pulitzer Kat" comic strip by George Herriman helped
in 1912, Hearst sued for the rights to the inspire the dada art movement. Introduced in
name of the cartoon and won. Dirks and his 1915, the cartoon described a surreal and
son continued the strip under the name of often violent world of an alley cat (Figure
"The Captain and the Kids." When anti- 11.13). The strip inspired Fred "Tex" Avery,
German sentiment was high during World Friz Freleng, and Chuck Jones to produce
War I, .Hearst renamed the popular strip "Bugs Bunny" and other popular characters
"The Shenanigan Kids," but later restored the in an equally wisecracking, absurd, and often
original title. violent style. Following in that "violence
Because of the success of the Sunday resolves conflicts" tradition was a 1929 strip
comics, publishers — led by Hearst — started drawn by Elzie Crisler Segar titled
to run cartoons as a daily feature in their "Popeye." Inspired by the character Popeye
newspapers. The first daily comic strip was Vitelli in William Faulkner's novel
H. C. "Bud" Fisher's "Mutt and Jeff," which Sanctiuity, the main character was rough and
first ran in 1907. The cartoon originally ran headstrong but had a soft place in his heart
in the San Francisco Chronicle; Hearst pur- for his girlfriend, Olive Oyl. A year later,
chased it for his San Francisco Examiner and Chic Young introduced one of the most
—
230 CARTOONS
Figure 11.13 rates" (1934), and later his "Steve Canyon"

Influenced by dada artists, (1947) continued the adventure strip tradi-
George Herriman inspired tion.
cartoon artists such as

Inspired by the liberal social messages of
Walt Kelly's "Pogo," the 1950s and 1960s
Chuck Jones and Tex Avery
were a time when cartoonists used satire to
and drew the original
poke fun at social hypocrisies. Kelly ridiculed
violent comic strip "Krazy
the powerful Senator McCarthy with a char-
Kat." In this nighttime
acter named "Senator Simple J. Malarkey."
desert scene, the little mouse
Mort Walker satirized army life in "Beetle
clearly makes a direct hit on
Baily." From a prehistoric perspective,
his nemesis because of the Johnny Hart gave his views in "B.C." Robert
typographical additions. Crumb's irreverently humorous characters,
"Fritz the Cat," the "Fabulously Furry Freak
Brothers," and "Mr. Natural," poked fun at

popular and nonviolent comic strips ever. the hypocrisies Crumb saw in the emerging
"Blondie" told the story of a housewife, her hippie social movement. But the most popu-
husband Dagwood Bumstead and his boss, lar cartoon strip of that or any other time was
and their family in a strip that eventually had "Peanuts" by Charles Schulz, originally pub-
more than 50 million readers in 1,600 news- lished on October 2, 1950. His tale of a band
papers and 50 countries around the world. of small children and a dog in the minimalist
An important innovation in the continu- artistic tradition became a symbol for Ameri-
ing popularity of comic strips — the serial ca as sure as that of apple pie (Figure 11.14).
appeared in the 1920s and 1930s. Harold Appearing in over 2,000 newspapers world-
Gray's "Little Orphan Annie" in 1924 cham- wide, in books, and on television, the strip
pioned the virtues of helping yourself without has more than 100 million fans. The Apollo
relying on government aid. Al Capp's "Li'l 10 astronauts even carried a copy of the
Abner" in 1934 criticized big business prac- cartoon into spacer Distributed by the United
tices at first but gradually became conserva- Features press syndicate, the strip has helped
tive over the years. Such strips with not so make Schultz "the wealthiest contemporary
subtle political messages were a link between cartoonist in the history of comics."
the funnies and the editorial cartoon. The National Cartoonists Society gives its
Adventure stories that continued from day Reuban Award for the "Best Cartoonist of the
to day were enormously popular comic strips, Year." Milton Caniff was the first recipient,
which many newspapers depended on for and Cathy Guisewite, who produces the pop-
their survival. In 1929, two important strips ular "Cathy" comic strip, was the 1993
that also had lives as motion pictures were winner. Other cartoonists, inspired by such
introduced. Richard Calkins and Phil Now- blatantly political strips as "Little Orphan
lan produced the twenty-fifth-century space Annie," "Li'l Abner," and "Pogo," disguise
traveler "Buck Rogers." Edgar Rice Bur- social commentary as humorous comic
rough's "Tarzan" character was brought to strips — a tradition that has its roots in the
visual life by Harold Foster and later by Burne "Yellow Kid." Jeff MacNelly's "Shoe," Bill
Hogarth. Thes*. adventure cartoons inspired Watterson's "Calvin and Hobbes," and Berke
all kinds of western, detective, and superhu- Breathed's "Bloom County" (later renamed
lan strips. Chester Gould's "Dick Tracy" "Outland") are contemporary examples. An-
1 ), Milton CanifFs "Terry and the Pi- other brilliant social critic is Jules Feiffer,
CARTOONS AND THK SIX PERSPFXTIVES 231
whose syndicated strip runs in newspapers

around the world. Feiffer was particularly
active during the 1950s civil rights struggle
with his individual comic strip and cartoon

book collections. Garry Trudeau's "Doones-
bury" often is moved from the comic pages to
the editorial or op ed pages of newspapers

because of its controversial content. Begun in
1970 in only 28 newspapers, "Doonesbury"
appears in nearly 1,000 papers today. In 1975,
Trudeau won a Pulitzer Prize for his cartoons
about Vietnam, former president Richard

Nixon, and the Watergate scandal.
Comic Books In the 1820s, English printer
Jemmy Catnach published cartoon broad-

sheets that were the forerunner for the mod- comic book industry. After several publishers Figure 11.14
ern comic book. Pierce Egan's Life in London turned down the idea, Superman started With its simple backgrounds,
series, artistically rendered by the illustrator flying in 1939 when Gaines began Action typographical variations,
George Cruikshank, told the tale of two Comics with the popular superhuman and enduring children's
characters named Tom and Jerry. He de- (Figure 11.16). A year later, Batman was first
characters, "Peanuts" by
scribed action entirely through drawings and published.
Charles Schulz often made
supplied dialogue, not within balloons as is The 1950s has been named the "golden
commentaries about popular
the modern tradition, but under the frames age of comic books." C. C. Beck's Captain
culture. "Peanuts" has a
of the pictures. Ten years later, as an enter- Marvel, Stan Lee's troubled photographer
direct link to Richard
tainment for his students, a Swiss schoolmas- Peter Parker, better known as Spiderman, and
Outcault's "Yellow Kid."
ter, Rodolphe Toppfer, circulated cartoon
drawings on more educational subjects. An- However, Charlie Brown,
other 100 years would elapse before comic Linus, and Lucy never
books became a popular form of visual enter- smoke, and they live in
tainment. middle-class homes with

In the 1930s, newspaper publishers started both parents.
to promote their comic strip offerings IOO COMICX AND GAMES-PUZZIM-MAGIC o
through inexpensively printed give-away in-

serts. Publisher Max Gaines expanded the Figure 11.15
idea, producing Cheap Little Books that were
Originally, comic books
reprints of newspaper cartoons (Figure
were specially prepared
11.15). With the introduction of the adven-
publications produced by
ture comic strips, Gaines, the father of Mad
newspapers as an
magazine publisher William Gaines, started
advertisement for thei
to seek material not previously printed. The
comic book giant, Detective Comics, or DC, comic strips. Max
began publishing in 1937 with initially limit- printed 35,000 copies of
ed success. But it was the cartoon created by Famous Funnies in 1934.
two high school students from Cleveland, The comic book proved to be
Jerry Siegel and Joe Schuster, that ignited the enormously successful.
232 CARTOONS
Figure 11.16 (left)
The first issue of the popular
Superman comic book was

introduced in June 1938.
Interestingly, the illustration
for the cover is a departure
from the usual

characterization of the
superhero. Instead of saving
lives, this stern Superman

appears to be crashing a car
into a cliff while three men

seem to be running for their
lives.
William Gaines began
Entertaining Comics, or
simply EC, as a way to
interest adults in reading
science fiction comic books.

William Gaines's Educational Comics, later appeared in Gaines's Mad magazine. In a
renamed Entertaining Comics (or simply tribute to his father's first foray into comic
This 1952 cover is a typical
EC), were started during the decade (Figure book publishing, he inserted the word
example of the genre with
11.17). A collection of horror and science "Cheap" under the price for the magazine.
its mix of typeface styles,
fiction cartoons, EC comic books featured Mad is still an enormously popular vehicle
font sizes, and action-
titles such as Crypt of Terror and Weird for social criticism in the form of irrational
oriented illustrations.
Science. Unlike the children-oriented comic humor and visual puns by such artists as
books Superman and Captain Marvel, EC Mort Drucker, Jack Davis, and Don Martin.
comic books were targeted at adults who Recent trends have secured comic books'
enjoyed the social commentary masquerad- place as a truly American art form. Inspired
ing as children's cartoons. However, the so- by the baseball trading card fad of the 1980s,
called golden age was short-lived. In 1953, comic books have become valuable collectors'
psychiatrist Dr. Fredric Wertham published items. A first-issue Superman, for example,
Seduction of the Innocent. In his book he can fetch as much as $50,000. Cartoon artists
linked (without adequate research) the con- are afforded the celebrity status of rock sing-
tent of comic books to juvenile delinquency. ers. When Rob Liefield offered to autograph
To head off possible government action, the his 1993 comic book called Youngblood, more
comic book industry established a self-cen- than 5,000 fans lined up to get his valuable
soring board to regulate comic book content signature on their copies of the magazine.
with a Comics Code. Adult comic books, Superheroes no longer are content to fight
including serious graphic novels, were wiped criminals but also use their powers to help
out. For example, EC could not survive under save the environment and solve social prob-
the strict guidelines for a "seal of approval" lems. Of course, some comic books still
by the board. But in 1954, the gap-toothed, describe sensational aspects of modern life.
wisecracking character Alfred E. Newman In 1993, the First Amendment Publishing

Company in its He Said-She Said Comics line Animated Films A week before a backshop
introduced cartoon books based on Woody printer decided to print Outcault's kid yel-
Allen and Mia Farrow's troubled relationship. low, the Lumiere brothers in Paris showed
The motion picture and television indus- their simple movies to a paying audience for
tries certainly have profited from comic book the first time. Four months later, in 1896,
characters. Many cartoon and comic book Thomas Edison demonstrated his Vitascope
titles have been adapted for the screen film machine before a vaudeville audience.
"Buck Rogers," "Blondie," "Flash Gordon," The history of animated film, naturally, is
"Dick Tracy," "Superman," "Popeye," "Pea- tied to the history of the motion picture
nuts," "Doonesbury," "The Addams Fami- (Figure 11.18). Moving films are a combina-
ly," "Brenda Starr," and "Batman." Film tion of a camera, film, and projection device.
directors such as George Lucas (American We discuss their use in motion pictures in
Graffiti and Star Wars) and Steven Spielberg Chapter 13 but discuss here the early versions
(E.T. The Extraterrestrial and Jurassic Park) of projection that were invented to animate
admit that early in their careers they learned cartoon drawings. Generally speaking, mo-
about perspective, framing, and plot tech- tion picture viewing devices were fabricated
niques by being avid comic book readers. to correspond with two different philosophies
Furthermore, the act ion -adventure characters about movies: projection of images intended
brought to the big screen by Sylvester Stallone for groups of people and viewing intended as
(Rocky and Rambo) and Arnold Schwarze- a private experience.
negger (The Terminator and The Last Action Projection motion pictures started with
Hero) simply are cartoon characters disguised Dutch diplomat and poet Christiaan Huygens
as humans. and Jesuit mathematician Father Athanasius
Cartoons also express serious subjects in a Kircher working independently in the seven-
nonthreatening way. For example, Art Spiegel- teenth century. They invented the magic
man's retelling of the Holocaust in an animal lantern, an early version of a slide projector
fable called "Maus" won a National Book (Figure 11.19). The device comprised a box
Critics Award in 1987, the first time the with a lens and a candle in it. The user
award had ever gone to a cartoon. projected images on glass plates onto a screen
Figure 11.18
Comic strips are rend the
same as words —from left to
right starting at the top. The

cultures of rural and urban
gentlemen clash in this
comic that resembles a short
animated film.
234 CARTOONS
Figure 11.19 animated films, the Theatre Optique. Rey-

This early twentieth-cetitury : naud showed thousands of cartoons, many
woodcut is an advertisement • = drawn by his assistant Emile Cohl. Unfortu-
for a magic lantern —a '

% nately, the public had become more interested
device used to project images

[* in the live-action short films of the Lumiere
f brothers and others (Chapter 13). Frustrated,
on a wall.
5 in 1910 Reynaud threw all his equipment in
the Seine River and at the end of World War I
by moving them in front of the flame. By died in a sanitarium.

1700, Johannes Zahn had invented a table- Cohl pioneered the frame-by-frame ani-
top version in which pictures drawn on a mation technique in which a single frame is
glass wheel simulated movement as they were photographed and then replaced with anoth-
turned. Entertainers and families throughout er image. He had limited success with his
Europe used magic lanterns until the Victori- classic 1908 animation Phantasmagoria, in
an age. A slide could be projected on a screen which black crayon characters on white paper
while live actors performed in front of it. change shapes. An elephant character, for
Upper-class Victorians used lanterns for edu- example, magically transforms into a ballet
cational and entertainment purposes at dancer. The illusion can be thought of as an
home. early version of the computerized "mor-
Several devices were invented to take ad- phing" technique (Chapter 15). Cohl's Phan-
vantage of the way single drawings could be tasmagoria was expensive to produce because
manipulated by a viewer to simulate move- it contained 2,000 images for the eighty-
ment. The drawings of an English doctor, second film. After World War I, Cohl could
John Paris, popularized a child's toy, the no longer obtain the funds he needed to make
Thaumatrope, invented by Peter Mark Roget animated films.
in 1825. The spinning toy was a string In 1902, the first science fiction movie, A
attached to a small piece of cardboard with Trip to the Moon, featured special effects and
two images on either side. If the images were animated drawings by French magician
a bird and a cage, for example, spinning the George Melies (Figure 1 1.20). In 1905, Melies
card would produce the entertaining illusion used hand-colored backgrounds with cutout
that the bird was inside the cage. A Belgian drawings of race cars for the animated film
professor, Joseph Plateau, designed a varia- Paris to Monte Carlo. He photographed each
tion of the Thaumatrope in 1831. His Phena- frame after moving a car slightly in a tech-
kistoscope (Greek for "deceitful view") con- nique initiated by Emile Cohl.
tained two spinning wheels that, when The founder of the American animated
turned, gave the illusion of movement. Im- film industry is considered to be the cartoon-
provements on the device were the Strobo- ist Winsor McCay. Born in Michigan in 1871,
scope of Viennese geometry professor Baron McCay worked in Chicago as an illustrator of
von Stampfer and the Zoetrope of W. G. circus posters and later for a Cincinnati
Horner of England. newspaper. In 1903, he moved to New York to
But it was Professor Emile Reynaud of draw cartoons for the New York Herald and
France who managed to combine several the Evening Telegram, owned by publisher
drawings (as with the Zoetrope) and a projec- James Gordon Bennett. In 1906, as part of his
tion system similar to the magic lanterns in a "Little Nemo" newspaper cartoon, McCay
device he called the Praxinoscope. In 1882, printed a series of drawings of a trapeze artist
he opened the first public theater for showing inspired from a child's flipbook, and these
sequential pictures inspired McCay to make

animated movies. His first animated film
featured the Little Nemo character. The short
movie took four years to complete and in-
cluded 4,000 hand-colored, 35mm film
frames. In 1912, his next film, The Story of
the Mosquito, was about a confrontation be-
tween a drunken man and an insect. But he is
best known for his third animated picture.

Besides being an able cartoonist and anima-
tor, McCay starred in his own comedy act. To
make his vaudeville act more interesting,
McCay created Gertie, the Trained Dinosaur

in 1914. Gertie was a charming, crowd-
pleasing brontosaurus that happily performed
according to McCay's stage instructions.

Animation is enormously expensive and
time consuming. Twenty-four frames per ters showed the silent version because they Figure 11.20
second are needed for convincing movement, weren't yet equipped for sound. Fleischer The magic and wonder of
so a ten-minute movie needs more than originally worked with John Bray to make George Melies's animation
14,000 drawings. But the process became films such as Out of the Inkwell, featuring the
classic, A Trip to the Moon,
easier in 1915 when Earl Hurd patented his character Koko. He later helped produce
is evident in this scene from
eel animation technique with the help of his cartoons that included the character of the
the movie. While exploring
partner John Bray. They used clear plastic sexually alluring child/woman Betty Boop
the surface of the moon, a
sheets for the moving characters, allowing the (1930) (created by the artist Myron "Grim"
group of university professors
background to remain unchanged. Conse- Natwick) and his most famous character,
is led by spear-carrying
quently, background artwork could be much Popeye (1933), based on Segar's comic strip.
more elaborate, the animated characters Throughout the Great Depression, the enor- aliens. Note the elaborate
could be more lifelike, and the time and mously popular Betty Boop cartoons kept foreground and background
expense required to produce a film could be Fleischer's studio financially secure. scenery on this stage set.
drastically reduced. Hurd became rich, as he Although Walt Disney usually is credited
continued to receive royalties for his inven- with making the first feature-length animat-
tion until the patent ran out in 1940. Today, ed movie, the honor actually goes to Berlin-
animation eels are valuable collectors' items. born Lotte Reiniger. In 1926, The Adventures
Always interested in expanding his busi- of Prince Achmed, about the tales of the
ness interests, William Hearst established an Arabian nights, was first shown. Reiniger
animation studio in 1916 to make films as a made more than sixty films during her sixty-
way to promote his newspaper comic strips. two-year career. Her most famous animated
The studio produced short cartoons every works, introduced in 1955, include the car-
week of The Katzenjammer Kids and Krazy toon classics Hansel and Gretel, Jack and the
Kat that played in movie theaters along with Beanstalk, and Thumbelina.
newsreels. Walt Disney grew up on a small farm in
In 1924, Austrian artist Max Fleischer and Missouri and went on to become the undis-
his brother Dave teamed with radio innovator puted king of American animation. As a
Lee De Forest to make the first cartoon with soldier during World War I, he tried to sell his
sound, Oh Mabel. Unfortunately, most thea- cartoons of the front to the humor magazine
—
236 CARTOONS
Life, but they were rejected. After the war,' he By 1945, the Disney studio had employed
settled in Kansas City, where he worked as an hundreds of artists and produced several
ambulance driver before becoming a com- cartoon classics. The first color cartoon,
mercial artist for the Kansas City Advertising Flowers and Trees, won the team an Oscar in
Company and meeting animator Ub Iwerks. 1933. Snow White (1937), Pinocchio (1939),
Iwerks, Walt, and his brother Roy teamed up Fantasia (1940), Dumbo (1941), and Bambi
to create short cartoons called Laugh-O- (1942) followed.
Grams that they sold to local movie theaters. Disney introduced the concepts of pre-
The three men moved to Hollywood in 1923 planned storyboards to organize a film before
and obtained a contract to produce a fifteen- any eels were drawn and separation of anima-
movie series named Alice in Cartoonland, tion artists into several different departments
which combined a live-action girl with drawn in which workers would complete separate
characters. In 1928, the three introduced pieces of a long animated project indepen-
Steamboat Willie, which had a fully synchro- dently. Iwerks invented the multiplane cam-
nized soundtrack and, perhaps more impor- era that could separate eels from the back-
tant, the famous character, Mickey Mouse, ground to allow realistic, real-time camera
originally named Mortimer Mouse (Figure movements.
11.21). Walt Disney provided the character's During World War II, the Disney studios
high-pitched voice, and Iwerks created the made uninspired propagandist ic cartoons for
drawings. Mickey Mouse became so popular the government. After the war, Walt Disney
that Nazi leader Adolf Hitler banned the concentrated on live-action nature films, the
cartoon from Germany. merchandising of his characters, television
In 1929, the trio produced the first of their programs when the new medium became
Silly Symphonies — The Skeleton Dance. The viable, and theme parks Disneyland in
Silly Symphonies were an expert mix of mo- southern California and, later, Disney World
tion and music, with skeletons dancing to and Epcot Center in central Florida (Figure
tunes. The 1933 Disney short The Three Little 11.22).
Pigs is considered an animation landmark Critics originally praised Disney for his
because each of the three central characters animation innovations, but, as the studio
had distinctive personalities. After its release, became more profitable, they criticized his
animators tried to give animated characters movies for being too sentimental and preten-
all the facial expressions common to live tious. Because his films were aimed at a large,
actors to promote realism. family-oriented audience, they were necessar-

ily bland and free from controversy. At the
Figure 11.21 other extreme of the animation spectrum was
Mortimer the Mouse, the

another set of popular animators who were
inspired by the absurd violence and cynicism
character's original name,
of George Herriman's Krazy Kat cartoon. At
doesn't have quite the same
the center were Fred "Tex" Avery, Friz
ring as Mickey Mouse.
Feleng, and Chuck Jones, who, at the
Known thro\ hout the
Warner Brothers srudio, created such clas-
world, this bt '
character
sic Looney Tunes characters as the wisecrack-
got his start in motion
ing Bugs Bunny, Porky Pig, Daffy Duck,
pictures with Steamboat
Elmer Fudd, Wile E. Coyote, and the
Willie, the first fully Roadrunner (Figure 1 1.23).The team made
synchronized sound cartoon. more than 800 films, which cost about
and took a year to complete. When Warner Figure 11.22

Brothers closed in 1963, Jones went to work Disneyland — "The Happiest
for M-G-M. In 1965, Jones won an Oscar Place on Earth" — unless
for his cartoon The Dot and the Line. More you are sitting in a traffic
recently, Jones helped provide the animated
jam outside the theme park.
sequences for the 1992 movie Stay Tuned.
Other famous cartoon animators provided
many of the most popular characters. Friz
Freleng invented the Tweety Pie and Sylvester
team and the Pink Panther. Walter Lantz
created Woody Woodpecker. William Hanna
and Joseph Barbera's Mr. Magoo, Huckleber- Tom and Jerry." In 1993, film directors
ry Hound, and Yogi Bear were successful. Jay Steven Spielberg and Tim Burton (Beetlejuice
Ward produced the popular "Rocky and and Batman) introduced another prime-time
Bullwinkle" Saturday morning television cartoon, "Family Dog." The cartoon made
show with stories that appealed both to satirical comments about modern culture
children and adults. from a dog's point of view. Because of
Hanna and Barbera also proved that unexpected costs, however, the producers
adults, as well as children, would like animat- needed a large initial audience for the show to
ed films. In I960, the team produced the first air regularly, which didn't materialize. Satur-
prime-time television cartoon, "The Flint- day morning cartoons typically cost about
stones." With the success of that Stone Age $250,000 an episode. But production prob-
family, the production company moved the lems caused "Family Dog's" programs to cost
familiar family situation comedy genre ahead $1 million each. If a show is successful, the
a few centuries to create "The Jetsons." The initial investment will be returned many
success of the prehistoric cave and futuristic times over by the sale of video games, beach
cloud residents showed studio heads that towels, dolls, and children's clothing inspired
animated films could attract adult audiences.
In 1968, for example, the hit film Yellow Figure 11.23

Submarine featured cartoon characters and Bugs Bunny greets visitors to
music by the Beatles in the pop art classic.

the famous Atlanta
Famed animator Ralph Bakshi produced a
"Underground.
groundbreaking adult-oriented movie, Fritz
the Cat, based on the Robert Crumb charac-
ter (Figure 11.24). Bakshi later directed the
1992 movie Cool World.
Because of the success of "The Simpsons,"
television executives have tried other animat-
ed offerings with varying results. Hanna and
Barbera failed to get much of an audience for
"Fish Police," as did Steven Bochco with
"Capitol Critters." But the Nickelodeon cable
network has successfully run John Kric-
falusi's twisted tales about a nervous Chihua-

hua and an overly stuffed cat. "Ren and
Stimpy" has been called "a hallucinogenic
238 CARTOONS
Figure 11.24 the success of The Little Mermaid, Beauty and

In 1972, director Ralph the Beast, and Aladdin. Although not a win-
Bakshi introduced his movie ner, Beauty and the Beast was the first movie
Fritz the Cat, based on the in the history of animation ever to be nomi-
nated for a Best Picture Oscar, in 1992
popular 1960s character
(Figure 11.25).
created by Robert Crumb. In
Only children's Saturday morning televi-
this publicity still, Fritz
sion programs now regularly feature car-
appears menacing because of
toons. Unfortunately, many of the newer
his large size, sharp fangs,
animated films have violent, mindless plots,
implied movement, and eye
merchandising tie-ins, and low budgets that
contact with the viewer.
limit animation, some to as few as ten frames
per second. High-quality animation is avail-
able only in expensive motion pictures, on

specialty television shows (as in MTV's "Liq-
uid Television"), and with the rerunning of
the cartoon classics.
Animation techniques allow the fantastic
Figure 11.25
by the lead character. As a further example of and the impossible to be realized on the
the link between a successful character and screen. Computer technology makes realistic
The first animated motion
product strategies, a computer video game animation special effects faster and easier to
picture ever to be nominated
and an attraction at Universal Studios Florida produce. As seen in the movies Terminator 2:
for an Academy Award for
in 1996 will be based on the adventure movie Judgment Day and Jurassic Park, animated
best picture was the Walt
Jurassic Park. If a cartoon is well liked by characters no longer need to have a "cartoon"
Disney production of
"children of all ages," there are no bound- appearance — they can be as real as all the
Beauty and the Beast. Here, aries for the ways it can be exploited. other images on the reel (Chapter 15). Fur-
Belle and the hulking Beast During the past five years the Disney thermore, video games using sophisticated
share a tender moment Studio reasserted itself as the primary pro- computer-generated animation techniques
under the stars. ducer of mass-audience animated films with are a multimillion-dollar industry that can be
found in shopping mall arcades and as a part

of elaborate home entertainment systems.
r Technical Perspective
Whether intended for print or screen media

presentations, the cartoonist uses specific de-
vices to convey information to the viewer.
The meaning of these graphic conventions

often is not obvious — as symbolic codes,
they must be learned (Figure 11.26). In order
to analyze cartoons, you need to be aware of
the various terms used to describe illustrative
techniques. For once you know the name of
an element, you will notice it more easily.
1. Frame: Top and bottom boxes or panels

often contain narration and story explana-
tions. In animated films, voice-overs per- Figure 11.26
form the same function. Editorial cartoons often are
2. Setting: The background illustrations filled with symbols — some

might be highly stylized and simple as in a understandable, but many
"Peanuts" cartoon or realistic and elabo- dependent on their meaning
rate as in the "Spiderman" comic strip. for a thorough knowledge of
The degree to which elements of reality are the time in which they were
removed from a cartoon is called leveling. produced. Justice gives up

Often the artist conveys the seriousness of unknown
her seat for an
the cartoon by a high or low degree of
corrupt politician in this
leveling.
woodcut.
3. Characters: As with the setting, how realis-
tic the characters are drawn often indi-
cates whether the strip is humorous or

serious. Assimilation is the term used to
describe the technique of exaggerating
features, usually for a stereotypical effect.
Homer Simpson's large belly and Marge's the reader becomes an actor, emphasizing
high beehive are examples. As with any important words either in the mind or out
pictorial representation of the human face, loud.
expressions connote emotional states that

6. Balloons: The way dialogue of characters
may help explain a character's motives.
in comic strips is encircled is an example
4. Motion lines: Straight lines or little puffs of of a complicated semiotic structure
smoke are used to indicate quick move- (Figure 11.27). The reader must learn to
ment by a character. Mort Walker, creator interpret the symbolism of the various
of the popular strip "Beetle Bailey," has balloon types:

given names to various movement lines:
Figure 11.27
— horizontal movement,
hites In this nineteenth-century
—
vites motions,
vertical woodcut, warriors are
— diagonal movement,
dites
comically polite, as indicated
by the dialogue within the

— wavering or
agitrons motions, repetitive
balloons.
—
briffits littleof smoke or
puffs dirt,
waftaroms — odors the frame,

that float in
and
plewds — sweat beads that pop up on a

character's forehead that indicate nervous-
ness.
5. Typography: Unlike in any other art form,

a reader is asked to supply a dramatic
reading of a character's dialogue by means
of typographical variations. By recogniz-
ing differences in letter size and thickness,
—
240 CARTOONS
unbroken line — normal, unemotional and quick-cut editing to help move the
speech, action from frame to frame. These film
perforated line — whisper,

a
techniques once led cartoonist Will Eisner
to say, "Comics are movies on paper." Of
a spiked outline — loud yelling,
course, with all the absurd plot lines,
little bubbles instead of lines — thoughts killings, explosions, and digital special
by the character, effects in today's action-adventure movies,
icicles hanging from a balloon — conceited we can also say that movies are comic
or aloof speech, books on film.
tiny words within a large balloon — aston- Almost all the cartoons intended for the
ished or ashamed emotional speech, print medium are created with traditional
a zig-zagged line — sound from a tele-

pen and ink materials. Animated films, how-
ever, require a variety of special techniques in
Figure 11.28 phone, TV set, or computer, and
the creation of moving characters.
Willis O'Brien was the the tail of a balloon outside the frame
special-effects wizard for the similar to an off-camera voice. Object Animation

classic confrontation between Object animation became popular when
7. Action sequences: All the techniques uti-
man and beast in King
lized by motion picture directors also are Willis O'Brien used the technique in his 1925
Kong. Note how the lighting
used in comic strips and comic books. classic about angry dinosaurs, The Lost
on the back curtain and the Cartoonists use close-ups, perspective, World. Tooled steel formed the animals' skele-
platform itself direct the and framing variations, special lighting tons, which were then covered with foam
viewer to King Kong's face. effects, montage techniques, and panning latex and painted. Animators moved these
models slightly and photographed them
frame by frame. Called stop-motion, the
technique also was used in the popular movie
King Kong in 1933 (Figure 11.28). Assisting
O'Brien was Ray Harryhausen, who went on
to help make several classic animated mon-
ster films. In 1953's The Beast from 20,000
Fathoms, an atomic blast awakens a monster
that tears up Manhattan. The movie inspired
Japanese producers to create films such as
Godzilla and Rodan. Harryhausen also creat-
ed the effects for The Valley of Gwangi, One
Million Years B.C., and Clash of the Titans.
Another innovator in stop-motion anima-
tion in the 1940s was George Pal, who
produced a series of short cartoons he called
Puppetoons. The work of O'Brien, Harry-

hausen, and Pal inspired special-effects artist
Stan Winston to create the dinosaurs in
Jurassic Park and the creator of the Pillsbury

Doughboy, Henry Selick, to direct the 1993
stop-action feature Tim Burton's Nightmare

Before Christmas for the Walt Disney Com-
pany.
Materials Day, and Jurassic Park. Many computer

Clay is a material commonly used in graphics experts predict that dangerous
animation because it gives characters depth. stunts and even human characters speaking
In 1953, Art Clockey introduced the popular

dialogue soon will be completely fabricated
Gumby and Pokey in the film through digital designs (Chapters 13 and 15).
clay characters
Gumbasia. Presently, Will Vinton Produc-

tions, Inc., is a leader in clay animation Ethical Perspective
techniques. Using the copyrighted claymation
between
Critics cite four main ethical issues as prob-
process, Vinton charges advertisers
lems for cartoons:
$5,000 and $7,000 a second for clay character
commercials. One of the most popular adver- 1. marketing cartoon characters to children,
tisements produced by Vinton and his associ-
2. using too few multicultural characters,
ates is the one featuring the colorful clay
California raisins dancing to the music of "I 3. introducing political opinions in comic
Heard It Through the Grapevine." Nick Park strips, and
won an Oscar for his short film Creature 4. showing inappropriate sexual and violent
Comforts (1989) in which zoo animals are themes.
interviewed about their lives behind bars —
metaphor for all kinds of institutional life. Marketing
His 1993 work Wrong Trousers also won an Product tie-ins are as old as comic strips.
Academy Award. Clay in the hands of master When the "Yellow Kid" was introduced in
Park becomes a powerful emotional element 1895, the popularity of the strip sparked one
in which facial gestures reveal the inner
of the first mass marketing campaigns in the
feelings of the characters. reproduced on
United States. Illustrations
Besides models and clay, paper is some- buttons, metal cracker boxes, and fans pro-
times used as an animation medium. One of
moted the cartoon character and the newspa-
the most notable animators in the paper
per. But the clear-cut winner of the market-
cutout tradition is Terry Gilliam. In 1969, he ing race and the model for other cartoonists
worked on the British television comedy pro- and studios is Walt Disney. Disney gave up
gram "Monty Python." Gilliam, the only illustrating his motion pictures himself to
American in the comedy ensemble, used organize and manage the lucrative product
cutout photographs and drawings for title
lines inspired by his company's characters. It
and animation segments of the program. seemed that every American child had to
Gilliam is now a respected film director
have a Mickey Mouse doll. Disney's Aladdin
credited with Time Bandits, Brazil, and The (1992), for example, was the first animated
Fisher King. film to gross more than $200 million on
North American sales of over 50 million
Combined Live Action and Animation tickets. But the Disney studio also plans to
Another common special effect is to com- make an enormous profit on international
bine live action and animated characters in ticket sales, video rentals, soundtrack albums,
the same scene. This technique is as old as product licensing agreements (from lunch
George Melies's films. More recent examples, boxes to dolls), street parades, and restaurants
using live-action sequences combined with with an Aladdin theme at the Disney parks to
images produced with computer technology, attract more adults.
include Who Framed Roger Rabbit, Cool At the same time, Saturday morning tele-
World, The Abyss, Terminator 2: Judgment vision programs and motion picture charac-
242 CARTOONS
ters frequently appear in advertisements pro- upset Asian Americans today. Present-day
moting everything from dolls to bicycles. cartoons, whether single- or multiframed,
Children are particularly vulnerable to such often show few characters from cultures other
persuasive commercial techniques, but adults than the dominant one, which perpetuates
also are easily manipulated. negative stereotypes. Milestone Media comic
books, distributed by DC comics, tries to
Stereotypes offset such omissions by the comic book
As with all mass media, comic strip and industry (Figure 11.29). Recognizing that
cartoon images have almost exclusively been children need to see superheroes from their
dominated by white males. When members own cultures, Milestone has introduced mul-
of another culture are featured, they are ticultural comics such as Static, Hardware, and
almost always represented stereotypically. Icon. In its first story, the African-American
Some of the newspaper comic strips in the character Icon is subjected to police brutality
1920s and 1930s, particularly in the South, after simply introducing himself to a group of
used racial stereotypes that are offensive to officers. Milestone also plans to introduce an
contemporary readers. During World War II, Asian-American character named Zombie
the U.S. government used cartoon characters and an ethnically diverse crime fighting team,
to aid its propaganda campaign. Max the Shadow Cabinet. Comic books, when
Fleischer's Popeye, for example, regularly thoughtfully produced, challenge the intellect
fought Japanese characters and called his through the text, spark imaginations through
enemy "Japs." That popular racial slur and the images, and provide role models by fea-
stereotypical drawings and mannerisms still turing diverse characters.
Political Messages
Figure 11.29 Many readers object to serious messages
The Milestone Media comic disguised as children-oriented comic strips
book company regularly often because they may not agree with the
features multicultural heroes

political messages. "Little Orphan Annie"
with
and "Li'l Abner" were criticized for their
real-life concerns. For
right-wing messages, whereas "Pogo" and
example, in this cover
"Doonesbury" offended conservative readers
illustration, Rocket, a.k.a.
with their liberal perspectives (Figure 11.30).
Raquel Ervin, an African-
In the 1960s, underground or alternative
American character,
comic books were intended to shock tradi-
discovers she is pregnant.
tional audiences and establish a countercul-
ture readership. The often humorous comic

strip "For Better or for Worse" by Lynn
Johnston suddenly became controversial in
1993 when a continuing story line involved a
teenage character admitting to family and
friends that he was gay. An editor for the
Sedalia, Missouri, Democrat gave a typical
reason why the strip was pulled from the

newspaper: "We are a conservative paper in a
conservative town. We consider it a family

comic strip and felt our readers would not
appreciate this striking reference to homosex- Figure 1.30

DOONESBURY by Garry Trudeau
1
uality being inserted in it." Apparently there Perhaps indicative of the
can be no discussion of real-life issues on the growing acceptance of gay

comic pages for fear that readers and, more and lesbian lifestyles in the
important, advertisers might be offended. United States are the
mainstream comic strips

Inappropriate Themes
that have included
Although there is no scientific proof for
homosexual characters.
the assertion that violent acts by cartoon
characters affect children's behavior, com-
mon sense and anecdotal evidence suggests
that the hundreds of killings witnessed on
Saturday morning television at least promote
the idea that conflicts can be resolved, not by
thoughtful negotiations and compromise, but
by intentional acts of violence. Interactive
video games that reward users for their skill
at "killing" cartoon opponents have been

weakly defended with "they help improve creative alternatives to violence. Cartoon art-
hand-eye coordination," as if such a trait ists must define for themselves the line that
could not be learned any other way. When separates hedonistic, entertaining cartoons
the Comics Code Authority was established from utilitarian, educational programs. If the
in 1954 after pressure from parental interest television industry doesn't improve its educa-
groups, many underground comic books in tional offerings, Congress might impose regu-
the 1960s, with titles such as Subvert Comics, lation.
Big Ass Comics, and Young Lust, were pub-

lished to circumvent the attempted censor-
ship.
Many cartoon artists are attempting to Many times the Sunday comic pages are a
communicate serious issues to children with- child's first introduction to the magical world
out resorting to sensationalism. Maurice of reading. Upon seeing the brightly colored
Sendak, best known for his 1963 children's funnies, a child is interested immediately. But
book Where the Wild Things Are, has a cartoon strip characters that are amusing to a
reputation for respecting children's intelli- child no longer provoke the same response in
gence. His 1993 work, We Are All in the adults. Part of the reason that comic books
Dumps with Jack and Guy, explores the social are not considered a serious art form is that
problems of homelessness, AIDS, and vio- traditionally they have been intended for
lence on the streets in terms that both chil- younger audiences. One of the most common
dren and adults can understand. causes of cultural division between people is
First Amendment protection for printed differences in age. Consequently, the kinds of
works also applies to printed cartoons. Re- comic material you read helps identify you as
cently, however, some members of Congress, belonging to a particular cultural group.
under pressure from their constituents, have Cartoons are an essential part of any
investigated and criticized the television in- country's culture. The types of cartoon sub-
dustry for sensationalizing conflict rather jects seen in a society reflect the values and
than offering educational programs that seek beliefs common to the culture at that time.
244 CARTOONS
As with many visual messages, cartoons can and Keith Harring knew about the serious-
be studied in terms of society's myths (good ness of the cartoon art that they included in
versus evil), their various genres (from west- their works. In corporate advertising, govern-
erns to soap operas), and their use of symbol- ment propaganda, and instructional aids, car-
ism (both visual and verbal). Large numbers toon art is used because it is a powerful
of readers enjoyed the "Yellow Kid" comic communication medium. To simply label
strip because the story about a group of lost comics as "children's art" and unworthy of
children, seemingly abandoned by their par- serious attention is to deny the impact of all
ents, struck a sympathetic chord with readers, words and pictures that communicate a mes-
many of whom were immigrants living far sage when used together. Such an attitude
away from their families. The threat of world also discounts the enormous effect that car-
domination by totalitarian regimes begin- toons have on all generations of readers and
ning in the 1930s inspired comic strips with viewers.
conservative views or superhuman characters Media historians often state that photogra-
who would fight for the values expressed by phy and motion pictures taught audiences
the "American way of life," whatever that that stories could be told primarily through
phrase happened to mean at the moment. pictures. More accurately, however, the honor
Visual symbols expressed in drawings also goes to cartoon artists who taught image
reflect the culture from which they are pro- makers the art of visual storytelling. In the
duced. Editorial cartoons, much more than conclusion of his book Comics as Culture, M.
any other type of comic, regularly feature Thomas Inge writes that cartoons
symbolic images in the form of religious
introduced generations of readers to symbol-
icons, military designations, and national
ic ways of addressing the continuing prob-
emblems as a visual shorthand to make the
lems of society and the philosophic ques-
points of the cartoons clear. Consequently,
tions of mankind. . . . [They please] our
meaning resides in an understanding of these
visual sensibilities by bringing to life the
verbal and visual codes.
kinds of dramatic conflicts that enable us to
work out vicariously our internal frustra-
O Critical Perspective tions.
A cartoon, although packaged within a de- Cartoons teach us not only how to com-
ceptively simple frame, is a complex exercise bine words and pictures in symbolic ways, but
in semiotic analysis. No other art form, in also how to confront the significant issues
print or screen media, combines words, pic- that all societies face. It is unfortunate that
tures, and meaning in such an interwoven cartoon messages are discounted by a narrow
way. Like the effects created by motion pic- view of their importance (Figure 11.31).
ture and television images, cartoons form
complex intellectual and emotional unions of
text and images in a highly personal way. By Future directions for
reciting a cartoon out loud, a reader becomes cartoons
a character in the unfolding frame-by-frame
Cartoons have a powerful, yet not One of Japan's best-loved newspaper, motion
nderstood, effect on those who never picture, and television cartoonists, Machiko
outgrow their charm. Pop artists such as Hasegawa, died in 1993 at the age of seventy-
Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein, Red Grooms, two. His death might have ended public
FUTURF DIRFCTIONS FOR CARTOONS 245
Figure 1 1.31
Cartoons can be used to
attract a viewer's attention
about a social problem. In a
program called "Art Attacks
AIDS," Mike McNeilly

shows his work on the back
of a bus stop bench.
concern about the artist, except that a grave birth of animated cartoons is the money that
robber dug up Hasegawa's remains and de- cable networks such as Nickelodeon are
manded a ransom for their return. As do spending on production. Owned by Viacom,

many around the world, the thief knew the that network has spent more than $40 million
value of a cartoonist's celebrity status, wheth- producing such hits as "The Ren & Stimpy
er living or dead. In the future, cartoon- Show," "Doug," and "Rugrats." Many other
ists — and particularly comic book cartoon- animated projects are in the works for other
ists — may attain the celebrity status of movie television networks.
stars as more and more younger readers buy Easy production and wide-scale distribu-
the brightly colored publications. tion will allow multicultural characters to
Increased attention to cartoon art by aca- flourish. Networked interactive multimedia

demic programs will improve the quality of technology will increase the number of car-
the art form for editorial and entertainment toons, as comic strips, comic books, and
purposes, breathing new life into caricatures animated films become merged into the new
and editorial cartoons. Computer technology medium. As its status improves, the cartoon
will make possible creation of entire movies will even be used to illustrate editorial stories
in which seemingly live-action characters as a form of informational graphics. And

actually are realistic cartoon characters. finally, the age-old concern that comics cor-
Comic books about specialized subjects will rupt the impressionable minds of those who
be produced on desktop computers and dis- read them will continue to dominate ethical
tributed in comics stores or through electron- discussions about the art form with little
ic bulletin boards. An indication of the re- clear-cut supporting evidence.

CHAPTER 12
/ would willingly Photography

exchange every single
painting of Christ for
one snapshot.
George Bernard Shaw,
WRITER
Once you see the forlorn face of Florence tographer. After studying at Columbia Uni-
Thompson, you will never forget her (Figure versity under Clarence White, she moved to
12.1). With furrowed forehead, a faraway San Francisco, where she enjoyed the Bay
look, hand cupped to her chin in a gesture of Area's bohemian lifestyle. By 1932, she had
uncertainty, two children shyly hiding their become an able portrait photographer with a
faces in the warmth of her shoulders, and an reputation for capturing the personalities of
infant sleeping on her lap, the photograph is the rich San Francisco matrons of the day.
more than a simple portrait of a family.The News reports of the terrible living condi-
image is reminiscent of the "Madonna and tions of rural Americans prompted her to
Child" religious icon known to millions be- want to document their lives. The country
cause it has been captured on canvas by was undergoing the worst drought in its
painters throughout the history of Christiani- history; dust storms blew away the once-
ty. But here in black and white is a real-life fertile topsoil. The stock market crashed in
symbol for all parents struggling to survive 1929 and farm prices plummeted, throwing
and feed their families during the Great millions of people out of work. People lived
Depression and for all uncertain economic from day-to-day, and thousands of farmers
times. "The Migrant Mother" is probably the from the Midwest and Great Plains who had
world's most reproduced photograph in the lost their land and livelihoods took off in
history of photography because it makes peo- mattress-topped automobiles for the golden
ple care on a deep, personal level. West.
But it was a picture that might never have Lange obtained a job with the State of
been taken. Dorothea Lange graduated from California to document agricultural labor
high school in 1914 and promptly told her conditions. She was teamed with social econ-
shocked parents that she wanted to be a pho- omist Dr. Paul S. Taylor, whom she later
246
PHOTOGRAPHY 247
married. After completion of the project, the

head of the Resettlement Administration
(RA), Rexford Tugwell, reviewed her pictures
in Washington and promptly hired her.
The RA, later renamed the Farm Security

Administration (FSA), was an agency of the
U.S. Department of Agriculture. President
Franklin D. Roosevelt created it to help relo-
cate farmers to more fertile farmland, obtain

massive subsidies to offset the low prices farm-
ers were getting for their crops, and convince
the American public that controversial social
programs needed to be passed by the conser-

vative Congress. Thus the FSA was more of a
propaganda wing that the government used
getting New Deal legislation through Con-
gress than a direct aid to rural residents.
Tugwell hired economist professor Roy

Stryker to head the History Section of the
FSA because of the types of lectures he gave at
Columbia University. Stryker used Lewis

Hine's documentary photographs to give a
human face to dry statistics during his
classes. Although not a photographer, Stryker

acted as an editor and teacher. He taught
photographers to act as historians, econo-
mists, and anthropologists as they looked for
images to capture on film. Before someone

went out to take pictures of workers in a
cotton field, for example. Stryker would lec-
ture the photographer about the economic

and social importance of cotton production.
Stryker assembled one of the most accred- The FSA photographers produced an ex- Figure 12.1
ited teams in the history of social documenta- haustive document of rural and urban life in Florence Thompson is and
tion. Besides Lange, famous photographers America during the 1930s and 1940s that has forever will be "The Migrant
who worked for Stryker were Walker Evans, never been equaled. Newspapers and maga-
Mother." But is she posing
Arthur Rothstein, Marion Post Wolcott, John zines used their pictures because they were
for the photographer or
Vachon, Carl Mydans, and Russell Lee. free. Their images succeeded in helping pass
wishing that the
The FSA still photography and motion New Deal legislation and also inspired other
photographer would leave?
picture units were established at a time when photographers to follow in their documenta-
photojournalism was just beginning to be ry footsteps. More than 270,000 FSA images
recognized. Life magazine was started in 1936 are stored in the collection at the Library of
and Look magazine a year later. Small hand- Congress, and a copy of each one can be
held cameras allowed photographers such as purchased at a nominal price.
Henri Cartier- Bresson to capture scenes that But the image in the collection — the most
were difficult to obtain with bulky, large- revered and reproduced — is Lange's "Mi-
format cameras. grant Mother."
248 PHOTOGRAPHY
Tired, hungry, and anxious to get home camp. Interestingly, the famous close-up was
after a month-long project taking pictures in not published.
central California, Lange drove her car north But when Roy Stryker saw the "Migrant
along the cold and wet Camino Real highway Mother" photograph, he recognized immedi-
(101) in early March 1936. Along the way she ately the historical and social significance of
noted a migrant workers camp of about 2,500 the image. The picture soon became an
people outside the small town of Nipomo. On American classic with a life of its own.
the side of the road someone had placed a Newspapers across the country reproduced it.
sign that simply proclaimed, "Pea-Pickers In 1941, the Museum of Modern Art in New
Camp." These sights were all too common, York City exhibited it. When John Steinbeck
with poor people from all over the country saw the picture, it inspired him to write The
forced to stop for lack of money and gasoline Grapes of Wrath. Without question, the pic-
for their cars and earn a few dollars picking ture made Lange famous. But despite her later
local crops. achievements as a staff photographer for Life
For thirty minutes, Lange drove toward magazine, her collaboration with Paul Taylor
home and thought about the camp she had on their book An American Exodus, and her
passed. Finally, the image of the people she documentation of Japanese-American intern-
had briefly seen overpowered her desire to get ees during World War II, she is forever linked
home. She turned her car around and drove to it. Frustrated over this fact, she once
back to the camp. Lange retrieved her press complained that she was not a "one-picture
camera, a portable version of the tripod- photographer." In 1965, Lange died at the age
bound, large-format camera, and immediately of seventy after a long and event-filled life
found Florence Thompson sitting in the barely made possible by her photographic skills and
adequate shelter of an open tent surrounded her sensitivity to the important moments in
by her older children and nursing an infant. everyday life.
In notes about the brief encounter, Lange But Florence Thompson's life didn't
later wrote, "Camped on the edge of a pea change for the better after the picture was
field where the crop had failed in a freeze. published. When she first saw it, she didn't
The tires had just been sold from the car to like the image and tried to get it suppressed.
buy food. She was thirty-two years old and When that effort failed, she tried to get Lange
had seven children. She said that she had been and the government to pay her for being in
living on frozen vegetables from the sur- the picture. In 1979, forty-four years after the
rounding fields and birds that the children picture was taken, Thompson was still bitter
had killed." Lange did not ask her name or about the fact that the photograph made
anything about her past history. She stayed Dorothea Lange famous but didn't improve
ten minutes and made six exposures (Figure her life. In a newspaper article, Thompson,
12.2). living in a trailer in Modesto, California,
When she returned home, Lange made complained: "That's my picture hanging all
several prints and gave them to an editor of over the world, and I can't get a penny out of
the San Francisco News, where they were it."
published under the headline, "FOOD Four years later, Thompson suffered a
RUSHED TO STARVING FARM COLONY." heart attack and couldn't pay her medical
Two of Lange's photographs accompanied the bills. Family members alerted the local news-
story that detailed the situation of the mi- paper and a national story was published
grant workers and the efforts of relief workers about her situation. Readers who saw the
to bring food and cleanup crews to the story and remembered the emotional image
ANALYSIS OF "THE MIGRANT MOTHER" 249
were moved to send money to her — more "From today, painting is dead." A painting of Figure 12.2
than $15,000 — before she died. Many of the Florence Thompson could never have the Although much richer in
letters that contained money noted how the same effect as that close-up photograph of a content than the famous
writers' lives had been touched by Lange's real mother suffering with her children. portrait (notice the
close-up portrait of "The Migrant Mother." With a normal perspective, medium-sized
breast-feeding baby, the
lens opening for limited focus, medium shut-
kerosene lamp, and the
ter speed to avoid camera blur, black and
wedding ring), these images
Analysis of "the migrant white film to avoid any distractions color
do not have quite the same
MOTHER" might provide, and a 4-by-5 inch negative for
emotional quality of the
maximum resolution, the picture demon-
close-up image.
A photograph always has many stories to tell: strates the highest quality possible using the
the subjects within the picture's frame, how gelatin dry plate in combination with a
the photographers made the image, and what large-format, portable press camera.
happened after the picture was taken and Legally and ethically, Dorothea Lange did
published. But one of the most important all that was required. Her job as a visual
stories a photograph, or any visual message, reporter was to record Thompson's image on
tells is the one the viewer makes up. The way film and give prints to a newspaper for
you interpret an image is the story of your publication. But what is strictly legal and
life. Even a casual glance at "Migrant Moth- what is ethical do not always absolve a
er" reveals without question an emotionally person's moral responsibility.
charged, sad moment in a woman's life. From Lange's point of view — and the
The image is a reminder of why photogra- view of most documentary image makers
phy astounded so many people when it was the Thompson family scene was so emotion-
first introduced. It also is a reminder of why ally charged that it was a picture that had to
this medium (rather than painting) is used to be photographed — a categorical imperative.
record important and ordinary events in the It might be argued that, if Thompson did not
lives of people around the world. In a sense, want her picture taken, she simply should
Paul Delaroche was correct when he saw one have objected to Lange at the time. But
of the first photographs made and said, Thompson was utterly helpless and quite
a
250 PHOTOGRAPHY
Figure 12.3 (opposite) vulnerable at the time Lange captured her on a faraway look with a furrowed forehead that
Roy Stryker, head of the film. She hadn't the strength nor the will to has been interpreted as a forlorn, uncertain
Farm Security complain about posing for a picture by a appearance. But is it simply that she has seen
Administration (FSA), well-dressed stranger. Lange and the govern- something of interest and squints her eyes to
thought that Dorothea

ment exploited Thompson just as all power- put the view in better focus?
less people in a society are exploited. The Also significant is who didn't appear in
Lange's picture of
Florence
first
Thompson and her

image is not that of Florence Thompson — the camera's frame. Lange reported that
family living in a lean-to

person — she is forever the "Migrant Moth- Thompson had seven children. In a less
er." The justification for publishing her pic- famous picture, Thompson's teenage daugh-
tent on the side of a
ture was based on the utilitarian philosophy; ter can be seen (Figure 12.3). Lange revealed
California road was inferior
that is, Thompson had to suffer the indignity to her boss Roy Stryker that she decided not
because it included
of her image becoming a public icon in order to have the daughter part of the close-up
Thompson's 16-year-old to help her and her family, the other people at family group out of concern that viewers
daughter. Stryker believed the pea-picking camp, and all unfortunate might not believe that a 32-year-old woman
that newspaper readers individuals unlucky enough to be caught in had a daughter that old. But a 16-year-old girl
wouldn't feel sympathetic to the economic disaster that the U.S. popula- is quite capable of having a baby and growing
the family if they knew that tion then faced. If Lange had been guided by up to become a mother with a 16-year-old
Thompson was raising a

the golden rule or veil of ignorance philoso- girl. Lange probably understood that viewers
daughter of that age.

phy, the picture may never have been taken might not be so moved by an image of a
and would not have moved many to care mother with a teenager who must be capable
about the homeless in the 1930s and in future of overcoming her temporary economic set-
generations. Ethical considerations almost al- back if she can raise a child to that age.
ways are rationalizations by those in power to Another revealing omission is the father of
justify exploiting those who are not. So long the seven children. If he was at the camp, he
as the exploitation isn't based on the hedonis- never appeared in any of Lange's pictures. If
tic philosophy, it is tolerated. the father had been a part of the family scene,
Much of the picture's power comes from much of the impact of the image would have
its obvious symbolic link to famous "Madon- been lost. Thompson would not be alone to
na and Child" religious paintings. But where find food and shelter for her family. She
the Madonna icon is a positive affirmation of would have a husband who could help pro-
future possibilities for her child, the Thomp- vide the basic necessities. But as it stands, the
son portrait is an anti-Madonna icon filled image is more poignant in implying that this
with uncertainty about the future for her is a woman who must face an uncertain
children. future alone.
The tattered and dirty clothes of her and A photograph is never really an objective
her children, the dirty face of the baby representation of reality because it comes
wrapped in a blanket, and the seams in the from the biased mind of a human photogra-
background indicating that their home is pher. Hence, understanding the symbols that
actually a tent say much about her economic are a part of a composition, as well as those
situation and define her within a specific that are purposely omitted, is necessary. In-
cultural group. Significantly, no one in the depth image analysis reveals the obvious and
picture faced the camera's lens directly. Did the hidden elements that are part of a photo-
the children hide their faces out of shyness or graph. Often the symbols outside a picture's
an inability to tell the photographer that they frame — revealed through the words of a
didn't want their picture taken? Did Lange photographer or subject — are as important as
tell them to turn their heads? Thompson has those elements inside the frame.
ANALYSIS OF "THE MIGRANT MOTHER" 251
Some psychologists and social scientists 5). We know what a homeless person looks
wonder whether too many pictures of home- like, so another picture of an individual in a
less people contribute to viewers' feelings of similar situation will not affect us as much.
detachment and apathy about those less for- There are too many mothers with too many
tunate than themselves. The first sight of a children without fathers for anyone to care
picture of a starving Somalian child sucking about one more.
uselessly on the dried teat of her mother A visual communicator can avoid produc-
(another anti-Madonna icon) can move a ing images that simply add to an uncaring
sensitive viewer to tears. But even the most attitude by including words with the picture.
caring individual becomes immune after see- Words help enlarge the context and provide
ing hundreds of such images. Part of the details that make a symbolic picture unique
reason for the desensitizing effect is that the for a saturated viewer.
symbolic image of the specific situation is At least Lange should have asked
already set inside our mind (Chapters 4 and Thompson's name. The public learned her
252 PHOTOGRAPHY
name only after newspaper accounts pub- beginnings of looking out from inside a
lished her complaints about the image. Lange second-floor window of a French country
was one year younger than Thompson, and, estate in 1827, photography has become the
under different circumstances, they might world's most popular medium for creating
have had much to say to each other. But visual messages in terms of actual users.
Lange was anxious to get home and stayed

only ten minutes. however,
communication between them would have
Realistically,
p Personal Perspective
been difficult. They came from different After learning how to use a pencil and a paint
worlds with no common bonds except being brush, many children are introduced to a
at the same place at the same time. The simple point-and-shoot camera, often their
camera became the basis for their relation- first contact with a machine's image-making
ship, which lasted about as long as the shutter process. Although their first attempts may be
was open. out of focus, blurred, off-center, or incorrect-
For Thompson the person, not Thompson ly exposed, they are nevertheless awed by the
the public icon, the image reveals a bone- magic of capturing light onto a postcard-
weary numbness in which she is probably too sized print. Part of the joy of photography is
polite or helpless to refuse the exposure. But that high-quality pictures can be taken with
she is saying "no" in the photograph the only relative ease — the machine itself is easy to
way she can. She looks off as if wishing this master.
"city girl" would move on and leave her But there is always a difference between
alone. The image forever stereotypes Florence what people remember about a scene and
Thompson as a homeless matriarch who can how it photographs. There is often disap-
survive only with contributions from the pointment in an image because it never
public. Never mind that she has most likely captures just right the color of the light, the
worked hard to feed and clothe her family as sounds and smells that are still a part of a
best she could, given the country's and her memory, or feelings about the subjects pho-
family's economic conditions. That is why she tographed. Another reason for the negative
was probably upset that the picture was reaction to a picture is that people in front of
published. a camera seldom act as they would without its
presence. For example, family groups with

their huddled poses and mandatory smiles
Photography and the six often hide relationship problems that are
perspectives known to the viewer of the picture. Film can
record only what it is allowed to expose. Any
Photography runs the gamut from simple, meaning imposed on a photograph must
amateur snapshots to enormously expensive come from the viewer.
professional enterprises. Artists use images to Moments captured by amateur photogra-

express their inner emotions, commercial phers are a combination of space and time
photographers to sell products and ideas, that often are prized possessions preserved in
photojournalists to illustrate the lives of those ornate frames and leather-bound albums.
in the news, and scientists to make an unseen Pictures give evidence of a trip once taken, a
world visible. With equipment that ranges car long since sold, and a baby who is now a
from less than ten dollars to several thousand grown woman. We use photographs not sim-
dollars, photographers take and preserve mil- ply to show others where we have been, what
lions of images every year. Since its crude we possess, or who we have loved, but to
PHOTOGRAPHY AND THE SIX PERSPECTIVES 253
remind ourselves of those important events,

things, and people in our lives (Figure 12.4).
But perhaps the most significant psycho-

logical effect of photography is that a picture
constantly reminds us of our own state of

mind at a particular moment and place.
Throughout our lives we must constantly
struggle with the choice between watching
and participating. For example, do you pas-

sively look at a story about homeless people in
your community on television, or do you
actively volunteer your time to help alleviate
the social problem? Because a photographer

almost always is not included in the picture's
frame, the decision is made — a photographer
watches. Photography, therefore, teaches you
to be a keen observer of the environment and
of human nature. It also teaches that to simp- Throughout the history of photography, Figure 12.4
ly watch isn't enough. You must also allow nine main photographic processes have pre- Although instamatic
yourself to be photographed — to participate. served the views captured through the cam- cameras with auto exposure
era obscura: the heliograph, the daguerreo- and focus capabilities do not
type, the calotype, the wet-collodion process,
produce professional quality
color materials, the gelatin-bromide dry
images, they have made
The camera predates the photographic pro- plate, holography, instant photography, and
photography a fun and
cess by at least 1,000 years. Aristotle wrote digital photography (Figure 12.5).
popular hobby for millions
about the phenomenon of light that allows an
Heliography of people. A tourist in New
upside-down view of the outside world
York City captures a
through a pinhole in one wall of a darkened Joseph Nicephore Niepce has been called
chamber. Alhazen was the first to use the the founder of photography because he pro- memory from her hotel
device to watch an eclipse of the sun. Leonar- duced the first permanent photograph that window.
do da Vinci made drawings of the principle can still be viewed. Born to rich and well-
in one of his notebooks. In the seventeenth educated parents in the town of Chalons-sur-
century, Johann Kepler gave the phenomenon Saone, France, in 1765, he became interested
the name camera obscura, which literally early in the many scientific and technological
translates as "dark chamber." Later in that discoveries of the day. He could have had a
century, Robert Boyle constructed a portable career in the army, but ill health forced him
model that was most certainly used to mimic to resign and return to his family's home in
accurately the linear perspective of scenes by 1801 where he devoted the rest of his life to
such famed painters as Carel Fabritius, Jan scientific experiments. At the age of 51,
Vermeer, Samuel van Hoogstraten, and Velaz- Niepce began work that eventually led to the
quez. Artists used the camera obscura as a photographic process. He was trying to im-
tool to trace rough sketches of natural scenes prove the lithographic process for making
on paper or canvas, to be filled in with paint printing plates that had been recently invent-
later. The camera obscura device led to the ed. After trying several substances unsuccess-
idea of using photosensitive materials in place fully, he discovered that bitumen of Judea (a
of a canvas. type of asphalt) hardened with exposure to
254 PHOTOGRAPHY
the sun. When the soft, unexposed parts of duced. Finally, the public never learned of the
the picture were washed away, the result w.is a procedure until many years after Niepce's
positive image. Niepce placed his asphalt death. The Royal Society of London did not
emulsion on a pewter plate within a crudely allow him to present his findings to that
constructed camera obscura and produced scientific body because he would not agree to
the world's first photograph — the view out- reveal details of his invention. Presentation to
side his home — in 1827. It was the first and the Royal Society assured international recog-
last photograph that Niepce ever made. The nition of scientific and intellectual accom-
image now is a part of the Gernsheim photog- plishments, but members had a firm rule that
raphy collection at the University of Texas. it would publicize only inventions that were
The faint picture is encased within a Plexiglas adequately and publicly explained. Neverthe-
frame where xenon gas protects it from deter- less, the process did attract the attention of
ioration. Louis Daguerre, a theatrical artist and ama-
Niepce named his process heliography teur inventor who used Niepce's basic work
(Greek for "sun writing"). The process never to produce the first practical photographic
attracted much public attention for several process.
reasons. The exposure time required was

about eight hours, which was much too long Daguerreotype
for practical applications. The image was Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre was born
extremely grainy in appearance, its content in 1789 in Cormeilles, France. His first career
was hard to decipher, and it appeared to be was as a tax collector for the government. He
out of focus. The process resulted in a positive later became famous in Paris for his "diora-
image on the plate, so it could not be repro- mas," or illusionary pictorial effects with
painted backdrops and lighting changes. An
Figure 12.5 optician who supplied lenses for Niepce's
As this nineteenth-century camera obscura told Daguerre about the

woodcut shows, before light heliographs. At the age of 64, in ill health and
meters were invented,

in serious financial difficulties, Niepce reluc-
tantly signed a contract with Daguerre to
photographers looked to the
share information about the heliographic
sky to gauge the intensity of
process. In 1833, Joseph Niepce died before
the sun during an exposure.
seeing the results from Daguerre's experi-
ments, but his son Isidore maintained the
:
S,
z
u partnership. Daguerre switched from a pew-
'J
c ter to a copper plate and used mercury vapor
t g to speed the exposure time. These technical
-
changes resulted in a one-of-a-kind image of

\J
3 extraordinary detail and fine grain. Daguerre

-e modestly named the first practical photo-
s
u graphic process the daguerreotype (Greek for
-c
p-
c "Daguerre's picture").
On January 7, 1839, the French astrono-
mer Arago formally announced Daguerre's
invention to the prestigious Academy of Sci-
~-
C ence. Upon seeing the wondrous examples,

Oliver Wendell Holmes dubbed the daguerreo-
type the "mirror with a memory." Fearing Talbot was born in Dorset, England, in
that customers would no longer want to hire 1800. After being educated at Trinity College
the expensive services of painters to make in Cambridge, he devoted the next fifty years
family portraits, artist Paul Delaroche ex- of his life to studying physics, chemistry,
claimed, "From today, painting is dead." The mathematics, astronomy, and archaeology. In
French government paid Daguerre and Isi- 1833, while vacationing in Italy, he came to
dore an annual pension in return for making the conclusion that images from a camera
the process public. obscura could be preserved using light-sensi-
The initial exposure time in bright sun- tive paper. After several experiments upon
light was about thirty minutes, or too long for his return home in August 1835, he produced
portraits. Soon, however, exposure times a one-inch-square paper negative of a win-
were reduced and hundreds of daguerreotype dow of his house. He then produced a posi-
portrait studios sprang up throughout Eu- tive picture placing another sheet of sensi-
rope. The precious, positive portraits were an tized paper on top of the negative image after
instant hit with the public and often were exposure to the sun. The exposure time was
displayed within elegantly crafted miniature about three minutes in bright sunlight. Talbot
boxes made of papier mache, leather, highly continued to produce many views of his
finished wood, or plastic, when it was intro- estate, which were later collected in the first
duced in the 1860s. Samuel F. B. Morse, book illustrated with photographs, The Pencil
inventor of the Morse code used in telegra- of Nature, published in 1844.
phy, is credited with spreading the daguerre- When he heard of Daguerre's announce-
otype craze to America. Morse opened the ment, Talbot sent an explanation of his pro-
first photographic studio in New York City cess to Michael Faraday, who reported the
and taught many entrepreneurs, including photographic process to London's Royal In-
the famous photographer Mathew Brady, the stitution on January 25, 1839. Except for the
daguerreotype process. A faster chemical work by the famed Scottish portrait team of
process, a larger lens, and a smaller plate size David Hill and Robert Adamson, professional
cut exposure time to thirty seconds. En- uses of the calotype were limited. Because a
gland's Sir John Herschel coined the word positive image had to print through the paper
photography for the new light-sensitive pro- fibers of a negative view, Talbot's pictures
cess from the Greek words that meant "light were never as sharp and finely grained as
writing." Herschel also invented a fixing daguerreotypes. Herschel once told Arago
agent — which is still used in darkrooms to- that "compared to the masterful daguerreo-
day — made
that the images permanent. Still- type, Talbot produces nothing but misti-
lifes, street scenes, family portraits, and exotic ness." Nevertheless, the process represents
locales all became subjects for the daguerreo- the first instance in which the modern terms
type photographer. negative and positive were used. Any process
that produced a negative image could repro-
Calotype duce any number of positive prints. This
Coincidentally, a different photographic concept is the basis for modern photography.
process was announced the same month as In 1851 the Crystal Palace Exhibition
the daguerreotype. Sometimes referred to as opened in London. This "world's fair" fur-
the talbotype, the calotype (Greek for "beau- ther fueled the photographic craze because of
tiful picture") was invented by William Hen- the images exhibited. But this latest round of
ry Fox Talbot. The process is the foundation publicity proved to be short-lived. By the mid-
of modern photography. 1850s, the daguerreotype and the calotype
256 PHOTOGRAPHY
were replaced forever by the wet-collodion the motive for such a generous offer was that
process that combined the sharpness of the their father "was the discoverer of a scientific
daguerreotype with the reproducibility of the process of great value to the nation, from
calotype. which the inventor had reaped little or no
benefit."
Wet-Collodion
In March 1851, an important photograph- Color Materials
ic process was announced by a man who Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell,
never made much money from his discovery. who is better known for his discovery of
Frederick Scott Archer published his formula electromagnetic light energy, is credited with
for all to read and use in a popular journal of producing the first color slide. In a lecture to
the day, The Chemist. Archer was a British the Royal Institution in London in 1861, he
sculptor and part-time calotype photogra- admitted that his work was influenced by
pher. He had grown weary of the poor quality Thomas Young's discoveries about the eye's
of prints obtained from using paper nega- photoreceptors.
tives. He suggested glass as a suitable medium Maxwell made three separate pictures of a
for photographic emulsion. The problem with ribbon through three different colored filters.
glass, however, was in making the emulsion When he projected the three separate pictures
adhere to its surface. However, the invention with the colored light from each filter and
of collodion in 1847 solved that problem. aligned the views, a color slide was the result.
Comprising a mixture of guncotton or nitro- Actually, he was lucky that his experiment
cellulose dissolved in alcohol and ether, col- using a bright tartan ribbon was successful.
lodion was used to protect wounds from The photographic film of the day was not
infection. When poured on any surface, it sensitive to the color red. The only reason the
forms a tough film. Archer simply mixed color could be seen was that the ribbon itself
collodion with light-sensitive silver nitrate. reflected ultraviolet radiation that simulated
His wet-collodion process produced glass red. Maxwell later became a professor of
negatives of amazing detail and subtlety of experimental physics at the University of

tone that could be used to make hundreds of Cambridge, where he died in 1879. His work
positive prints. The exposure time was a in color photography inspired many others
remarkable ten seconds. Although the process toward the reproduction of natural colors.
required that the glass plate be exposed while Because of the impracticality of Maxwell's
moist and developed immediately, serious discovery, attention soon focused on color
portrait and documentary photographers print materials. In his 1869 book, Photogra-
around the world used the wet-collodion phy in Color, France's Louis Ducos du Hau-
process for the next thirty years. Most of the ron proposed a method for making a color
photographs taken during the Civil War, for photographic print. Color prints, however,
example, utilized the wet-collodion process proved to be much more difficult to produce
(Figure 12.6). than color slides.
Although Archer sold some wet-collodion The inventors of the motion picture cam-
photographs, he never profited from his in- era and projector, Auguste and Louis Lumiere
vention and died impoverished at the age of (see Chapter 13) also invented a contempo-
forty-four. His friends raised some $1,500 to rary color slide process. In 1903, they started
help his wife and children. Later, the British selling their autochrome photographic plates
government added annual pensions of about to the public. The Lumiere brothers mixed
$150 for his children. They later stated that red, green, and blue colored potato starch
grains randomly throughout a photographic In 1939, the Agfa Company introduced Figure 12.6
emulsion. Although the film was quite expen- the first modern color print film. For the first "Battle-field of Gettysburg.
sive for the day, photographers immediately time, color negatives could be processed and Dead Confederate
favored the autochrome plate because of the printed with specially prepared color paper. sharpshooter at foot of Little
quality of the images produced. Autochrome Three years later, Kodak introduced Koda-
Round Top." Alexander
plates were available in the United States by color color print film, which was the basis for
Gardner, employed by
1907, and famous photographic artists such all subsequent color negative film products
famed photographer Mathew
as Edward Steichen and Alfred Stieglitz used today.
Brady, made this silent
them. The manufacture of the autochrome
Gelatin-Bromide Dry Plate Process study of a young sniper's
process was discontinued in 1932.
body.
In 1935, two scientists at the Kodak Re- Photographic history is filled with stories
search Laboratories, Leopold Godowsky, Jr., of famous inventions by amateur scientists
and Leopold Mannes, introduced the popular and photographers. Dr. Richard Maddox of
Kodachrome slide and motion picture film. London was one such amateur who helped
With its fine grain structure and color con- change the face of photography.
stancy, Kodachrome is the industry standard Maddox studied medicine in England and
for film used to take pictures for newspaper practiced in Constantinople, where he mar-
and magazine publication. ried in 1849. When he returned home, he
258 PHOTOGRAPHY
devoted his time to microphotography. Like mailed the camera back to Rochester, where
many others, he was looking for a substitute the round images were printed and the cam-
for collodion as a photography emulsion. era was reloaded with film. By 1900, Eastman
Because ether was used in the process, expo- was selling his cameras for one dollar.
sures had to be made while the plate was still Maddox gave his invention to the world
moist. Such a procedure was a great incon- without thought of personal gain. In 1892,
venience for the photographer who had to photographers from around the world con-
bring a darkroom along whenever taking tributed more than $1,000 to help him finan-
pictures outside. Maddox also wanted to find cially in recognition of his invention. Maddox
a substitute for the ether used in collodion died in 1902 in relative poverty at the age of
because it affected his already poor health. 86.
Experiments had been tried with licorice, In the years following Maddox's inven-
sugar, beer, glycerin, and even raspberry tion, photography steadily improved. Al-
syrup as substances for coating a photograph- though it had been introduced as early as
ic plate. Maddox tried gelatin, an organic 1873, not until March 4, 1880, did the New
material obtained from the bones, skins, and York newspaper the Daily Graphic print one
hooves of animals. In the tradition of Freder- of the first examples of a halftone process
ick Archer, Maddox described his technique invented by Stephen Horgan. Photographs
of mixing cadmium bromide and silver ni- could now be published along with words.
trate in a warmed solution of gelatin in an With improvements in the process by
1871 edition of The British Journal of Pho- Frederic Ives in 1886, it gradually replaced
tography. The resulting mixture was a artistic wood or metal engravings (Chap-
light-sensitive emulsion of silver bromide ter 9).
that could be manufactured, stored, and ex- Cameras became small enough to fit easily
posed much later by the photographer. The in a person's hand. Oscar Barnack of Germa-
process was called the gelatin-bromide dry ny invented one of the first hand-held 35-mm
plate process. Improvements to his process cameras, the Leica, which photographers such
in 1900 reduced exposure times to 1/1,000 of as Henri Cartier- Bresson and Robert Frank
a second, making stop-action photography used to record candid moments of people
possible. Maddox's discovery sparked the they saw. Lenses were designed to permit
invention of motion picture film, first dem- available-light photography. Color and black
onstrated by Eadweard Muybridge when he and white film products were improved to
exhibited individual frames of a running make photography easier and of better quali-
horse in 1878 and later perfected by the ty-
Lumiere brothers. Maddox's process also
made the amateur photography craze possible Holography
when George Eastman of Rochester, New In 1947, Hungarian scientist Dennis

York, invented cameras with gelatin dry plate Gabor developed holography to improve the
films in long rolls. quality of views obtained with an electron
In 1888, Eastman introduced his $25 Ko- microscope. The lenses being used with the
dak camera. Kodak simply was an easily microscope could not produce a sharply fo-
pronounced and easily remembered name in cused picture. Gabor envisioned a process
any language (Figure 12.7). With the motto that would not require traditional lenses so
"You push the button — we do the rest," the that out-of-focus and blurred information in
camera came loaded with 100 exposures. the picture also could be viewed. Conse-
After taking all the pictures, a customer quently, he named his invention from two
Greek words, holos and gramma, or "the

whole message." The unique aspect of holo-
graphic images is that they reproduce a three-
dimensional view of an object photographed

on one sheet of film.
Scientists largely ignored Gabor's process
for fifteen years until the invention of the
laser. As early as 1898, H. G. Wells had

written of invaders from Mars with laserlike
weapons in his novel The War of the Worlds.

In 1917, Albert Einstein speculated that radi-
ation from atoms could be stimulated to a
higher level of energy. In 1960, Theodore
Maiman built and tested the first synthetic
ruby laser. Today, laser devices are used for
procedures as diverse as reading the bar code
prices on goods bought at stores to repairing a
damaged retina in a person's eye.
Two U.S. scientists, Emmet Leigh and

Juris Upatnieks, were the first to use the light
from a laser to develop a process that creates
holograms for industrial and scientific pur-

poses. Independent of their efforts, Russian
researcher Yuri Denisyuk created a different
process that is used for displaying logos on

credit cards, jewelry, art presentations, novel- of the Polaroid fifty-second film camera Figure 12.7
ty stickers for children, and publications. One and instant photography. About fifteen years Frank Church made one of
of the first mass-produced holographic dis- later he announced a full-color version of the the first snapshots in the
plays was a picture of an eagle for the March process, calling it Polacolor. The process history of photography. It
1984 cover of National Geographic. Eleven produced a picture when the backing was
shows George Eastman
million holograms were created for the maga- peeled away by the photographers after only a
holding his invention —a
Many researchers around the world are sixty-second development time. In 1983, he
zine.
working on holographic motion picture

Kodak camera — that made
dis- introduced the first instant slide film that
amateur photography
plays that might make possible regular pre- could be used in a standard 35-mm camera,
possible.
sentation of three-dimensional television Polachrome. Today amateur, art, and other
programs and movies. Many believe that professional photographers use the Polaroid
holography so far has failed to achieve its full instant photography process. Art photogra-
potential as a medium for visual messages. phers have learned to manipulate the colors
with heat and pressure to produce striking
results. Some photographic artists, such as
Instant Photography William Wegman, use large-format, 20-by-
Edwin Land was a prolific inventor with 24-inch cameras to produce fine-quality,
more than 500 patents to his name. In 1934, one-of-a-kind portraits — a reminder of the
he patented a polarized light filter that helped past century's daguerreotypes. Commercial
reduce glare. In 1948, he introduced his most photographers regularly use Polaroid materi-
famous invention — a black and white version als to check the composition and exposure of
—
260 PHOTOGRAPHY
a fashion or still-life arrangement before tak- can be transferred to a CD, inserted in a

ing pictures with traditional film products. player connected to a TV screen, and viewed.
Someday, still photography and moving im-
Digital Photography
ages displayed on TV sets may use the same
In 1984, the Sony company introduced its technology.
electronic still video camera, the Mavica
and digital photography. Twenty-five color
Technical Perspective
images can be recorded on a two-inch disk
and played back through a computer termi- You should be aware of seven main techni-
nal. Since that time, Canon, Nikon, and other cal considerations when analyzing an image:
companies have introduced their own ver- lens type, lens opening, shutter speed, film
sions of the computer camera. Innovative type, camera type, lighting, and print quality.
Figure 12.8 newspapers and national news bureaus cur-

Lens Type
A modern 28-mm to rently use digital computer technologies,
105- mm zoom lens can be which soon will be common throughout the Lenses come in three variations: wide,
set at all three lens

industry. Whether a subject is photographed normal, and telephoto (Figure 12.8). As their
types — wide-angle, normal,

with traditional film or by an electronic still names imply, a wide-angle lens produces an
video camera where photographers record expansive, scene-setting view; a normal lens
and telephoto.
their pictures on a computer disk, the images mimics the angle of view as seen by the
can be converted to computerized, digital human eyes; and a telephoto lens gives a
pictures. The photographers can then make close-up, narrow perspective of a scene. For a
exposure, color balance, and cropping adjust- 35-mm, single-lens reflex camera, a normal
ments, just as in a traditional darkroom. The lens has a focal length of 50 mm. Any focal
computer images can be sent to an editor length less than that is considered wide-angle,
anywhere in the world via telephone or satel- and any focal length more than that is consid-
lite links. Once in the newsroom's computer, ered telephoto.
the pictures can be readied for the printing The technical term for the amount of
process. Computer-controlled color separa- focus within a field of view is depth offield. A
tions are then automatically made and the wide-angle lens will exhibit more depth of
pictures are ready for the printing process. field than a telephoto lens, which has a
At present, although the new technology shallow depth of field (Figure 12.9). A pho-
saves time, it is expensive and the quality isn't tographer must be careful when using a
quite as good as that obtained with tradition- wide-angle lens because the curvature of the
al methods. However, computer equipment lens elements often distorts the sides of the
and software are rapidly becoming better and image. A special class of wide-angle lens, the
more affordable. Many people believe that fish-eye lens, is used purposely to distort a
electronic cameras and computer programs scene as a special effect.
that can easily manipulate images will be
common by the end of this century.

Lens Opening
The Eastman Kodak Company, which was The amount of light exposure hitting the
responsible for the first amateur photography surface of the film is regulated by the size of
craze in 1880, is now readying another tech- the lens opening (sometimes called its aper-
nological breakthrough. It recently intro- ture) and the amount of time a camera's
duced photo compact disk (CD) technology shutter stays open. A lens opening also is
for the amateur photography market. Snap- known as an f-stop. Because the f-stop num-
shots taken with traditional film materials ber is based on a fraction, a small aperture
has a higher number than a large aperture. Figure 12.9

For example, an f-stop of 16 is a much smaller A telephoto lens isolates
lens opening than one of 2. A small lens singer Mick Jagger from a
opening allows less light to enter the camera possibly distracting
but gives the picture more depth of field. A background.
large lens opening, necessary during low-light
conditions, gives shallow depth of field. A
photographer who wants objects in both the
foreground and the background to be in focus
will use a wide-angle lens with a small
aperture opening (Figure 12.10). If the de-
sired effect is for the viewer to concentrate on
a single element within a frame, the best
choice is to use a telephoto lens with a large
lens opening.
Shutter Speed
The amount of time a camera's shutter
stays open — its shutter speed — can greatly
affect the picture's content. A slow shutter

speed will cause blurring of any subject that
moves. A faster shutter speed is required to
overcome shaking of the camera during ex-
posure (referred to as camera blur). An ex-
Figure 12.10
tremely fast shutter speed is necessary to
A wide-angle lens, small
photograph fast- moving subjects without
aperture opening, and low
blurring. Sports photographers typically use
perspective are techniques
1/500 and faster shutter speeds with motor-
used by the photographer to
drive automatic film advancement devices to
stop the action (Figure 12.11). convey a position of power
for the man in this portrait
Film Type taken inside a New Orleans
Film speed (determined by an interna- secondhand clothing store.
tional standard, "ISO," formally referred to Note that the implied line of
as "ASA") refers to the amount of light hats leads to the reflection
sensitivity in color or black and white films. A of the woman in the mirror.
low-speed film is considered to be 100 ISO or
less; a high-speed film is 400 ISO or above.
The higher the ISO number, the more sensi-
tive the film is to light because more light-
sensitive crystals are embedded in the film's
emulsion. The advantage of using a high ISO

film is that the photographer can take pic-
tures in low light. The disadvantage is that the
picture appears to look more "grainy" than

those shot with low ISO film. A low ISO film
262 PHOTOGRAPHY
Figure 12.11
An example of the stopping
quality of a camera's shutter
is provided by this picture of
a young boy seeking relief
from the 100 degree heat in
Del Rio, Texas. Note how

the mesquite tree in the
background seems to cradle
the boy in space.
gives the best resolution (the least amount of will have an overall green appearance. Many
grain) so long as there is enough natural or photographers prefer the slightly orange cast
artificial light. produced with daylight film indoors (as a
Color film comes in two types, which are pleasantly aesthetic value) to the blue or
designed for two different lighting sources. green tones of tungsten film used under
Daylight color film is balanced for the sun's nontungsten lighting.
temperature on a cloudless day between 10:00

A.M. and 2:00 P.M., which is measured at 5,500 Camera Types
K. Because the light from an electronic flash Several different types of cameras are used
is 6,500 K, the colors recorded on daylight for various purposes and with varying effects
film by sunlight and electronic flash are on the picture. Here, we group them as
slightly different. Tungsten color film is bal- inexpensive, moderately expensive, and high
anced for indoor lighting in which tungsten- priced.
filament lights illuminate the scene. If day-

light film is used indoors with tungsten Inexpensive Cameras Throw-away, insta-
lighting, the picture will have an overall matic, and instant cameras allow people to
orange cast. If tungsten film is used outdoors, take pictures of family members, vacation
a blue overall color will be the result. Because highlights, and the like but usually without
fluorescent lighting comes in so many varia- being able to make focusing adjustments.
tions, no film has been designed specifically Such cameras usually sell for less than $200.
for fluorescent lights, although filters can be
purchased that correct the color balance Moderately Expensive Cameras Single-lens
slightly. Daylight film used under such lights reflex cameras that use 35-mm film are
today's most popular cameras and usually sell Figure 12.12
for less than $500 (Figure 12.12). The name A modern 35-mm
refers to a mirror device in the camera that single- lens reflex (SLR)
allows the photographer to see and focus on camera contains a built-in
the actual scene that will be recorded by the

electronic flash and film
film. With interchangeable lenses and auto-
advance motor-drive
matic and manual exposure settings, such
mechanism.
cameras produce excellent pictures of subjects
ranging from portraits to fast-moving action
(Figure 12.13).
Another popular 35-mm camera, which

often is used by professional photographers, is
the rangefinder. The focusing system relies on

two different versions of the scene to be
photographed, which the photographer ad-

justs. When the two scenes merge, the picture
is in focus. Many photographers use a range- purposes and for architectural photography.
finder camera to take sensitive pictures be- A handy, portable version of the 4-by-5-inch
cause it is much quieter than a single-lens view camera, the press camera, was popular
reflex camera. with documentary and newspaper photogra-
phers from the 1930s until the 1960s (Figure
Figure 12.13
High-Priced Cameras This category of 12.14).
A newspaper photographer
camera typically uses film much larger than A recent addition to the high-priced cam-
35 mm in size. Such cameras and their lenses era category are digital cameras for profes-
with two single-lens reflex
cost thousands of dollars. Twin-lens reflex sional photographers. Images can be taken cameras and motor-drive
cameras have one lens for focusing and an- with the cameras and then exhibited and attachments is about to take
other for exposing the film. They use a manipulated on a computer; prints can be a picture of a New Orleans
120-mm film size, which gives a better quali- obtained. Whether a picture is in focus with politician.
ty image than the smaller, 35-mm film size.
However, they are seldom used anymore

because they have been replaced generally by
the popular and handier single-lens reflex
120-mm camera. These cameras almost al-
ways are used for portrait and moderately

active fashion photography. As for image
quality, the top of the line is the view, or
large- format, camera. View cameras typically
come in 4-by-5-inch or 8-by- 10-inch film
formats. Although the cameras must be sup-
ported with a tripod, with the image project-
ed upside down on the viewing glass and the
picture viewed under a black cloth, the large
film size and the perspective adjustment

controls on the camera produce an image of
superior quality. View cameras most often are
used in studios for advertising and editorial
264 PHOTOGRAPHY
nalists strive to make their artificial lighting
effects look as natural as possible. Experi-

enced photographer avoid harsh shadows on
faces and back walls. The use of an electronic
flash should never be obvious unless there is a
reason for making it so. For example, art

photographer Diane Arbus typically included
shadows caused by her flash in photographs
of unusual people to convey a sense of an
ordinary snapshot.
The lighting conditions produced and re-
corded on film greatly affect the mood of the

image. A picture made in low or dim light has
a mysterious or a natural quality, a mid-
Figure 12.14 such a camera isn't as critical as with tradi- morning shot has a fresh and bright feel, and
The photographers for the tional equipment because more or less focus a picture made at noon with a bright sun
Milwaukee Journal in 1949 can be applied to the elements in a picture's gives a healthy appearance. Backlighting gives
pose with their Speed frame with the computer's software. Current- "life" to a person's hair and separates the
ly, the most popular computer photo re- person from the background; sidelighting
Graphics, 4-by-5 press
touching software used for publications is often gives a subject a harsh or rugged feel;
cameras and their bulky
Adobe's Photoshop. Sony's Mavica camera and silhouettes show an abstract rendering of
flash equipment. Note that
can cost as much as $10,000, although ama- a subject. The type of lighting used should
there is only one woman
teur versions are priced under $500. Digital always match and never distract from the
and all the men are Anglos.
photography may get a boost as both Apple content of the visual message.
Computer and Eastman Kodak have teamed
to introduce a professional quality digital Print Quality
camera that costs less than $1,600. Learning how to evaluate the quality of a
print in terms of its exposure and contrast

Lighting is important. But exposure and contrast con-
Because photography exists due to light, a siderations are different for newspaper,
knowledge of how lighting is used by photog- magazine, gallery wall, and screen media repro-
raphers is essential in the analysis of an duction. In addition, the intent of the pho-
image. There are two kinds of lighting: light- tographer is vital to an image's aesthetic
ing that comes from available sources and evaluation. For example, a dark-toned print,
lighting that the photographer brings to a although a problem for a printer, may convey
location. Natural lighting, most often called a somber mood. Exposure and contrast are
available light, is illumination that already closely related. A picture that will reproduce
exists within a scene. Although its name well in a publication must have a full range of
implies the light from the sun, it can also tones supplied by proper exposure and con-
refer to incandescent bulbs, neon light tubes, trast.
or fire from a candle. Lighting equipment As a general rule, a picture is considered

that a photographer brings to a photography properly exposed if it shows detail in the
shoot or that is contained within a studio is shadow areas and in the light areas. Contrast
Figure 12.15 called artificial lighting. The most commonly is defined as the difference between the black
See color section following used artificial light for location work is the elec- and white tones of the image. If there are no
page 370. tronic flash (Figure 12.15). Most photojour- black or white tones — that is, if all the colors
Figure 12.16
Photographers in 1911 are
shown covering the
aftermath of a dynamite
explosion in New Jersey in a
news picture taken by
photojournalist fames Hare.
are concentrated around a middle-gray color gruesome stories and photographs (Figure
— the image is said to be low in contrast and 12.16). It is as if viewers want to know that
will not reproduce well. tragic circumstances exist but don't want to
face the uncomfortable details.
In 1986, the editors of the Bakersfield

Ethical Perspective
Californian, an 80,000-circulation newspaper,
Ethical issues are not limited to still photog- heard immediately from readers after they
raphy. The problems associated with making ran a controversial photograph on the front
news events public are common to television page (Figure 12.17). The paper received 500
news programs, newspapers, and magazines. letters, 400 phone calls, 80 subscription can-
Three main ethical issues are associated with cellations, and one bomb threat. Most of the
mediated images: showing victims of vio- reaction centered on the golden rule philos-
lence, violating the right of privacy, and ophy: Viewers were offended by the picture's
picture manipulation. strong content. There is no doubt that pho-
tographer John Harte's image of the lifeless,

Victims of Violence
5-year-old Edward Romero, halfway zippered
After the publication or broadcast of a in a dark, plastic body bag with family mem-
controversial image that shows, for example, bers crying over his body, is a powerful and
either dead or grieving victims of violence, disturbing picture. Harte applied the categor-
people often make telephone calls and write ical imperative; the family scene was a news
letters attacking the photographer as being event that had to be photographed. His edi-
tasteless and adding to the anguish of those tors based their decision to publish the image
involved. And yet, violence and tragedy are on utilitarianism — another boy had drowned
staples of American journalism because read- at the same dangerous location on the Kern
ers have always been morbidly attracted to River that day. Two months prior to Romero's
266 PHOTOGRAPHY
Figure 12.17 tO If DAY »mmnctn gr*«ing Gas price a television camera pointed through the win-
EADLINES may jurrtf
The front page of the |
I U *
dow of her home. Arnold's mother was forced
if tax OK'
Bakersfield Californian
study in contrasts. Mickey
Mouse welcomes
the top of the page,
Edward Romero's family

the Pope at
and
is a
mi
Ship out of shape
to lie
In
on the
1983, a
floor to avoid being videotaped.
woman
than complain about the loss of her privacy
(Figure 12.19). She sued
millions of dollars. Hilda Bridges was kid-
in Florida did
a newspaper
more
for
napped by her estranged husband, Clyde

grieves over his lifeless body.
Bridges, and forced to remove all her clothes.
A reader firestorm of 500
He thought that his wife would be unwilling
letters to the editor, 400
Rebels sought attar attack, to escape if she were nude. When she was
Bl more rteW in S. Africa
telephone calls, 80 rescued by the police, photographer Scott
subscription cancellations, Maclay made a picture of Hilda Bridges
and one bomb threat was partially covered by a dish towel running
the result. Many readers with a police officer. Editors invoked the
probably were sparked to categorical imperative: The image "best cap-
protest publication of the sulated the dramatic and tragic events." But
picture because of its

readers and Bridges complained that the
picture caused added grief, the golden rule
insensitive display near the
approach. She argued that the newspaper was
popular cartoon character.
simply trying to sell extra copies with a
death, fourteen people had drowned in that sensational picture on the front page, a he-
stretch of the river. During the month follow- donistic approach. Bridges won the first court
ing publication of the picture, only two case but was awarded only $10,000. On
people drowned in the same area. appeal, that ruling was overturned by a judge
Print and broadcast journalists have a duty who said that the picture "revealed little more
to report the news as objectively, fairly, and . . . than some bathing suits seen on the
accurately as possible. Editors and producers beaches."
should be mindful that some images, because The judicial system in America has recog-
of their emotional content, have the potential nized that private and public people have
to upset many people. However, decisions different legal rights in terms of privacy.
based on ethical philosophies should be guid- Privacy laws are much stricter in protecting
ed, never ruled, by viewers. private citizens not involved in a news story
than they are for public celebrities who often
The Right to Privacy invite media attention. Although journalists
When victims of violence and their fami- need to be aware of the laws concerning
lies, through no fault of their own, are privacy and trespass, ethical behavior should
suddenly thrust into the harsh light of public not be guided by what is strictly legal.
scrutiny, they often complain bitterly (Figure
12.18). Public officials and celebrities also feel

Manipulation
that journalists sometimes cross that "yellow To simulate color in daguerreotypes, pho-
journalism" line in covering their everyday to retouchers with brushes and inks added
activities. Television actress Roseanne Ar- red to cheeks and blue to dresses. Before
nold, who frequently advocates her and her invention of the halftone process, skillful
family's right to privacy, complained on a na- engravers regularly altered the content of
tional television show that her mother once saw photographs. For example, artists regularly
added and subtracted subjects portrayed in

photographs for their printed engravings of
the Civil War.
More recently, wedding and portrait pho-
tographers remove unwanted warts and wrin-

kles from their subjects. Advertising art di-
rectors customarily combine parts of pictures,

change colors, and create fantasy images to
attract customers. People are well aware of
such practices and knowingly suspend belief
when looking at portrait and advertising
images.
Retouching with a computer is a concern
because it alters the original image, which

may even be a news image. With traditional
retouching methods, the original negative is
seldom changed. Because work on a negative elements desired in a picture. If an image of a Figure 12.18
would be detectable and difficult, a print is person standing on a city street is desired, the This 1887 cartoon expresses
altered. Consequently, if questions about an program scans all of the images in the data- the opinion of many that
image arise, the original negative can be base and automatically combines two photo- photographers often overstep
consulted. With digital images taken with an graphs into a third, composite view. With
the bounds of decency when
electronic camera, an original can be altered software manipulation techniques becoming
taking pictures of the
permanently and without detection.
personal and private
Media critics also express concern about
moments of other people's
manipulation of documentary images. For a
lives.
1982 cover story on Egypt in National Geo-
graphic, the pyramids of Giza were moved
Figure 12.19
through computer manipulation to accom-
Scoff Maclay of Florida
modate a vertical format. The horseman and
Today made this picture
tree on the hill on the cover of A Day in the
with a long telephoto lens of
Life of America were moved closer together
and the moon in the background was en- the rescue of Hilda Bridges.
larged (Figure 12.20). These alterations were Bridges later unsuccessfully
made with computer technology to make a sued him and his newspaper
horizontal picture fit the cover's vertical for- for invading her privacy.
mat. Rick Smolan, creator of the Day in the
Life series, for which almost all of the cover

images were heavily manipulated, said that
"we are very proud of the fact that we were
able to use this technology to make covers
more dramatic and more impressive."
In the future, manipulating images for any
purpose will be even easier. For example, the
Matsushita Company has created an image
database for the computer, which the user
accesses simply by typing in the graphic
268 PHOTOGRAPHY
Figure 12.20 Day in the Life of tography became a great equalizer. Because
To
more
make the cover image
eye-catching, editors rlERICA long exposure times and bright sunlight were
required for early photography,
portrait subjects appear to be grim, unsmil-
Victorian
digitally altered the original

ing people. In reality, they had to keep still in
horizontal image. The tree
order to get the best picture possible.
and mounted rider were
In the nineteenth century, several photog-
moved closer together and
raphers created a photographic style that
the moon was enlarged with
reflected the culture of the times. Scottish
computer technology.
calotype photographers David Octavius Hill
Although controversial, the
and Robert Adamson made sensitive studies
technique no doubt
Cameron
of ordinary people. Julia Margaret
worked — the book was the made dynamic, unfocused images of her
best-selling photography famous friends: Tennyson, Herschel, Carlyle,
book in U.S. publication Darwin, Browning, and Longfellow. Gaspard
history. Felix Tournachon, or Nadar as he was known,
matched his bold shooting style with the
strong personalities of the day. Before he
photographed the Civil War, Mathew Brady
had portrait galleries in New York and Wash-
ington. Brady originally took the image of
easier, mass communications producers must President Lincoln that appears on the five-
have a strong ethical base. dollar bill.
In the twentieth century, the portrait
tradition has continued with August Sander's

portraits of everyday workers, Diane Arbus's
direct and sensitive portraits of extraordinary
The story of photography, as with any other subjects, and Richard Avedon's large-format
medium, is never simply about the technical images of known and unknown Americans.
contributions made by scientists and inven-
tors to improve the process. Technological Photographer as Painter
advances allow photographers to communi- Many painters feared that photography

cate the cultural values of the time, but a would soon replace their profession. To hedge
photographer's style is formed by the culture their bets, some artists became photographers
in which the pictures are made. Studying the who mimicked the style of allegorical paint-
images produced within a certain time period ers to tell a story with photographs in the
is a study of the society from which they tradition of paintings of the day. Two photog-
come. Throughout the history of photogra- raphers who worked in this style during the
phy, various photographic styles have reflect- nineteenth century were Oscar Rejlander and
ed the people and the times. Henry Peach Robinson. Rejlander was a
Swede working in Wolverhampton, England,

Photographer as Portraitist
when he perfected the technique of using
One of the earliest uses of the photograph- make one picture. Such a
several negatives to
ic medium was to capture the faces of people, procedure was popular among artists-turned-
both famous and ordinary. Eventually, pho- photographers who wanted to make their
photographs look like paintings. His most produce elaborate artistic renderings from Figure 12.21
famous allegorical composition, "The Two their own or previously published pictures. One of the first images to be
Ways of Life," involved the use of thirty manipulated by a
separate negatives to produce an image that Photographer as Landscape
photographer was Oscar
symbolized the choices that a young man Documentarian
Rejlander's Two Ways of
must make (Figure 12.21). Robinson's most Natural scenes have always been a favorite
Life. He spliced thirty
famous image, "Fading Away," is a combina- subject of photographers. When the Civil War
separate pictures together to
tion print using five separate pictures to show ended, Timothy O'Sullivan and William
form the cotnposite.
a young woman on her deathbed. Jackson traveled west to explore and photo-
Gambling, drinking, sexual
Some photographers tried to imitate graph scenic views with their awkward wet-
painting to gain respect from the fine art collodion technology. In 1873, O'Sullivan
activity, and vanity are the
world. But others working in the new medi- made one of his most famous pictures at the themes to the young boy's
um criticized that style because it denied that ruins of "White House" at the Canyon de right, and pious behavior,
photography could have its own style distinct Chelley in Arizona. Jackson, who lived to be education, philanthropy, and
and apart from that of the painting of the 99 years old, made the first photographs of hard work are presented on
day. Rejlander himself later criticized the the Yellowstone area in 1871, which helped the other side.
trend toward picture manipulation, and a convince Congress to set aside the land as the
photographic school known as "straight pho- country's first national park. England's Frank
tography," headed by Edward Weston and SutclifFe, a member of the Linked Ring cam-
Ansel Adams, shunned manipulated work. era club, was a renowned pictorialist who
Contemporary photographers Vicky Alex- favored naturalistic views and using printing
ander, Richard Prince, and Douglas and Mi- techniques without manipulation.
chael Starn use "cut and paste" techniques to Following in the footsteps of the early
270 PHOTOGRAPHY
Figure 12.22 landscape photographers, Ansel Adams,

Southern California Wynn Bullock, and Harry Callahan all have
photographer and educator made photographs that record exquisitely na-
Neil Chapman has a ture's heauty and sharpen our sense of won-
der of it.
reputation for making
fine-quality prints of
Photographer as Artist
unordinary subjects.
Many artists considered photography to be
Although originally a part of
a simple craft, with the camera selecting,
two separate exhibits, these
composing, and capturing moments. Anoth-
two portraits combine into
er problem artists had with photography was
an illustration of Stefan that any number of images could be made
Lorant's "third effect." from a single negative. Therefore acceptance
Discarded objects — whether of photography as a fine art on the same level
originally living or with painting was slow in coming. One of the
inanimate — say much about most important figures in elevating the craft
the culture that produced to a fine art was the American Alfred Stieg-
them. litz. Not only did he exploit photography's
unique technological features, he also opened

a gallery that exhibited painting and photog-
raphy on an equal footing and published a
critical journal about photography, Camera
Work. Married to artist Georgia O'Keeffe, he
was a strong proponent of modern art pho-
tography and inspired many photographers to
build that tradition.

Recent photographers who view photogra-
phy as a way of expressing a deeply personal
statement include Neil Chapman, Cindy

Sherman, and Sandy Skoglund (Figure
12.22). Chapman makes fine-quality palladi-
um prints of subjects that include people,
mannequins, and stuffed animals. Sherman

scouts locations in large cities and takes
self-portraits with costume and makeup
changes that reflect various aspects of her
personality. Skoglund works hours construct-
ing elaborate sets with painted backgrounds
and dreamlike objects that she photographs.
Photographer as Social Documentarian
Because images have the capacity to spark

interest and convey emotional messages,
many photographers have used the medium
to shed light on social problems in the hope of
getting the public to act. In 1877, John
Thompson teamed with writer Adolphe Figure 12.23
Smith for a book about London's poor, Street One of the great masters of
Life of London. Newspaper reporter-turned- American documentary

photographer Jacob Riis used photography to photography was Lewis
illustrate his writings and lectures on the
Hine. He helped change
slums in New York City. In 1890, he pub-
child labor laws with his
lished his work in a book, How the Other Half
powerful portraits of
Lives. In 1909, Lewis Hine managed to help
children working long hours
enact child labor laws with his sensitive
at dangerous jobs. Note the
portraits of children working in dangerous,
details in the classic Hine
backbreaking occupations around the coun-
picture: the cold harshness of
try (Figure 12.23).
Following in their tradition, French pho- the reflections off the
tographers Eugene Atget in the 1920s, a social dangerous metal machine
documentarian with a view camera, and where the girl rests her
Henri Cartier- Bresson in the 1930s, with a elbow and her tired eyes,
small, hand-held camera, showed views of slight smile, filthy smock,

ordinary people. Cartier- Bresson captured and shoeless feet.
the "decisive —
moment" a term he used to
describe the instant when the content and
Figure 12.24
composition of a field of view are at their pressive. Impressionism and dadaism, for ex-
During the Great
most revealing. ample, flourished because painters no longer
Depression, the Farm
The FSA photographers documented liv- had to render natural scenes exactly on can-
Security Administration of
ing conditions of homeless persons for the vas.
government during the depression Photography educated people about social the U.S. government
U.S.
(Figure 12.24). Photographers for Life maga- problems within their own communities and produced numerous classic
zine, most notably W. Eugene Smith, pro- native peoples around the world. Visual mes- documents such as this dust
duced photographic stories that illustrated sages inspired immigrants to learn to read the bowl picture by Arthur
the lives of diverse individuals. words after the pictures hooked them into Rothstein.
Robert Frank, Garry Winogrand, Eugene

Richards, and Mary Ellen Mark are magazine
and newspaper photojournalists who use a
traditional, documentary style of photogra-
phy. Robert Heincken and Barbara Kruger
combine images with text to make critical
comments about popular culture.
Photography was invented at the height of the

Industrial Revolution during which millions
of people around the world eventually had
more money and free time to spend on taking
pictures. Rather than cause the death of
painting, photography, with its emphasis on
realistic scenes, freed artists to be more ex-
272 PHOTOGRAPHY
Figure 12.25 buying the newspaper. But photography also tive interpretation, they often contain fleeting
News photographs are was used to mislead and misinform people. and conflicting "truths."
powerful documents because Government agencies in both totalitarian and
most viewers still believe

democratic countries used photography to
that a camera never lies —a persuade. Future directions for

Photographs entertain and educate. They photography
naive belief that hasn't been
provide a historical record that relies on the
true as long as people have
idea that a camera does not lie (Figure 12.25). Photography is undergoing exciting and chal-
made pictures. Injured fire
Throughout the history of photography, the lenging changes. Currently, it is in transition
Jighters in New Orleans
picture enjoyed far greater credibility than the between traditional film and computer tech-
(left) and children throwing
printed or spoken word. But the picture's nologies. This time in photography's history
stones at British soldiers in
credibility is being undermined by computer is not unlike that when the gelatin-bromide
Belfast, Northern Ireland operators who can alter the content of a dry plate process made the wet-collodion
( right). If a photographer digitized news picture as easily as an advertis- process obsolete. Of the nine major advances
had used a computer to add ing image. in the technology history of photography,
more firemen or paid the Credibility can also be called into question only four have significantly changed the way
children to throw stones, by the words that accompany a picture. In that people think about the medium. The
would the images have less
Vicki Goldberg's The Power of Photography daguerreotype introduced the world to the
impact?
she explains how perceptions of a photograph medium. The wet-collodion process proved
depend on point of view. American viewers that photography could be a high-quality and
saw the image of a lone man waving a white reproducible method of communicating vis-
handkerchief in front of a menacing column ual messages to large numbers of people. The
of Chinese tanks during the Tiananmen gelatin-bromide dry plate process — the most
Square uprising and interpreted his action as important development — made photography
a brave act of defiance (Figure 12.26). Howev- easy for both amateurs and professionals. Fin-
er, the Chinese government told its people ally, digital photography, which combines
that the picture represented compassion and the medium with television and the comput-
restraint on the part of the military. In any er, promises unlimited possibilities in visual
case, the unknown protester was arrested and communication.
executed soon after the picture was taken. As electronic digital cameras become com-
Because photographs rely on human, subjec- mon, darkrooms, with their expensive and
FUTURF DIRECTIONS FOR PHOTOGRAPHY 273
Figure 12.26
From a high perspective and
at a long distance, a
photographer makes a
moving image of an
unknown Chinese man

waving off his government's
tanks during the Tiananmen

Square episode. Western
journalists used the picture
to show the courage of the
man, but Chinese officials
presented the image as an
example of the military's
restraint.
environmentally hazardous chemicals, no Regardless of how still and moving images

longer will be required (Figure 12.27). As are combined and presented, the stilled mo-
people get used to photographs displayed on ment will always be important. A moving
an electronic screen, the need for paper prints image shocks, explains, and entertains, but it
will fall dramatically. Home entertainment is fleeting, quickly replaced by another pic-
centers of the future are likely to contain ture. But a stilled image, one that freezes time
collections of images on compact and laser forever in a powerfully arresting moment,
disks that give users the capacity to interact will always have the capacity to rivet a
with the images and information on them. viewer's attention on the subject matter with-
Already, CD-I (compact disk-interactive) in its frame. There always will be a need for
technology allows users to access educational those with the sensitivity and the intellect to
and entertainment programs with thousands produce powerfully emotional still images for
of still pictures linked to words and music. educational and entertainment purposes.
When homes are linked by fiber optic net-
Figure 12.27
works, electronic communication will allow
The future for photography
people to instantly send their precious pic-
tures to anyone anywhere in the world. Fiber is computer-based. This
optics also will allow electronic newspapers to publicity still shows the
transmit the latest news stories and images for Associated Press Leaf Picture
viewing on teleputers. Desk that newspaper editors
Still photography as we currently know it around the world use to
probably will be replaced by digital video receive, manipulate, and

cameras that make possible the recording of store digital images. An
still and moving images with the same quali-
editor can view several
ty. If a viewer wants to see a single frame
images at once on the
from a moving video recording, the equip-
monitor and increase the
ment will simply satisfy that option at the
size of the favorite.
press of a key or utterance of a word or two.
CHAPTER 13
A film is never really Motion Pictures

good unless the camera
is an eye in the head of
a poet.
Orson Welles,
FILMMAKER
On April 9, 1941, members of the press were art of motion pictures." First-time film star,
treated to an advance showing of a film that writer, producer, and director Orson Welles
many would come to say is the best motion was called "a workman who is master of the
picture ever made. A week after the press technique and mechanics of the medium . . .
showing, Variety, the trade magazine for the [and who] sparkles with originality and in-
film industry, ran reviews of fifteen movies. vention." After the movie's public release,
Irene Dunne and Cary Grant were featured in New York Times film reviewer Bosley Crow-
Columbia Pictures' Penny Serenade. It was ther called Citizen Kane "far and away the
called "an excellent domestic story. Tears and most surprising and cinematically exciting
good box office guaranteed." Universal Stu- motion picture to be seen here in many a
dios' Model Wife, starring Joan Blondell and moon. As a matter of fact, it comes close to
Dick Powell, was called a "bright domestic being the most sensational film ever made in
comedy." Pre-World War II audiences could Hollywood." Contemporary film critic Paul-
try to enjoy independent studio Jewel Pic- ine Kael has called the movie the most
tures' Kidnapping Gorillas, called "a class D praised work in the history of cinema (Figure
dud." 13.1).
But the first review in the column, proba- The long-awaited motion picture featured
bly placed in that portentous position as a actors from the Mercury Theater on the Air
sign of the movie's excellence, was a recent radio program that was famous for frighten-
Radio-Keith-Orpheum (RKO) release, Citi- ing millions of listeners with its 1938 Hallow-
zen Kane. The unknown Variety reviewer een broadcast of H. G. Wells's War of the
gushed with excitement over the film and its Worlds. RKO executives were so impressed
25-year-old director: "It happens to be a with the publicity generated by the controver-
first-class film of potent importance to the sial program that they offered its director,
274
MOTION PICTURES 275
Welles, a lucrative contract to make pictures
for them despite his lack of experience in the
medium. But Welles could not have made

such a respected film alone; he had a lot of
help. Herman Mankiewicz, a Hollywood
writer for the previous fifteen years and
author of Marx brothers comedies such as
Monkey Business and Horse Feathers, helped
Welles write the screenplay. Welles brought

Joseph Cotten and Agnes Moorehead and
several other Mercury radio actors — many
making their film debuts — to Hollywood for
the picture. Welles also assembled a technical

team second to none. Vernon Walker a pho-
tographer for the spectacular movie King
Kong, coordinated the many special effects in
the movie. The film editor, a young RKO staff

employee named Robert Wise, would go on
to direct The Day the Earth Stood Still, West
Side Story, and The Sound of Music. Mercury
Theater colleague Bernard Hermann, who
won an Academy Award for his scoring of All
That Money Can Buy, composed and ar-
ranged the music. He became famous for the
shrieking violin composition in Alfred Hitch-
cock's thriller Psycho in 1960. Famed cine-
matographer Gregg Toland, who had just won
an Academy Award for his work in Wuthering
Heights, was in charge of photography. He
subsequently photographed such classics as he never again enjoyed the same indepen- Figure 13.1
The Best Years of Our Lives and The Grapes of dence and critical acclaim. Like the motion Citizen Kane by Orson
Wrath. — the
picture itself story of an investigation Welles is an example of
Despite the excellent work by its cast and sparked by the mystery of newspaper tycoon
master-level performances
production personnel and the over-the-top Charles Foster Kane's dying word, "Rosebud"
and technical achievements.
critical praise, Citizen Kane was a financial — the story behind the making of Citizen
Note how the bold use of
disaster. Although nominated for several Os- Kane partially explains how such a promising
typography and the printed
cars, the film won only one award — for best career could be squashed by forces within and
portrait combine with Welles
screenplay. The best picture award went to outside of Hollywood.
to reinforce the power of the
John Ford's How Green Was My Valley, an
ironic winner since it was Ford's Stagecoach character.
that Welles studied to learn the craft of Orson welles and the making
motion picture production. Within a year of citizen kane
RKO had shelved Citizen Kane because the
studio's executives believed that it would Born on May 6, 1915, Orson Welles was the
never be a financial success. Although Welles second son in a troubled, yet creative, family
made several movies during his long career, in Kenosha, Wisconsin. His father, Richard,
276 MOTION PICTURES
was a frustrated inventor who died early from Time," he supplied the voices for the dictators
alcoholism. His mother, Beatrice, was a strong Mussolini and Hitler. He also played the
supporter of women's rights, an excellent rifle popular mystery character Lamont Cranston
shot, and a failed professional pianist. His on "The Shadow."
brother Dickie was schizophrenic. The While in New York Welles also became
Welles's counted among their friends famous known for his acting abilities and stage pro-
musicians such as Ravel and Stravinsky. From ductions. He directed a famous version of
an early age Orson attracted media attention. Macbeth, set in Haiti, in which he used an all
In newspaper articles he was praised as a African- American cast. In 1937, he teamed

"boy genius." At the age of two he could read with actor John Houseman, known as the
fluently, at seven he could recite passages acerbic law professor in The Paper Chase, to
from Shakespeare's King Lear, and at ten he form the Mercury Theater. The production
started producing backyard plays of his own. company staged a popular version of Shake-
During a vacation in Europe when he was speare's Julius Caesar in 1937 as a modern-
eight, his mother died. A few years later, his day gangster and dictator story. However,
father died. But his father's love for travel and lack of funds curtailed the stage productions.
his mother's independent and artistic influ- In 1938, CBS offered the theater group a
ence were firmly entrenched in Welles by that contract to produce radio dramas, naming
time. His guardian after the deaths of his the program "Mercury Theater on the Air."
parents was Dr. Maurice Bernstein who in- The radio troupe regularly produced clas-
troduced Welles to magic tricks and puppet sic works such as Treasure Island and Jane
shows. In a tribute to his mentor, Welles Eyre. But Welles wanted to stage a science
included a character in Citizen Kane with the fiction piece for Halloween and selected H. G.
same name. Most important, Bernstein gave Wells's War of the Worlds. The night before
the young Charles Kane the famous sled the broadcast, however, he thought the script
named "Rosebud" in the movie. too dull and rewrote it in a documentary
At sixteen, Welles made a walking tour of style similar to the "March of Time" news
Ireland, where he ended up at the famous program. The result was one of the most
Gate Theater in Dublin and convinced the -sensational broadcasts ever produced. Despite
Irish owners that he was a famous actor for numerous reminders that the show was a
the New York Guild Theater. Welles became fictionalized account of a novel, millions of
the first American actor ever to guest star radio listeners were convinced that Earth had
with the Abbey Players of Dublin. In 1932 he been invaded by Martians. People fled in all
returned to New York but he couldn't find directions to escape cities, limbs were broken
work. So he sailed to Africa and settled in in fights as people tried to get away, and
Morocco to write the book Everybody's priests were called to hear final confessions.
Shakespeare. When he returned to the United Numerous people had heart attacks, and,
States, the prestigious acting troupe led by tragically, a woman in Pittsburgh committed
Katharine Cornell accepted him. At a drama suicide rather than face the monsters from
festival he met a teenaged actress, Virginia Mars.
Nicholson, whom he married shortly there- One of the readers of the "War of the
. The two had a daughter they named Worlds" controversy was RKO Pictures presi-
Christopher because they had been hoping dent George Schaefer. With a promise of
l ive years later, the couple divorced. complete freedom over production and a
During this period, Welles also worked in three-picture deal worth $100,000 each,
radio. For the NBC broadcast "The March of Schaefer lured Welles to Hollywood to make
ORSON WELLES AND THE MAKING OF CITIZEN KANE 277
movies. To learn the craft, Welles studied 30, 1940, and was completed on October 23
many of the films in New York's Museum of under extremely tight security, which fanned
Modern Art. He particularly was interested in rumors about its connection to Hearst. The
John Ford's classic 1939 western Stagecoach, film was scheduled to be released on Valen-
reportedly watching the film more than forty tine's Day, 1941 . But the opening was delayed
times. after Louella Parsons, Hollywood correspon-
The early plan was to make a film version dent for the Hearst newspapers, viewed an
of Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness. But early screening. She relayed the message to
when World War II began in Europe, Schaefer Schaefer that Hearst would sue the studio if it
had to cancel the project because filming in released the film. However, the Hearst orga-
Africa wouldn't be possible and the actor nization quickly dropped the threat as a
chosen for the lead role of Kurtz had been pointless exercise and tried a different ap-
interned in a concentration camp in Austria. proach. In a one-woman telephone campaign,

Schaefer suggested a more traditional thriller, Parsons put pressure on many Hollywood
The Smiler with a Knife, but then abandoned studio executives by referring to a proposed
that project because stars Carole Lombard series of newspaper articles on their use of
and Rosalind Russell refused to work with illegal immigrants. Nicholas Schenck, head of
such a young director. Welles wanted Lucille MGM, on behalf of other studio presidents,
Ball for the role, but this time Schaefer vetoed reportedly offered Schaefer $800,000, the cost
the choice because Ball wasn't famous of making the movie, if he would destroy it.
enough. Welles decided to produce a movie Luckily, Schaefer considered it an offer he

that he and screenwriter Herman Mankie- could refuse.
wicz had conceived. And here is where, as Hearst probably never saw the movie. As a
they say, "the plot thickens." courtesy, Schaefer sent a copy to San Simeon,
Mankiewicz's story, originally titled where Hearst had a movie theater as part of
American, was an obviously critical biography the castle complex. But when the film was
of newspaper publisher William Randolph eventually returned, the seals that bound the
Hearst. As a former newspaper reporter, metal film cans hadn't been broken.
Mankiewicz was familiar with the intricacies Meanwhile, Welles threatened to sue RKO
of Hearst's financial empire and his personal if the film wasn't released. Schaefer took
strengths and failings. As a visitor to Hearst's action and invited the press for a sneak
castle in central California, San Simeon, preview on April 9. Welles was relaxing in a
Mankiewicz had witnessed many of the ex- Palm Springs spa on the advice of his doctor,
cesses made possible by the publisher's enor- who was worried that the director was close
mous wealth. Hearst's passion for collecting to a mental breakdown when he heard that
art objects from around the world, staging the critics loved the movie. However, the film
elaborate picnics, and supporting his actress was still embroiled in controversy.
protege Marion Davies all were a part of Because of the threats by Hearst, Schaefer
Mankiewicz's screenplay. Also included in was having trouble finding theaters that
the story were Davies's obsession with jigsaw would show the movie. For the public open-
puzzles and her excessive drinking, character- ings in New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles,
ized by Kane's girlfriend, played by actress RKO-owned theaters were hastily prepared.
Susan Alexander. Although Welles always New York's Radio City Music Hall refused to
denied the connection between Hearst and run the film after Parsons threatened to run
Kane, no one was convinced. an uncomplimentary story about Nelson
Shooting for Citizen Kane began on July Rockefeller's grandfather in the Hearst-
278 MOTION PICTURES
owned American Weekly. Rockefeller was part 1942. The movie never received the critical
owner of the famous music hall. When acclaim of Kane, probably because RKO exec-
Hearst felt that the published attacks on the utives appropriated the film while Welles was
film gave it too much publicity, the negative in South America working on his next pic-
stories ceased, but Hearst allowed no adver- ture. About one-third of his movie was
tising about the movie to appear in any of his changed, including the ending. Afterward, he
newspapers. Movie theater chains such as was locked out of the studio. In 1943, to the
Warner Bros., Loew's, and Paramount count- surprise of everyone, he married actress Rita
ed greatly on advertising and commentary in Hayworth and made a film with her, The
the Hearst publications about their films. Lady from Shanghai, for Columbia Pictures. It
Consequently, they refused to show the mov- turned out to be another financial disaster.
ie for fear of retaliation by Hearst. In a last, After a stormy relationship and a daughter,
desperate attempt to have the film shown, Rebecca, the two divorced in 1947.
Schaefer sent the picture as a package deal Hollywood branded Welles a trouble-
with other RKO movies. Nevertheless, most maker. Although he achieved success with
theater owners did not show the movie. several Broadway productions and roles in
The final blow was the Academy Awards other directors' films, his own pictures, and
ceremony. Although nominated in several work on television, the critical praise of Kane
categories and critically acclaimed, Citizen was never repeated. Late in his life, grossly
Kane came away with a minor award that overweight but still in possession of a Shake-
Welles shared with Mankiewicz for the spearean voice and able to tell insider Holly-
screenplay. According to Variety, many mem- wood stories, he made commercials for East-
bers of the Academy voted in a bloc against ern Airlines and Paul Masson wines and
Welles because of his reputation as a "gen- appeared regularly on Johnny Carson's "The
ius," the fight with Hearst, and the percep- Tonight Show." He died of a heart attack at
tion that the movie was a pretentious "art the age of seventy in his Los Angeles home in
film." In a snub to the Academy Award he 1985. Unlike Kane, no one heard his last
shared with Mankiewicz, Welles wrote the word. Welles once said that "Hollywood is a
screenwriter, "You can kiss my half." Man- golden suburb for golf addicts, gardeners,
kiewicz replied, "You wouldn't know your men of mediocrity, and satisfied stars. I
half from a whole in the ground." Tragically, belong to none of these categories." Indeed.
Mankiewicz's promising screenwriting career Welles and his Citizen Kane are a genre all
was cut short by alcoholism. their own.

Even without the Hearst organization's Most directors have a permanent place in
opposition, Citizen Kane probably wouldn't motion picture history for a body of work
have been a financial success. Mass theater that demonstrates their genius. Orson Welles
audiences of the day were accustomed to is famous — perhaps infamous — for only one
seeing lightweight action and comedic films movie, but it is a work of unparalleled bril-
—not a dark, moody psychological drama liance. In public opinion polls sponsored by
with an unhappy ending. Film critic Andre art councils, film expositions, and television
Bazin has written that the motion picture was networks, Citizen Kane is always at the top of
"decidedly above the mental age of the aver- every list of great films. The reason is simple:
age American spectator." The movie is a masterpiece.

Welles continued to fulfill his contractual The opening of the movie is a metaphor
obligation to RKO with his next film, The for the entire picture. In a series of tracking
Magnificent Ainbersons, which was released in shots that begin outside the castle gate of the
ORSON WELLES AND THE MAKING OF CITIZEN KANE 279
once stately Xanadu estate showing a NO

TRESPASSING sign, the camera moves us
closer to Kane's bedroom window, which
always maintains the same position in various
shots. And just when the window is reached,

the light suddenly goes off and Kane speaks
his last word, the enigmatic "Rosebud"
(Figure 13.2). The scene loudly shifts to a
newsreel that serves as an obituary for the

publishing tycoon. But toward the end of the
footage, the documentary stops and the scene
shifts to a smoky room filled with journalists
who are given the task to discover, through
interviews with his associates, why Kane

uttered the word "Rosebud." The rest of the
film is divided into four sections in which his
banker reveals Kane's early life, his business
associate tells about the newspaper empire

and details of his first marriage, his former a primary example of the power of words and Figure 13.2
best friend analyzes his personality and the pictures when united in an equally respectful The dying word from the
reason for his downfall, and his second wife, way. lead character in Citizen
in an alcoholic haze, gives details about the Welles didn't invent any of the film tech- Kane was the mysterious
frustrated and sad old man Kane had be- niques used in the movie. He simply com- "Rosebud." Close-up
come. In the end, none of his associates can bined many different ideas into one work.
photography and enhanced
solve the mystery of "Rosebud." But the Until Kane, movies were dominated by snap-
audio effects emphasized
audience learns the secret. The scene of py dialogue and unusual situations, but the
this important scene in the
workmen burning some of the objects that visual messages weren't as important. Orson
movie.
have accumulated over the years in the castle Welles combined the most recent technical
shows the name "Rosebud" on a sled given to innovations for producing visual messages
Kane as a boy. A symbol of lost youth or with choreographed actions by actors to move
missed opportunities, or an acknowledgment the plot along on several levels. Cinematogra-
of Kane's love of objects over people pher Gregg Toland took advantage of new
viewers are left to make sense of the movie's lighting and film stock to perfect a technique
central riddle on their own. called "pan-focus." (The technique is now
At the time of Citizen Kane's release, called deep focus so that it won't be confused
theater owners provided souvenir programs with panning, a camera movement.) A soft-
for $0.25. Among the facts listed in the focus shooting style had dominated films
publication are that almost 40 hours of film previously because low-wattage lamps and
were shot for the 1 19-minute movie, in which slow film meant that lenses had to be set wide
796 extras, 84 bit players, 19 dancing girls, 28 open to obtain a shallow depth of field. But
stand-ins, and 28 players of parts appeared. with higher quality lights, faster film, and
But the movie's reputation doesn't rest on wide-angle lenses, Toland could have a depth
its plot, length, or number of characters. of field that carried from twenty inches to
What is important about the film is the way several hundred feet (Figure 13.3). Conse-
the visual elements are used in combination quently, Welles was able to exploit this tech-
with the words. In that sense, Citizen Kane is nical advantage in his staging of the actors.
—
280 MOTION PICTURES
Action could take place simultaneously in the the emptiness of the space is conveyed not
foreground and in the background. Bazin has only visually but also by the echo effect added
written that the technique gave viewers much to the actors' voices. The hauntingly whis-
more freedom in deciding which part of the pered "Rosebud" is made to sound meaning-
screen they wanted to watch. Such deep-focus ful by two different recordings of the word
shots also required that the sets used in the played back at different reverberation rates.
film be enormous. Welles requested that the When combined with the close-up of Kane's
sets include muslin ceilings so that extreme mouth, the word and image unite in one of
up-angle perspectives could be used. Few the most powerful shots in the movie.
directors ever thought to bother with ceilings When asked if he knew that he was
for their sets because most shots were at eye making a masterpiece, Welles answered sim-
level. Also, lighting and recording the actors ply, "I never doubted it for a single instant."
are more difficult when ceilings are included The trouble with creating a perfect work of
in a set. Nevertheless, Welles presented a art your first time out is: Where do you go
much more realistic visual message with the from there? Unfortunately, Welles could not
addition of ceilings. Lighting was high in improve upon his initial work because such
contrast and usually from behind. The effect an effort would have been almost impossible
dramatically separated the actors from their for anyone.
surroundings. Most previous films had used
low contrast and flat lighting techniques.
Probably as a result of Welles's love for Analysis of citizen kane

magic tricks, the movie featured several opti-
cal illusions that included montages and Here is a simple exercise. Rent a videotape
split-screen effects. Linwood Dunn, head of version of Citizen Kane, slip it into your
special effects for RKO at the time, estimated cassette player, press the fast forward button
that more than half the picture was manipu- for any amount of time you choose, and
lated optically during the reprinting process watch that randomly selected scene. Repeat
— after the scenes were shot. A particularly the procedure until the end of the film. No
visual and revealing scene is the montage of matter where you start the videotape, you will
Kane and his second wife emotionally and learn about the art of moviemaking. Every
physically separating from one another in a scene is a carefully composed work of art.
series of shots. These editing techniques were Coming at the height of Hollywood's
carefully crafted to provide the viewer with "Golden Age," the movie represents the con-
visual evidence of the couple's impending fidence of a director who intuitively knew
breakup. how to combine the best attributes from
Another aspect of the genius of the movie theater and radio in the visual medium of
lay in its technical innovations related to film. Of course, Welles had a lot of help
sound. As a result of Welles's expertise in Mankiewicz, Toland, Walker, Hermann, and

radio broadcasting (Kane's first phrase in the Wise. Unfortunately for motion picture his-
movie is "Don't believe everything you hear tory and Orson Welles's career, he was never
on the radio" — a tribute to Welles's "War of again given the independence to show the
the Worlds" program), dialogue frequently world that he was capable of another master-
overlaps as in real speech, music and words piece.
often provide transitional elements between All involved should have known that a
scenes, and special effects add to the plot's movie about a newspaper tycoon with a
development. For example, in a large room, troubled personal life might be confused with
ANALYSIS OF CITIZEN KANE 281
William Randolph Hearst, a newspaper ty- of the United States in 1940. Against a Figure 13.3
coon with a troubled personal life. Ego, or background of war in Europe and Americans The "deep focus" effect
hedonism, plays large in the motives behind being unsure about how long the country created by cinematographer
the making and squashing of the film. Orson could stay out of the conflict, the movie has
Gregg Toland, as evident in
Welles, the "boy genius," believed that he two central themes: regret for the lost, care-
this scene from Citizen
could make any picture he wanted, no matter free, and childlike days of youth and the fact
Kane, allowed the viewer
the content. Although he succeeded, what he that power and money do not make a person
more control in selecting
did not realize is that his reputation and skill happy. In less than two years, Americans
winch part of a set to watch.
as a writer, performer, and director could not would be asked to fight powerful foes. Facto-
Note also that the top of the
overcome Hearst's considerable economic ries would soon convert to military arma-
and political power. Conversely, the newspa- ment production, women would be asked to set is covered — another
per publisher did not want to be criticized in work on assembly lines, rationing would limit innovation of the motion
a movie. In the end, the picture probably goods and services, and thousands of young picture.
would not have been a financial success even men would die in faraway battles. "Rosebud,"
if Hearst had stayed out of the fight. Audi- the name of Kane's childhood sled and his
ences were simply not willing to see an "art dying last word, is a symbol for the two major
film" with a troupe of unknown actors. themes in the motion picture (Figure 13.4).
The epic saga of the life of Charles Foster Because "Rosebud" is a word, a plot
Kane reveals much about the cultural values device, and an actual object, it has multiple
282 MOTION PICTURES
about to bloom. Surrounding the rose are

darkly painted leaves on a curved stem. But
the name and illustration conflict with the
object they represent. A sled is a winter
vehicle, a toy that children use to skim on
snow and ice. It gives a child an excuse to play
outside. But in the part of the country where

young Kane was born, there are no roses on
bushes in the winter. A rosebud is a symbol
for new growth promised in the spring. By its
association and the culture's definition, the
rosebud becomes the symbol for the sled.
Kane in his last word (and the movie's first)
is not referring to a flower or a sled. "Rose-

bud" is a call for all those wearied over the
long, economic depression and concerned

about entering World War II that winter must
come, but that spring surely will follow. The
word and the movie represent optimism and
Figure 13.4 semiotic significance. In our culture we anx- hope for the future.
In the end, the mystery of iously await, treasure, and analyze the last Citizen Kane the movie, Citizen Kane the
Kane's last word was words of a dying person. We hope that character, and Citizen Kane the critical biog-
relatively simple — the name someone about to walk through death's door raphy of William Randolph Hearst are facets
will impart some hope and spiritual advice to of a masterpiece that will never be completely
of the sled young Charles
those still living. Indeed, the importance of understood. As with all brilliant works of art,
possessed as a child. But the
the word is evident, since the plot of Citizen there are disagreements over its significance,
symbolism of the toy is quite
Kane centers on a journalist trying vainly to problems with its confusing messages, and
complex. While clutching
discover the word's significance. questions about its link to actual persons.
"Rosebud, " eight-year-old
Notably, "Rosebud" is spoken only to the Nevertheless, the reason that the motion
Kane (Buddy Swan) is
audience. There are no other characters in the picture art form will endure is the hope that
introduced to Thatcher
room at the time — the nurse enters after the someone, someday will produce a work of
(George Coulouris), his word whispered. How did the journalist
is equal importance.
future guardian, while his know of the word's existence? And why did
parents (Harry Shannon he not simply assume that the word stood for
and Agnes Moorchead) a flower? The apparent flaw in the timing of Motion pictures and the six
observe. the nurse's entrance allows the audience to perspectives
feel more a part of the biographical mystery
— who else but someone in the theater could Personal Perspective

have told the journalist about the word and
hinted at its more complex meaning? In the Motion pictures began as simple films of
end, only the audience realizes that the word everyday activities, capturing ordinary events
is name of the wooden sled

the that a to show the capabilities of this new medium.
workman casually throws in the fire. Soon, however, visionaries discovered that
On the sled's platform are the cheaply motion pictures could be much more than
stenciled capital letters "ROSEBUD" that static camera shots of workers leaving a
curve above a drawing of a single white rose factory. Early in the history of the movies,
MOTION PICTURES AND THE SIX IM KS1-I ( II VI S 283
filmmakers exploited the aesthetic, political, work designed to make money for those
and economic advantages of the film medi- involved in the project. Every great motion
um. This triptych of functions probably ex- picture, however, contains elements of every
plains why so many different terms — motion term used to describe the medium. Citizen
picture, cinema, documentary, film, and Kane, for example, is a movie because Welles
movie — have been used to describe the pre- and RKO studio executives wanted the pic-
sentation of single-framed, sequential images ture to make money in order to finance other
that move through a machine so rapidly that projects. It is a film because it bravely told the
they create the illusion of movement on a story of the controversial publishing tycoon,
screen. William Randolph Hearst. Kane is a docu-

Motion picture is a formal term usually mentary because it used the journalistic de-
reserved for historical accounts or general vice of the newsreel to help tell the compli-
discussions about the medium. Cinema usu- cated story of Kane's life. Finally, the work
ally describes a type of work produced to take belongs in the cinema category because of its
advantage of the medium's graphic or artistic obvious contributions to the art form.
capabilities. Documentary, like its still pho- Movie theaters are magical places (Figure
tography counterpart, is a journalistic treat- 13.5). Nowhere else is the screen as large, the
ment of the subject. Film is a word usually sound as clear, the seats as plush, and the
reserved for motion pictures of an artistic or popcorn as fresh. People go to the movies
political nature in which the producers at- because there is nothing else like that feeling
tempt to express their concern about a social when the lights suddenly start to dim, voices
problem or condition. Finally, a movie is a quiet to a whisper, and the screen glows from
Figure 13.5
Movie marquees of the
1940s, such as this one for
the Astor Theater in New

York City, were large and
eye-catching to attract
attention. Today, newspaper
advertisements and
television trailers perform
the same function.

284 MOTION PICTURES
the projector. The huge horizontal frame has the short films at the turn of the century, the
the power to take us to another country, action adventure drama was created. When
another planet, or another person's point of radio became a popular mass medium, mov-
view. With stars, scenery, and situations, ies followed with films that could be both
movies are dramatic and riveting. And yet the heard and seen. When sales dropped during
screen is simply a mirror that reveals all the the Great Depression because so many people
best and worst qualities of everyone sitting in couldn't afford a ticket, the studios generated
the theater. That is why the stories and the excitement about movies and their stars while
characters are so familiar. at the same time lowering prices and intro-
Movies are social places where humans, ducing double features. When television
curiously enough, gather to be unsociable. threatened to keep moviegoers at home in the
Theaters are one of the few public areas where 1 950s and 1 960s, movie screens became larg-
a large number of people can laugh, scream, er and wider, films were shot in color, and
or cry in unison but seldom say a word to three-dimensional movies were tried. Today
each other. the motion picture industry is adapting to
When the audience leaves a darkened challenges from other entertainment sources
movie theater to face the bright afternoon by producing "must-see" blockbusters, cut-
sunshine after a matinee, the question every- ting costs with multiplex theaters, adding
one asks is: What did you think of it? The improvements in image quality and sound,
answer is different for each person and each and diversifying into other entertainment
movie, and yet it is almost always the same businesses — television, motion simulator
brief assessment. Like professional movie amusement park rides, and interactive multi-
critics who give a thumb up or down sign, the media.

quick review is a simplified reaction to the
plot and the actors. But movies are much A Side-Show Amusement
more than a collection of stars reading their Movies' roots go back some 20,000 years
memorized lines amid strikingly visual back- when cave artists attempted to give their
grounds in choreographed presentations. drawings of bison : more realism by painting
Movies are more than entertainment; as with sequential renderings on cave walls. Modern
any visual message, they are lessons. How film history starts with magic lanterns and
much you learn from a movie depends on flipbooks for children (Chapter 11). With the
how much you know about the medium. invention of photography and the more prac-
tical process of wet-collodion on glass plates,
live-action pictures could be substituted for
the simple line drawings (Chapter 12). In
The history of the motion picture can be 1870, Henry Heyl printed pictures of his
summed up in one word — adaptation. Inno- children in various sequential poses with the
vative studio executives, directors, and inven- wet-collodion method and projected them on
tors worked to make sure that movies would a screen in a machine the Englishman called
become and remain a popular source of the Phasmatrope. But another resident of the
entertainment. Whenever movie sales British Isles would become famous for his
dipped, the industry created better stories, early version of photographic motion pic-
turned up the publicity about the stars, and tures.
developed innovative technology to attract Born Edward James Muggeridge, but pre-
more viewers. When audiences became bored ferring Eadweard Muybridge, he captured the
with the documentary, home-movie style of motions of a running horse in a series of still
MOTION PICTURES AND THE SIX PERSPECTIVES 285
photographs using twelve and then later the pictures were processed and displayed in
twenty- four cameras. In 1872, a former gov- the proper sequence, Stanford clearly had
ernor and a wealthy resident of California, won his bet. Using the sequential display
Leland Stanford, hired Muybridge to settle a procedure, Muybridge went on to photograph
$25,000 bet. Stanford wanted Muybridge to all sorts of animals and people in various
prove that, at some point while a horse ran, actions and poses. These images eventually
all four hoofs were off the ground. However, were printed in books and used as reference
at that time the photographic process was too material for artists, enabling them to draw
slow to stop the horse's movement. In the animal and human forms more accurately
meantime, Muybridge gave a series of well- (Figure 13.6).
publicized lectures using a projecting ma- For the next decade no improvements
chine to demonstrate his animated images of were made in the awkward but entertaining
slower moving animals to pleased audiences projection devices because photographs had
around the country. The next attempt in to have a glass base. With the invention of
1878 was a success. At Stanford's stables in Richard Maddox's gelatin-bromide dry plate
Palo Alto, Muybridge had a horse run in front process in 1871 and George Eastman's roll
of his row of cameras. The shutter for each film innovation in 1888, still photography
one was connected to a string. As the horse could be transformed into the motion picture
ran, it tripped each connected camera's shut- medium. American inventor Thomas Alva
ter in order, taking a self-portrait. When all Edison, who had invented the phono-
Figure 13.6
Californian photographer
Eadweard Muybridge was

one of the first to combine
still photographs in a
sequence to simulate
movement. This sequence of
shots of a leaping horse is a
good example of the motion
studies that were popular
with audiences in the 1870s.

—
286 MOTION PICTURKS
graph in 1877, had the idea in the 1880s to sound on celluloid film in 1889, but no
etch pictures on his phonograph cylinders so record ol tlv movie exists probably because
that music could be illustrated with images Edison stood by the phonographic cylinder
Figure 13.7
an early version of the music video. Some of invention.
The first motion picture in
his early experiments have survived over the Although audiences commonly viewed
the Library of Congress
years. One of his assistants, William Kennedy projected films in contraptions similar to a
collection is the short
Laurie Dickson, however, convinced the in- modern slide projector, Edison worried that
Thomas Edison film Fred ventor to switch to celluloid film produced by moving films would be of too poor quality to
Ott's Sneeze of 1891. Ott's the Eastman company. Dickson reportedly be projected. In a decision that eventually left
sneeze should be viewed made a motion picture using a machine with the inventor out of the motion picture busi-
column by column starting the awkward name of Kinetophonograph to ness, he decided that the future of movies
from the top left. demonstrate synchronized motion with would be a singular experience in which a
movie would be seen through a peephole.
(Perhaps Edison was actually ahead of his
time: His vision of the medium is similar to
what is now called virtual reality.) Edison
believed he would make more money by

selling the many films and viewing devices
that would be needed than if many people
could watch a single film together.
In 1891, Edison patented his Kinetograph
camera and the Kinetoscope peephole viewer
in the United States. His machine contained
an eye hole through which a viewer could
watch a film strip pulled along by the ma-
chinery. But so little did Edison think of this
new invention that he never bothered to pay
the $159 patent fee. to secure European rights.
In 1891, Edison and Dickson made the
first motion picture to be preserved in the
collection of the Library of Congress. The

short film was a close-up of a slightly self-
conscious mechanic pretending to sneeze for

the camera in Fred Ott's Sneeze (Figure 13.7).
Within three years, Edison had established
Kinetoscope arcades in which phonographs
could be heard on one side and thirty-second
movies viewed on the other. Edison sold each
viewer to arcade owners for $250 and each
film for $10. Customers were charged $0.25
for each viewing. Dickson made the films,
which were fifty feet long, with no editing or
camera movements. Early movies simply

showed dancers, clowns, and other entertain-
ers performing in front of the camera inside
of a tar paper shack called the "Black Maria"

on the grounds of Edison's laboratory in New year to announce their invention publicly.
Jersey. They used the time to build a large number of
Because Edison didn't secure patent rights cameras and distribute them around the
in Europe, an English scientific instruments world. On December 28, 1895, the first public
maker, Robert Paul, bought a Kinetograph audience for motion pictures was treated to a
and made an important technical improve- series of short films in the basement of the
ment. Because Edison was so fond of electric- Grand Cafe in Paris. Auguste and Louis were
ity, his camera was large and not easily not present at this first showing because they
moved. Consequently the films produced were busy preparing for a larger opening in
with the electrified machine had to be staged their own movie theater. Their father, An-
productions inside a studio. Paul fitted the toine, introduced the silent movie selections
camera with a hand crank, which allowed that included the factory short, a Lumiere Figure 13.8
more portable setups. baby enjoying a meal, a comedy about a Unlike Edison, Auguste and
In 1894, the two French brothers Auguste young boy teasing a gardener, and a train Louis Lumiere thought
and Louis Lumiere purchased one of Paul's arriving into a station. The latter movie motion pictures would be
Kinetographs. The two were already in the produced howls from the audience, who, viewed in theaters with large
photography business, because their father unaccustomed to the new medium, were audiences and that subjects
owned a successful factory in Lyon that made afraid that a real train was about to crash
would be taken oiaside of a
photographic plates. Their variations of the through the screen. Shortly thereafter, the
sterile studio. One of the
Kinetoscope proved to be the most important Lumieres established the first movie theater.
first films by the Lumiere
technical advance for the medium. The Lu- It seated 120 people and projected twenty
brothers is the 1895 film
miere brothers invented a camera that not shows a day at half-hour intervals. With an
Workers Leaving the
only could make films, but also could process admission price of a single franc, the brothers
Lumiere Factory. With its
and project the movies. With Paul's handmade about 2,500 francs a day. Filmmakers,
objective camera approach,
crank variation, the camera easily could be with strict instructions not to reveal the
taken anywhere and the films shown to secret of the camera, sent films from every the work has a
audiences. They made the 35-mm film size part of the world except Antarctica. Soon the contemporary documentary
the standard for all cameras and projectors. Lumieres had four movie theaters in Paris. style.
Edison showed his movies at forty frames a

second, which resulted in relatively high qual-
ity animation but often caused the film to
jam in the machine. The Lumieres used a
film speed of sixteen frames a second, which
also became an industry standard until mov-
ies with sound required a faster twenty-four
frames a second. They named their invention
the Cinematographe, which soon was short-
ened to cinema.
The Lumieres' first films were similar to
those created by purchasers of video cameras

— glorified home movies. Early in 1895, the
two previewed their first effort, Workers Leav-
ing the Lumiere Factory, with a group of

friends and family members (Figure 13.8).
After receiving the enthusiastic support of

their first audience, the two waited almost a
288 MOTION PICTURES
Meanwhile, in 1895, Robert Paul applied Edison favored heavy-handed staged produc-
for a patent for a unique kind of movie tions in the fiction genre. Typical was the
theater. After discussing his idea with science gruesome Mary, Queen of Scots, in which her
fiction writer H. G. Wells, Paul wanted to head was seen to roll off the guillotine. As it
produce a film based on The Time Machine in turned out, both the Lumieres and Edison
which theatergoers would be treated not only had it wrong. What the public wanted was the
to the movie, but also to their seats rocking in best of both documentary and staged produc-
synchronized movements with the film. tions — fictionalized films set outside in the
Paul's theater never received enough financial open air.
backing to get beyond the planning stage. Dickson left the Edison company to mar-
However, he made more than fifty movies in ket his own version of the Kinetoscope — the
the next fifteen years and established the first Mutoscope. Instead of a roll of film that often
film school in Britain. In 1904 the first jammed, the Mutoscope was a flipbook of
motion simulator ride, Hale's Tours, was photographic cards that the viewer watched
housed in a small auditorium shaped like a through a peephole. Dickson's company was
train. Audience members entered at the back named the American Mutoscope and
past a "conductor" ticket-taker and watched Biograph Company. Mutoscopes quickly
rushing views on a screen while the platform faded in importance, but the Biograph studio
vibrated as if on a real train. Hale's Tours was became an important motion picture produc-
the inspiration for currently popular rides in tion company in the United States.
the Disneyland (Star Tours) and Universal The Lumieres and Edison were inventors
Studios (Back to the Future — The Ride) and marketing geniuses, but they are not
amusement parks. considered important in the development of
When Edison was not in court because of motion pictures as an art form. One of the
lawsuits over the infringement of his U.S. first to realize the aesthetic potential of mov-
Kinetograph patent, he was busy with his ies was Georges Melies of France. The son of
version of the movie camera. Noticing the wealthy parents, Melies started his career as a
popularity of the Lumiere brothers' large- caricaturist, stage . designer, magician, and
audience shows, in 1896 Edison teamed up actor. At an early Lumiere showing, Melies
with Thomas Armat to invent the Vitascope, was intrigued by the new medium. But when
an onscreen projection version of the Kineto- he inquired about purchasing a camera, the
scope. Edison introduced the machine to a Lumiere brothers, as they did with all re-
paying audience for the first time on April 23, quests, politely refused to sell their device.
1896. The motion picture demonstration was But Melies purchased a camera from Paul and
part of a vaudeville variety show at Koster made his first movie, A Game of Cards, in
and Bial's Music Hall, the present site of 1896. By 1900 the public had grown bored
Macy's Department Store in Manhattan. In with documentaries. The Lumiere brothers,
America, movies were included between more inventors than artists, went on to devel-
vaudeville acts until separate theaters were op the first practical color photographic
created for them after the turn of the century. film — the Autochrome (Chapter 12). Melies
Edison's short films, usually produced by stepped in to fill the void left when the
n Dickson, differed from the Lumiere Lumiere brothers and Edison quit produc-
i a fundamental way. Instead of a tion. Melies created surreal films inspired by
documentary approach, where people and his experiences as a magician and stage per-
situations were filmed by the camera often former. By 1907, fiction films outnumbered
without them being aware of its presence, nonfiction works for the first time.
Melies is considered to be the founder of was forced to declare bankruptcy and his
movie special effects. Once while he was theater was demolished. Five years later a
filming a scene, the camera suddenly journalist found him and his wife selling toys
jammed, but started up a few moments later. and candy at a kiosk in Paris. Unfortunately,
When he processed the film, Melies discov- out of bitterness over the emerging film in-
ered that the accident resulted in a "jump dustry and its ruthless competitive practices,
cut" in which the actor suddenly disappeared he destroyed most of his movies. He died of
from view. This special trick along with his cancer in 1938. But his imagination and fan-
elaborate sets and animation techniques re- tasy style inspired many filmmakers, includ-
sulted in charming films that exploited the ing the animator Emile Cohl (Chapter 11).
magical quality of motion pictures. His most
famous work is the ten-minute classic A Trip The Action-Adventure Film
to the Moon made in 1902. Roughly based on One of the early innovators in filmmaking
the Jules Verne stories of From the Earth to the who understood the public's desire to see
Moon and Around the Moon, the movie shows action movies produced outside a studio was
a group of professors who take a voyage in a the American Edwin Stratton Porter. James
rocket ship that lands in one of the "eyes" of Monaco in his book How to Read a Film calls
the face on the moon. Porter "the most important filmmaker on the
During his career, Melies made more than American scene." Porter is considered to be
500 films, which he showed in his Theatre the founder of modern film editing. Until
Rober-Houdin in Paris. Unfortunately, two Porter's day, movies were made by individu-
factors led to his downfall as a filmmaker: als who didn't understand the difference
profit and the public. Another pair of French between real time and cinematic time. Time
brothers, Charles and Leon Pathe, acquired in the movies produced by the Lumiere
the rights from the Eastman Kodak Company brothers, Edison, and Melies was continuous.
to sell film stock in Europe. The two became The action when the camera was
started
the first full-service production company that turned on and ended when the camera
controlled film stock, processing outlets, and stopped. Porter learned to use the concept of
camera and projector sales. They even made discontinuous, cinematic time in his editing
their own motion pictures and owned a chain classics. Modern motion pictures chop up
of movie theaters. Before 1903, films were actions into discontinuous bits. When spliced
sold to distributors for $0.12 a foot, or about together, complex stories can be told and the
$100 each. But the Pathe monopoly started to action made more dramatic.
lease films to theater owners for a greatly In 1896, he had left the U.S. Navy and
reduced cost. Consequently, Melies could not went to work for Edison as a mechanic,
make enough money to finance his work electrician, and Vitascope operator. He soon
when the Pathes' controlled all of the produc- left Edison's employ, bought his own camera,
tion steps. The Pathe brothers and Edison made films, rented a theater, and showed his
also stole copies of Melies's films and showed movies under the name of Thomas Edison,
them in their theaters without paying for the Jr. He made his two most famous pictures in
shows. 1903 The Life of an American Fireman and

Another reason for Melies's downfall was The Great Train Robbery. They showcase his
that the fickle public preferred fictionalized technical achievements in which dramatic
work shot outside a studio to the staged, exterior chase scenes with innovative angles
theaterlike productions that Melies favored. and panning camera movements are cut with
He made his last film in 1914 and in 1923 he interior, studio views that were dull by com-
290 MOTION PICTURKS
had been a reporter for a Louisville newspa-

per and had written and acted for the stage
when he was signed as an actor at $5 a day.
Because of the growing popularity of U.S.
movies, separate theaters outside of vaude-
ville houses were built. These Nickelodeons,
named for the price of a ticket, required the
production of many more films. With his
stage experience, Griffith soon was offered a

director's position.
Biograph produced about 100 inexpensive

movies a year that were sixteen-minute "full-
reel" and eight-minute "half-reel" pictures.
His first movie, The Adventures of Dollie

(1908), was the story of a band of gypsies
who stole a baby that was later rescued from a
swift river and happily reunited with its
mother. The film cost $65 and required only

two days to make. Griffith soon became one
Figure 13.9 parison, but nevertheless moved the action of the top directors on the Biograph payroll,
The first action-adventure along. His Fireman movie, for example, tells and by 1914, he had made twenty-eight
motion picture was the 1903 the story of rescue workers outside a burning movies. In 1910, he convinced Dickson to
classic The Great Train house and cuts to a frightened woman and move his operation to California, where film-
child inside. In Robbery, he used camera pans ing could continued during the winter. Al-
Robbery by Edwin Porter.
and hand-painted some of his prints with red though not the first to think of such a change,
Unlike the films by Thomas
to make gunshots and explosions more dra- he helped establish Hollywood as the center
Edison, Porter filmed his
matic (Figure 13.9). But like Melies before for moviemaking.
movies outside of a stage set.
him, Porter couldn't make a success of the Griffith is best Jcnown for the infamous
Here, three train robbers
film business. Although a wealthy man, he The Birth of a Nation. The movie is a demon-
make their escape while
lost all his money in the stock market crash of stration of the maturity of Griffith's film-
ducking gunfire.
1929. He was forced to return to the skill that work, but unfortunately tells a mean-spirited
started him on his film career. He maintained and racist story (Figure 13.10). Originally
a machine shop for an appliance maker until titled The Clansman from the book of the
his death. Nevertheless, his innovative use of same name by Thomas Dixon, the movie tells
simultaneous action and other techniques of the history of the United States immediate-
inspired many other filmmakers, including ly after the Civil War. When a struggling
one of the greatest silent era directors, D. W. community is attacked by a ravaging group of
Griffith. African Americans (most were white actors
played with heavy black makeup), the people
The First Blockbuster
are saved by white hooded members of the Ku
The rise and fall of David Wark Griffith is Klux Klan (KKK) who ride into town on
a metaphor for the entire silent era. Edwin horseback. Griffith probably was attracted to
Porter was making Rescued from an Eagle's the story because he was a Southerner and his
Nest for Dickson's Biograph Studio in 1907 father had been a Confederate soldier.
when he hired Griffith, a young actor, for a Compared to the other Biograph movies,
lumberjack role. Born in Kentucky, Griffith Birth was an incredible gamble. The film cost
somewhere between $40,000 and $125,000—

the most ever invested in a motion picture at
that time. It required six weeks of rehearsal,
nine weeks to shoot, and the services of
thousands of actors and horses. The three-
hour movie premiered at Clune's Auditorium
in Los Angeles on February 8, 1915, to
immediate controversy. The NAACP issued a

pamphlet called "Fighting a Vicious Film"
and began a boycott of the studio. Many lead-
ing politicians and civic leaders were unani-
mous in their condemnation because of the
racist message of the movie. When it was
shown in Boston, a race riot followed, but
attendance at road show engagements was

high. The public probably was drawn to
the movie by its controversy, the war theme,
the lovers' story, and the dramatic music
(supplied by an organist at the theater). Over
the years, The Birth of a Nation reportedly
made some $20 million. Although the KKK tured the sensitive character actress Lillian Figure 13.10
had disbanded in 1869, the film also was Gish, who was considered to be the finest David Griffith glorified the
responsible for the racist extremist group's American silent film star (Figure 13.11). Gish Ku Klux Klan in The Birth
revival. had worked with him in Birth and Intoler-
of a Nation. In this
Although Birth was motion picture's first ance. Blossoms told of the inevitably sad love
publicity still, members of
blockbuster hit and made a fortune for Grif- triangle involving the demure Gish, a brutish
the vigilante organization
fith, he was stung by the adverse commentary abuser named Battling Burrows, and a Chi-
(and their horses) wear
about the film. His next movie, Intolerance,
masks to protect their
was an attempt to improve his reputation.
identities. (Present-day Klan
Griffith invested all the profits from Birth to
members don't wear a
make the epic that was a complex, eight-hour
financial disaster. Intolerance told four differ- spiked-helmet accessory.)
ent stories, from a young man falsely accused

of murdering a baby to a historical drama set
in ancient Babylon. The critics and the public

of his day never appreciated the film. It cost
Griffith his financial independence, and he

had to ask others for backing.
Figure 13.11
In 1919, Griffith, Charles Chaplin,
Silent star Lillian Gish
Douglas Fairbanks, and Mary Pickford left
during a pensive it;
the Biograph Studio and formed their own
the set. Gish and other silent
film company, which they named United
Artists. The defection led to the eventual stars could say more with a
bankruptcy of Dickson's Biograph. Griffith's look or gesture than many
only other critically acclaimed motion pic- later actors could say with
ture was Broken Blossoms (1919), which fea- dialogue.

292 MOTION PICTURES
neseman simply referred to as the "Yellow a Hungarian immigrant, established his first
Man" in the film. movie theater in 1904. Eight years later he

In his later years, Griffith lost much of the became an independent producer. Porter
creative energy associated with his early films. convinced him to show full-length motion
In the 1930s, he tried to make movies with pictures in his theater chain. Zukor's produc-
sound, but his lack of technical experience tion and theater business was later named
with audio and studio executives, who viewed Paramount Pictures. Marcus Loew was a
him as a quaint, silent-movie dinosaur, pre- successful furrier and owner of a chain of
vented him from doing so. For the last vaudeville houses in 1904. When it became
seventeen years of his life he lived as a virtual evident that vaudeville would lose out to
hermit in Los Angeles. He died in 1948 on his movie theaters, Loew bought the
in 1924
way to a Hollywood hospital from a hotel Metro Picture Company and the Goldwyn
where he had been living alone. Picture Company founded by Samuel Gold-
Although Porter and others used many of fish (who had changed his name). When
his editing, tracking, and panning film tech- Loew put a theater owner, Louis B. Mayer, in
niques, Griffith put all those innovations and charge of production, their partnership even-
some others to excellent use in his own work. tually led to the powerful studio Metro-
He developed an iris-mask shot that acted Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM). During World War
like a spotlight so that the viewer concen- I, many European companies were forced to
trated on a specific part of the frame. His stop commercial production, which allowed
cross-cutting techniques between various Hollywood to take over. By 1915, most
scenes inspired the great Russian director American studios had established complexes
Sergei Eisenstein. His spectacular use of huge in the Los Angeles suburb of Universal City,
sets, particularly in Intolerance, was a fore- where the weather, environment, and real
runner for Cecil B. DeMille's epics. His estate prices were favorable for movie produc-
innovative use of close-ups, lighting, and tion. Many Europeans who migrated because
shallow focus as a way for the audience to of the war became successful in the film
become more emotionally involved inspired industry. ,
many other directors to concentrate on sim- Several "poverty row" yet successful stu-
ple, dramatic moments. dios flourished during this period. Three of

the most famous stars in Hollywood — Chap-
Lasting Legacy of Silent Films lin, Fairbanks, and Pickford — formed United
The silent- film period is important be- Artists to give them more autonomy over
cause during that time the motion picture their work. Nevertheless, they found distrib-
industry established itself as a powerful busi- uting their movies difficult because Para-
ness force, started the careers of numerous mount owned most of the theaters. In 1925,
directors, and began the concept of "stars," Gloria Swanson and two years later Samuel
who were elevated to a higher status than Goldwyn joined the group and helped turn
mere actors. The triad of business dealings, United Artists into a major studio. William
directors, and stars crucial to filmmaking Fox, an exhibitor and movie distributor in
during that time remain vital in today's world 1912, merged his company with Joseph
of moviemaking. Schenck and Darryl Zanuck of Twentieth
Century. The American Pathe Studio earned
The Movie Business keep with a popular serial, The Perils
its of
Some of the most powerful studio execu- Pauline, in 1914. The Hearst newspapers also
tives had humble beginnings. Adolph Zukor, featured cartoon versions of twenty melodra-
matic films. Theater owners Harry, Albert, studio executives over his high budgets. For
Sam, and Jack Warner started making their example, his 1923 The Ten Commandments
own films in 1912 under the name Warner cost more than a million dollars to produce.
Bros. DeMille had been inspired to become a
The proliferation of studios indicated the director after watching Porter's The Great
rise in popularity of motion pictures general- He initially worked for Samuel
Train Robbery.
ly, with the public clamoring for new movies Goldwyn and moved their production facili-
to satisfy their film appetite. The numerous ties to a barn in Hollywood in 1914 to begin
business deals among producers, distributors, making feature films. DeMille was popular
and banking groups (J. P. Morgan and Rocke- with the public because his movies always
feller) reflected the rising costs of movies. contained a hint of sensuality as opposed to
Griffith's sentimentality.
Directors Although making movies has al- In the tradition of the Lumiere brothers,
ways been a collaborative effort, the role of the English documentary photographer Rob-
the director is the key to a production. A ert Flaherty began shooting a Canadian
director turns the words of the screenwriter, Eskimo's struggle to survive in 1913. In 1922,
the talent of the actors, and the expertise of his documentary classic Nanook of the North
the technical crew into an art form with a was released. The film is noted as an early
unique style. example of documentary filmmaking, but
Several early American film directors be- Flaherty often posed Nanook in order to
came famous. Mack Sennett was an actor make the movie more dramatic. Modern
under Edison and later worked for Griffith. In documentary directors try to be more objec-
1912, he financed his own production com- tive in their presentations.
pany, named the Keystone Film Company of Erich von Stroheim, a child of Viennese
Los Angeles. The studio was famous for its aristocratic parents, arrived in the United
madcap chase scenes involving the Keystone States in 1906. He played one of many extras
Kops and romantic comedies featuring the hired by Griffith to portray African Ameri-
sophisticated star Gloria Swanson. Keystone cans in blackface for The Birth of a Nation.
launched the careers of writer-turned-direc- During the filming of Intolerance, he was
tor Frank Capra and comedic actors Harold promoted to assistant director. His most
Lloyd and Charles Chaplin, the most famous famous work was the 1925 classic The Merry
silent-film star. But when the silent-film Widow, which questioned the social mores of
period ended, Sennett's comedies were no a declining upper class.
longer popular. In France, Abel Gance expanded the lan-
Hal Roach was Sennett's biggest competi- guage of film by creating a 1927 masterpiece,
tor in directing comedies. Roach wooed Napoleon. Gance used three projectors to
Lloyd away with more money. With his alter form a triptych by which he treated the
ego, whom he called the "Glass Character," audience to various views of the action-
Lloyd made more than 100 one-reel comedies packed scenes.
that exhibited his acrobatic skills and a so- The silent-film period in Germany was cut
phisticated sense of visual humor. Roach short by the interference of Adolf Hitler
went on to direct Stan Laurel and Oliver and the Nazi party. Robert Wienz's tale of
Hardy in several comedy classics and the Our supernatural powers and murder frightened
Gang comedy series. 1919 viewers in his The Cabinet of Doctor
The most famous silent-film director was Caligari. The set designs were inspired by the
Cecil B. DeMille, who often clashed with German expressionist movement, and the
)
294 MOTION PICTURES
actors walked in "living paintings." F. W. directors escaped from Germany and settled
Murnau's Nosferatu (1922), the first version in Hollywood. Unfortunately, director Leni
of Bram Stoker's Dracula, is a film classic for Riefenstahl, inspired by Metropolis, commit-
its experimental use of lighting and makeup ted her talents to the Nazi party with her
effects for actor Max Schreck. Probably the 1935 classic propaganda film, Triumph of the
most famous German director of this period Will. Nevertheless, her work is every bit as
was Fritz Lang, who produced Destiny ( 1 92 1

innovative and cinematic as that of the other
and the futuristic Metropolis (1926), a film German directors. Particularly striking is her
noted for its stunning visual effects (Figure film about the 1936 Berlin Olympic games,
13.12). Supposedly, the latter was one of Olympia (1938), which celebrates the human
Hitler's favorite movies and the Nazi leader body rather than military might.
invited Lang, who was half-Jewish and a By far, one of the most influential direc-
liberal, to make films for the Third Reich. tors in history of the silent films was the
Fortunately, Lang and many other German Russian Sergei Eisenstein. Like Orson Welles,
Eisenstein is known primarily for his innova-
Figure 13.12 tive film technique in one motion picture.
"Metropolis. 1926. The son of a shipbuilder, he studied architec-
Lithograph: 6' 11 . . . 36 ture and engineering before being bitten by
1/2." In this art deco the theater bug. He gave up his engineering
career when he landed a job with an experi-
inspired poster by
mental theater where he designed sets and
Schulz-Neudamm,
directed plays. He became interested in film-
architecture and robotic
making after watching Griffith's use of mon-
behavior are linked in a
tage sequences in The Birth of a Nation to
dynamic way — as they are
the story of rich and poor characters. In 1925,
tell
in the film by Karl Freund.

he released his classic The Battleship Potem-
kin, which told the story of the 1905 sailors'
rebellion in Odessa and the Tsar's brutal

reprisal. The movie is probably best known
for its famous "steps" scene in which mon-
tage and quick editing techniques created
dramatic tension (Figure 13.13). Eisenstein
was inspired by dadaism, in which multiple
images were employed for maximum graphic
effect. With film pieces as short as 1/16
second, the murder of Russian civilians by the
Tsar's troops (an incident that probably was
not as severe as shown) is one of the best

examples of the art of editing in the history of
film. Eisenstein became a teacher of motion
picture art and wrote several books about the

power of film as a communication medium
before his death in 1948.
Stars The union of Mary Pickford, Douglas
Fairbanks (first economically and then liter-
ally in their 1920 marriage), and Charles

Chaplin was a recognition that most people Nevada in 1920 to get a quick divorce and Figure 13.13
went to the movies to see them rather than three weeks later married Fairbanks, the pub- Adding to the horror of the
their actions. The fact that stars became more lic was outraged by the scandal. Fans asked, famous steps scene in the
important than stories boosted their salaries how could such a sweet, girl-next-door type 1925 classic by Russian
to enormous heights (and is the reason why behave in such an immoral way? A few years
director Sergei Eisenstein,
stars, for the most part, are paid more than later, however, the two divorced.
The Battleship Potemkin, is
directors). But the personal price stars paid Charles Chaplin was the most famous
the abandoned baby carriage
for such high pay was that they could never screen personality of this or any other day. He
that is left on its own to
escape their on-screen personalities and ce- was born in the slums of London and worked
perilously travel down the
lebrity status. For example, in only three years hard to achieve his dream of becoming a stage
steps between dead and
the salary of Mary Pickford, the most famous actor. During his vaudeville tour of the
star of the time, jumped from about $25,000 United States, Mack Sennett spotted him. dying citizens.
to almost $1 million a year. But the three The director wooed Chaplin from the theater
United Artists' founding members could nev- with the promise of $150 a week and a year's
er escape their typecast roles or find the guarantee to play in his Keystone Kop come-
privacy that ordinary people take for granted. dies in 1913. But Chaplin became frustrated,
Typified by her movie Tess of the Storm believing that Sennett wasn't using his char-
Country (1922), Pickford always played an acter, the Little Tramp, enough. In 1915,
innocent waif. Douglas Fairbanks, a swash- Chaplin joined the Essanay (S&A) Studio for
buckling ladies' man, played that role in $1,250 a week. By 1918, Chaplin's character
Robin Hood (1922) and The Thief of Baghdad of the sad-eyed hobo with the baggy clothes
(1924). When Pickford hurriedly went to and dark mustache was so popular that he
296 MOTION PICTURES
could command a one-year salary of $1 "Buster" after seeing him fall down a flight of
million. The next year, United Artists was steps as a toddler. Keaton first performed on
formed, and Chaplin became the first writer, stage when he was just one year old. By 1917,
director, and actor in Hollywood. His most he had appeared in three movies directed by
famous movies were The Gold Rush (1925), Roscoe Arbuckle. His most famous comedy is
with its famous scene in which he eats his The General (1927), in which he plays a
own shoe, and The Great Dictator (1940), a Confederate locomotive operator trying to
spoof of Adolf Hitler (Figure 13.14). After save his train from Union soldiers who want
criticizing the politics of the government and to destroy it. Trying to deal with great forces
Figure 13.14 losing a paternity suit (in which a blood test beyond his control that were disrupting his
In this publicity still for The revealed he wasn't the father of the child in everyday activities — and never changing his
Great Dictator, a bewildered question), Chaplin left the United States in pessimistic expression — was constant a
Charles Chaplin is arrested

1952 and was refused reentry. George Ber- theme in Keaton's work (Figure 13.15).
nard Shaw called Chaplin "the only genius in Another reason for Hollywood's domi-
by military police while
motion pictures." But when the silent little nance over the world's output of motion
actress Jean Goddard looks
tramp started talking, the public could not pictures was that many actors immigrated
on in fear. Note the many
tolerate his opinions. from Europe. Successful studios knew the
shadows cast by the
While Chaplin played a sentimental public's fascination with these often sensual
characters on the floor. Early
tramp, his rival comic of the day, Buster and mysterious stars. Swedish actress Greta
technical crews for motion
Keaton, played an everyday person facing Garbo was discovered when she worked as a
pictures weren 't adept at
impossible odds. Joseph Francis Keaton was hat model for a department store. After she
eliminating shadows caused born into an acrobatic vaudeville family in had played in several Swedish productions,
by the lights required for a 1895. The famous magician Harry Houdini MGM Studios brought her to the United
scene. gave the young performer the nickname States. Rudolpho d'Antonguolla (later
changed to Rudolph Valentino) was a playboy
and Tango dancer in Argentina when he was

discovered. Women everywhere adored him,
and men admired the rugged adventure tales
he starred in. In The Sheik (1923) he estab-

lished the sultry screen persona that he was
never able to shake.
Scandals The new Hollywood sensuality on

and off the big screen caused many people to
become concerned that movies could have a
corrupting influence on the morals of the
nation. Sparked by the sensual love scenes on
the screen and the personal scandals of a
handful of stars, a private censorship board
was established to regulate the industry. The
actor and director Roscoe "Fatty" Arbuckle
was involved in a 1921 scandal. A young
actress died during a party at his rented
twelfth floor suite in the St. Francis Hotel in
San Francisco, and Arbuckle was charged

with rape and murder. Even though he was
found not guilty, his reputation was ruined Figure 13.15
because of vicious attacks in the Hearst Buster Keaton's universal
newspapers. Mary Pickford's hasty postdi- "everyman" appeal is
vorce marriage and the Arbuckle affair led to evident in this publicity still
the formation in 1922 of the Motion Pictures

from The Passionate
Producers and Distributors of America by
Plumber. Keaton represented
Will Hays, former Postmaster General in the
for many the struggle to
Harding administration. A Presbyterian eld-
understand and cope with
er, Hays and his committee members offered
the problems of ordinary life.
informal advice to movie executives about
studio scandals and movie content. More
important, the office issued a seal of approval
for work that they considered acceptable for
mass audiences. Without that approval, a film
was doomed to a low-budget status. This

early form of censorship led to sanitized and
banal works in the 1930s and 1940s that
could win easy approval from the Hays office.
The office inspired the 1945 group the Mo-

tion Picture Association of America, which
was created for the same purpose, and the
1970s Motion Picture Rating System.
Silent movies required directors and actors
The Oscar The Academy of Motion Picture to produce pictures that relied on visual
Arts and Sciences first presented its Academy messages to tell their stories. Many thought
Awards on May 16, 1929, partly as a public that adding sound to movies would be a
relations ploy to help dignify the criticized creative disaster. In a sense they were right.
film industry. The treasured, eight-pound, When sound was developed, movies were
B^-inch-tall, gold-plated award originally forced back into staged productions on thea-
was called "The Statuette." But when an ter sets because of the technical restrictions of
Academy librarian remarked that the stand- the early microphones. Consequently, dia-
ing man looked like her Uncle Oscar, the logue and not images became the chief
name stuck. means for storytelling. Today, silent movies
are thought of as quaint, crude, and old-
The Raucous Silent-Film Period Seeing a fashioned. But in reality, they are an innova-
movie during the period of the silent film did tive and visually complex storytelling medi-
not mean that the theater was quiet. At the um with stars who learned to convey complex
time, most American movies were shown in emotional responses with facial and hand
loud, raucous vaudeville houses. Almost al- gestures. Although silent movies are available
ways introduced by a master of ceremonies, on videotape and laser disks, there are few
theater owners included elaborate orchestra- places where you can view them on a large
tion or a single piano player or organist, and screen with an organist accompanying the
employed stage hands to provide sound ef- action. One of the only movie houses in the
fects. Stage actors and the audience often re- world devoted to silent movies is the Silent
cited dialogue — a practice revived with thecult Movie Showcase theater, which recently re-
classic The Rocky Horror Picture Show ( 1975). opened in Hollywood. On many college cam-
— —
298 MOTION PICTURES
puses, silent movies with organist accompa- same time. Vitaphone was an adaptation of
niment are played occasionally to apprecia- Edison's phonographic cylinder in which a
tive audiences. Whenever possible, you recording disk was made when the film was
should take the opportunity to watch a silent shot. To produce sound during a movie, a
movie in such a setting. theater exhibitor had to run the picture and
the cylinder with two different machines.
Hollpvood Finds Its Voice Occasionally problems arose (considered hu-
The 1930s and 1940s are considered by morous by early audiences) when the two
most motion picture historians to be Holly- didn't match or a haphazard projector tech-
wood's great age. Technical innovations nician accidentally played the wrong disk.
brought improvements in presentation, stu- Phonofilm, the technology eventually se-
dios became powerful arbitrators of careers lected, was a sound-on-film innovation that
and content, and the public flocked to films converted recorded sounds into visual repre-
in record numbers. sentations that were printed on the film itself.
Consequently, no separate machine was re-
Sound Beginning with Edison's Kineto- quired because the visual and the audio
phonograph, linking pictures and sounds was components of the movie always matched.
considered an inevitable technical develop- Warner Bros, studios invested heavily in
ment. However, the advent of "talking pic- Vitaphone, whereas Fox advocated Phono-
tures" was delayed because various inventors film. On October 5, 1927, Warner debuted Al
produced different sound systems. Another Jolson's The Jazz Singer using the Vitaphone
reason for the delay was that theater owners process. Although not the first sound picture
were not convinced of the necessity to fit — there had been earlier experiments with
their movie houses with expensive sound recorded voices and music The Jazz Singer
equipment. was the first movie in which sound was used
Amplified sound that could be heard by in a feature motion picture to tell a story. The
large audiences was made possible by Lee De movie is forgettable except as a footnote in
Forest's invention of the audio tube in (see the history of sound, presentations. It basically
Chapter 14). Based on an earlier idea of is the story of a vaudeville star who returns
Edison's, De Forest created a vacuum tube home to sing for his mother. In blackface
that eventually led to public address systems, makeup Jolson sings the song "Mammie"
radio, stereo equipment, and television. The and speaks the famous line "You ain't heard
American Telegraph & Telephone company nothin' yet." Although the film contained
(AT&T) bought De Forest's technology and only four sequences in which sound was
developed it in the company's Western Elec- heard, audiences immediately reacted favora-
tric Bell Laboratories subsidiary. General bly to the innovation. The heyday of the silent
Electric's scientists also were working on movie was quickly coming to an end. Warn-
sound development. Both Western Electric er's next movie, the first all-talking film, was
and General Electric announced their ampli- the following year's The Lights of New York, a
fication systems at about the same time. gangster genre Vitaphone picture. Fox hyped
next step in the process was to com- the Phonofilm process before feature films in
vhronized dialogue, music, and newsreels called Movietone News. Meanwhile,
:ts during a movie's filming. Two Fox generated excitement about its process by
-the Vitaphone (sound on showing Charles Lindbergh's famous depar-

e Phonofilm (sound on film) ture for Paris in one of its 1927 Movietone
became available to filmmakers at about the newsreels.
Although the public demanded talking muffle their noise and boom microphones
movies, critics and studio executives were were invented to improve the quality of audio
lukewarm to the innovation. Because of tech- and provide outdoor shooting capabilities.
nical limitations with early microphones, ac- Synchronized sound on film helped revive the
tors had to speak their lines in static posi- slumping movie industry.
tions. Action-adventure films were practically In the 1970s, Ray Dolby introduced his
impossible to make with the limited equip- noise reduction technology. Stanley Kubrick
ment. Writers criticized the return to indoor first used the process in the 1971 movie A
stage productions. Many people predicted the Clockwork Orange. Today, two opposing
eventual end of the movies. In Singing in the sound systems are in competition. Digital
Rain (1952), silent films are portrayed comi- sound offers high-quality audio similar to
cally as microphones are hidden in flowers. music CDs. The Sony Corporation, parent
Studio heads and theater distributors company of Columbia Pictures, developed a
didn't favor sound because it added to the digital sound system that puts the digital
cost of making a movie: Camera sound audio directly on the film stock. Columbia's
equipment and speaker systems for theaters 1993 release The Last Action Hero is one of
had to be purchased. One reason that Adolph the first movies to use this technology. Op-
Zukor of Paramount was against sound was posing the Sony technique is a system similar
that he had recently invested in several new to the early Warner Bros. Vitaphone method.
movie theaters. He thought the technology The Matsushita Electric Industrial Company
unnecessarily disrupted the industry. Other (parent company of communications giant
problems were soon discovered with audio MCA, inventors of the VHS videotape for-
production. Shooting schedules had to be mat, and owner of Universal Studios) created
lengthened because of technical difficulties Digital Theater Sound (DTS). The digitized
and choreographic problems, and few direc- audio isn't on the film itself but is on a
tors knew how to use sound effectively. Silent separate CD-ROM disk that starts simultane-
movies, because of their emphasis on mime ously with the movie. An analog sound
to tell stories, were easily exportable to non- version is included on the film itself in case of
English-speaking audiences around the a technical problem with the computer
world. Finally, many famous stars on the equipment. Universal's 1993 hit Jurassic Park
studio payrolls had amusing or heavily ac- introduced DTS, but only about 1,000 thea-
cented voices that audiences thought comical. ters could play the digital version. The Matsu-
Despite the many problems, most people in shita system ismuch cheaper than the Sony
the industry believed that the switch to sound system, so it may become the industry stan-
was a necessary evil. But the best system still dard. Ironically, Sony has lost before to
had to be chosen. The major movie studio MCA: The public favored Matsushita's VHS
executives met in secret in 1926 and agreed video players to Sony's Betamax (see Chapter
not to use sound techniques until a clear 14).
winner was established between the two tech-

niques. Color The tedious method of hand-tinting
Because of the public's demand, studios individual frames of a motion picture was
borrowed heavily from banks and switched to used commercially as early as Porter's The
sound production when the Phonofilm tech- Great Train Robbery. The first color film
nology was adopted. By 1929, more than innovations were complicated, time-consum-
9,000 theaters around the world could show ing, and expensive. The first full-length mov-
talking pictures. Soon after, camera blimps to ie filmed and projected in color was The
300 MOTION PICTURES
World, the Flesh and the Devil (1914). That color reversal internegative film (CRI) in the
British production used a short-lived process 1970s, which is still used.
called Kinemacolor. In 1915, the Technicolor Besides the cost and trouble of using color
Motion Picture Corporation announced its film, color film companies faced another
two-color additive process. Seven years later a hurdle: a bias against color movies. Most
modern, subtractive color system was intro- studio executives and directors considered
duced. This three-color process was used in color suitable only for musicals, fantasies, and
the first movie shot entirely in color, which epics. "Serious" work demanded black and
had the ironic title The Black Pirate (1926). white film unt(a)inted with distracting, sen-
The Walt Disney Studio was one of the first to sational colors. However, that attitude
take advantage of color systems, which it used changed in the 1960s as people began to buy
in its animated classics. In the Technicolor color television sets. Soon, almost all movies
process, three strips of film had to be exposed were shot in color in order to compete with
in the camera at the same time through three color TV.
different color filters. In 1933, the studio won
an Academy Award for its Flowers and Trees, Widescreen Another technical innovation
an all-color production. Eastman Kodak en- employed to lure viewers to the theater was
tered the color film market when it intro- widescreen presentations. Although tried by
duced Kodachrome 35-mm slide film for still the Lumiere brothers at the 1900 Paris World
photography in 1935. Exposition and by Gance in his classic, Napo-
As before with sound, studio executives leon, the first real push for widescreen came
were hesitant to make color movies because in the 1950s by studio executives worried
the process could add as much as $200,000 to about the competition from television. Not
the cost of a picture, owing to the need for all filmmakers thought conversion to a wide-
special cameras, skilled technical personnel, screen was beneficial to the art form. Experi-
and processing. In a brilliant marketing mental French director Jean Cocteau re-
move, the Technicolor Corporation contract- marked, "The next poem I write, I am going
ed with producer David O. Selznick to con- to get a bigger sheet of paper."
vince other movie studios to use its product. Early in its history, the Academy of Mo-
To ensure the quality of a Technicolor pro- tion Picture Arts and Sciences selected the
duction, the company insisted on the use of four-to-three width-to-length ratio as the
its cameras, processing, printing, and even industry standard for screen presentations in
specially fabricated makeup for the actors. order to avoid costly differences in film stock,
Selznick demonstrated the effectiveness of cameras, and theaters. This aspect ratio,
color in the 1937 musical A Star Is Born and soon named the Academy standard, often is
the 1939 classic Gone with the Wind. In 1952, expressed mathematically as 1:1.33 or simply
Eastman Kodak introduced its Eastmancolor 1.33. The earlier, almost square proportions
film, which was easier to handle, less expen- of the film image had to be changed in the
sive, and, more important, could be used 1930s to allow for the soundtrack along the
with widescreen projection films. The Tech- side of the film. Eventually, widescreen be-
nicolor Corporation went out of business in came the standard presentation format. In
1953 because its film appeared too grainy Europe the aspect ratio became 1.66, and in
when enlarged for the widescreen format. the United States filmmakers used the wider
Eastman Kodak became the dominant film 1.85. In 1952, the first commercial wide-
provider for the movie industry and further screen format — Cinerama — was introduced.
solidified its position with the introduction of Although it was a complicated process that
MOTION PICTURES AND THK SIX PERSPECTIVES 301
Figure 13.16
The widescreen
CinemaScope technique
made its debut at
Grauman's Chinese (now

Matin's) Theater on
Hollywood Boulevard in the
1953 opening of The Robe.
Note that the name of the
process is more prominent
that the name of the movie.
required a movie to be shot with three The widescreen trend continues today in
cameras and shown with four projectors (one the form of the Imax and Omnimax presen-
reserved for the soundtrack), the widescreen, tation formats that require specially built
expansive look was a great success with the auditoriums. Imax theater screens are 120 by
public. The next year CinemaScope (later 85 feet in size. A twenty-minute film can cost
called Panavision) provided directors with a as much as $1 million.
widescreen process that needed only one Television screens were standardized on
camera and projector (Figure 13.16). Some the Academy format because no soundtrack
early widescreen hits included The Robe was required. However, widescreen movies
(1953), How the West Was Won (1962), and shown on the small screen frustrate film buffs
It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (1963). when compositions are ruined by the side
The large, 70-mm filmstock was first intro- cropping. "Pan and Scan" techniques are
duced in a 1930 production Happy Days, but used to select the important parts of a wide-
not until the 1970s were its commercial screen movie for presentation on the small
opportunities exploited. Directors had to TV screen. "Letterbox" presentations and
learn how to fully appreciate the change in widescreen television sets solve this problem
composition required when using the wide- (see Chapter 14).
screen format. Contemporary directors who

Hooray for Hollywood
are particularly good at filling the wide screen
are Francis Ford Coppola (The Godfather and From about 1935 until 1950, the intersec-
Apocalypse Now) and Martin Scorsese (Taxi tion of Hollywood and Vine streets was the
Driver, Raging Bull, and Goodfellas). most famous corner in the world. Young,
302 MOTION PICTURES
good-looking men and women, encouraged one last fling as the most popular mass
by stories of highly paid actors discovered in medium for entertainment. But once televi-
cafes or gas stations, flocked to Southern sion became common in people's homes, the
California with the often unfulfilled dream of movies were forever relegated to second place.
becoming a movie star. Hollywood's "Golden Unfortunately, few movies made during the
Age" wasn't so much a result of the movies war years (1941-1945) are considered note-
produced as it was a lack of competition — no worthy. One important exception is Warner
other site in the world made movies on the Bros.' timeless classic about a lovesick bar
scale that Hollywood did. owner briefly reunited with a former lover in
By the 1930s, the major American studios Casablanca (1943). Most Hollywood produc-
had learned from the early French Pathe ers, directors, and stars were busy making
corporation to achieve vertical dominance, quickly produced and ill-conceived propa-
that is, a studio controlling all aspects of ganda and training movies for the govern-
production and distribution. With such a ment.
system, any movie produced was bound to Immediately following the war and with
make money with its block bookings around prosperity promised and optimism high, peo-
the country. Consequently, moviemaking ple felt like going to the movies. Theater
was an enormously successful enterprise with attendance soared to record levels that never
almost everyone — from studio heads to ex- again were to be achieved. But just when
tras — reaping unheard of monetary rewards. studio executives were feeling confident that
MGM, for example, produced forty-two the movie industry was on sure financial
movies a year. Today directors rarely make footing, the government pulled the rug. A
more than one movie a year. John Ford, 1948 antitrust ruling against Paramount dis-
director of Stagecoach (1939), made twenty- allowed the vertical economic structure by
six films in one year. which studios could own both movie produc-
Hollywood studios became known for the tion and distribution. Several film companies
type of movie they presented. Columbia Pic- were sold or went out of business when
tures produced family-oriented movies exem- production costs skyrocketed and executives
plified by the work of Frank Capra's Mr. didn't have funds" from theaters to cover
Deeds Goes to Town (1936) and It's a Wonder- expenses.
ful Life (1946). MGM, with Irving Thalberg Another postwar blow to Hollywood from
responsible for business decisions, also was the government caused more trouble for indi-
known for family pictures and stars that viduals than for the studios. At the beginning
included Joan Crawford, Greta Garbo, Clark of the Cold War with the Soviet Union, the
Gable, and Spencer Tracy. Paramount Pic- U.S. House of Representatives formed the
tures was associated with sophisticated come- House Un-American Activities Committee
dies and dramas by director Cecil B. DeMille (HUAC) in October 1947, chaired by J. Par-
and with stars such as Gloria Swanson, Gary nell Thomas. The committee's responsibility
Cooper, and Claudette Colbert. Warner Bros, was to identify Communist party members
made fast-moving gangster movies with or sympathizers in the movie industry. Its
Edward G. Robinson, James Cagney, and actions ruined many successful and promis-
Humphrey Bogart and high-kicking chorus ing careers. Numerous people in the industry
line musicals by Busby Berkley. who were called before the committee refused
Although television was available, World to testify because they were asked to supply
War 11 delayed the new medium's growth, names of colleagues they thought might be
allowing the motion picture industry to enjoy Communists.
MOTION PICTURHS AND Till; SIX 1M K S l'l< II V IS 303
In the 1930s, many people in the enter- became a reason to hire someone. Always
tainment and academic communities had eager to take advantage of the fears sparked by
viewed the Communist party as a viable the Cold War, the atomic bomb, and teenage
option to the stagnation of the Republican alienation in the 1950s, the studios produced
and Democratic parties. Consequently, many low-budget "red menace" movies such as /
directors, screenwriters, and stars who merely Married a Communist (1949), several science
supported causes sponsored by the Commu- fiction movies with subtle links to political
nists along with actual party members were issues such as The Invasion of the Body
tarred with the same "un-American" brush. Snatchers (1956), movies with atom-bomb-
Receiving the most publicity were those created mutant creatures such as Them!
blacklisted by the industry, who became (1954), and alienated teenage movies such as
known as the "Hollywood Ten." Weak eco- The Wild One (1954) and Rebel Without a
nomically (and morally), the studios refused Cause (1955) (Figure 13.17).
to hire blacklisted personnel. One of the most
famous blacklisted writers was Dalton Trum- Hollywood Adapts
bo, who wrote the screenplays for Roman When it became obvious that television
Holiday and The Brave One under an as- was not a passing fad, movie studios adapted
sumed name. or lost the battle. The first feature-length
In 1951, during the height of the Korean three-dimensional motion picture was The
War, the committee reformed — but without House of Wax (1953) starring the great horror
Thomas, who was in prison for extortion.

Figure 13.17
The HUAC, with the help of eager witnesses
Marlon Brando is The Wild
such as Ronald Reagan and tireless members
of Congress such as Richard Nixon and One. The motion picture is
Joseph McCarthy, expanded the "Hollywood an excellent example of a
Ten" to a list of over 300 people in the 1950s political picture,
movie industry thought to have ties to com- featuring plots centered on
munism. Many of those blacklisted were alienated and lost youth.
forced to find work in other countries; some, Note how the pose, with the
tragically, killed themselves over the scandal. lighting effect on his right
Actor Kirk Douglas called blacklisting "one
leg, acts as a phallic symbol,
of the most shameful stains in American
emphasizing the sexual
history."
power of Brando's
For the most part, media executives went
personality.
along with blacklisting, except for one power-
ful The program "CBS Reports,"
reporter.
hosted by Edward R. Murrow, exposed Mc-

Carthy's unethical tactics of smearing reputa-
tions. After the Senate censured McCarthy in
1954, the Communist scare died down. Di-
rector Otto Preminger defied the blacklist by
hiring Trumbo to write the screenplay for
Exodus (1960). Soon, other studios began to

hire blacklisted persons. The anti-Commu-
nist crusade was a dark time for Hollywood, a
time when political affiliation, not talent,
304 MOTION PICTURES
actor Vincent Price. In the 1950s, three- Another casualty of the war with televi-
dimensional movie effects were a fad that sion were the large, often enchanting movie
culminated in Alfred Hitchcock's 1954 clas- theaters that could hold up to 3,000 people.
sic Dial M for Murder. However, that version With architectural and sculptural curiosities,
of the movie was never released because of moody and mysterious lighting effects, and a
public reaction against projection limitations, huge screen behind a heavy maroon or blue
pointless plots, and glasses that made the curtain, these movie houses were truly magi-
viewer look like a geek. Double features began cal places that matched the wonder of the
in the 1930s as a way to convince money- motion pictures themselves. Sid Crauman's
conscious viewers that they would get more (now Mann's) Chinese Theater on Holly-
for their money. With a newsreel, a cartoon, wood Boulevard, with the handprints and
trailers, and two feature-length movies, signatures of famous movie stars preserved in
moviegoers stayed in the theater for several concrete, is one of the last monuments to the
hours while owners made money from old Hollywood. Also on the famous boule-
drinks, popcorn, and candy sales. Keno and vard is the recently renovated El Capitan
Bingo-type games of chance and door prizes Theater that offers luxury viewing in the
were raffled between shows to attract addi- tradition of the past. The trend is against
tional viewers. After World War II, the need theaters with large, single screens because
for double features and gambling declined as owners can make more money with multi-
people returned to the theaters in great num- screen theaters.
bers without extra incentives. Nevertheless, Beginning in the 1970s, as downtown
double feature presentations survived until areas for most cities became depressed, thea-
the 1970s and spawned a motion picture ter owners created the suburban mall theater,
genre known as the "B" movie. Cheaply called a multiplex or cineplex, to reduce their
produced, short motion pictures were needed overhead. The term multiplex is a broadcast
to fill the bill with the main feature. One of word used to describe a communications
the early B movie directors was horror maven system in which two or more messages can be
William Castle, who produced B horror clas- transmitted over the same channel. Multi-
sics such as The Tingler and The House on screen theaters actually are an old idea.
Haunted Hill in 1959. Castle also was known Southern California theater owner James Ed-
for supplying life insurance policies for audi- wards, Sr., built his first multiplex in 1939.
ence members and skeletons and tingling Multiplexes today are much more elaborate.
seats in theaters. Occasionally a B movie Universal Studios' recently completed City

would achieve critical success. The 1957 sci- Walk multiplex movie house in Hollywood
ence fiction thriller The Incredible Shrinking contains eighteen separate screening rooms.
Man is an excellent example. Some cineplexes have as many as twenty-
During the 1950s, drive-in movies pros- seven separate theaters under one roof. Al-
pered through the country. Owners of cheap though multiscreen theaters are convenient
land away from city lights saw drive-ins as a for moviegoers, if they get any more numer-
way to put the unproductive real estate to ous and the screens get any smaller, these
better use. But television killed off drive-ins theaters will have a new name — television
too. Despite being a haven for lovers and showrooms. Known for their small screen
parents with children, drive-ins, with their sizes and thin walls through which the movie
colorful painted front screens, are hard to next door often can be heard, multiplex
find. Many are used today as convenient open viewing rooms are a tribute to making
spaces for flea markets (Figure 13.18). money — not movies.
MOTION PICTURKS AND THE SIX PERSPECTIVES 305
The studio-driven Hollywood of the 1940s Figure 13.18
has vanished. In 1967, Eliot Hyman in 1967 Drive-in theaters have been
bought the troubled Twentieth Century Fox virtually eliminated as
film collection and later sold it to Australian places for showing movies.
tabloid newspaper tycoon Rupert Murdock.
Nevertheless, the screens of
Howard Hughes sold RKO to the General Tire many are still in demand as
and Rubber Company, which surprised no
advertisement space for
one, by liquidating the movie assets. The
swap meets.
beneficiaries of the RKO studios were Lucille
Ball and Desi Arnaz of Desilu Productions,
where they made / Love Lucy and other tele-
vision hits. Today the playing field for stu-
dios has been leveled. Film and distribution

giants Columbia, Twentieth Century Fox, and
Universal (now MCA/Universal) have been
joined by Buena Vista Pictures Distribution,
Inc., Hollywood Pictures Company, Touch-
stone Pictures, Miramax Films (acquired by
Disney in 1993), Castle Rock Entertainment,
Geffin Pictures, TriStar Pictures, Inc., New
Line Cinema Corporation, FineLine Features,
Sony Pictures Entertainment, Inc., the Samu-

el Goldwyn Jr. Company, and Amblin Enter-
tainment. Many of the major studios are now
used for finance, production, and marketing
purposes, with the independent companies
actually making the pictures.
Ironically, the Reagan administration in
the 1980s relaxed many of the antitrust regu- now for its Las Vegas hotel than for film-
lations that prevented vertical control of the making. Warner Bros, merged with the com-
industry at a time when studios were either munications giant Time, Inc., and now shares
going out of business completely or seeking a Burbank studio with Columbia Pictures,
horizontal opportunities — branching out to which Coca-Cola once owned but now Sony
other, related enterprises. The main reason owns. Disney and Universal Studios are in-
for such a development is that movies are volved in motion pictures, television program
enormously expensive to make and market. production, and popular amusement park
D.W. Griffith's first picture cost $65. Today, attractions.
many movies cost $65 million or more. The An estimated 75 percent of all Hollywood
studios at Twentieth Century Fox were sold in production work is now for television. Hence,
1973 so that the land could be used for new huge profits are to be made from mergers of
apartments and a shopping mall. A French movie studios, television networks, and cable
bank, Credit Lyonnais, owns the production companies. For example, in 1994, Paramount
facilities that MGM and United Artists share. Communications and television giant Via-
The financial institution recently invested com International merged in order to
over one billion dollars in the hope of reviv- strengthen their interests in all areas of enter-
ing the film heritage of MGM, more known tainment. The deal was delayed for several
306 MOTION PICTURES
months while Paramount executives dis- duced special effects, Porter cut scenes to-
cussed a competing bid from Barry Diller and gether to tell a story, and Griffith used
his home shopping cable empire, QVC Net- close-ups to rivet the viewer's attention to the
work, Inc. The publicity generated by the screen.
clash between the media titans indicates that Eventually, other directors provided visual
Hollywood studios are in a strong position to insights. Alfred Hitchcock used subjective
provide programs for future television sys- camera and quick-editing techniques to add
tems that may offer as many as 1,500 chan- suspense to his thrillers. Orson Welles used
nels. his technical skills to help explain the story.
Moviemaking soothes studio executives' Innovative directors such as Michelangelo

pride, but television and commercials pay Antonioni, Ingmar Bergman, and Federico
their salaries. Hollywood executives also hope Fellini never hesitated to make motion pic-
to capitalize on alliances with computer games tures with a slow, hypnotic pace. The last
producers. The 1993 summer batch of block- scene in Antonioni's The Passenger (1975) is
busters demonstrates the new film-to-silicon an excellent example of a zoom and tracking
link. Sylvester Stallone's thriller Cliffhanger, shot in which the rhythm of the visual can be
Steven Spielberg's megahit Jurassic Park, and compared to music. Robert Altman, Francis
Arnold Schwarzenegger's (probably untrue Ford Coppola, and Martin Scorsese, in the
title) The Last Action Hero also are CD-ROM tradition of Orson Welles, have mastered the
(laser disk) adventure games that include craft of filmmaking. Altman used sound
digital footage from the actual movies. effects and dialogue to make transitions be-
Hollywood's switch to television and in- tween scenes in The Player (1992). Coppola
teractive multimedia production allows inde- experimented with lighting and montage ef-
pendent producers, both domestic and for- fects in One from the Heart (1982). Scorsese
eign, to make movies known for their high used slow zooms or quick cuts, depending on
technical values, well-developed characteriza- the mood of the story, in Goodfellas (1990)
tions, and sensitively revealed plots. Howards (Figure 13.19).
End (1992) and Remains of the Day (1993) by A motion picture has two major technical
Merchant/Ivory Productions are examples of components: what you see and what you hear.
successful films that tell sensitive, visually
pleasing stories and are aimed smaller Visual Considerations

at
audiences than the blockbusters are. As a As with the cartoon and photographic
final statement about the end of Hollywood's media, movies primarily communicate in a
dominance, for the first time in the history of visual format. By studying previous works
the Academy Awards, no major studio pro- and by being creative, directors have learned
duced a 1992 Best Picture nominee. to exploit the visual considerations inherent
in static or dynamic shots, film choices,
ri^ special effects, and text.

Auguste and Louis Lumiere and Thomas The Shot The basic unit of a movie is the
Kdison were inventors, not artists. They were shot, defined as a continuous picture in
concerned with what the film medium could which there are no cuts. A shot can be as
do rather than what it could show. Melies, quick as 1/24 second — one frame — or can
Porter, and Griffith began the investigation of last the entire length of a picture. Hitchcock's
a motion picture's aesthetic possibilities with 1948 classic, Rope, with Jimmy Stewart, is a
their creative achievements. Melies intro- stage production that seemingly is portrayed
in only one camera shot (cuts were creatively
masked). A camera shot can be static or

dynamic. In a static shot the camera or the
lens does not move. In a dynamic shot the
camera and lens are manipulated in several
different maneuvers.
A static shot allows the viewer to concen-
trate on the actors and not be distracted by
the camera's movements. With depth of field
manipulations (Chapter 12), however, a film-
maker can direct attention to different areas
on the screen. In Griffith's Broken Blossoms,
the foreground and background were expertly

separated by the shallow focus of the lens.
Conversely, in Citizen Kane Orson Welles
often used extreme depth of field techniques
to link the foreground and background ac-
tion.
Because a motion picture may be dull if
there are no camera movements, good direc- ball and socket connection moves the camera. Figure 13.19
tors constantly cause the camera to flow with A truck is the same horizontal movement of "Ray Liotta, left, as Henry
the rhythm of a scene. Rack focus adjust- the camera except the entire camera and the Hill . . . and Robert De
ments, zooms, pans, trucks, tilts, dollies, and tripod move. Small gestures by actors in a Niro as Jimmy Conray
tracking shots are the most common types of scene are usually followed by a simple pan,
. . . listen to fellow mobster
lens or camera manipulations. while characters walking or running are best
Frenchy ( Mike Starr) in
Rack focus involves turning the focus ring shown with the truck technique. Tilts and
Warner Bros.'
on the lens during a shot in order to keep a dollies are vertical versions of the pan and
Goodfellas. ..." Director
moving character in focus or make the audi- truck.
Martin Scorsese is a master
ence concentrate on another part of the A tracking shot (sometimes referred to as a
screen without having to use any other lens or crane shot) is a combination of a truck and of using film lighting and
camera manipulations. dolly shot in which the camera sits on a

composition to emphasize
Zooms are movements of a special zoom "cherry picker," or crane, and makes longer, the importance of a scene.
lens that simply increase or decrease the size sweeping movements, making the audience
of the image without changing perspective. most aware of the camera but helping set the
When a lens zooms in, the viewer feels more a actors in a scene.
part of the action. Often tension between The extent of a camera's movements often
characters can be emphasized with a slow, marks the difference between the two types of
zoom-in movement. The opposite effect is documentary approaches to moviemaking
achieved when the lens zooms out. Viewers direct cinema and cinema verite. The mini-
feel distance between themselves and the mal use of camera movements often identifies
action on the screen. Use of the zoom-out the objective, direct cinema approach, but a
technique at the end of a movie is a subtle camera that is hand-held by the operator is an
clue that the film is over. example of the highly subjective technique of
A pan is a horizontal movement of the cinema verite — viewers get the feeling that
camera, either to the left or right, while it sits they are actually part of the action.
on a sturdy, motionless tripod. A pivoting The journalistic techniques of early televi-
"
308 MOTION PICTURES
Figure 13.20 (opposite) sion news influenced direct cinema. Richard After graphic designer Saul Bass had created
One of the most Drew, a former still photographer for Life the storyboards for the scene and lined up the
unforgettable moments in magazine, was asked by NBC to produce a first shot with the camera, Hitchcock asked
motion picture history is the

film about Senator John Kennedy in 1960 Bass to direct the sequence (Chapter 9). Bass
shower sequence with Janet

during his primary campaign for the presi- created an impressionistic murder image with
dency. Drew's Primary influenced many oth- shocking intensity by using sixty-seven sepa-
Leigh in Alfred Hitchcock's
er filmmakers to follow that same objective rate editing cuts for the ninety-second scene.
1 960 Psycho. As Saul Bass
style. Lawyer-turned-director Fred Wiseman Editing cuts also can involve special effects
explains, "The intent of this
made classic documentaries such as High by which the scene is wiped off the screen and
sequence was to create an
School (1969) and Basic Training (1971). replaced with another. Such obvious manipu-
'impressionistic' murder. The
Barbara Kopple won an Academy Award for lations are best employed during major scene
blur of images, short
her direct cinema documentary, Harlan transitions as in the movie Star Wars (1977).
staccato shock-cuts . . . 67 County, U.S.A. (1972). Woody Allen's Oscar A slow, hypnotizing dissolve out of one scene
cuts in a minute and a half, for best film, Annie Hall (1977), featured a and into another often connotes a romantic
created a terrifying moment direct cinema approach to the fictionalized and gentle transition.
in the film. The shock of autobiography. A successful editor must be a thorough
this event was augmented by Cinema verite, or "truthful camera," orig- and well -organized person. Geraldine Peroni
the fact that the star of the

inated from the dada art movement and was edited Robert Altman's 1993 film Short Cuts.
influenced by the new wave art movement The movie was a complicated editing project
film was actually killed in
the first reel of the film — an (Chapter 9). This documentary approach because twenty-two major characters are fea-
acknowledges the fact that the presence of a tured in a dozen different stories. Action
unprecedented occurrence.
camera influences the events and people it between stories and characters shifts back and
records; hence, the viewer often is aware of forth. Altman shot about forty hours worth of
the camera and filmmaker. For example, film that Peroni eventually edited down to
Woody Allen's Husbands and Wives (1992) the motion picture's three hour and nine
and the ABC network television program minute length.
"NYPD Blue" use direct cinema interviews
of characters with cinema verite highly sub- Film Choices Motion pictures can be shot
jective camera movements. With the steady- in black and white, color, or a combination of
cam and the Aaton 35-11, bounce-free film- the two. Movies also can be tinted or color-
ing, which simulates expensive crane shots, ized. Black and white always has been associ-
can be done with hand-held cameras. ated with serious, documentary-style sub-
The transitions between individual shots jects, whereas, at first, color was thought to be
or editing cuts may be static or dynamic. A a distracting attribute better used for fanta-
static edit (sometimes called a direct cut) is sies. Today, nearly all movies are shot in color
simply a quick, sometimes purposely jarring because of public demand. The 1939 classic
transition from one scene to another, in The Wizard of Oz is the best example of the
which one image instantly replaces another. dual use of black and white and color in one
A deliberate, sometimes frenetic pace can be motion picture. When Dorothy is in Kansas,
achieved with quick cuts, particularly if used black and white film stock connotes everyday
in succession. The shower scene in Hitch- life on the plains. But when she lands in Oz,
cock's Psycho is a classic example often cited the fantasy is shown in color.
by movie historians. Because Hitchcock pre- Black and white film stock can be as
ferred long, continuous shots, the violently colorful and sensational as color material.
dynamic quick cuts in the shower scene were Scorsese's Raging Bull, the story of boxer Jake
contrary to his second nature (Figure 13.20). LaMotta, is considered one of the best movies
made in the 1980s. Shot in black and white,

the rich tones lend a documentary atmos-
phere to the brutal story. Tinting entire
frames of a film was a common practice in
the early history of motion pictures to add

interest to a presentation. The modern equiv-
alent of the practice, however, has caused an
uproar among directors. Colorization — using
the computer to make a black and white
movie a pastel-painted color version — is crit-
icized by those who value the original intent

of the director to make the movie in the
chosen film stock. The practice also is criti-
cized as a blatant attempt to attract television

viewers who might not watch black and white
movies.
Text Text also is a visual component of a

movie. Text for opening title sequences and
movie credits (Chapter 9), narration, or sub-
titles that translate the dialogue to another
language must be designed for the screen as

for any thoughtful typographical presenta-
tion. Cutlines also help give deaf moviegoers
a more complete experience. In special show-
ings of Universal's Jurassic Park, for example,
Cinetype, Inc., of Hollywood, normally em-

ployed to write cutlines for non-English-
speaking audiences, produced cutlines that
included the sounds the dinosaurs made. The
terrifying roar of the Tyrannosaurus rex was
written as "ROOOOAAAAARRRR!!!!"
Special Effects Finally, special effects are
vital components of a movie's visual message.

The Battleship Potemkin, Woodstock, and One most common method of creating special
from the Heart use montage effects that show visual effects is through computer digiti-
many quick cuts of a scene. Stanley Kubrick's zation techniques (which we discuss in Chap-
2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) expertly enter 15).
gages masks in which multiple images photo-

graphed at different times appear as one shot. Audio Considerations
Rear projection, once a common technique to James Monaco notes that sound occurs in
link on-location footage with actors using real time — no such phenomenon as persist-
props in studios, can be seen in Some Like It ence of vision relates to the audible compo-
Hot (1959) and comically parodied in Air- nents of a motion picture. Consequently,
plane! (1980) (Figure 13.21). Currently, the sound effects often heighten a sense of realism
310 MOTION PICTURES
For example, the screaming by the actors

heard in Jurassic Park actually was recorded in
sound studios in New York and Los Angeles.

An ADR expert carefully matches the new
sound recording with the existing film so that
the audience is never aware of the studio

re- recording.
Music As emphasized by Bernard Her-

mann's score in Kane, music is a powerful
emotional component to a movie. With visu-

al messages speeding past the viewer, any one
shot may be lost in a blur. Whether the scene
on the screen is exciting or tender, music
reinforces an audience's emotions when

watching a shot. Musicals such as West Side
Story ( 1961 ), The Sound of Music (1965), and
A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the
Forum (1966) exploit emotional responses

when music and words are linked with
scenes. Instrumental music helps explain and
Figure 13.21 in the minds of the viewer. In fact, research move the plot. John Williams uses themes for
Joe E. Brown and Jack indicates that good sound quality actually individual characters in movies such as Star
Lemrnon ( without his wig) can give a viewer the illusion that the picture Wars, E.T.: The Extraterrestrial, and Jurassic
rehearse the final scene for

quality is better. Movie sound has three Park. When a particular character comes on
components: speech, music, and noise. the screen, the musical counterpart is heard.
Some Like It Hot.
Backscreen projection is
Speech Speech is the dialogue spoken by the Noise Noise is any other sound heard in a
often employed by directors
actors or narration heard as a voice-over. movie (or the noisy person talking behind
to simulate an outdoor view.
Some of the great movies written by Joseph you). Sound quality usually is poor when it is
Here, the actors sit on a
Mankiewicz, brother of Citizen Kane screen- recorded during an on-location movie shoot,
stationary boat in a studio
writer Herman Mankiewicz, are classic films so special sound effects must be created in the
while film of the ocean is
with a sophisticated use of language: All studio and included in the movie on a
displayed behind them. About Eve (1950) and The Barefoot Contessa separate sound track. In a throwback to the
(1954). Recent examples of all-speech movies days when radio required sound effects for its
are My Dinner with Andre ( 1981 ), directed by productions, a sound technician (called a
Louis Malle, and Swimming to Cambodia foley artist) watches a projected version of a
(1987), directed by Jonathan Demme. scene and uses sound effects tricks to simu-
Automated dialogue replacement (ADR) is late scene noise. For example, when ruffled, a
a necessary component of moviemaking. Of- thick sheet of metal duplicates the sound of
ten an actor's lines during an on-location thunder; a coconut cut in half and tapped on
shooting session are drowned out by a passing a table sounds like a horse running. Previous-
airplane or some other loud noise. As a result, ly recorded sounds can be purchased in a
the dialogue has to be re-recorded in a studio. digital format from companies that supply
Actors alsomay want to make their lines noise "libraries" at a reduced cost. However,
more dramatic than when read on location. the producer of a major motion picture will
spend the money for a foley artist to create Americans were still cast in films in which
custom sounds for the movie and record race was an important component of the plot
them on disks. For example, in Jurassic Park and not selected for roles in which race did
the breathing of the mighty Tyrannosaurus not matter. In the 1970s, "blackploitation"
rex was a complicated mix of live animal movies were produced with almost all Afri-
sounds — lions, seals, and dolphins for in- can-American casts and marketed to Afri-
hales and whales and elephants for exhales. can-American audiences. Gordon Parks, for-
Park won the 1993 Oscar for best sound mer photographer for Life magazine directed
effects. Shaft (1971), which was loaded with violent
and sexual story lines. Currently, African-
TT American directors such as John Singleton

'
Ethical Perspective
with Boyz N the Hood (1991) and Spike Lee
As with cartoons, television, and computer with Malcolm X (1992) produce thoughtful
programs, there are two main ethical con- dramas that try to get beyond the stereotypes
cerns about the movie industry: stereotypical (Figure 13.22). However, most films about
portrayals and emphasis on sexual and vio- African Americans still concentrate on crime
lent themes. and sex, reflecting society's continuing stere-
otypes.
Stereotypes
African Americans aren't the only group
Although several groups objected to the to feel the sting of stereotyping in motion
characterization of African Americans as sex- pictures. Native Americans, although seen in
crazed beasts in The Birth of a Nation (1915),
Figure 13.22
efforts to have the film banned were unsuc-
"Tre (Cuba Gooding, Jr.)
cessful. However, on screen or on stage white
actors in blackface almost always played black clings to his girlfriend,
characters. When an African-American was Brandi (Nia Long), in
hired for a role, it was to play the stereotypical despair over the seemingly
maid, butler, or offensive, shuffling character endless violence in South
"Steppin' Fetchit" — a name more suitable for Central Los Angeles in Boyz
a dog than a person. As liberal acts of N the Hood, a Columbia
conscience, King Vidor made Hallelujah in
Pictures release." Director
1929 and Elia Kazan directed Pinky in 1949,
John Singleton, in his first
both using all African-American casts. But
motion picture, created
these films, although motivated by good in-
sensitive characters with
tentions, were subtly condescending.
universal appeal. As
Several movies with all African-American
evidenced by this publicity
casts were produced from the 1920s on, but
they were seldom seen by white audiences. still, he also gave m
The Black Power movement in the 1960s characters much moi

loudly criticized the movie industry's racism. than other filu
As a result of lobbying efforts and the im- usually do.
proved economic well-being of African

Americans, movies in the 1960s included
more African-American actors in meaningful
roles. Sidney Poitier became the first African-

American movie star. Nevertheless, African
"
312 MOTION PICTURES
films frequently in the early westerns, almost tors, producers, writers, and editors in her
always were portrayed as murderous savages. book Reel Women. No other cultural group
Lobbying from Arab groups, upset over the has enjoyed such a notable and condescend-
stereotypes in Disney's Aladdin (1992), con- ing history. In the 1920s, Clara Bow, the "It
vinced the studio to change offending lyrics girl," and Mae West were independent, sexy
in a song, although many other common women that served male fantasies. Hattie
Arab stereotypes remain. Rita Moreno (born McDaniel won the first Academy Award for
Rosita Dolores Alverio in Puerto Rico) la- an African American in her supporting role
mented the fact that after her Academy in Gone with the Wind. But the mindless
Award win in 1961 for her role in West Side maid stereotype was typical of the era in
Story, she was offered only Spanish spitfire- which African-American women were either
type parts. Asian-American stereotypes in asexual domestics or sexual playthings for
movies are the "dragon lady" and the "kung white men. In the 1940s, probably because of
fu master." Controversy developed recently the influence from World War II,women
over the Twentieth Century Fox release of enjoyed a co-equal social position with men
Rising Sun. The Washington representative of — at least in the movies. Strong, independent
the Japanese-American Citizens League, Ka- women such as Katharine Hepburn, Bette
ren Narasaki, said that the movie "is another Davis, and Joan Crawford filled the screen
twist on the Japanese invaders/yellow peril with their powerful performances. After the
genre that has been around Hollywood for war, however, the dumb blonde or easily
awhile." manipulated character surfaced in the
Hollywood promoted 1993 as "The Year of Marilyn Monroe and Doris Day movies. The
the Woman" in recognition of their achieve- feminist influence in the 1970s fostered more
ments in motion pictures (Figure 13.23). Ally roles for women that reflected realistic expec-
Acker presents many notable women direc- tations of them. Martin Scorsese's Alice
Figure 13.23
"Barbra Streisand takes a
break from directing a scene
in The Prince of Tides, a
Columbia Pictures release.
Most publicity pictures for
male directors show them

behind the camera,
directing. Note that in this
photograph a woman
director is pictured in a
more casual moment.

Doesn't Live Here Anymore (1975) was bution where huge amounts of money can be
praised for its realistic depiction but criticized made. In fact, 81 percent of all the movies
because Alice couldn't survive without a shown in Europe are from the United States.
man's help. Executives have learned that action-adventure

Actress Michelle Pfeiffer at an annual films are popular throughout the world.
"Women in Film" luncheon summed up the Countries with diverse cultures and lan-
low status of women in which characters sell guages always understand violent themes.
their bodies for sex in Indecent Proposal However, few credible studies have linked
(1991), Mad Dog and Glory (1992), and screen sex and violence with the committing
Pretty Woman (1990). Upon accepting an of actual physical acts, although occasionally
award, Pfeiffer said, "So . . . this is the year there is a demonstrable connection. Larry
of the woman. Well, yes, it's actually been a Gordon directed The Warriors (1979), about a
very good year for women. Demi Moore was tough street gang. Paramount recalled the
sold to Robert Redford for $1 million, Uma motion picture from theaters after the first
Thurman went for $40,000 to Mr. De Niro, week when three deaths were linked to the
and just three years ago, Richard Gere bought movie. Violence also was connected to show-
Julia Roberts for . . . What was it? . . . ings of Boyz N the Hood and New Jack City.
$3,000? I'd say that was real progress." The Gordon explains why some audiences are
"Year of the Woman" was a noble gesture attracted to violence: "If I tell a joke, you may
focusing attention on women's contributions not get it, but if a bullet goes through the
to motion pictures, but with few significant window we all know how to hit the floor, no
roles and directorial positions, the gesture matter the language." Gordon also directed
smacks of a hollow public relations campaign. Bruce Willis in the violence-filled Die Hard 2.
The movie made more than $500 million, but
Sex and Violence only one-third of the total was from U.S.
Offering the simplistic argument that the sales. Creating sexual and violent movies in
sex and violence seen in motion pictures is order to make money in some foreign coun-
responsible for all of the social problems in a try is morally indefensible.

society is always politically popular. Undeni- Occasionally, a violent action portrayed in
ably, action-adventure movies, always a pop- a film causes impressionable people to try the
ular genre, are filled with sexual and violent same stunt — and often tragedy results. In
activities. In 1991, the Motion Picture Asso- 1993, Touchstone Pictures, the adult-oriented
ciation of America noted that for all the film arm of the Walt Disney Company, intro-
movies produced that year only 16 percent duced The Program, in which a troubled col-
were suitable for children under thirteen lege quarterback lies in the middle of a busy
years of age. street. Disney producers removed the contro-
versial scene from all 1 ,222 prints and coming-
Marketing Violence Overseas attraction of the movie
trailers because
One of the main reasons that the number one teenager in Pennsylvania was killed by a
of sexual and violent movies is increasing is pickup truck while trying the same stunt.
the economic situation of the major studios.
Studio executives need big, blockbuster hits to
m Cultural Perspective
maintain the economic health of their enter-
prises. As fewer and fewer Americans go to Motion pictures, just like any art form, reflect
movies, studios are producing films with the archetypes and myths that are popular
sexual and violent themes for foreign distri- within a particular culture at a particular
—
314 MOTION PICTURES
time. All visual messages, movies included, portant genre that is always underrepre-
help shape what we think of ourselves and sented in filmmaking.
our society. Hollywood stars give us ideals to
Horror: Frankenstein (1931), Night of the
strive for, and the mythic stories of good Living Dead (1968), and The Final Night-
versus evil, social order versus anarchy, and mare: Freddy's Dead (1991) — from hu-
group dependence versus independence
man-created to computer-generated mon-
strike deep, cultural chords. At least eleven
sters (Figure 13.24).
genres, or types, of stories created on film
Musical: The Wizard of Oz (1939), The
reflect a society's cultural values: comedy,
Sound of Music (1965), and What's Love
crime, epic, horror, musical, romance, sci-
ence fiction, social impact, thriller, war, and
Got to Do with It (1993) from unrealis-—
tic fantasies to hard-edge reality presenta-
western. Some of the most famous examples
tions.
of each genre from past years with recent
additions are listed below with their cultural Romance: Gone with the Wind (1939),
implications. Casablanca (1943), and Sleepless in Seattle
Comedy: City Lights (1931), Some Like It

(1993) — from love in the midst of civil
and world war to a couple that meets after

Figure 13.24 Hot, (1959), and Dennis the Menace
a radio broadcast.
One of the greatest horror
(1993) — from sophisticated situations to
childish cartoons.
Science fiction: Metropolis (1926), 2007: A
films of all time is
Space Odyssey (1968), and Terminator 2:
Frankenstein. Here, the Crime: Scarface (1932), Bonnie and Clyde
and Basic Instinct (1992)— from
Judgment Day (1991) — from thoughtful
monster, played by Boris (1967),
commentaries about the future to violent
Karloff, is bound from neck stories with clear good and evil characters
comic books.
to feet. Note how the harsh,
to sympathetic psychological profiles of
Social impact: The Grapes of Wrath
dangerous criminals.
overhead lighting helps
(1940), On the Waterfront (1954), and
create a more scary look for Epic: Napoleon (1926), Dr. Zhivago
Boyz N the Hood (1991) — always a strong
the monster. (1965), and Malcolm X (1992)— an im-
film genre, but not as popular as in past
years.
Thriller: The Maltese Falcon (1941), Psy-

cho (1960), and Jurassic Park (1993)
from well-written dramas with fine acting
to computer-controlled crowd pleasers.
War: All Quiet on the Western Front
(1930), Apocalypse Now (1979), and Glory

(1989) — the best are critical examinations
of why wars are necessary.
Western: Stagecoach (1939), The Wild

Bunch (1969), and Unforgiven (1992)—
from uncritical dramas to films that ques-
tion the need for such violent actions.
Because motion pictures are visual media,

they tell their mythic stories through visual
symbolism. Myths are the stories of our
culture, whereas symbols are the way those
stories are communicated.
MOTION I'K IT'KI S AND I 1 1 K SIX I'l RM'l ( IT VI S 315
Figure 13.25
Annie Hall (Diane Keaton)
and Alvie Singer (Woody

Allen) share a friendly
moment in the Academy

Award winning Annie Hall.
Limited depth of field helps
rivet the viewer's attention
on the two characters.
Moviemaking demands a collaborative ef- tion of lust without love in Last Tango in Paris
fort. From directors to drivers, hundreds of (1973) and the nobility of the human spirit in
people are responsible for the end product. the epic drama The Last Emperor (1987). Luis
But creative control ultimately rests with the Bunuel shows the power of human desire in
director. Some directors seem to understand the documentary Land Without Bread (1932)
the link between myth and symbolism better and The Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie
than others. (1972). Francis Ford Coppola, as in One from

Woody Allen makes comical and serious the Heart (1982) and The Outsiders (1983),
films that reveal the social angst involved uses color and lighting symbolism in intrigu-
with love and relationships, as in Annie Hall ing ways. Roger Corman, a B-movie king,
(1977) and Husbands and Wives (1992) created low-budget horror when he combined
(Figure 13.25). Robert Altman shows how actor Vincent Price with a series of Edgar
lives are linked in his movies M*A*S*H Allen Poe stories, including The Pit and the
(1970), McCabe and Mrs. Miller (1971), and Pendulum (1961). Peter Davis's documentary
The Player (1992). Michelangelo Antonioni on the Vietnam War, Hearts and Minds
exploits the emotional quality of film with (1975), used such strong visuals and such a
long, hypnotic camera movements in The Red direct, personal approach that many thought
Desert (1964), Blow-Up (1966), and The it could have shortened the war if released
Passenger (1975). Laslo Benedek presented a sooner. Federico Fellini mixed poetry and
symbol of rebellious youth in actor Marlon fantasy in outrageous settings in La Dolce
Brando in The Wild One (1953). Ingmar Vita (1959), 8r
2 (1963), and Amarcord (1974)
Bergman makes films that reveal metaphysi- (Figure 13.26). Jean-Luc Godard, as in
cal concerns and difficult relationships such Breathless (1959) and Weekend (1967), makes
as The Seventh Seal (1957), Cries and Whis- movies about thieves and car accidents that
pers (1972), and Scenes from a Marriage comment about social conventions. Alfred
(1974). Bernardo Bertolucci explores the no- Hitchcock was a master of suspense with
316 MOTION PICTURES
Figure 13.26
Federico Fellini, the Italian
master of the surreal, had

mack eight-and-one-half
motion pictures up until his
latest, Sj. In this publicity
still, some of the magic and
visual stimulation of a
Fellini film is evident.
camera movements and editing techniques of his use of exciting and well-choreographed
that added to the thrill in The 39 Steps fights and scenic views (Figure 13.27). Spike
(1935), North by Northwest (1959), and Psy- Lee proved that he can direct quirky love
cho (1960). Stanley Kubrick always makes stories, musicals, and epic motion pictures,
compelling, visually innovative, politically culminating in his Malcolm X (1992). Rich-

conscious works, including Spartacus (1960), ard Lester is a master at bringing musicals to
Dr. Strangelove or How I Learned to Stop the big screen in A Hard Day's Night (1964),
Worrying and Love the Bomb (1963), 2001: A Help! (1965), and A Funny Thing Happened
Space Odyssey (1968), and A Clockwork Or- on the Way to the Forum (1966). George Lucas
ange (1971). Akira Kurosawa in Rashomon uses mythical battles for love and country in
(1950), The Seven Samurai (1954), and Ran his movies, such as American Graffiti (1973)
(1984) has inspired many imitators because and Star Wars (1977). David Lynch has a
Figure 13.27
Japanese director Akira
Kurosawa madt the classic
The Seven Sami

1954. The motion
inspired a number 0
American production
including the westerns
Magnificent Seven (I960!
and The Outrage (1964).

MOTION PICTURES AND THK SIX PERSPECTIVES 317
highly symbolic and unique visual style that

works well for motion pictures or television
productions, exemplified in such movies as

Dune (1984), Blue Velvet (1986), and Twin
Peaks: Fire Walk with Me (1992) (Figure
13.28). Louis Malle makes sensitive dramas
about ordinary people, as in Pretty Baby
(1978) , My Dinner with Andre (1981), and
Damage (1992). Erroll Morris combines
strong visual messages with compelling con-
tent to create a new documentary approach,
such as The Thin Blue Line (1988). Nicholas
Ray in Rebel Without a Cause (1955) used the
actor James Dean as a symbol of all alienated
teenagers of the time. Satyajit Ray makes
movies that help people in one culture under-
stand people from other cultures, particularly
in The World of Apu (1958). Alain Resnais
exploits ambiguous actions of persons in-
volved in overwhelming tragedies, as in Night Motion pictures are cultural artifacts. Figure 13.28
and Fog (1955) and Hiroshima, Mon Amour Movies affect us emotionally because the Director David Lynch has a
(1959). Ridley Scott, who once said that powerful visual messages, on a screen as large reputation for creating
"movies are visual novels," always produces as a house and with sound quality that is
unforgettable visual messages
works of great visual design, including Alien better than being on a set, tell stories that we in his motion picture and
(1979) , Blade Runner (1982), and Thelma understand.
television work. Harsh,
and Louise (1991) (Figure 13.29). Martin
direct lighting and a tight
Scorsese uses the camera like a spotlight to
composition help add
reveal people at their most honest, as in
tension to this scene in Blue
Raging Bull (1980), Taxi Driver (1976), and Movie attendance has been declining slowly
Goodfellas (1990). John Singleton tackles im- since World War II because of the popularity Velvet.
portant social problems of a community of television. The number of tickets sold Figure 13.29
through tender, sensitive visual storytelling, annually in the United States immediately
exemplified by Boyz N the Hood (1991) and after the war averaged about 4 billion. In
page 370.
Poetic Justice (1993). Steven Spielberg knows 1987, the number of tickets had declined by
how to exploit popular culture icons and at almost 75 percent. Ticket sales in 1992 totaled
the same time make technically competent 964.2 million. However, the movie industry
and widely successful pictures, such as Jaws is still profitable because ticket prices have
(1975), E.T.: The Extraterrestrial (1982) , and risen, sales of refreshments have exploded,
Jurassic Park ( 1993). Jurassic Park is expected and the number of screens have increased.
to return more than the $645 million made With multiplex suburban theaters, first-run
by E.T., the previously biggest grosser of all blockbuster movies with huge marketing
time. But Spielberg also knows how to make budgets are sold out the first few weeks of
tender, human dramas with universal appeal, their runs. But after the attention wanes,
as demonstrated by The Color Purple (1985) theater seats without someone sitting in front
and the critical masterpiece, Schindler's List of you aren't hard to find. For the 25,105
(1993), which won the Oscar for best picture. screens around the country in 1992, the
—
318 MOTION PICTURES
average attendance per day was 105. Small comments that there is too much violence in
screens with ordinary sound equipment in the movies.
theaters made of corrugated steel walls do not In 1969, communications critic Thomas
induce moviegoers to leave the comfort of Guback warned of thinking about film simply
their living rooms. as a commodity with Hollywood in control of
Today, many forms of entertainment are the international market. Such a trend pro-
available to those who can afford them duces films that are dehumanizing and anti-
restaurants, lectures, art museums, music culture. He writes:
concerts, comedy clubs, shopping malls, tra-

Because film is an art which portrays man's
ditional theaters, athletic activities, and
interpretation of life, it is imperative that
sporting events. But by far the biggest threat
contrasting perspectives be given the oppor-
to the existence of motion pictures is in the
tunity to exist and develop. It would be a
home, with radio, broadcast television, cable
pity to have but one control over all the
television, videotapes, laser disks, traditional
and video games, interactive multimedia

printing presses in a nation — or in the
world. The same can be said for film produc-

presentations, reading, yardwork, talking, and
tion and distribution. Yet this is coming
sex all keeping people away. In 1992, video-
about in the world of the West.
tape rentals reached an all-time high of $8.25
billion and videotape sales reached $3.74 With movies costing millions of dollars and
billion. The number of U.S. households wired production facilities concentrated in southern
for cable television was 42.6 million in 1987 California, films that appeal to small, selec-
and 55.2 million five years later. No one tive audiences are seldom made.
expects this trend to decline; in fact, it Economic considerations also determine
probably will accelerate. the film length. One of the main reasons that
Moviemaking is a business. If anticipated theater owners discourage studio executives
blockbusters bomb embarrassingly at the box from making movies longer than two hours is
office, the studio executives responsible some- that a ninety-minute picture can have six
times get the axe. This blockbuster mentality, showings a day when the first one starts at
in which most of the profits for a studio are 11:00 A.M. Oliver Stone for JFK (1991) and
made during the summer months, forces Spike Lee for Malcolm X (1992) had to
producers to make films that appeal to large complain bitterly to maintain the lengths of
audiences. More often than not, proven for- those motion pictures — over three hours.
mulas from the past — remakes and sequels Directors criticize movie studio executives
with sexual and violent themes do well at the who suggest that a film should be about two
box office. When the $80 million plus The hours long because a director's perspective is
Last Action Hero performed poorly in thea- usually artistic rather than economic. But
ters around America, the advertising cam- director Robert Altman has a simple analogy.
paign was changed to emphasize its violent He says that cutting a film's length is "like
scenes (Figure 13.30). Instead of a photo- having a child that grows to be seven feet tall.
graph of Arnold Schwarzenegger and young You don't cut his feet or his head off. You buy
Austin O'Brien smiling as pals, the newspa- him a new bed and hope that he can play
Ivertisement was changed to a close-up basketball."

photograph of a mean-looking Schwarzeneg- For movies to have lasting cultural signifi-
ger holding a large pistol. Such a blatant cance, directors must be free to make the
attempt to capitalize on the violent actions in kind of work that they believe is important
ronflict with Schwarzenegger's without content or time limitations. Unfortu-
THE FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR MOTION PICTURES 319
nately, the movie industry has always coming and reacting to the show's images with Figure 13.30
promised a director's independence because a large group of people is fun. But every one Those connected with the
of monetary considerations. It happened with of those reasons for attending a movie, ex- motion picture The Last
D. W. Griffith, Orson Welles, and, most cept the last one, will soon be addressed at
Action Hero starring Arnold
recently, Spike Lee. Consequently, fewer and home.
Schwarzenegger were
fewer movies break new ground with charac- High resolution and large-screen monitors
criticized for the movie's
terizations, settings, story lines, and technical with digital sound connected to cable opera-
violent, confusing plot.
innovations. tors that provide viewing of first-run movies
before they are shown at the local theater is
already a reality (see Chapters 14 and 15). As

Future directions for motion motion picture companies
a result, are mak-
pictures
ing commercials and shows for television,
Why do we go to movie theaters? The picture selling violent movies to audiences around
is large, the image is high in resolution, and the world, and diversifying their product as
the sound is excellent. Seeing a well-ad- much as possible.
vertised blockbuster in the first week of its Besides hotel and amusement park opera-
showing is exciting. No commercial breaks tions, studios also have forged alliances with
interrupt the unfolding of the story. Watch- video game and cable companies. In the
320 MOTION PICTURES
United States, Nintendo and Sega dominate est periodicals. Thus we might expect film
the video game industry. Video games repre- exhibitors to begin narrowing their range of
sent a $6 billion annual market — a figure that offerings. A few distinct genres already have
exceeds the film industry's annual U.S. box their own theaters; perhaps obvious are the-
office receipts. Movie studios, with their in- aters that show sexually explicit movies ex-
herent talent for story production and a ready clusively. Other types of specialty theaters
supply of images, soon will be serious con- may evolve, including an increase in the
tenders for the video game market. For exam- number of houses that screen only art or
ple, Paramount, Columbia, and Universal all classic films, martial arts movies, and so on.
produced CD-ROM game versions of their
latest movies. And when video game pro- Why will people continue to go to movie
ducers team with cable companies, on-line theaters? The main reason is that many enjoy
interactive games will become a popular the shared experience of watching a motion
source of home entertainment that may fur- picture with a large audience. Humans are
ther erode movie attendance (see Chapter social animals and simply enjoy the company
16). of one another too much to stay home for
Furthermore, studios have teamed with long. As the motion picture industry adapts
cable operators to supply first-run and other its stories, techniques, and theaters to satisfy
motion pictures to subscribers. Time Warner audiences, undoubtedly there will always be a
has linked with the cable company U.S. West. market for large, first-run theaters for cine-
Carolco Pictures, producer of the blockbuster maphiles, just as there is always a market for
Terminator 2: Judgment Day, has made a deal staged theater productions. Theater owners
with the country's largest cable company, also are enticing viewers with restaurant food
Tele-Communications, Inc. (TCI). The cable fare — pizza, tacos, and cappuccino. But
company has agreed to invest $90 million in many more moviegoers will want something
Carolco in exchange for permission to show more. One adaptation for the movie industry
four first-run pay-per-view movies on TCI's actually is a high-tech variation of the 1904
cable network before the movies open in train trip in the Hale's Tours attraction.
theaters during the next four years. Depend- Filmmakers, special-effects artists, computer
ing on the popularity of the motion pictures specialists, and amusement park operators
selected for viewing on cable, financial ex- have combined to create thrilling adventures
perts predict that the deal can potentially that have been described as "jumping in a
return $5 billion to TCI on its investment. blender and hitting puree." With chairs that
The film industry is eager to adapt to move in synch with the action on the screen
compelling competitive forces in order to — some as large as the ninety-foot IMAX
maintain audiences. Communications pro- —
domes many predict that movies will truly
fessor Bruce Austin in his book Immediate become an equal combination of motion and
Seating: A Look at Movie Audiences writes: pictures. For example, Dream Quest Images
created The Batman Adventure for the Warner

The history of mass communications shows Bros. Movie World theme park in Queens-
that the introduction of new media forms land, Australia. Special-effects wizard Doug-
forces existing media to specialize as a result las Trumbull, who designed the Back to the
of the "demassifkation" of their audiences. Future — The Ride for Universal Studios in
•xample, the introduction of television Florida and Hollywood, has also produced In
killed general-circulation magazines and Search of the Obelisk for the Luxor Hotel and
prompted the development of special -inter- Casino in Las Vegas (Figure 13.31). At the
FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR MOTION PICTURES 321
Figure 13.31
Many critics of the movie
industry predict that motion
simulator rides, such as the
Back to the Future
attraction at Universal
Studios in Florida, are the
future for large audience
presentations.
Boston World Trade Center in 1993, the first thousands of dollars because celluloid film
virtual reality theme park was introduced copies wouldn't be necessary with digital
with six different kinds of rides. movies. But will moviegoers want to leave
In a final acknowledgment of television's their home television sets to watch television
dominance over the motion picture industry, in a movie house? Whatever the means of
movie screens may become large-screen tele- presentation and whether in the theater or
vision monitors. The Pacific Bell telephone the home, feature-length motion pictures
company will soon begin an experiment in always will be produced, presenting fascinat-
which movies will be delivered to theaters ing dilemmas for social scientists and politi-
through fiber optic cables. Such a move could cians to ponder.
eventually save producers and theater owners

CHAPTER 14
Our lives have been Television and Video

irrevocably transformed
in ways that make
pre-TV America seem
like the dark ages.
Meg Greenfield,
WRITER
Their lives could not have been more differ- THE RODNEY KING INCIDENT
ent. One was a recently released convict
whose alcoholic father died at age 42; the Rodney King, 25, had recently been paroled
other was an upper-middle-class son of an oil after serving a two-year prison term for
executive, who had been born in Canada but robbing a Korean grocer of $200 and hitting
had lived most of his life in Argentina. One him with a tire iron. On March 3, 1991, King
was out of work and angry; the other was a and two of his neighborhood friends, Bryant
manager of a plumbing company and con- Allen and Freddie Helms, were enjoying the
tented. One was beaten severely by members sunny day drinking "eightballs" — high-alco-
of the Los Angeles Police Department hol-content beer called Olde English. By mid-
(LAPD); the other was watching the beating night, King had consumed the equivalent of
through the viewfinder of his new $1,200 twenty- four 12-ounce beers. Later, his blood-
camcorder. One was African American; the alcohol level would be measured at twice the
other was Anglo. One was Rodney King; the legal limit. Nevertheless, he was still thirsty,
other was George Holliday. By coincidence so he and his buddies took off to buy some
the two were brought together on a mild, more beer. With the car radio turned up as
southern California winter night to create high as it would go, King raced through the
what has been called "the most famous home Los Angeles streets at speeds estimated at up
video of all time." And once their paths to 100 miles per hour. Quickly, his drug-
crossed, it was clear that their lives would induced, happy feeling changed to dread as he
never be the same again. noticed the flashing lights of a patrol car in
322
THE RODNEY KING INCIDENT 323
his rearview mirror. His friends begged him ie's director, James Cameron, later called the
to pull over, but King's one thought was to coincidence — that his film was on the same
— "the most amaz-
try to escape. If he were caught violating his tape as the police beating
parole, he surely would find himself back in ing irony." By midnight, Holliday was asleep;
prison. King tried to evade the police for the he awoke to the noise of the helicopter and his
next eight miles, but even in his alcoholic neighbors talking. He put his pants on,
haze, he knew the chase was lost. Pursued by stepped out on his balcony with his video
several police cars, two helicopters, nineteen camera, and began recording the frightening
LAPD officers, seven California Highway pa- scene below him.
trol officers, and at least three city officials, For about ten minutes, Holliday recorded
King finally stopped his car at about 12:30 the police officers' attempts to subdue King
A.M. on a gravel lot near the corner of (Figure 14.1). In the shaky, out-of-focus,
Osborne Street and Foothill Boulevard in the grainy, and mostly black and white video
Lake View Terrace community of northern (because of the low light level), King leaps off
Los Angeles. the pavement and runs toward Officer Lau-

Although King slowly got out of his car, rence Powell, who lays King flat with a baton
his energy level quickly picked up when he blow to his head. Officers Timothy Wind and
saw all the officers present for his arrest. He Powell then strike King repeatedly with their
reportedly smiled and danced for the assem- nightsticks. At one point, Officer Theodore
bled troop of officers. He waved up at the Briseno tries to stop Powell from hitting King
Figure 14.1
circling helicopter while its searchlight aimed again, but Briseno later steps on King's head.
This high contrast and
down on the surreal late-night drama. He Tired, bloodied, and eventually hog-tied,
blurry still image taken from
threw a kiss and wiggled his rear end at a King slumps on the ground angrily scream-
a television monitor shows
female officer. When four officers grabbed ing curse words. After King was taken away,
Los Angeles police officers
him from behind to handcuff him, the six- Holliday turned off his video recorder and
foot-three, 225-pound King simply shrugged stepped back inside his apartment. Wind and Powell standing
them off. When a Taser dart (sometimes Shaken and upset, Holliday called the over the crouched form of
called a "stun gun") delivered a 50,000-volt Foothill Division of the LAPD to report the Rodney King in front of his
electric shock that renders most victims pas- incident. The officer on the phone did not ask automobile.
sive but had no effect on King, the officers

mistakenly feared the worst — that King was
high on the dangerous drug PCP. The police
were further agitated when a second Taser
dart fired by Sergeant Stacey Koon also failed
to get a reaction from King. At that point,
unknown to King or the officers at the scene,
George Holliday, on his balcony apartment

across the street, turned on his video camera.
Making and airing the video
Earlier in the day, Holliday, 31, had taken his
camera to record scenes of Arnold Schwarze-

negger's blockbuster hit Terminator 2: Judg-
ment Day that happened to be filming two

blocks from Holliday's apartment. The mov-
—
324 TELEVISION AND VIDEO
for Holliday's name, nor did Holliday admit town. A cable operator in San Diego produces
that he had videotaped the brutal arrest. a show called "Road to Nowhere" that is
Holliday probably knew he would have to simply footage of sexual encounters in one
give up his tape to the police if he mentioned section of Balboa Park. While critics worry
its existence. The next morning, Holliday that the trend toward sensational video may
called Los Angeles television station KTLA lead to additional violent activity, television
because "I just wanted someone to know producers believe that the trend will continue
about it, and I thought the media would be because the shows are cheap to produce and
the way." But to "know about" the beating highly rated.
would cost some money. Holliday sold the CNN aired an excerpt from the Holliday
video to the station for $500, three times the tape, which was seen immediately around the
normal free-lance rate. He submitted the tape world. President Bush called the police beat-
with the understanding (he thought) that the ings "revolting." Television news and news-
station would air it, keep it for a few days, and paper stories featured analysis and commen-
give it back. But KTLA, as an independent tary about the actions of the officers. Calls for
station, has an agreement with the Cable the resignation of controversial LAPD Chief
News Network (CNN) of Atlanta to give the Daryl Gates were numerous. Charges of po-
national network videotape shot by amateurs lice brutality and racism were revived against
that the station considers newsworthy. the LAPD, but with a startling difference
The use of dramatic home videos by that of clear-cut, irrefutable, visual evidence.
stations is one of the hottest fads in the The District Attorney's office confiscated the
television industry. The trend began in 1988 tape for use in an upcoming state trial against
during a Writers' Guild of America 22-week four Anglo officers — Powell, Wind, Briseno,
strike during which no television programs and their supervisor, Koon. Around the
were written. As a way around the strike, world, those who had seen the shocking
producers offered money to broadcast home videotape came to one apparently obvious
videos. Reality-based programming, as it was conclusion: The four officers involved in the
eventually called, established shows such as beating of Rodney King had overstepped
"Cops," "I Witness Video," "Rescue 911," their authority and criminally assaulted him.
and "America's Funniest Home Videos." The Because of television's need to fill the
home video trend also coincided with the small screen with images, pop artist Andy
advent of small, easily portable and hidden Warhol once predicted that everyone in
camcorders that could be used for more than America would get at least fifteen minutes of
a child's birthday party. Anthropologists gave fame. King and Holliday immediately became
cameras to various cultural groups to let media celebrities. The two were recognized
them record what was important in their wherever they traveled. People wanting to
lives. Rock singer Peter Gabriel, the Lawyers shake his hand stopped Holliday on the street.
Committee for Human Rights, and the Ree- More than 100 requests for interviews by the
bok athletic shoe company, in what was world's media organizations overwhelmed
called the "Witness" program, supplied cam- the young plumber. Friends from Argentina
eras to people wanting to document human called him to say that they'd seen him on
rights abuses in Asia, Africa, and Latin television. He had to change his phone num-
America. Gabriel asserted that "cameras are ber twice and hire a lawyer to sort out all the
more powerful than guns." Angry residents business deals offered to him. Once, while
in a Boston suburb used their video cameras walking out of a gasoline station in Van Nuys,
to tape and discourage prostitutes in their Holliday heard someone call his name. He
THE RODNEY KING INCIDENT 325
looked up and recognized Rodney King. For vandalism, and fires stopped. Many analysts
the first and only time, the two met. King blamed the violence on the not-guilty ver-
enthusiastically shook his hand and said, dicts in the four LAPD officers' trial. Other
"Hey man, you saved my life." But that was critics blamed government cutbacks that re-
about all the two could think to say to each sulted in a rise in poverty, gangs, and drug
other, and they parted. use. In troubled South Central Los Angeles,
educational and employment opportunities
are scarce, access to handguns is easy, and
The trial and its aftermath
family values have broken down, which some
Holliday was the first witness called to testify say is caused by violent scenes shown in
in the trial of the four police officers, which movies and on television.
had been moved to suburban Simi Valley in During the riots, Holliday started to re-
the hope of getting an unbiased jury. Almost ceive anonymous phone calls blaming him
everyone who had viewed the tape thought for the disturbances. Holliday admitted that,
they knew the eventual verdict. But the at first, "I felt it was all my fault — especially
defense lawyers persuaded the jurors to come when people started getting killed. But I can't
to a different conclusion. With high-quality blame myself. I'm just the guy who took the
sound, a stabilized picture, digitally enhanced video."
exposures, and super-slow motion, the jurors The beating of Rodney King, George Holl-
saw a much different version of the tape than iday's videotape, the trial of the police offi-
television viewers. Slow motion exaggerated cers, and the riots in the streets of Los
even the tiniest movements by King, some Angeles all contributed to one of the most
lasting less than a second, that were interpret- important stories of the twentieth century. As
ed by the lawyers as aggressive acts. Never always, some tried to profit from the tragedy.
mind that such small gestures were probably Rodney King originally sued the city for $56
impossible to notice in "real time." Accord- million — $1 million for each baton blow he
ing to the defense, each baton blow was suffered. When the city offered him $1.75
necessary, justified, and within departmental million to settle his suit, King's lawyer called
guidelines. The jurors also saw Holliday's it an insult. In the civil suit that followed,
tape about fifty times, desensitizing their King demanded $15 million while city offi-
emotions about its content. Much of the cials offered $800,000. In 1994, a jury award-
horror experienced during an initial viewing ed King $3.8 million in compensatory dam-
of the video was lost. ages.
On April 29, 1992, the four LAPD police Since the original incident, the police have
officers were acquitted by the all-Anglo jury. picked up King four times. In the latest
The surprising verdict sparked one of the instance, he was arrested for drunk driving
bloodiest and costliest chapters in America's after smashing a Ford Bronco into a wall. The
history. The civil disturbance that followed passengers in Rodney King's car, Bryant Al-
claimed more than 50 lives, caused 2,300 len and Freddie Helms, also have sued the
injuries, resulted in hundreds of arrests, and city, claiming that they were beaten by police
cost more than $1 billion in property damage. officers. Helms has since died in an automo-
The violent orgy started on the corner of bile accident, but his family is still pursuing
Florence and Normandie avenues, about ten legal action. King has sold the rights to his life
miles from the site of the King beating. story to Triple-7 Entertainment for a possible
After California Governor Pete Wilson made-for-television movie.

called in the National Guard, the looting, Holliday sued KTLA and all the major
326 I f 1 KV1SION AND VIDEO
television networks for $100 million for interview, and Phil Donahue paid Briseno
showing the tape without his permission. In $25,000 for an appearance.
addition, he wanted $7,500 from individual Because of the state trial's not-guilty ver-
television stations that aired the tape and dicts, prosecutors in the federal trial of the
$2,500 for any use of the video by a station for four police officers didn't rely as heavily as
the next five years. U.S. District Judge Irving the state had on the videotape to tell the story
Hill dismissed the suit, saying that the news of the beating. The federal trial was held in
organizations had a right to air the video Los Angeles before a multicultural jury. This
because of First Amendment freedoms and time, all the officers except Briseno, who tried
the social importance of its content. He to stop one of Powell's baton strikes, were
argued, "No words could substitute for the found guilty. The Reverend Jesse Jackson
public insight gained by looking at the mo- remarked that although he was pleased with
tion picture. . .
." Nevertheless, Holliday has the verdict, "There are many other police
received about $150,000 because of the video- beating victims without the benefit of a
tape. For his promotion of a commercial Holliday videotape." In August 1993, Judge
videotape called "Shoot News and Make John Davies sentenced Koon and Powell to
Money with Your Camcorder," he received a light sentences of less than three years each.
small royalty. Holliday reportedly has negoti- Davies concluded that only six of the fifty-
ated with a production company to make The five baton blows were illegal and that Rodney
George Holliday Life Story, but no one can King's erratic, alcohol-induced behavior was
decide whether it should be a "TV movie, a partly responsible for the officers' behavior.
miniseries, or a full feature." Director Spike In a final irony, Holliday no longer has the
Lee paid Holliday between $50,000 and camcorder he used to take the famous foot-
$100,000 to use the video in the opening age. When his wife and he separated, she took
sequence of his movie Malcolm X. But Holli- the camera. "I'll get another one," he admits.
day sued Lee when he objected to the way the "I like gadgets. But not right now. I can't
video was used — superimposed on an image afford it."
of a burning American flag. Anyone can buy

the videotape of the beating for $24.95.
Promoters also planned to sell T-shirts, hats, Analysis of the rodney king
and buttons with images from the video, but VIDEO
adverse criticism probably caused them to
shelve that idea. Witnessing such a vividly shocking example

Other individuals involved in the story of government-sponsored violence from any
have made money. Chief Gates and Sgt. Koon country is rare — especially in the United
both wrote best-selling books. Both the fore- States with out democratic traditions and
woman for the Simi Valley trial and King's rights spelled out in the Constitution, which
one-time private investigator are trying to sell are supposed to protect citizens from such
their books. Because the legal fees for the abuses by government. The visual message is
police officers have amounted to about shocking, sickening, and unforgettable. The
0 each (lawyers for the case charge as tape exemplifies the emotional power of im-
50 an hour), the four have tried to ages better than any words could possibly
appearances on television. The pro- explain. For years African Americans have
duce] of "Inside Edition" declined a complained in speeches and stories about
$200,000 package deal. Nevertheless, Koon "police brutality" and the everyday indigni-
earned J 10,000 for an "A Current Affair" ties lower-economic groups must face from
ANALYSIS OF THE RODNEY KING VIDEO 327
those sworn to protect and serve them. But all low-exposure, out-of-focus, high-contrast,
those words had little effect until a man with high-perspective, remote location, single
a camcorder recorded a scene taking place camera, poor audio, and shaky version of
below his balcony. Is the world a better, safer, reality. As such, the picture is an excellent
and more understanding place because peo- example of the cinema verite approach to
ple viewed the sensational picture? No single documentary filming, in which the camera
image can possibly have that great an effect. distorts the content within the camera's
But for each person who saw the tape when it frame. The techniques that Holliday un-
was first aired — without justifications and knowingly applied in his amateur effort also
explanations from the officers' public rela- are used by motion picture and television
tions people — the conclusion was the same. directors to grab a viewer's attention. The
How could such an event happen in the land shaky, subjective camera makes a dull, static
of the free and the home of the brave? subject more interesting. But when the con-
For many viewers of the videotape, the tent is as compelling as the King video, the
sight of Anglo police officers with wooden effect is devastating. The emotions of a per-
clubs brutally beating the slumped form of an son watching the tape are heightened not only
African-American man reminded them of by the meaning of the actions seen, but also
the still photographs and newsreel footage by the way in which they are presented.
supplied by journalists at the height of the Without George Holliday's famous video-
civil rights movement in the 1950s. Forty tape, the world most likely would never have
years separate the Rodney King incident and heard of Rodney King. More to the point, if
the sight of African Americans struck by Holliday had not thought to take the video to
high-powered water hoses and attacked by a local television station that arranged to
police dogs. Police officers in the 1950s show the tape to the world, there would have
thought they could use such brutal crowd been no trial of the four police officers and
control methods because they didn't under- King would be back in prison for violating his
stand the power of the picture to arouse parole.
public opinion against their tactics. In the This unique situation evoked all six ethi-
1990s, the use of small, hand-held, high- cal philosophies discussed elsewhere. KTLA
quality video cameras by a growing number paid Holliday $500 for the videotape because
of amateurs may cause police officials to the images were unusual, dramatic, and im-
reconsider carefully their procedures because portant — a common definition of news for
they may be captured by an electronic eye most journalists. The categorical imperative
with a long memory. The difference between guided the initial reaction to the tape — if an
the power of visual messages in the 1950s and image is newsworthy, the news organization
the 1990s is that, if the presence of a camera must show it. Utilitarianism came into play
had been known, the 1950s police probably in the suspension of the rights to privacy of
would have shrugged their shoulders and King and the officers. More important than
continued their hits, but the 1990s police their rights to privacy was showing their
probably would have stopped. In 1993, LAPD actions to a wider audience. That is, society
officials ordered 360-degree rotating video may have benefited more from the tape's
cameras placed on the top of each squad car airing than not showing the tape out of
while officers wear lapel, wireless micro- concern for the privacy of the individuals
phones to record all of the sights and sounds involved. The golden mean was represented
of their activities. by the compromise between not showing the
The George Holliday tape is a grainy, tape and showing the entire ten minutes. The
—a
networks ran a brief, two-minute excerpt of serious crimes are far too common. The
the most dramatic part of the video — show- media's fascination and reliance on sensa-
ing Officers Wind and Powell striking King tional, so-called reality-based video reflects
with a flurry of baton blows. Although some the culture's obsession with the violent. With
viewers and members of the officers' families so many fictionalized stories on television,
might base objections to the tape because of actual dramatic footage from the scene of a
its violent content or unfavorable representa- tragedy attracts even more attention from
tions of the LAPD on the golden rule and veil viewers. At the same time, however, the
of ignorance philosophies, the television au- broadcasting of violent home videos supplied
dience in general understood that the content by a growing number of eager, camcorder-
of the video overruled such arguments. holding neojournalists distorts reality.
Unfortunately, however, hedonism was at What is truthful for a single moment is
play more than any of the other ethical not always the whole truth. The unusual
philosophies. In the United States there seems visual content of the Holliday tape perpetu-
to be an epidemic of litigation in the hope of ates stereotypes about those arrested and
winning large monetary settlements. Un- those attempting to make arrests. Most Afri-
doubtedly, Rodney King should be compen- can Americans are never arrested. Most peo-
sated by the city of Los Angeles for the acts ple with a video camera record the actions of
inflicted by its employees — but $56 million their family members, not crimes in progress
seems excessive. Likewise, George Holliday or arrests. Most police officers are profession-
probably should have been paid more than al, reasonable individuals. But the videotape
$500 for his videotape — but is it worth $100 fits the mentality of a culture that emphasizes
million? It is a tragedy that Rodney King's life short-term goals, quick fixes, and easy solu-
and temperament set him on a 100-mile-an- tions to complex social problems.
hour collision course with police officers. It is Once anonymous and private citizens,
a disgrace that some individuals under the King, Koon, Powell, Wind, Briseno, and
color of authority became insensitive and Holliday have attained celebrity status —
brutal people. It is misleading to think that desired and envious position of this culture.
the content of the videotape sparked the civil There are few places where they can go
unrest that cost fifty lives. It is sad that without someone recognizing their famous
personal financial gain and not civic duty faces. But their renown is not because of a
motivates individuals to donate tapes to news special talent, discovery, or attribute. They
organizations and to tell their stories to the are famous because of their infamous actions.
press. The rise in hedonism — looking out for To varying degrees, the six individuals are
number one — is one of the most dangerous symbols of the victim, the aggressor, and the
social trends in the United States or any other opportunist — archetypes with deep roots in
country. the collective unconscious of the culture.

The arrest of Rodney King, the videotape That is why the videotape and the subsequent
by George Holliday, and the phenomenon of activities of those involved are so fascinating
the video tape's notoriety are three separate to watch.
components of the cultural perspective. Be- When King thanked Holliday for saving
cause of few educational and economic op- his life at their coincidental meeting at a gas
portunities for an African American born station, he did not mean the term literally
into a depressed urban center in the United none of the officers knew of the taping at the
States, arrests for speeding, driving while scene. King's life was saved (or at least given a
intoxicated, and resisting arrest and more second chance) by his celebrity status as a
TELEVISION AND VIDEO AND THE SIX PERSPECTIVES 329
result of the video. His sudden exalted posi-

tion in society caused the charges to be
dropped, gave him wealth he had never had
before, and produced rapt attention from
others whenever he spoke. In the middle of
the civil disturbance, he helped calm the

city's fury with a hastily prepared press
conference in which he spoke five memorable

words: "Can we all get along?" If there had
been no videotape of that dark winter night,
he would have been thrown back in jail,
r/f///.
without enough money to pay his bail, and
no one would have cared what he had to say.
Rodney King entered jail that night as a poor,
degraded African American. But television

transformed him into the equivalent of a rich,
respected Anglo. The power of television
comes from the power of visual messages to
manipulate emotions. The best visual mes-

sages are memorable because they are simple.
Memorable images, however, do not always

reveal the truth — only the truth from a
particular point of view (Figure 14.2).
Television and video and the

six perspectives
ONiE PICTL£2£" WORTH -Z.&&0
Many viewers use a remote control device Figure 14.2

to flip from one program to another in the In a powerful re-creation of
Television is easy to criticize. Former Federal sometimes frustrating effort to find some- the beating of Rodney King,
Communications Commission (FCC) chair- thing interesting to watch. Called channel
Los Angeles Times editorial
man Newton Minow, in a 1961 speech, called grazing, the curious habit of discovering a
cartoonist Paul Conrad
the medium "a vast wasteland." Philosopher good program without the aid of a television
demonstrates his anger at
Bertrand Russell growled that it was nothing guide evokes the wide-open plains of the Old
more than "chewing gum for the eyes." In West — the metaphor of a better life over the
the acquittal in the
trial oj the
state-
four police
some cultures, it is hip to criticize "the boob next hill or around the bend.
officers.
tube." Mark Miller, in his book Boxed In, That promise of a better program through
writes that "a great deal of the time when we the next push of a button is where television
are watching TV we know that it is stupid and gets its power. In the early history of the
enjoy the feeling of superiority." Mark Frost, medium, viewers were content to be intrigued
cocreator with David Lynch of the short-lived by the low-quality flickering pictures. With
and critically acclaimed "Twin Peaks" televi- few stations and programs, people watched
sion series, admits that "in this country, whatever was broadcast. Today, viewers are
television is used primarily as a narcotic to more fickle, demanding constant entertain-
prepare people for the commercial." ment. The reason is simple — television actu-
ally is radio with pictures, and radio has roots feeling that television should be something
deep in vaudeville theater. Consequently, more — something better. But no one is quite
television always was meant to be more of an sure what that is. The hope is that 500
entertainment than an educational medium. channel teleputers — a combination of tele-
The high ideals and educational hopes came phones, televisions, and computers — will
later. If you learn something from "The turn passive viewers into active, creative
Beverly Hillbillies" or "Masterpiece Thea- users. Stay tuned.
tre," that is only because you the viewer have

made entertainment educational (Figure
14.3). Conversely, producers of television

shows hope that they make education enter-
taining. Whether you watch no television or In the 1930s, when Hollywood executives first
seven hours a day, one conclusion is clear: TV learned about the new medium of television,
is a medium in which the viewer is charged they laughed at the idea of radio with pic-
with the task of making sense of it all. Jack tures. In the 1940s they were concerned
Perkins says that his Arts & Entertainment enough to reduce ticket prices and offer
cable network "shows the entire scope of double features. In the 1950s the war was
television, which is, of course, the entire over — television had become the single most
scope of life." Television is life because it popular form of entertainment for Ameri-
reveals much about the lives of those inside cans. Since the 1960s, the attitude of movie
and outside the screen. As in the introduction industry executives has been cooperation.
to the 1960s medical drama "Ben Casey," The swift rise in the popularity of television
television is "birth, death, man, woman, reflects fascination with the medium itself,
infinity." Whether conscious of television's the types of programs offered on the small
effect or blissfully unaware, people eventually screen, and the fact that the pictures are
succumb to the enticing images that dance delivered into the intimate surroundings of
across the glowing glass frame. the home.
Television is a uniquely twentieth-century
form of entertainment. No other culture Television's Roots
during no other time in history has had the Television has its roots in radio broadcast-
opportunity to enjoy the magical tube. If you ing. Guglielmo Marconi was the son of a
were born after 1950, chances are that televi- wealthy Italian father and Irish mother. Mar-
sion has been your primary source of in- coni conceived the idea of the "wireless
home, mass communication entertainment telegraph" in which messages could be sent

and information. Because the images come between two locations by electromagnetic
into familiar and intimate home settings, the frequencies (Chapter 2). If such a system were
characters are more easily recognizable, seem possible, the troublesome and expensive tele-
friendlier, and become more a part of your graph lines necessary for Samuel Morse's
life than characters presented in any other invention would become obsolete. The Italian
media. government wasn't interested in his idea, so
Probably the chief reason why television is his mother encouraged him to go to England.
so routinely criticized is the queasy feeling In 1899, Marconi transmitted the letter "s"
that comes from the thought that despite all across the Atlantic Ocean. But Marconi's
eat moments presented — all the news, invention only allowed a burst of energy in
drama, comedy, and sports — television never communicating letters in a message by means
has lived up to its potential. There is always a of the Morse code. The broadcasting of voices
Figure 14.3
Many critics complained
that shows like "The Beverly
Hillbillies" were examples of
the worst the medium has to
offer. Note how the
overloaded jalopy is
purposely set in this
publicity still to contrast
with the expensive
automobiles on a palm-lined
southern California
boulevard.
required continuous transmission. In 1906, Pittsburgh was a physicist for the Westing-
the Canadian Reginald Fessenden demon- house company. To amuse his friends, he
strated his ability to send continuous messag- would often send music and information over
es by broadcasting a violin solo and Bible his radio at home. When advertising execu-
readings to ships at sea. When Lee De Forest tives for the Joseph Home Department Store
improved on the vacuum tube to allow great- in downtown Pittsburgh found out about
er amplification, radio as we know it was Conrad's service, they included his offerings
possible. All that was needed was for someone in their sales pitch for their radio receivers.
to think of using the medium as a form of This new advertising campaign caused radio
entertainment. sales to jump dramatically, and advertisers
Amateur radio operator Frank Conrad of immediately recognized that the medium was
a
more than a hobby for a few enthusiasts. On scanning technology. Similar to the earlier
October 27, 1920, the first radio sta'tion, zoetropes, the machine scanned small pic-
KDKA (which is still in operation), began tures on a spinning wheel one line at a time.
broadcasting. Businesspeople soon realized The American Charles Jenkins in 1923 first
that they could make more money with this demonstrated a mechanical scanning appara-
new medium by providing programs for a tus publicly. He transmitted a photograph of
network of stations. In 1926, the National President Harding from Washington to Phila-
Broadcasting Corporation (NBC), a subsidi- delphia. However, this technology could only
ary of RCA, established two radio networks reproduce small, poor-quality images. Conse-
—NBC-Red and NBC-Blue. The next year, quently, electronic scanning became the
the Columbia Broadcasting Service (CBS) dominant technology for television. However,
was formed as a subsidiary of the Columbia the principle behind mechanical scanning
Phonograph Record Company. Sam Paley, a later helped develop laser disk technology.
cigar manufacturer who let his son William In 1920, the American Allen Dumont
control the operation, soon bought CBS. invented the cathode ray tube (CRT) in the
In 1927, Congress passed the Federal Ra- form of an oscilloscope, a device that turns
dio Act, which created the Federal Radio electromagnetic waves into visible patterns on
Commission (FRC). This governmental a monitor. In 1922, an Idaho high school
agency was responsible for regulating the student, Philo Farnsworth created a televi-
newly created radio industry. By 1930, radio sion set using Dumont's CRT. In 1927,
and other forms of electronic communication Farnsworth transmitted images with his
were a powerful and popular medium in the invention. After a lengthy court case, RCA
United States. Consequently, Congress ex- officials worked out a royalty agreement that
panded the FRC to include the regulation of gave Farnsworth one million dollars from
the telephone, telegraph, and "radio pic- 1939 to 1949. Because of the interest in televi-
tures." In 1934, the FRC became the Federal sion, GE, RCA, and Westinghouse scientists
Communications Commission (FCC). Be- in 1930 merged their research operations.

cause the broadcast band is a limited spec- Russian immigrant Vladimir Zworykin head-
trum, two of the FCC's duties were to ensure ed the television team. In their laboratory in
that radio frequencies wouldn't overlap and New Jersey, The scientists invented the
to reserve frequencies for emergency and iconoscope electronic scanning tube for tele-
government communication. Following the vision. The first transmission was a crude,
FCC's adoption of a system for frequency 60-line reproduction of a small cartoon

allocation, individual radio stations in major drawing of the popular character Felix the
cities began to be established in growing Cat. Its developers soon improved the icono-
numbers. Except for stations established be- scope to a 441 -line picture scanner. The suc-
fore the FCC was created, all broadcast sta- cess of these experiments led David Sarnoff,
tions east of the Mississippi River have call President of RCA, to decide in 1932 to invest
letters that begin with a "W," whereas those heavily in this new technology. It was Sarnoff
west of the river begin with a "K." who came up with the word television —
The history of television dates from exper- combination of hearing and seeing by radio.
iments conducted in the nineteenth century. The New York World's Fair in 1939 first
There are two methods for producing tele- introduced the public to do television.
vised images: mechanical and electronic Amazed fairgoers could enjoy early vaudeville
scanning. In 1884, German scientist Paul acts, view the opening festivities of the long-
Nipkow advocated the short-lived mechanical awaited movie Gone with the Wind in Atlanta,
and see Franklin D. Roosevelt, the first U.S. operating in any one area. A station cost
president to appear on television. about $1.5 million to construct, and, once

built, it had to supply entertaining programs.
The 1940s The FCC authorized seven powerful VHF
Concerned about competing technologies channels for commercial broadcasting in
that would delay the spread of television, the each market area. Consequently, large media
FCC authorized sets to contain a 525-line corporations secured a VHF frequency in
electron scanner for black and white trans- every large city in America. If some indepen-
mission in 1941. The FCC also allowed dent station operator wanted to supply pro-
twenty-three very high frequency (VHF) grams for a particular market, the economi-
channels for television. In a further concern cal choice often was — and still is — the lower
over the dominance of RCA, the FCC told the quality and weaker ultra high frequency
corporation that it had to sell one of its (UHF) channels. The major networks were
networks. It sold the Blue network in 1943 to able to dominate the medium because most
Edward Noble of the Lifesaver Candy Com- television sets received only VHF broadcasts.
pany for $8 million, which eventually became Owing to concern over spectrum interfer-
the American Broadcasting Corporation ence between two powerful VHF stations in
(ABC). Allen Dumont also made his own adjacent areas, in 1948 the FCC imposed a
television sets and started his own network. freeze on further station construction until
However, World War II temporarily halted the problem could be solved. Nevertheless,
the spread of television because of the need the Rose Bowl parade and football game in
for industry to concentrate on the war effort. Pasadena, coverage of the political conven-
The vacuum tubes required for the sets often tions, and the popular vaudeville-style varie-
burned out, but because of the war, replace- ty shows of Milton Berle and Ed Sullivan
ment parts were impossible to find. During (Figures 14.4 and 14.5) were broadcast. Mov-
the war years, only six stations were broad- ie executives at war with the television medi-
casting to about 10,000 sets in the United um prohibited their stars or motion pictures
States. Most of the television sets were in bars, from appearing on television. The result was
bowling alleys, appliance store windows, and a bias against television acting by film stars
the homes of wealthier families. Early televi- (which still exists today) and the advent of
sion network executives simply saw the medi- television celebrities distinct from those in
um as a way to make additional money for other forms of entertainment. Nevertheless,

their radio productions. No one believed that some farsighted movie moguls, particularly
the small screen would become the cultural after a 1948 antitrust ruling and the activities
phenomenon that it is today. of the HUAC against the motion picture

In the 1940s, television broadcasting was industry (Chapter 13), became interested in
limited to a short time in the evening. Radio television production. For example, Colum-
employees re-created radio programs, an- bia Pictures was the first studio to open a
nounced some news, and narrated sporting television production division, called Screen
events. After the war, attention once again Gems, in 1951. Many others soon followed.
turned to television. In fact, commercial Walt Disney agreed to make programs for
television broadcasting began in earnest in ABC and later for NBC. Jack Warner's studio
1946. NBC, CBS, ABC, and, to a lesser extent, produced the popular "Cheyenne" western
the Dumont Network dominated the market series, and in 1960 Warner Bros, made more
because of the expense of establishing a than $40 million on its television produc-
station and the limited number of stations tions.
Figure 14.4 The 1950s

Tuesday night was called
Berle night in the early days Many writers have dubbed the 1950s "the
golden age" of television because of techno-
of television. Milton Rerle's
variety show, "The Texaco

logical and programming innovations. One
fact is clear: During the decade, television
Star Theater" (as if you
gained a tremendous number of viewers and
couldn't guess), was so
became a true mass medium. For example,
popular that restaurant and
the "I Love Lucy" show was a landmark
movie theater owners often
production in 1951 for many reasons. Pro-
gave up trying to attract
duced by Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz by their
customers away from their
Desilu production company in studios pur-
television sets. Here, Berle chased from the failed movie studio RKO, the
roughs up a young magician situation comedy (sitcom) was filmed with
on stage for a laugh. three cameras in front of a live audience and
was enormously successful. Filmed produc-
tions meant that the shows could be shown
again and again as reruns for additional
profits.
When the FCC lifted its station freeze in
1952, television suddenly became a true mass

medium with 108 stations. Fifteen million
homes in the United States had television
sets. Talk shows, with personable hosts such
Figure 14.5
as Arthur Godfrey and Dave Garroway, dom-
Ed Sullivan's talent was that
inated the morning and evening hours. "The
his personality never
Tonight Show," the longest running enter-
competed with those of the
tainment-oriented talk show, began in 1954.
stars on his show —a It has been hosted by Steve Allen, Jack Parr,
glorified vaudeville theater
Johnny Carson, and Jay Leno (Figure 14.6).
presentation. Here, he poses
Advertising revenue reached $324 million by
with actress Gina 1953. Advertising agencies for particular
Lollobrigida. products "sponsored" or purchased entire
programs so that all the commercials would
be for those products. Stars for the shows
often would pitch products on the air. Today,
selling commercials on an individual basis,
with advertising rates set according to the

Nielsen Company's viewer is much more
profitable.
Because of the high cost of television

production, ABC merged with United Para-
mount Theatres in 1953 and survived. Du-
mont failed to attain additional funding and
went out of business in 1955. In 1956, Holly-
wood lifted its ban on television. With movie

stars and movies on television, the medium

became even more popular. Movie theater
attendance declined, and radio serial pro-
grams became obsolete. Radio became the
medium for music and news, ironically Frank
Conrad's original idea.
By 1956, 500 broadcast stations in the
United States were generating more than $1
billion in advertising sales. Besides movie
stars, theatre actors were persuaded to per-
form on television in the mid-1950s. Pro-
grams such as "Philco Playhouse," "Studio
One," "Kraft Television Theatre," and "Play-

house 90" produced such dramatic shows as
"Marty," "The Days of Wine and Roses,"
and "Requiem for a Heavyweight." However,
advertisers, complained about the depressing
content. Consequently, in the 1960s, shows
that had happy endings replaced these "high-

culture" productions.
Several attempts were made in the 1950s The 1958 quiz show scandal rocked the Figure 14.6
to censor content and individuals. In 1950, television industry. A congressional investi- The original "Tonight
Senator Estes Kefauver led a movement to gation discovered that contestants had been Show" host, Steve Allen,
curtail the violence perceived in television coached with the correct answers in order to
speaks into a microphone on
programs. Kefauver's attempts at censorship make the programs more dramatic. The net-
a set that resembles a bank
coincided with another senator's effort to works canceled many quiz shows after
president's office.
root out alleged Communists in the govern- Charles Van Doren testified that he had been
ment and media. Joseph McCarthy of Wis- given the answers for the show "Twenty-
consin helped publish "Red Channels: The One." Quiz shows soon returned to daytime
Report of Communist Influence in Radio and television, but under stiffer regulations
Television." The report listed 151 suspects, (Figure 14.9).
whom the networks blacklisted because of As with the motion picture industry, tele-
fear of advertiser boycotts (Figure 14.7). In vision also was subjected to political efforts
1952, the FCC, concerned about the content by conservatives to control program content.
of programs sent into homes, required that Since the 1950s, television program content
ten percent (later increased to thirty-five has been regulated by the networks them-
percent) of a day's broadcasting be educa- selves, the government, advertisers, and pub-
tional. This regulation marked the beginning lic pressure groups to varying degrees.
of the FCC's shift from frequency allocation Color, videotape, and cable were intro-
to content regulation. However, direct cen- duced in the 1950s, and CBS and RCA
sorship proved to be ineffective. McCarthy proposed two different systems for camera
was discredited and later censured by the and receiver color. The FCC tried to delay the
Senate in 1954 after a news broadcast in switch to color, fearing that the transition
which Edward R. Murrow, the CBS journal- would be too expensive. Nevertheless, the
ist, revealed McCarthy's unfair smear prac- FCC approved RCA's color technology as the
tices (Figure 14.8). industry standard. Because of the time re-
"
336 TELEVISION AND VIDKO
Figure 14.7
"The focus of attention.

Senator Joseph McCarthy in
1954 answering charges that
a photograph he is holding
was altered to fit his
political agenda (it was).
Eventually, the U.S. Senate
censured him, but not before
he ruined the careers of
many people connected with
the motion picture and
television industries.
Figure 14.8
CBS journalists Edward R.
Murrow (left), Charles
Collingwood, and Eric
Sevareid discuss election
returns on a program.
quired for stations to convert and for the

public to purchase color television sets, not
until the 1960s did color transmission and
reception become common. One of the first
shows in color was NBC's "Wonderful World

of Color." It opened with the network's
brightly painted peacock and was hosted by
Walt Disney. The show was as much a pro-
motion of color television as it was a com-
mercial for Disney productions. In the late
1950s, videotape technology revolutionized
television production. Shows could be sched-
uled for taping at any time, and mistakes
could be corrected easily. Eventually, much of
television was pretaped. More important, vid-
eotape allowed high-quality reproductions of
programs so that huge amounts of money
could be made from showing reruns of previ-
ously aired shows.
Cable or pay television began as a way to
bring television to communities in Pennsyl-
vania that were nestled among mountains location productions. One of the most con- Figure 14.9
that prevented over-the-air reception. The troversial was the Desilu production of "The Game shows in the 1950s
cable company received television signals and Untouchables." With its Elliot Ness-inspired were rocked with scandal
then piped them into individual homes stories, car crashes, and flying bullets, the when it was learned that
through coaxial cable links. Customers paid show, according to a Senate subcommittee,
some contestants were given
about $10 a month for the service. By 1952, was "the most violent program on televi-
correct answers in order to
some seventy cable systems across the United sion." Concerned that Congress might seek
make the shows more
States served 14,000 subscribers. censorship through legislation, network exec-
exciting. "The $64,000
utives moved most of their production facili-
The 1960s Question," sponsored by the
ties to California, where Hollywood was re-
Revlon makeup company,
By 1960, more that 90 percent of the sponsible for mass-appeal, inoffensive sitcoms
homes in the United States had at least one such as "Mr. Ed," "Gilligan's Island," and typified the classic elements
television set. Cable companies flourished, "The Beverly Hillbillies." Motion picture of a game show: a hostess
with more than 650,000 subscribers and 640 executives also were scrambling to offset loss- wearing an evening
firms. Besides better reception, viewers with es from falling theater attendance. The first with nothing much U
cable could get many more channels and primetime movie program, "Saturday Night but smile, a cony st
commercial-free sporting events and movies at the Movies," started in 1961. Home view- (Hal March)
than could viewers of the broadcast networks. ers could watch successful second-run mo- questions am >wers,
However, most programs were dull and for- tion pictures, if they didn't object to the
contestant at appear to I
mulaic. As a result of the criticism of the commercials. By 1968, movies were being
>eop 1
'
ordino \
t
pretentious theatrical productions of the broadcast every night of the week. Because
"soundproof booth, " which
1950s, networks concentrated on action-ad- the trend rapidly depleted Hollywood's sup-
often vms wheeled to the
venture dramas produced outside of theatre ply of movies, in 1969 ABC started to pro-
middle of the set to add
studios. "The Defenders" and "East Side, duce its own made-for-television movies for
drama.
West Side" are examples of New York, on- its program "The Movie of the Week."
Although most entertainment programs geosynchronous orbit for satellites initially
were criticized, news and sports during the came from science fiction writer Arthur C.
politically troubled 1960s were experiencing Clarke and is often referred to as "Clarke's
their own golden age. The 1960 John Kenne- Orbit."

dy and Richard Nixon televised presidential With the advent of instant replay technol-
debate for the first time showed political ogy for sports programs, ABC became a
managers the importance of a candidate's leading network. New leagues were formed to
image on television (Figure 14.10). Many take advantage of the tremendous profits
thought that Nixon's five o'clock shadow and provided by televised sporting events.
nervous appearance, seen clearly with the With satellite and videotape technology,
small screen's close-ups, caused his narrow news programs could cover many social and
defeat. In 1962, AT&T and NASA collaborat- political events. Vivid images of assassina-
ed to develop and launch the first communi- tions, civil rights marches, political speeches,
cations satellite, Telstar I. Live television and the Vietnam War had a tremendous
transmission between Europe and the United impact on viewers who watched them on
States became possible, but only for short their home screens. The effect of bringing the
periods at a time because of the satellite's outside world's problems into the home was
movement through space. To correct the that the social problems protested in the
problem, NASA launched the first geosyn- 1960s could not be ignored. Consequently,
chronous satellite, Early Bird, in 1964 to African-American actors were selected for
provide continuous transmission of television dramatic series and as news reporters. Jackie
signals. It could do so because it traveled at Gleason was one of the first producers to hire
the same speed as the Earth's rotation, 22,300 an African-American dancer for the chorus
miles above the Equator. The idea for a line of a variety show. Bill Cosby in "I Spy"
Figure 14.10
journalists scramble on stage
to interview Richard Nixon
and John Kennedy after
their first televised debate.
The power of the visual
medium was evident, as
many who heard the debate
on radio thought that Nixon

had won, but those watching
television were su
Kennedy was the clear
winner.
and Diahann Carroll in "Julia" portrayed based on characters from previously broad-
upper-class African-American characters. cast programs, proliferated. For example, the
But when variety shows tried to inject politi- popular sitcoms "All in the Family" and
cal humor into their primetime programs, "The Mary Tyler Moore Show" resulted in
they were soon canceled. "The Smothers fifteen separate spin-offs and gave indepen-
Brothers Comedy Hour" and "Laugh-In" dent television production companies — Tan-
were short-lived casualties of executive cen- dem for "Family" and MTM Productions for
sorship. "Moore" — as much financial clout as the
movie studios.
The 1970s
In the 1970s, the federal government be- The 1980s
came proactive in regulating television con- In the 1980s, Capital Cities Communica-
tent. Congressional action banned cigarette tion bought ABC and General Electric pur-
commercials from television in 1972. (To chased NBC's parent company, RCA, but CBS
avoid a similar fate, beer company advertise- retained its original ownership. Cost-cutting
ments never show a person actually drink- measures at all three networks resulted in
ing.) In 1973, broadcasters were required to fewer highly trained journalists in their news
provide time for opposing viewpoints. This divisions. Thismove allowed Ted Turner's
followed a 1969 Supreme Court ruling in Red 24-hour news channel, the Cable News Net-
Lion Broadcasting v. FCC. The Fairness Doc- work (CNN), to become the preeminent
trine is an FCC rule that dates from 1941. It is source of worldwide news. In 1985, Austra-
based on the opinion that minority points of lian tabloid mogul Rubert Murdoch bought
view cannot get a fair hearing because of the half control of 20th Century Fox. Two years
limited number of channels. However, a 1987 later the Fox Broadcasting Company, a fourth
FCC ruling diluted the doctrine, and the broadcasting network, introduced one night a
advent of many new technologies for trans- week of Fox-produced shows to its 105 inde-
mitting programs has made it irrelevant. In pendent stations. With the success of "The
1972, cable became competitive with the Simpsons" (Chapter 11), its programming,
broadcast networks when Home Box Office once dominated by reruns, has been expand-
(HBO) started to air second-run movies. ed to include several original productions. To
In an effort to forestall FCC action against protect their investments, television net-
adult-oriented programs, the National Asso- works, cable companies, and movie studios
ciation of Broadcasters (NAB) accepted a have formed partnerships. For example,
code for stations in 1975 that established the HBO, CBS, and Columbia Pictures formed
"family hour" before 9:00 P.M. Excessive TriStar Pictures, Inc., to make motion pic-
sexual or violent programs were not allowed tures for both the big and small screens.
during that time, when large numbers of

children were likely to be watching television. The 1990s
Widely opposed by program producers, the By 1992, one billion television sets were in
code was repealed after a court battle. Never- homes throughout the world. Concern over
theless, concern over the amount of sexually excessive commercialism during children's
explicit and violent action programming has shows prompted a 1990 law that limits sta-
resulted in the latest effort to head off direct tions to 10.5 minutes of commercials per
censorship — a violence rating symbol that hour during weekends and 12 minutes on
identifies a program as excessively gruesome. weekdays. In 1993, the FCC fined television
During the 1970s, spin-offs, or shows stations in St. Louis, Colorado Springs, and
340 I KI EV 1SION AND VIDEO
Sioux Falls up to $30,000 each for violating Videotape

that law.
Today, cable is the major challenge to the Before the "I Love Lucy" show, the only
networks, steadily siphoning viewers away way to preserve a copy of a program was in
from the "Big Three"— NBC, CBS, and ABC. low-quality kinescopes — low-resolution film
One battleground between cable and broad- shot directly from a television screen. Kine-
cast networks was a 1992 federal law that scopes were simply used as low-cost, fuzzy,
allows networks to charge cable companies historical records. No one thought of the
for the right to carry their signals. Although earning potential of reruns until Desi Arnaz's
cable company executives didn't want to pay idea of using film and three cameras (Figure
for a product that home viewers can get free, 14.11). But film from three cameras was
most cable companies now have agreed to expensive to produce and tedious to edit.
compensate broadcast networks for the pro- Consequently, the industry started to look for
gramming that fills much of a cable channel's alternatives to kinescopes and film. The in-
day. vention of videotape technology allowed

Another battleground for the networks is taped rather than live productions, high-
with the Hollywood studios who produce quality syndicated programs, and delayed
most of the programs seen on television. In newscasts for the West Coast. It inspired
1993, U.S. District Judge Manuel Real re- artistic applications and helped build the
pealed a 1970s consent degree with the Justice billion-dollar home video market for the
Department that kept the networks from production and playing of videotape pro-
earning profits on reruns of syndicated shows grams. David Sarnoff of RCA predicted in
originally aired on NBC, CBS, and ABC. 1953 that viewers at home someday would be
Hollywood production studios made enor- able to record television programs and play
mous profits from the programs without them endlessly, as they did phonograph rec-
having to share any of the funds with the ords. Three years later, his prophecy began to
networks. With the degree lifted, networks take shape.

can share in the $5 billion annual syndication A southern California company, Ampex,
market. Mergers between the networks and more known for its sound equipment, began
studios also will become easier, facilitating working in the early 1950s on a videotape
program production for the 500 to 1,500 system. At the NAB annual convention in
channel systems of the future. Chicago in 1956, Charles Ginsburg demon-
Delivery methods for the expanded chan- strated the new method for recording pro-
nel systems might include broadcast, high- grams. The convention was set up with
powered satellites, telephone, cable, or fiber closed-circuit television for those not able to
optic technology. Large, flat-screen, high res- get into the auditorium. Ginsburg tapped
olution teleputers will be the machine of into the system, recorded a few minutes of the
choice to receive programs in the future. But proceedings, and played the tape back for
whether television is an intellectual wasteland astonished attendees. Within days of the NAB
that makes people ignorant, more violent, convention Ampex had received about fifty
and more prone to stereotype individuals or a orders for its $74,000 videotape system. CBS
"window on the world" that educates and was one of its first customers, and began
informs people, broadening their horizons rebroadcasting the nightly news program
and empowering them as citizens, will always hosted by Douglas Edwards to its West Coast
be debated. affiliates at a normal viewing time. Previous-
ly, low-quality kinescope reproductions had Figure 14.1
been the only alternative to unacceptably Above: In this publicity still
early airing of the news. Editing the video- for the "I Love Lucy" show,
tape was difficult at first because the tape, like
the characters of Ricky and
film, had to be spliced together. By 1963, the
Lucy Ricardo are portrayed
technology advanced to make editing much
as they are forever
easier.
remembered by countless
Videotape is much cheaper and easier to
fans throughout the world.
use than film. Unlike film, with its fixed,
Below: But as evidenced by
light-sensitive crystals that combine to pro-
the expressions on the faces
duce a picture, videotape stores images in the
form of iron particles similar to audio record- of Desi Arnez and Lucille
ing tape. Pictures are recorded on rapidly Ball between scenes, making
spinning heads in a vertical or diagonal a situation comedy is hard
rather than a horizontal orientation in order work. Note the large film
to save space. Hence the wider the videotape, cameras in the foreground.
the better the picture resolution is. Home "I Love Lucy" was the first
playback machines use j-inch tape, but pro- television program to be

fessional videotape might be as much as 1
filmed in front of a live
inch wide.
audience.
Despite Ampex's lead in videotape tech- aware of the potential for videotape technolo-
nology, American executives didn't foresee gy to add to their viewing pleasure when TV
the enormous popularity of the medium. As a introduced the instant replay during the Su-
result, Japanese firms entered the market. In per Bowl football game. In the 1970s, profes-
1965, the Sony Corporation introduced its sional electronic news gathering (ENG) vid-
Portapak — an easily transported videotape eotape trucks were equipped with all the
camera and recording machine that could fit switching and editing equipment found in a
in a backpack. One of the first people to use station's control room. Large ENG trucks
the Portapak was the Korean pop artist, Nam became common sights outside sports stadi-
June Paik. Already famous for his artistic ums when games were televised. When the
installations in which he used several televi- technology became linked with satellites and
sion sets, Paik, along with Japanese artist the equipment grew smaller, local news sta-
Shuya Abe, built the Paik-Abe video synthe- tions could send news teams to cover events
sizer that could easily manipulate and distort anywhere in a city or the world (Figure
video images. In a bold prediction for the 14.13).
future of video, Paik said, "Paper is dead, Portapaks were awkward to carry, and
except for toilet paper. The cathode ray tube professional ENG equipment was much too
will replace the canvas." Paik inspired count- expensive for widespread amateur use. But in
less video artists to create works specifically the mid-1970s, two Japanese corporate giants
for television. One of Paik's latest works using battled for the lucrative home video market
video equipment can be seen at the Anaheim when they introduced competing systems.
Arena in California (Figure 14.12). The in- Sony introduced its Betamax system in 1975.
stallation measures 18 feet by 13 feet and The next year the Matsushita Corporation, a
contains sixty television monitors with im- subsidiary of the Japan Victor Company
ages of sporting events manipulated with (JVC), introduced a similar, yet incompati-
high-speed editing techniques and a video ble, system called the Video Home System
synthesizer. (VHS). Because the Betamax system was
The Portapak also allowed ordinary peo- good for only one hour of taping, the VHS
ple to record their everyday activities and technology was more popular: Its video play-
documentary filmmakers to make motion ers could record programs for more than two
pictures at much less cost than by using film. hours, including movies shown on television.
The Portapaks often were borrowed from To further increase the popularity of home
universities or cable company public access video recording equipment, in the 1980s
stations to make video documentaries of the Sony introduced its Video 8 camera (the
social upheaval of the late 1960s. palmcorder). It is a small, lightweight camera
When the major networks adopted video- that uses high-quality 8-mm tape. Although
tape production for their programs, they a loser in the videocassette recorder (VCR)
almost eliminated the need to broadcast live industry, Sony is clearly ahead in camera
performances. Shows often were produced technology. Its small, easily operated cameras
a live studio audience with a "laugh have led to an explosion in personal visual
" often supplied by special-effects tech- recordings that have replaced old-fashioned
When the actors made mistakes, the technologies. Hardly anyone anymore has
>nce was halted, the action started family and friends over to watch pictures
d Hie tape easily edited in the control with slide or 8-mm movie projectors.
roor sports programs, however, could As many people carry and use video
not be iiied. But in 1967 the public became cameras, camcorders or palmcorders also al-
low news organizations to show dramatic shootings during convenience store robberies Figure 14.13
video of tragic events shot by amateurs. captured by video monitoring equipment are The JVC company \
Reality-based television programs and elec- aired on newscasts. Made possible by the video cameras (top I
tronic video monitoring systems are common video revolution, the spread of sensational
cassette recorder: ght),
uses for the equipment. Security systems at news is a chief concern of many of television's
editors (bottc ,
and
homes and businesses record the actions of social critics.
special-effc >tchers
every passerby; police officers have video The videocassette boom of the 1980s in-
(bottow J for
cameras in their patrol cars to monitor the spired the invention of laser disk movies. The
professional vide
actions of those detained or arrested; and technology began in 1927 when inventor
,
news teams hide cameras in their clothing to John Baird introduced Phonovision, a process
record illegal practices for the visually orient- that recorded images on disks similar to
ed nightly newscasts. Sometimes gruesome Edison's cylinder phonograph recordings.
344 TKI.KVISION AND VIDEO
But Baird's technology never attracted much just as inexpensive and certainly much more
attention. With the invention of the laser and convenient.
the spread of computer technology (see
Chapter 15), the Dutch firm Philips intro-

duced DiscoVision in 1978. The laser disk
system was composed of high-resolution dig- Movie studio executives laughed when they
ital images and sounds on a surface that first saw television because they never be-
would last 600 years because only the laser lieved that the small, fuzzy black and white
light touched the disk's surface. In the 1980s, picture, with its poor audio component,
Pioneer introduced lower-cost technology would ever be a serious threat to their indus-
that has gained popularity. But most users of try.What the studio heads did not imagine
laser disk systems are film buffs who appreci- was how resourceful technicians would be in
ate the high-resolution images, the horizontal improving the medium. Over the years, cam-
picture known as the "letterbox" format, and eras, transmission modes, and receivers have
special features associated with motion pic- been refined continuously.

tures. For example, some laser disk movies
include material not available on videocas- Cameras
settes. In the video disk version of The Player, Using the video camera's controls is the
Robert Altman leads an excellent discussion same as using a still camera (Chapter 12),
on a secondary sound track of how the movie and shot considerations are determined the
was made; The Abyss had several minutes of same way as in motion pictures (Chapter 13).
cut footage edited back in for the laser disk The chief difference between a camera used
release, as has been done with other films. for still or motion picture production and
Home users clearly desire the ability to one used for television is that video cameras
record and watch feature length movies. Thus have a tube or microchip, called a charge
in 1979, Hollywood executives started to coupled device (CCD), that converts the im-
make their motion pictures available on por- age into an electrical equivalent. When a
table cassettes for purchase by consumers. In television operator focuses on a subject with
1981, sales for previously released movies the camera's lens, the picture strikes a layer of
totaled $1 million. When videotaped movies photosensitive material consisting of dots,
became available for overnight rental in the which emit an electrical charge. A dot in a
early 1980s, they were instantly and enor- light part of a picture sends a higher charge
mously popular. In 1992, video sales and than one in a darker part of the image. All the
rentals topped $17 billion. That led Mel electrical charges from the dots strike a target
Brooks, the director of Blazing Saddles and and compose an electrical version of the
Young Frankenstein, to remark that "pictures image in the form of 525 lines (636 or 840
never die. They go to heaven. It's called lines for non-U.S. systems). An electron gun
video." in the back of the camera generates a steady
Executives of large movie rental compa- stream of electrons that scan the target. In the
nies, such as Blockbuster Video, are con- U.S. system, the electron scanning starts with
cerned about the advent of pay-per-view the odd-numbered lines and repeats the
motion pictures over cable, telephone, or process with the even-numbered lines. The
fiber optic lines. Many experts predict that two scans take 1/30 second, or accomplish the
the rental and sale of videotaped films will scanning at a rate of 30 frames a second.
become obsolete when watching electroni- Over the years various television camera
cally transmitted movies at home becomes tubes have been developed. The first was
invented by Zworykin and his team. The Air Transmissions

iconoscope was of inferior quality and could
be used only under bright lights. The image Broadcast Originally a home required a
orthicon soon replaced the iconoscope. It was large roof-mounted antenna to pick up the
large and costly but more sensitive to light, so audio and video signals sent by a television
that sets did not have to be so brightly lighted. station. The sound signal FM is sent via
Later, improved models, known collectively radio; the pictures can come from either VHF
as vidicon tubes, were introduced. The most or UHF channels on the electromagnetic
common brands of vidicon tubes are the spectrum. Both VHF and UHF are known as
Plumbicon and the Saticon. Both are impor- line-of-sight carrier waves. The more power-
tant for television production because they ful VHF stations can usually go around
are small and inexpensive and work well barriers such as buildings, mountains, or
under low lighting conditions. large weather systems, but UHF channels are
The scanned electrical images are sent susceptible to interference. The broadcasting
through a wire to monitors in the master of television programs by VHF and UHF
control area of the station where a director stations first introduced television into peo-
composes the program by switching from one ple's homes. However, such methods are
camera's image to another. These images are quickly becoming obsolete.
recorded on videotape to be sent at a later
time or are transmitted immediately. Satellite Since the 1970s, consumers have
been able to buy a large and expensive receiv-
Transmission Modes ing dish pointed in a southern direction that
Ancient philosophers and scientists rea- was required to capture television images
soned that the planet consists of four basic from a satellite in a geosynchronous orbit
elements: water, fire, air, and earth. Although around the Earth. People living in rural
we now know that the world is a bit more communities where broadcast stations didn't
complicated, homes are connected by the reach and the distance was too far for the
same basic components: plumbing, electrici- local cable company to string wire to their
ty, electromagnetic transmissions, and wire. houses first used satellite dishes. But viewers
No one has yet devised a reliable system of in cities learned that they could receive hun-
communication through water channels ex- dreds of channels from all over the world and
cept by an occasional marooned islander who many premium cable networks (HBO, Show-
tosses a bottle with a message inside. And time, the Playboy Channel, etc.) without
although Native Americans sent signals by having to pay a monthly charge. Direct
smoke, no scientist has discovered a way to broadcast satellites (DBS) are the new genera-
communicate by using raw electrical energy tion of reception technologies that use digital
except when a finger is accidentally inserted transmission to send hundreds of channels to

into an outlet. Consequently, the elements of 18-inch-diameter, window- mounted dishes.
air and earth are the communications media For example, Hughes Communications, a
of choice. Television signals can be sent to a division of the Hughes Aircraft Company,
home in at least eight different ways. Air with its DirecTV service, plans to send two
transmission includes broadcast, satellite, cel- satellites into space in 1994 to enable home
lular, wireless, and a local multipoint distri- users to receive 150 television channels. There
bution system. Earth connections involve is a problem with satellite transmission, how-
copper telephone wire, coaxial cable, and ever.As vast as space is, only a limited
fiber optic cable. number of communications satellites can be
put in the sky. A satellite must be placed in a encing, and interactive services. The advan-
"slot" that is 916 miles wide to avoid collision tage of an LMDS is that the cost to a home
and frequency interference with another sat- user much less than that
is of alternative
ellite (although sometimes more than one systems. A home equipped with a small,
satellite occupies a space). Around the Earth, CD-sized antenna placed on a teleputer is
therefore, there are 180 slots for satellites. ready to accept the LMDS signals. This tech-
Because company executives naturally want nology also makes portable teleputers, some-
their equipment flying over heavily populated times referred to as personal communications
areas, satellite use and slots will become more services, possible. In 1993, the FCC auctioned
expensive. licenses for these services in a move that was
termed "the 21st century equivalent of the
Cellular Very-high-frequency microwave Oklahoma land rush."
signals, once thought too weak to be used for
transmitting television signals, power cellular Earth Transmission
systems. A customer would need only a Copper Telephone Wire Because of the
six-inch, window-mounted antenna to pick problem with fuzzy broadcast reception, early
up the microwave signals probably sent from television researchers experimented with the
a cable supplier. An advantage of cellular over use of the copper wires already installed for
other kinds of microwave transmission sys- telephone transmission to homes. However,
tems is that many more channels can be copper can't handle the large amount of
received. However, storms often interfere visual information (about 100 times more
with transmission. than simple voice transmission) required for
high-quality video signals. Nevertheless, be-
Wireless Another microwave-based tech- cause it is a two-way system, copper can be
nology, wireless systems require a large satel- used for picturephones. Despite the wide pro-
lite dish located outside a person's home. In motion of this feature, the public hasn't
cities demand is limited because of a lack of responded favorably to it. Nevertheless, cop-
channels dedicated to their use and because per wire can be used for medium-resolution
buildings and trees can interfere with trans- video images as a cheaper alternative to other
mission. Wireless microwave systems also transmission systems.
offer fewer channel options than cellular
systems. Nevertheless, interest in wireless sys- Coaxial Cable One of the most common
tems rose in 1993 when former Apple Com- home connections for television is through
puter, Inc., CEO John Sculley was named as traditional cable. Coaxial cable comprises
head of Spectrum Information Systems, Inc., two metal cables that are separated by insula-
a small wireless communications company. tion; one cable transmits the sound, and the
But Sculley's role in new information techno- other transmits the picture. A cable company
logies is unclear after he was fired from pays a fee to receive signals from program
trum in 1994. producers via a large satellite dish. The coaxi-
al cable connects the cable operator's facility
Multipoint Distribution System to a person's home. Depending on the ser-
ts LMDS, this technology may offer vices desired, a home can receive 50 to 150
;
fernative to earth-based cable sys- channels. If needed, the cable company sup-
1 993, the FCC approved the use of plies a converter box that connects to the
owaves for the delivery of cable television set and changes the cable signal so
hone service, video confer- that the receiver can show the images. How-
ever, most newer TV sets are "cable ready," receiver contains 210,000 phosphorescent
having a built-in signal converter. With digit- dots arranged in a pattern of 30 lines per
al compression of the cable signal and a much inch, or 525 lines. The European system has
more sophisticated converter box that de- better resolution because the screen has a
codes compressed digital signals, experts pre- total of 90 lines per inch, or 625 total lines.
dict that coaxial cable could easily be used to But the resolution for both screens is lower
transmit up to 1,500 channels. However, than that of an average halftone photograph,
coaxial cable is essentially a one-way technol- which usually is printed at 133 lines per inch.
ogy. Interactive services, where the viewer Essentially, reproduction of the signal for
selects a variety of programs and options, home viewing is the reverse of the process
doesn't work well with coaxial cable systems that occurs inside the video camera. In the
because a signal picks up too much static on rear of a CRT an electron gun scans the back
the return trip. That's why you have to of a picture screen in the same manner as the
telephone the cable company to arrange to camera tube. Color television is produced
view a pay-per-view (PPV) movie. when electrons cause the phosphorescent red,
green, and blue dots on the screen to glow,
Fiber Optic Cable Many experts predict corresponding to the brightness of the pic-
that fiber optic cable will be the delivery ture. At thirty frames a second, one frame
system of choice in the future. The reason is blends into another (as with motion pictures)
simple — audio and video signals can be sent to form a continuous image. Ten lines of the
in both directions via pulses of light within a 525 that make up a U.S. television set aren't
hairlike glass filament with little static. Be- used for the picture. Called the video blank-
cause visible light is the carrier wave, the ing interval (VBI), this black strip can be
amount of information that can be sent is used for textual information. For example,
virtually unlimited. Fiber optic cable will cutlines for the hard-of-hearing are sent via
make advanced educational and entertain- the VBI when programs are designated
ment services possible as it replaces all cur- "closed-caption."
rent transmission technologies for home When TV sets first were produced, the
communications — copper telephone wire, screen had the same aspect ratio as that of
coaxial cable, microwave, and broadcast early motion picture theaters — 1.33 (some-
with light pathways. Although rewiring the times referred to as 4:3), or the Academy
entire country is extremely expensive, fiber standard. The almost square format seemed
optic cable eventually will turn television into logical until the movie industry introduced
a completely different medium — one in widescreen technology (Chapter 13). Details
which the best features of the book, newspa- from each side of a widescreen movie are lost
per, magazine, telephone, movie, radio, tele- because of cropping to fit the television
vision, and computer are combined into a screen. Cropping the sides off motion pictures
single machine, the teleputer. ruined movies such as How the West Was
Won. The letterbox format, named after the
Receivers wide slot in mail boxes, shows the entire
Curved screens, lack of sharpness, little side-to-side image but the overall picture is
contrast, and broadcast reception that often smaller. A new generation of television sets,
was snowy or distorted hampered early TV however, overcomes that problem with
viewing. Because of different standards, U.S. screens that are the same ratio as in a theater.
television screens are inferior to the European Philips, JVC, Sony, Sharp, and Panasonic all
version. For an American set, an average produce widescreen receivers so that none of
a movie's picture is lost. RCA, through its

TTT Ethical Perspective
French owner, Thomson Consumer Electron-
ics, sells its ProScan CinemaScreen 34" set for If you let water gush into a kitchen sink for
about $4,500. With an advertising campaign hours, keep all the lights on during the day,
that asserts it is the "television made for or leave the doors and windows wide open at
movies," the receiver can show any screen your home, chances are that eventually you
size proportion — Academy, U.S. standard will be criticized for such careless behavior.
widescreen, 70-mm release prints, Pana- But a television set left on, even when no one
vision, and UltraPanavision 70 — at the touch is watching, is a cultural standard. Over a
of a button. The television set also features a twenty-year period the average household
"progressive scan system" that eliminates will have had a television set turned on for
visible scanning lines for a better quality almost six years. It is no coincidence that a
picture, theater-quality Dolby sound with six television set usually sits in the most comfort-
built-in speakers, and a variety of on-screen able room in a home. Although an imperson-
features. These features include Picture-Out- al appliance, it evokes the same emotional
side- Picture, which allows you and someone response as a favorite chair, a soft pillow, or
else to watch two different programs (one of an interesting friend. Television characters
you must wear earphones) at the same time; become comfortable personalities whom we
Picture-in-Picture, which lets you monitor invite into our lives. Talk show hosts and
another channel with a small inset picture as nightly newscast announcers look right into
you watch a program that fills the entire the camera and talk directly to us. The
screen; Channel Guide, which lets you see illusion is maintained when friendly Dan
smaller images of nine different channels at Rather ends a news program with "I'll see
once; and a feature that is sure to make you tomorrow." The television set must re-
advertisers nervous, Commercial Skip Count- main on — no one wants to offend a friend.
down Timer, which lets you browse other Television demands a price for its friend-
channels until the commercials are over. ship. The cost is acceptance of the image of
Not surprisingly, RCA plans to be a major the moment as real and representative of
producer of high-definition television society as a whole. Such a belief is borne of

(HDTV) sets that will include all those fea- the cultural notion that education and learn-
tures but with much better picture quality ing are bitter tasting medicines that end once
and CD quality sound. This technology may you are out of school. Such acceptance comes
be common in the home by 1998 because of from laziness and peer acceptance. The popu-
recent HDTV technological decisions (see lar notion is that television is only a form of
Chapter 15). entertainment, meant to give a laugh or a
To further complicate the technical issues, thrill. Serious, sensitive social issues do not
by 1996 experts predict that liquid crystal dis- belong on television. Such programming is
play (LCD) technologies will allow flat, wall- considered boring, high-minded, and elitist.
mounted television screens 10 feet wide or A good example is "Beavis and Butt-
more for about $ 1 ,000. These high-quality dis- Head," an animated cartoon show on MTV
ompete with the expensive HDTV about two 14-year-old boys who skip class
ver type of set wins the consum- and watch music videos all day (Figure
home viewing clearly will be trans- 14.14). These teenage "couch potatoes" fight
n small, square screens to large, over the remote control in the hope of finding
wides een monitors. Home viewing will be a performance that they think is "cool." On
more and more like going to the movies. one level, the characters accurately represent
many in their cultural group. If you belong to get in any trouble." The A. C. Nielsen Com-
it, you will watch the show for clues as to how pany determines a program's rating. The
to live more comfortably in that culture. But company began as a rating service for radio
if you are not a low-IQ student, you have audiences in 1935 and naturally evolved into
several choices: You can switch the channel, television. There are 1,200 Nielsen house-
become upset about the show's corrupting holds scattered throughout the United States
influence on the morals of today's youth, or that reflect the diversity of television interests.
laugh along with Mike Judge, 30, the creator Each home television set is connected to an
and actor who supplies both voices, as he electronic devise — called the audimeter —
pokes fun at everything from media celebri- that determines the programs to which the
ties to gun control. Being able to recognize set is tuned during the primetime hours of
social satire in the guise of two dumb-headed 8:00 P.M. to 11:00 P.M. Eastern Standard
oafs is vital to intelligent television viewing. Time. A high rating is vital for the success of
Any television program is a creation a show because executives with a highly rated By Mike Judge
whether it is news or comedy. What you see show can charge more for its commercial
Figure 14.14
and hear on the screen is made possible by time than for a poorly rated program. A
When the two cartoon
individuals who hope that you will want to thirty-second commercial aired on a Super
teenagers are not causing
tune in and stay tuned to their offerings. But Bowl telecast can cost hundreds of thou-
mischief, Butt-Head (left)
because the competition for viewers is fierce, sands of dollars. That also is why NBC is will-
and Beavis, created by Mike
simple-minded stereotypes and sexual and ing to pay $465 million for the rights to
Judge, play air guitar solos
violent themes are presented most often be- broadcast the 1996 Olympics Games from
cause producers believe that that is what you Atlanta. while watching a video of a
want to watch. The only networks that sell entertainment heavy metal band.
Consequently, entertainment and educa- in the tradition of Hollywood are the premi-
tion get merged into something called "edu- um cable channels that show second-run
tainment." Programs and commercials all movies. All other networks, especially the big
have the same interest level and visual style. three, rely on ratings. A single rating point
Fiction and nonfiction in drama and news can amount to millions of dollars in revenue
shows get jumbled together. Small, insignifi- to a network. And with individual programs
cant issues become important trends because costing as much as $1 million, network
the medium blows them out of proportion. executives need not only large audiences, but
Vital, important concerns get reduced to a viewers who are younger, up-scale, and likely
small screen — war over dinner. Simple- to buy the advertised products. A show with
minded stereotypes about people and genera- an audience of 5 to 10 million, although
lizations about communities are reinforced. much larger than the circulation of most
As much as we love television, it is a medium daily newspapers and subscribers to many
that we love to hate- — especially for its reli- magazines, is considered a bomb. A program
ance on ratings, stereotyping, and sexual and may be popular, may attract a huge audience,
violent themes. but still may be canceled because its viewers
are of the wrong demographic type. In the
Ratings example, although
1970s, for it was enor-
Lynn Gross, in her textbook See/Hear: An mously popular, "Gunsmoke" was canceled
Introduction to Broadcasting, writes that an because it attracted a largely rural audience
unnamed television executive once said, with little buying power.

"There are only two rules in broadcasting: An emphasis on ratings relegates high-
Keep the ratings as high as possible and don't quality broadcasting to the low-rated Public
350 TK1.KVISION AND VIDEO
Broadcasting Service (PBS), which depends boycott of its sponsor, Blatz Beer, while
on government support and viewer and cor- middle-class African Americans complained
porate donations. One reason that British that "every black is either a clown or a
television enjoys a reputation for creating crook." Seeing the program rather than sim-
high-quality programs is because its citizens ply hearing it made racism more obvious.
pay an annual license fee for every TV set The program featured characters with "baggy
purchased. Sophisticated dramas such as pants, foul cigars, pushy wives, misfired
"Upstairs Downstairs" and "Brideshead Re- schemes and mangled grammar." Anglo au-
visited" and comedies such as "Till Death Do diences in the 1950s enjoyed the wholesome
Us Part," the inspiration for "All in the suburban tales of "Father Knows Best," "The
Family," are shown on English television Donna Reed Show," and "Leave it to Beaver"
without the fear that a poor rating will cause (Figures 14.16 and 14.17). At the time, popu-
a cancellation. Another problem for local and lar African-American musician Lionel
network programming comes during the rat- Hampton said that "I look upon the new
ing period known as "sweeps week." Three 'Amos 'n' Andy' television show as an open-
times a year, for one week in February, May, ing wedge toward greater opportunities and
and November, the Nielsen Company pro- bigger things for scores of our capable art-
vides a rating for all time periods. Local ists." But Sandra Evers-Manley of the NA-
stations use the sweeps to determine their ACP complains that the use of stereotypical
advertising rates. About 200,000 households characters, no matter how many, is not prog-
keep diaries and are interviewed in order to ress. Despite the high number of fall 1992
determine their television viewing habits African-American shows, critics complain
during these crucial weeks. Because attract- that men are portrayed as lazy, sex-crazed,
ing large audiences is important during these and criminally oriented and that women are
times, more often than not, most of the either "mammy" stereotypes or willing sexu-
gratuitous sex and violence most critics com- al objects.
plain about show up during the sweeps weeks.

Figure 14.15
When two Anglo actors Stereotypes

portrayed the "Amos V The fall 1992 television schedule was mo-
Andy' taracters for many mentous in the history of African- American
years on hardly a soul representation on television. Of the seventy-
comply n it was four primetime shows, a record twelve in-
brought to it volved all (or almost all) African- American
however, th casts. There are generally two schools of

quickly taken of, thought about multicultural group represen-
because of criticism tation in the media: Some believe that quan-
concerning its stereotypi

is better than quality, but others believe
characters.
that the opposite is true. "Amos V Andy"
e first primetime show to feature an all
-American cast (Figure 14.15). The

>ut the troubles encountered by a
m Americans played for twen-
on radio by Anglo actors with little
contrc '. But when the program aired on

televisioi ^50, the NAACP organized a
Other cultural groups also have their com-

plaints about television portrayals. Italian
Americans protested the violent acts commit-

ted by members of their culture in "The
Untouchables" (Figure 14.18). Likewise,
Mexican Americans managed to get the Frito
Bandito, a cartoon character used by the

Frito-Lay company to sell its corn chips, off
the air. Arab Americans were offended by
Emir, an "Ali Baba" stereotype character in
"Major Dad."
Advertisers are using members of diverse
cultures in record numbers. Gone are the
commercials with African Americans as
maids or butlers. Jeans manufacturer Levi

Strauss used a man in a wheelchair in one of
its advertisements, although many com-
plained that it was obvious that the actor was
not disabled. McDonald's restaurants fea-
tured a boy, who happened to be deaf, asking
a girl out for a date in one of its commercials.

A child with Down syndrome was part of a An example of possible outlets for diverse Figure 14.16
commercial for the laundry cleaner Spray 'N programming is Viacom's 1993 MTV off- The Anderson family in the
Wash. But in a clear example of how an shoot, MTV Latino. The Spanish-language 1950s sitcom "Father Knows
advertisement can be interpreted differently, cable network already boasts two million Best" pose for a publicity
the National Association for Down Syndrome viewers in eleven countries. Thinking of cable
still that is an example of
praised the positive image communicated by stations as specialty magazines increases the
social perspective. The
the commercial, whereas an editorial in Ad- variety possible as television executives and
husband/father is the
vertising Age called it "the most crassly con- viewers prepare for 500-plus channel systems.
obvious center of attention
trived slice of life in advertising history."
while the wife stands nearby
Expecting television programs to be com-
ready to pour him more
pletely free from some kind of stereotyping of
individuals is unreasonable. Someone, some- coffee.
where, is bound to object to a media charac-

terization. But because of the enormous scope
and influence of television, producers need to
be especially sensitive to characterizations

that have the potential to cause harm. The
Figure 14 J ?
problem is that Anglo producers often are
Another ch -irly I960
unaware of the concerns of those from other
sitcom - Leave li
cultures. One way of ensuring sensitivity to
.
Bea> The show was

cultural awareness is by hiring people from
diverse cultures. And yet, only 4 percent of popular among viewers and
the 7,648 screen and television writers who advertisers because its plots
are members of the writing union are non- and sets championed
Anglo. middle-class values.

Figure 14.18 this incident is the degree to which parents
Complaints about the must be held responsible for letting their
violence shown on television children watch adult-oriented shows without
have their roots in "The supervision.
Untouchables." Here, Robert

Women's groups have complained about a
the police detective drama "NYPD Blue."
Stack incongruously poses
Members believe that the program degrades
with a submachine gun in
women with its violence, offensive language,
business attire.
and sexual scenes on primetime television.
For example, in the opening episode, one

male character, while holding his crotch, yells
to a woman district attorney, "Hey, ipso this,
you pissy little bitch." Gone are the days
when married couples on television had to

sleep on separate beds. Nevertheless, "NYPD
Blue" was one of the highest rated TV pro-
grams in the fall 1993 schedule.
Common sense raises the question of
whether sweeps week sexy scandals and grue-
some made-for-television movies take a toll
on the culture. Local news shows take their
cues from pseudo news shows such as "Hard

Sexual and Violent Themes Copy" and "A Current Affair" and make
A recent study of viewer behavior estimat- their nightly reports visually dramatic and
ed that an American child who watches three simplistic. In 1993, Michael Jackson was con-
hours of television a day will have seen 8,000 victed in the media by sensational coverage
murders and some 100,000 other acts of when a parent alleged that Jackson had sexu-
violence by the time the child is twelve years ally molested his child. One of the traditional
old. No distinction is made between fiction definitions for news is a story's intrinsic value
and nonfiction violence. Media images gener- in explaining a particular facet of a commu-
ally, but television particularly, are blamed nity. Today the only criterion for newsworth-
for everything from an increase in sexual iness seems to be whether there are video
harassment in schools to drive-by shootings. images of the tragedy. As a result, Bill Moyers
The fire chief of a small town in Ohio complained that "journalists are supposed to
blamed the "Beavis and Butt-Head" show for gather, weigh, organize, and evaluate infor-
inspiring a 5-year-old boy to play with fire mation — not just put on pictures."
that killed his 2-year-old sister. The mother In a 1993 poll of 750 Orange County,
of the children, Darcy Burk, wants the car- California, adults conducted by the Los Ange-
toon taken "completely off the air." An MTV les Times, the biggest fear that parents ex-
spokesperson responded, "I think the fire was pressed— than drug
greater use, contracting
an unbelievable, terrible tragedy. But we do AIDS, and paying for their children's future
not feel the program is responsible." To avoid needs — was and violence
sex in the media.
further criticism and possible litigation, MTV Such fears from constituents have led mem-
officials deleted all references to fire in the bers of Congress to ponder whether legisla-
program and moved the show four hours later tion is needed to curb violent content on
in the evening. Lost in the discussion about television. To head off direct censorship, exec-
utives from ABC, CBS, NBC, Fox, and Ted Home Videos," "Family Matters," "Ameri-
Turner's Turner Broadcasting System (TBS), ca's Funniest People," and "Full House." If
along with Jack Valenti, President of the there is so much concern about violence on
Motion Picture Association of America television, who is watching the gruesome
(MPAA), Senator Paul Simon of Illinois, and shows? Such statistics indicate that a concern
Representative Edward Markey of Massachu- about television violence might be more a
setts, announced a two-year test in which matter of economics and politics than social
viewers will be warned of violent programs reality.
beginning in the fall of 1993. Valenti's in- Television critic Howard Rosenberg makes
volvement with the warning label plan proba- the point that, although the medium shows
bly reflects the fact that first-run movies soon thousands of acts of violence, television also
will be shown regularly on television. He and displays just as many acts of kindness. "Posi-
his organization want to be sure that movies tive family values," a political catch phrase
will not be censored. Some cynics have cate- during the 1992 U.S. presidential campaign,
gorized the plan and its impact as equivalent are communicated in such shows as "Home
to painting an obvious polluting smokestack Improvement," "Roseanne," and "Murphy
in a town bright red. Moreover, when chil- Brown" — all enormously popular. "Televi-
dren learn that a program contains violent sion violence," Rosenberg writes, "is too
scenes, they will be attracted to it like moths simple a solution for violence in the country.
to a glowing screen. Most cable networks, It's human nature to seek easy answers to
however, will not participate in the experi- complex questions. Rather than acknowledge
ment. Nevertheless, sensitivity to problems the root causes of violence as being deep and
that may be caused by showing violent acts complicated, there's a tendency on the part of
may make television executives carefully con- many to automatically blame television."
sider a program's content. For example, CBS Sexual aggression and other violent acts com-
chief JefF Sagansky has stated that his network mitted by members of a culture are partly a
will reduce the number of television movies result of societal pressures — the easy availa-
that are based on real-life crime situations. bility of guns, few employment and educa-
One alternative to direct censorship is the use tional opportunities, and family hardships
of a so-called V-Chip, with which parents can not simply violent portrayals on the screen.
restrict their children from watching a vio- Because television is a form of folk litera-
lently rated show by programming their set- ture, the mythic story of good versus evil
top boxes. Critics, however, note that such a plays constantly in the media. The reason that
device will be used only in homes where such so many programs involve the police is that
a restriction isn't needed in the first place. those stories have dramatic action within a
Valenti disputes the link between televi- clearly defined right versus wrong package.
sion and violence. He notes that the twenty- And when viewers grow tired of fictionalized
five top-rated shows seen by U.S. viewers are police chases, they can watch actual busts live
completely free from offensive violent con- from a helicopter's camera.
tent. Valenti defines offensive violent content Attorney General Janet Reno sent a chill
as "excessive, gratuitous and glamorizing vio- through programming executives and First
lence." In a poll that supports Valenti's claim, Amendment advocates when she warned that
the Nickelodeon network asked 300 children the government may take action to curb the
from ages six to twelve to name their five violence shown on television if the industry
favorite shows. The young viewers listed doesn't police itself. One direct result of
"Home Improvement," "America's Funniest Reno's 1993 speech was that many reality-
based shows toned down the sensationalism. um for cultural communication in a modern
For example, an executive for "A Current society. Because it must serve both individu-
Affair" admitted that when the violent con- als and entire cultures, television exec-
tent of the program was softened, more utives have a responsibility to fairly serve all
advertisers were willing to buy time. But any viewers.
attempt at government-imposed censorship,

and viewer group
advertiser concerns, rights
W Cultural Perspective
boycotts ultimately will fail because the pub-
lic is in charge of the remote control. Viewers Television actually is a mix of four preceding
during primetime do not tolerate sexual media: the theatre, radio, motion pictures,
scenes like those that daytime viewers see on and, perhaps more important, the comic
soap operas. However, most daytime audi- book. From the theatre came the familiar
ence members probably would be shocked by stage sets so common in sitcoms. The vaude-
the amount of sexual intercourse shown on ville theatre also gave the idea of variety acts
premium or pay-per-view cable channels. to the medium. Radio brought its characters,
Similarly, most television viewers expect a personalities, and storytelling ideas — and the
certain level of violence in an action-ad- technology to broadcast programs to homes.
venture program — that is one reason why From motion pictures, television producers
they watch those shows. The "too much learned how to tell their stories in a visual
violence on television" argument would be a format with the use of multiple cameras and
more serious concern if sitcoms suddenly editing techniques. Finally, the comic book
turned violent. But Roseanne in her sitcom of gave television its most important concept.
the same name probably won't suddenly whip Except for made-for-television movies, the
out a pistol and shoot her children and the basic unit of television isn't an individual
characters in "Home Improvement" aren't program but a continuing series of programs

likely to suddenly start dueling each other that cast basically the same characters in
with chain saws. comfortable surroundings. From week to
The best defense against gratuitous sex week and from episode to episode, viewers
and violence, as well as stereotyping and an may live with television actors and their
emphasis on ratings, is to make intelligent problems over a period of several years.
viewing choices. Parents should monitor the Consequently, television is more a medium of
viewing habits of their children and explain personalities than stories. The small screen is
scenes that disturb them. Offensive shows a poor place for dramatic action and specta-
should not be watched, and uplifting shows cles. But subtle character development rein-
should be supported. Because the content of forced by close-up shots that fill the frame
television programs is a result of the collective with the face of a friendly actor works well for
will of at least part of the culture, each viewer television (Figure 14.19).
has an ethical and moral responsibility to In his book TV Genres, Brian Rose lists
ensure that positive values are communicated eighteen different types of programs that have
through the media. At the same time, the been shown on television since its inaugura-
strength of a democratic society comes from tion: police, detective, western, medical mel-
iflowing diverse viewpoints in the media. odramas, science fiction and fantasy, soap
xual and violent acts that are not portrayed opera, made-for-television movies, docu-
isational impact can serve as models of dramas, news, documentary reports, sports,
appropriate social behavior. Television is game shows, variety shows, talk shows, chil-
the most powerful and encompassing medi- dren's programming, educational and cultur-
Figure 14.19
Because television programs
come into the home,
characters often are familiar
to viewers. Here, cast
members for the popular
NBC sitcom "Cheers" share
a laugh. Note how the
camera's perspective almost
puts the viewer at the bar.
al shows, religious programming, and com- cultural beliefs and values within a much
mercials. The Emmy Awards divide program more varied array of formats than motion
types into eleven categories: comedy series, pictures can.
drama series, miniseries, made-for-television The most memorable television shows are
movies, variety or music series, variety or those that have actors whom viewers want to
music specials, classical programs in the per- invite into their homes. And throughout the
forming arts, children's programs, informa- history of the medium, the strength of visual
tion specials, information series, and anima- messages yielded thousands of memorable
ted programs. moments. Tuesday night was known as Mil-
Any classification scheme is bound to omit ton Berle Night. Berle, in his 1948 variety
some types. For example, legal melodramas, show, was a perfect fit for the new medium
adult programming, reality-based shows, in- he was loud and outrageous. When Lucille
structional courses sponsored by local colleg- Ball was pregnant with Little Ricky, she
es, infomercials, home shopping program- started a craze for pickles and ice cream after
ming, music videos, and, in the near future, she ate the unpleasant combination in an
interactive television services also are impor- episode of "I Love Lucy." When her baby was
tant categories. The reason for the large born, 44 million viewers — almost everyone
number of categories for television, compared in America who had a television set
with motion pictures, is that television is an watched the episode and contributed to the
intimate medium. Television images come baby boom in the 1950s. "The Dick Van Dyke
right into the homes of viewers, whereas Show," produced by Carl Reiner (a former
movies are a social experience separate from comedy writer for Sid Caesar), was the first
everyday home life. Consequently, television sitcom that offered behind the scenes views of
is able to explore many more commonly held work and home environments in equal pro-
portions. When television production moved as the game. Walter Cronkite's voice choked
from New York to Hollywood to take advan- as he read the news of President Kennedy's
tage of motion picture studio facilities and death live over the air. Gene Roddenbery, a
services, sexy stars started to appear on the writer for the western "Have Gun, Will
screen. Troy Donahue and Tab Hunter chased Travel," produced one of the strongest cult
bad guys and women in their fast cars. followings in the history of television when
Richard Chamberlain as Dr. Kildare, and he, not surprisingly, combined western and
fellow medical actor Vince Edwards as Ben science fiction genres in "Star Trek." Jim
Casey, were enormously popular teen idols. Bakker and Jimmy Swaggart in their religious
The comedy team of Tom and Dick Smothers programs created memorable images of cyni-
fought CBS censors during their brief tenure cal extravagance. David Letterman, in the
to offer political satire for the first time tradition of Steve Allen, Jack Parr, and
during the Vietnam War. Archie Bunker's Johnny Carson before him, pokes fun at
overstuffed chair set in the center of the living popular culture and often his guests (Figure
room gave the bigot a central position for his 14.20). Alex Trebeck always wears a designer
ludicrous views in "All in the Family." Foot- suit and always knows the answers in the
ball among
fans enjoyed the lively banter game show "Jeopardy!" "Saturday Night
former Dallas Cowboys quarterback Don Live," the only live-feed regularly broadcast
Meredith, Howard Cosell, and Frank Gifford program (except on the West Coast) on
on ABC's "Monday Night Football" as much television except for sports programming,
uses an ensemble cast that concentrates on
Figure 14.20
visual humor in the tradition of the British
In the tradition of Steve
classic, "Monty Python." And some of the
Allen and Johnny Carson,
most innovative visual messages can be found
David Letterman rules the
on the MTV network that offers twenty-four
late night television time slot hours of news and music videos seven days a
with his zany antics and week. With quick editing and special effects, a
irreverent interviews. Here, popular music visual can mean thousands of

Letter man's pose is additional album sales.
strikingly similar to that of But there are many forgettable moments

Steve Allen's, down to a
on television. The following choices were
large microphone desk prop.

available to a subscriber of Comcast CableVi-
sion in southern California on July 24, 1993,
starting at 1 1:50 P.M.
Channel Name Program
2 KCBS "Dark Justice"
Public Access Classified Ads

with Music
KNBC Jay Leno Inter-
views Gene
Hackman
KTLA "Designing
Women"
ESPN Grand Prix of 23 SHOWTIME Movie, Freddy's

Germany Com- Dead: The Final
mercial Nightmare
KABC "Nightline," In- 24 HBO "The Larry

terview of Asian Sanders Show"
Americans
25 HBO 2 Movie, Juice
8 USA Movie, Fireballs
26 HBO 3 Movie, Prelude
9 KCAL "Jane Whitney," to a Kiss
"Men Who Per-
27 A8cE Movie, Elizabeth
form as Worn-
R
en
28 KCET Charlie Rose In-
10 CNN Rogaine Com- terviews David
mercial
Halberstam
11 KTTV "M*A*S*H" 24 DSC "Secret Weap-
12 MTV Sisters With ons"
Voices (SWV) 30 KOCE "MacNeil/
"Weak" Music Lehrer News-
Video
Hour"
13 KCOP Another Stakeout 31 CNN National News
Commercial
32 NICK "Superman"
14 TNT Movie, Where
Angels Go, Trou-
33 WGN Infomercial for
"Sportsman
ble Follows
Cleaner"
15 PRTK Old Baseball
Game, Twins vs.
34 KM EX Movie, Dos Tipos
de Cuidado
Dodgers
16 LIFE "Unsolved Mys-

35 WEATHER U.S. Weather
Forecast
teries"
36 PPV Movie Previews

17 TBS Movie, Killer
Party 37 PPV 1 Movie, Brain
Stoker's Dracula
18 FAM "Scott Ross and
Street Talk" 38 PPV 2 Movie, Gerein'
Up
19 METRO Infomercial for
"The Stainara- 39 SPICE Movie, The Party
tor 40 NOSTALGIA "Shop at
20 CITY Classified Ads Home," Rolex

with Music Watches
21 DISNEY Movie, Hello 41 OCN Local News

Dolly! 42 C-SPAN Judge Ruth
22 CINEMAX Movie, China Bader Ginsberg's
O'Brien 2 Confirmation
1
;
VH
V O- 1
1 Peter Gabriel, NBC, CBS, and ABC will survive the compe-
tition from cable networks by sticking with a
Video concept originated by the early motion pic-
44
i i
NWnl lanin
ture studios — the star system. The big three
can differentiate from all the other channels
43 ENCORE Movie, T/ze Tak-
(even 1,500) by establishing a stable of well-
ing of Pelhatn
known performers who are cast in familiar
One Two Three
situations and dramas.
46 NASHVILLE Infomercial
"Amazing Dis-
coveries"
Innovations almost always seriously diminish
47 PREVUE Television
existing, similar technologies. In transporta-
Schedule
tion, diesel engines replaced coal-burning
48 E! Interview with
steam engines, automobiles eliminated the
Alan Alda
horse and buggy, and airplanes almost ended
49 KTBN "Real Videos" cross-country train travel. With media tech-
50 KDOC "Hot Seat" nologies, the printing press became more

important than handwritten documents, the
53 KVEA Wet T-Shirt
telephone diminished the need for face-to-
Competition
face contact, and computers have almost
54 TMC Movie, Backdraft eliminated typewriters.
You can find just about anything you want Television caused serious declines in all
to watch on one of those stations, if you are other mass communications media. But the
willing and able to pay about $1,000 a year media that survive are those that can adapt to
for all of the choices. The list clearly shows the challenge offered by television. Many
that the "big three" networks no longer magazines in the 1960s and 1970s, such as
dominate programming. Further evidence of Colliers, Saturday Evening Post, Life, and Look,
cable's acceptance by viewers and critics is ended publication because national advertis-
HBO's unprecedented fifty-five Emmy nomi- ers preferred television. But many other mag-
nations in 1993 for such high-quality, made- azines survived by attracting specialty audi-
for- television movies as Citizen Cohn, Stalin, ences based on specific interests. In fact, the
and Barbarians at the Gate. With cable as a magazine industry has never been more pro-
model for future programming, television lific and popular than it is today. These new
channels will necessarily become as content- readers appeal to advertisers. Newspapers
specific as specialized magazines. Besides ca- suffered severe declines because of television.
ble offerings, the three original networks Polls show that 50 percent of those under
must also compete with other broadcast net- thirty-five years of age prefer to learn about
works. Inspired by the tremendous success of news events from television. But the news
the Fox network, Paramount Communica- shows they are watching are more likely to be
tions, Inc., and Warner Bros, executives have produced by MTV or "Entertainment To-
announced plans for starting their own night." Many newspapers have folded, but
broadcast networks by 1995. Initially, they others have survived because of chain owner-
will carry only two hours of programming a ship, a more feature-oriented approach,
night, but if successful, the motion picture zoned editions, and colorful graphics. Radio
companic , will expand their program list. quit airing dramatic serials and concentrated
FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR TELEVISION 359
on obtaining specialized audiences for specif- mentary "The Civil War," which aired on
ic kinds of music. Motion pictures made their PBS, said this about television when he re-
screens larger, their pictures more vivid, and ceived a journalism award from the Universi-
the sound clearer. But, more important, Hol- ty of Southern California:
lywood swallowed its pride and accepted the

Television is rapidly eroding the strength of
power of television. One indication of the
our republic from within, substituting a
strong link between the two media is in the
distracting cultural monarchy for the diver-
number of motion pictures that began as
sity and variety and democracy promised in
television programs. The trend started in the
its conception and unveiling. Television has
1950s with "Marty." Recently, movies have
equipped us as citizens to live in an all-
been made from such television shows as
consuming, and thereby forgettable and dis-
"Dragnet," "Star Trek," "Superman," "Bat-
posable present, blissfully unaware of the
man," "The Fugitive," "The Flintstones,"
historical tides and movements that speak
"The Addams Family," "Teenage Mutant
not only to this moment, but to our vast
Ninja Turtles," and "The Beverly Hillbillies."
future as well.
Audiences grow fond of TV characters and
But television can remind us too, if we let
want to see them on the large screen, too.
Commercial television emphasizes main-

it — as we gradually become a country and a
society without letter writing and diary-

stream political, economic, and cultural
keeping, more and more dependent on
views — and champions consumerism. It is
al signs and language — that it is an impor-
visu-
no wonder that television can be both addict-

tant part of the making of history. More and
ing and alienating. Wars and other personal
more, we will be connected to the past by the
tragedies reduced to a small screen image
images we have made, and they will become
suddenly segue into a commercial. These
the glue that makes memories.
curious transitions occur because the bottom
line for television executives isn't to sell Television may be "a vast wasteland," but
programs to audiences but to sell audiences to it allows a lot of space for the creation of
advertisers. Until that system of funding memorable visual messages if a culture de-
changes, few changes will occur in the types mands such value from it. Viewers need to
of shows the medium offers. But for the first graze less and learn to settle for more.
time in its short history, television is getting
serious competition from other media, which
may fundamentally alter the way television is Future directions for

presented. More people than ever are watch- television
ing less network offerings, preferring cable
programs, videotaped movies, and video An old saying states, "What goes around,
games. The reason that cable and alternative comes around." Fashion fads are perfect ex-
video sources are successful is that they rely amples — those who held onto their tie-dyed
on the diversity of audience interests — not shirts and love beads from the 1960s are
advertisers' preferences. pleased to see that those items are back in
In the meantime, a viewer must make style. As early as 1938, television was envi-
intelligent choices to seek alternative, high- sioned as a communal visual experience that
quality programs. In letters to networks and would be watched in motion picture theaters.
in conversations with friends and family, It was imagined as a medium that could
such shows should be supported. Ken Burns, broadcast current news and, more important,
producer of the enormously popular docu- live sporting events to theater audiences. In
Figure 14.21 1947, RCA and Paramount Pictures teamed Ironically, television may once again be-
Many oj those living in to produce the first experimental television come a social experience when movie thea-
rural communities are too screenings in theaters with a projection sys- ters are eventually equipped with high-defini-
far away to receive television

tem invented by RCA researchers. By 1949, tion, digital, large, liquid crystal displays that
broadcast signals, or getting

more than 100 movie theaters and outdoor exhibit programs via fiber optic links from an
sites with specially built receivers aired the entertainment provider. Such a vision of
a cable connection is too
World Series from New York City, featuring television's future also may become a reality
expensive. Consequently,
the New York Yankees versus the Brooklyn in homes, but with an important interactive
they are forced to buy
Dodgers. But the FCC refused to authorize a difference. The old-fashioned idea of televi-
expensive satellite dishes.
separate channel on the spectrum for theater sion as a one-way, anesthetizing viewing
This photograph is a study
presentations. Consequently, exhibitors could experience soon will be an anachronism.
in contrast. A woman only show programs that could be seen at Within fifteen years, television will be re-
outside Bloomington, home. An alternative at that time was to placed by teleputers with 500 to 1 ,500 chan-
Indiana, is burning her own connect theaters with copper wire supplied by nels, many with interactive capabilities (see
trash — an ancient AT&T, but such systems were too expensive Chapter 16) (Figure 14.21).
chore — amid two new-tech and home entertainment centers eventually
satellite dishes. replaced television theaters.
CHAPTER 15
Computers Any significantly
advanced technology is
indistinguishable from
magic.
Arthur C. Clarke,
WRITER
T wo of the most memorable characters in technique and directed by 36-year-old James

recent motion picture history never com- Cameron, both movies won Academy Awards
plained about long working hours, costume for their special effects.
problems, or the quality of the catered lunch- The success of those computer creatures
es. That's because they were never paid, never has led to an explosion of CGI in all manner
wore clothes, and never ate anything. Many of of media. In the summer of 1993, for exam-
the other actors never saw them — not even ple, every major motion picture released
during filming — until the picture was fin- contained numerous special effects created on
ished. Both characters played non-human the computer. The success of Terminator 2
beings. One was a gentle, compassionate, and has also led to the regular use of CGI for
positive living force; the other was a violent, television commercials. Some producers pre-
insensitive, and cold-blooded killer. The dict that the time may come when all the
smiling, rippling water snake, termed "water dangerous stunts performed in action-adven-
weenie" by the crew featured in the motion ture motion pictures will be accomplished by
picture The Abyss (1989), and the murderous CGI and that live-action actors will become
T-1000 liquid-alloy robot in Terminator 2: costars with computer humanoids.
Judgment Day (1991) introduced theater au-
diences not only to strong visual messages, Figure 15.1
but to images totally fabricated through the Computer-generated images n following
use of the computer (Figures 15.1 and 15.2). page 370.

For the first time in major motion pictures, The history of computer-generated images for
Figure 15.2
characters with emotional responses and film goes back to 1963 when a researcher for
complex movements were computer-generat- Bell Laboratories, Edward Zajac, produced
ed images (CGI). Utilizing the morphing page 370.
the first computer-generated motion pic-
361
—
362 COMPUTERS
ture — a simulation of a trip around the Earth During the next two years other science
based on satellite still photographs. By the fiction and fantasy films contained examples
late 1960s, NASA was producing numerous of computer graphics technology. Young Sher-
computer movies of the Earth's surface. lock Holmes (1985), Steven Spielberg's fantasy
Hollywood caught on several years later. film in which a knight with a sword leaps out
The first major motion picture that included of a stained glass window; The Flight of the
any computer graphic effects was the 1974 Navigator (1986), which featured a silvery,
science fiction thriller Futureworld, directed computer-generated alien spaceship; and
by Jurassic Park and Rising Sun novelist Mi- Muppet master Jim Henson's rendition of a
chael Crichton. The movie featured a compu- flying owl through the opening credits of
ter-mapped head of actor Peter Fonda on a Labyrinth (1986) were excellent examples of
monitor. Three years later, George Lucas magical computer graphic effects. However,
directed Star Wars, which contained a limited all made a poor showing at the box office.
amount of computer graphics on video dis-
play terminals. Computerized plans for the

Morphing
Death Star were displayed on a large screen
during a briefing about battle strategies. Called a cross-dissolving technique, the tran-
The first movie to feature the extensive use sitional visual effect called morphing was first
of computer graphics was the Disney box used in a live-action sequence in The Wolf
office disappointment Tron (1982). About Man (1941). In a series of superimposed
twenty minutes of the film, much of it during filmed shots, Lon Chaney's face changed
the Light Cycle race, was produced on a from a normal image into that of the dreaded
computer. Newsweek, Time, and Rolling Stone monster. In 1976, Tom Brigham was an art
hailed computer graphics as an important studentat the Rhode Island School of Design
advance in motion picture production. How- when he became interested in transforming

ever, the technological benefits were delayed people into objects or animals with smooth,
because the public wasn't interested in a story video-animated movements. His idea was
about a video game operator who could go inspired by Emile Cphl's 1908 Phantasmagor-
inside his machine. Star Trek II: The Wrath of ia (Chapter 11). Later as a student at Harvard
Khan in 1982 also contained a computer- University, Brigham worked for four years at
generated shot of the transformation of a the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's

barren planet into a Garden of Eden. (MIT) Architecture Machine Group, where
In 1984, two movies contained highly he had access to all the latest innovations in
praised computer sequences 2010, for its computers, movies, video, animation tech-
stormlike atmosphere of Jupiter, and The Last nology, and cross-dissolving methods.
Starfighter, for its spacecraft dogfights. Be- By 1982 Brigham had perfected a comput-
cause of the complexity of images, Cray XMP er technique that he named morphing (from
supercomputers were employed to render the Greek word morphe, "to form or shape").
each frame of the digital handiwork. Star- Morphing treats images as if they were elastic,
fighter contained about twenty-five minutes or Silly Putty, making possible the stretching
of CGI. But again, as in Tron, the public of one face into another. Brigham introduced
wasn't i tcrested in a teenage video game morphing technology at the 1982 SIG-
player ; saves the universe. That same GRAPH computer graphics exposition dur-
year, per nance artist Laurie Anderson ing which he demonstrated it by showing a
introduce CGI-laden music video woman transformed into a lynx. Brigham
"Sharkey 's Id." never patented his technological break-
COMPUTER-GENERATED IMAGES 363
through, allowing open use to encourage early stop-action model animation work by
experimentation. Companies have intro- Willis O'Brien and Ray Harryhausen (Chap-
duced their own versions of morphing so that ter 11), the computer-generated dinosaurs in
the software to produce the dramatic tech- Jurassic Park are so lifelike that the audience
nique can be purchased for a desktop system almost forgets they became extinct more than
for less than $100 (one product is simply 65 million years ago. However, the computer-
named Morph). Brigham owns his own com- generated dinosaurs appeared in less than
pany in New York City, Sightline Systems, seven minutes of actual show time. Most of
which produces special visual effects for mo- the special effects were produced with large,
tion pictures. At the age of thirty-seven, he live-action models.
received an Academy Award in 1993 as a Besides live- act ion -computer image com-
tribute to his technical achievement. binations, wire removal and morphing tech-
Since 1986, the number of motion pictures niques also are being used in movies. The
that used computerized special effects has wires that held actors Janine Turner and
steadily increased. Morphing made its debut Sylvester Stallone safely during supposedly
in the fantasy film Willow in 1988 (directed dangerous mountain climbing scenes in Cliff-
by Ron Howard, Opie in "The Andy Griffith hanger were removed with a computer. In the
Show" and Richie Cunningham in "Happy Line of Fire has a scene that involved morph-
Days"), in which a reclining tiger is changed ing in which John Malkovich's appearance is
into a sleeping woman. George Lucas's spe- altered with makeup variations.
cial-effects company, Industrial Light and With visual effects generated by desktop
Magic (ILM), devised special software to computers, directors suddenly have many
create the CGI effects in Willow. In 1988, the more tricks that they can use to make a
Pixar company, an offshoot of ILM, won the motion picture seem more real. With a com-
first Academy Award given to an all-compu- puter, creating and collating animation eels is
ter production for the short film Tin Toy, the much faster and less expensive than by tradi-
story of a baby's first encounter with a tional pen and ink methods. Morphing also is
wind-up toy (Figure 15.3). Currently, Pixar commonly used in making television and Figure 15.3
has an agreement with the Walt Disney Com- music videos. Commercials with morphing See color section following
pany to make the first feature-length compu- effects include those for the Schick Tracer, page 310.
ter-generated motion picture. The Disney Listerine Cool Mint, Exxon, Miller Lite, and
detective fantasy Who Framed Roger Rabbit? the Infiniti automobile. Pacific Data Images
expertly combined live-action and cartoon performed the morphing magic on Silicon-
characters. The Academy Award winning Graphics computer equipment at the conclu-
effect of the security system image of actor sion of Michael Jackson's "Black or White"
Arnold Schwarzenegger's skeleton, by which video in which the faces of individuals from
we learned that his bones are the same size as various cultural groups blend together.
everyone else's, was created by Metrolight for
Total Recall (1990). In 1992, audiences got
Evolution of computer-generated
their first peek at virtual reality technology in
images
the science fiction thriller The Lawnmower
Man. Several scenes were entirely computer- If Tron had been a blockbuster success, the
generated. By the summer of 1993, every advent of computer graphics would have
major motion picture, including Jurassic Park, occurred a decade sooner. It took a hi*
Cliffhanger, and In the Line of Fire, used some movie Terminator 2 — that was filled with
type of CGI technology. Compared with the computer graphic effects and was a hv ;
,
364 COMPUTERS
successful financial enterprise to convince office smash, the $45 million picture generat-
producers to invest in CGI research. But T2, ed a lot of excitement because of its realistic
as it was named by insiders, couldn't have and friendly computer creature. In 1993,
happened without the vision of James Cam- Cameron released a special edition laser disk
eron in his movie The Abyss. version of the movie through 20th Century
Born in Canada, Cameron had an early Fox and Image Entertainment. For $100 a
fascination with science and movies. When home viewer can watch twenty-eight minutes
his family moved to Brea, California, in 1972, of footage that Cameron added to the motion
he started making short films. Roger Cor- picture. The three- laser-disk set also shows a
man, "King of the 'B' Movies" eventually documentary film about the making of the
hired Cameron for his independent studio, movie, production artwork, storyboards, and
New World Pictures, as a production designer screenplay, and the original advertising in-
and second unit director. Cameron worked cluding the theatrical teaser and trailer.
on science fiction projects such as Planet of With the knowledge gained from making
Horror and Battle Beyond the Stars. The first The Abyss, Cameron no longer had to worry
film that he directed was the forgettable about the ability to produce his fantastic
Piranha II. Cameron also was a talented mental images on film. Before the sophisti-
writer. He co-wrote the script for Rambo: cated use of computer graphics, a movie's
First Blood Part II and wrote and directed The plot was limited by what was physically
Terminator, Aliens, The Abyss, and Terminator possible to create. Motion pictures could
2: Judgment Day. produce incredibly lifelike illusions, but there
The 140-minute Abyss (1989) was a mod- always was a limit. Now there are almost no
erate box office success about an underwater limits. Cameron wrote the script for T2 with
oil-rig crew led by actors Mary Elizabeth the confidence that computer artists would be
Mastrantonio and Ed Harris. The military able to turn his storyboards into reality.
recruits the aquanauts to retrieve a nuclear In the first Terminator, a murderous cy-
weapon from a damaged submarine. The plot borg played by Arnold ("I'll be back")
twists when they discover an underwater Schwarzenegger is transported from the fu-
civilization at the bottom of the ocean. ture by advanced computers who have taken
Computer-generated imaging technology over control of the world from their human
takes a breathtaking leap forward in the form programmers. The robot's mission is to kill a
of a creature that investigates the human woman who is to give birth to a son who will
vessel. The shimmering, water-filled pseudo- eventually lead a revolution against the ma-
pod in The Abyss has been called by computer chines. The movie cost about $7 million and
innovator Mark Dippe "one of the most made more than $35 million.
significant pieces of computer animation In T2, the woman, played by Linda Hamil-
done up until that time." The water entity is ton, is training her son, portrayed by Edward
an astonishingly realistic water snake that Furlong, to take a leadership role in the
playfully mimics the startled faces of upcoming rebellion. But images of a nuclear
Mastrantonio and Harris. When Mastran- war eventually drive her insane, and she is
tonio pokes a finger into the being's "face," committed to a mental hospital. Meanwhile,
the com i r-generated rippling effect adds in the postnuclear war future, her now-
to the i
of the moment. Dennis Muren grown son sends a reformatted Schwarzeneg-
of ILM orked on the Star Wars effects, ger robot back to the past. But this time it is
create r weenie," which won him programmed to protect the boy and his
an Acii Award. Although not a box mother because the evil computers (are you
COMPUTER-GENERATED M AGES I 365
following this?) have sent a new and im- Future of computer-generated

proved model — the liquid metal, metamor- imaging
phic cyborg, played in human form by Robert
Patrick, to kill the family and anyone else Where will CGI lead? James Cameron, Scott
who gets in its way. Ross, and Stan Winston have formed a com-
The T-1000 chrome robot in Terminator 2 pany with IBM named Digital Domain — to
(1991) was one of forty-five special CGI help filmmakers "realize the pictures in their
effects used in the blockbuster movie. Some heads," according to Cameron. Ross was
of the most riveting scenes occur in the director of operations at ILM, and Winston
insane asylum, in which the T-1000 character has created terrifying live-action models for
assumes the shape of a section of linoleum films such as Predator, Aliens, Batman Re-
floor, makes his hands turn into deadly turns, and Jurassic Park.
swords, has his "face" sliced in two by the In television, computer graphic effects are
force of Schwarzenegger's weapon (but featured in such diverse programs as MTV's

it quickly reconstitutes itself), and changes "Liquid TV" and the science fiction series
back and forth between a uniformed police "Star Trek: The Next Generation." Oliver
officer, a hospital security guard, and the Stone, the director of Platoon and JFK, pro-
chrome-colored, metal monster. The over- duced the critically panned miniseries "Wild
the-top visual effect, however, is when the Palms" in 1993 that included CGI virtual-
cyborg oozes through the bars of a security reality scenes. Steven Spielberg's series "sea-
gate to attack Hamilton, Furlong, and Quest DSV" uses the latest in desktop effects.
Schwarzenegger. The through-the-bars scene One of the most ambitious projects using
was created by filming Patrick and the bars computer graphics in television history is
separately, matching a computer model of the being supervised by Kevin Costner, director
actor's face with the live-action film, and and actor of the Academy Award winning
utilizing a variation of the morphing effect to Dances with Wolves. In the documentary
distort the face as if it were made of saltwater "500 Nations," the history of Native Ameri-
taffy. can cultures will be realistically simulated by
Some critics argue that all the computer- computer- generated backgrounds and other
generated special effects in the movie have effects. Diane Brunet, account supervisor for
been incorrectly blamed for the high cost VDOImages, the company that produced the
of the production, estimated to be between square-faced morphed men in a Schick razor
$85 and $100 million — one of the most advertisement, says that "before long, com-
expensive movies in history. But most of the puter backgrounds will be so realistic that if
cost should be attributed to the high salaries you want to go to the beach at St. Thomas to
of the actors. film a spot you may not have to go to the

The movie, unlike any other that used actual location. Shooting will be performed
CGI, woke up Hollywood executives to the on a digital backlot."
potential of computer graphics. The success ILM is working on the next step: compu-
of T2 showed that stories are more important ter-generated humans. From computer ren-
than effects. Tron and The Last Starfighter derings of deceased politicians and actors to
failed, not because the computer graphics completely fabricated human beings, creating
scenes were poorly rendered, but because realistic pixelated people is possible. Already,
their stories weren't compelling. As with digital humans are being used in complex and
other media, visual messages must always dangerous motion picture stunts. Hollywood
stress the message before the visual. studios are about only five years from intro -
366 COMPUTERS
ducing a movie featuring virtual actors, or ment record keeping, and even personal
vactors, exclusively. Dennis Muren admits photography — undetected computer manip-
that "I don't know where the end of this stuff ulations of visual messages is a serious con-
is. I mean, how real is real?" cern. If the fine line between what is real and
not real dissolves into a sea of pixels, the
carefully nurtured concept of historical be-
Analysis of motion picture lievability becomes another commodity in
computer graphics competition with entertainment. A culture

that accepts computer-generated manipula-
Not too long ago, computer graphics could be tion for journalism or in other documentary
identified easily. Colored lights on video contexts is one that loses its link with the past
displays, fantastic transformations between and the future. When it becomes acceptable
animals and people, or unrealistic fantasy in a society for a computer graphics operator
creatures within equally strange make-believe to manipulate the content of a news photo-
environments were easily recognizable as be- graph, that society doomed to live in an
is
ing computer-generated. Even the digitized everlasting present moment where serious
dinosaurs in Jurassic Park, as wondrous as social problems can never be solved because
they are, cannot be mistaken for clay models, its people will be unable to learn from history
mechanized puppets, or existing animals and anticipate change.
with a lot of makeup and theatrical body
appliances. The audience necessarily sus-
pends reality during a motion picture in Computers and the six

order to be entertained. Context therefore perspectives
may be more important than content for
establishing the degree of believability of the
Figure 15.4 visual message (Figure 15.4).
See color section following The next generation of computer graphic Computer technology, with its ability to cre-
page 370. effects will break down the notion (which ate, access, and manipulate large databases
was never true anyway) that seeing is believ- filled with words and numbers, inspired writ-
ing. Determining whether any image — for ers to call the twentieth century the "Infor-
print or screen media — is an icon that repre- mation Age." In reality, the time during
sents a live-action actor or is a completely which words dominated images in communi-

computer-generated fabrication simply will cation began shortly after Gutenberg's inven-
be impossible. Within the context of emer- tion. Culminating in the word processing
gent, such a technical innovation is computer, words became more valued than
th great anticipation by viewers images to tell stories. But with new-genera-
i be thrilled, writers and directors tion computers that make possible the inclu-
I to turn their imaginations into sion of pictures as easily as words in print and
and producers who want to screen media, some writers are beginning to
v by not having to hire so many anticipate a new age. For example, Sean
, actors, stunt personnel, prop Callahan, founding editor of American Pho-
Pe ' rtists, and even caterers are tographer magazine, writes that "our culture
ami will not be thrilled by is moving from an Information Age, where
advance mputer technology. communication is based on words and num-
But :i texts — journalism, docu- bers, to a Visual Age, based to a great extent
mentatic anthropology, govern- on images and symbols. By allowing us to

COMPUTERS AND THE SIX PERSPECTIVES 367
capture, store and use images in entirely new that contain vertical marks have been found
ways, these emerging technologies are des- in Africa. These scratches correspond to the
tined to have a wide-ranging impact on prime numbers of 11, 13, 17, and 19. Prime
personal and business communication." numbers, an advanced form of mathematics,
More accurately, however, the next decade represent a class of numbers that can be
will be known for the way that words and divided only by themselves and 1. The Egyp-
pictures are used together as equal partners in tians, known for their colorful pictographic
the communication process — an Informa- writing skills, had a visual numbering system.
tion Age, Part 2, in which all forms of Early Egyptian scribes could use numbers as
communication are included. high as 999,999: 1 to 9 were simple vertical

Whatever the period is called, computer lines, a 10 was a circle, 100 a coiled rope,
technology clearly has grown to such an 1,000 a lotus blossom, and 100,000 a tadpole.
extent that imagining a world without the But adding ropes and tadpoles wasn't easy.
machine is difficult. From buying groceries to Consequently, the Sumerians invented a de-
watching a movie, innovations brought about vice that could make elementary calculations.
by the computer affect our lives for better or This innovative society knew the importance
worse. Portable computers and bulletin board of keeping accurate information, which is
services, for example, are powerful tools that why it invented written language. But num-
help with business deals and classroom note bers were used long before words were carved
taking. But image credibility, privacy con- in soft clay. For example, some 30,000 tablets
cerns, and access to computer advantages for that represent financial data for every mem-
all in a society are problems that are not easily ber of the society have been uncovered. Tax
solved by the wave of a Newton stylus. collectors kept these ancient records.
The Calculator
To aid in the calculation of the items in
Computers are machines that convert words each household, the Sumerians used a tool
and images into a numerical format. The made of sand and stone. Pebbles that symbo-
difference between calculators and computers lized a particular unit of measurement (a 1, 5,
is that only computers can store instructions or 10, for example) were placed in rows
(called software programs) that tell the ma- drawn in the sand wood with
(later stones or
chine what to do. Therefore a discussion holes were placed in columns made of string
about computers must start with the use of or metal). Merchants who couldn't read or
calculators. write could at least make accurate calcula-
Calculators have their roots in counting tions with these devices.
systems. Because assigning values for the By 500 B.C., the Greeks had named the
fingers on both hands was convenient, num- Sumerian calculating machine the abacus
bers were invented long before words were after the Phoenician word abak or "tablet"
ever written. In caves in Spain and France, (Figure 15.5). Greek and Roman accountants
anthropologists have found vertical marks on used the abacus for calculations and then
the walls along with drawings of animals to wrote their answers in the form of numerals
suggest the existence of a crude counting that were based on early letters. Known as the
system. Someone not only was painting the Roman numeral system today, / stood for the
beasts that could be found outside the cave, number 1, Vfor 5, X for 10, L for 50, and C
but also was telling others how many were out for 100. Early financial managers had great
there. Pieces of bone from about 8500 B.C. political power because they were the only
368 COMPUTERS
Figure 15.5 hypodermic syringe and the hydraulic press.
In this thirteenth-century Pascal's law describes the effect of pressure on

Chinese abacus, wooden fluids. His calculator had gears that an opera-
balls represent numbers. The

tor turned to find an answer to an addition or
subtraction problem (Figure 15.7). Although
balls below the horizontal
businesspeople were enthusiastic about the
bar represent single units,
machine because it could speed the calcula-
ami the balls above the bar
tions that had to be performed by hand, a
represent five units each.
French government official who was feuding
From the right, each column
with Pascal's father delayed issuing the pat-
is ten times the previous
ent. Consequently, many counterfeits were
column, I, 10, 100, 1000, ones who could understand how to add an L produced so that Pascal made little from his
10,000, etc. The number and a C together. The problem with Roman invention.
represented here is 965,831. numerals is obvious when you try to add the The first commercially successful calcula-
words "fifty" and "one hundred" without tor was the Arithmometer, invented by
knowledge of their numerical roots. But Thomas de Colmar in 1820. Colmar ran an
everyone began to understand counting and insurance agency in Paris and came up with
math when the Hindu-Arabic number system the device to help him in his work. Banks and
— the one we use today — replaced Roman other insurance companies bought about
numerals. Today the Roman system is used 1,500 of the machines before keyboard calcu-
mainly by those wanting to convey a touch of lators replaced them in the 1900s.
class to a particular document. Incidentally,

the number 0 was a late invention. Most The Computer
historians give credit to the Indian culture in Charles Babbage of London has been cred-
about A.D. 876 for developing the mathemati- ited for inventing the computer. In fact, he
cal concept of nothing. The zero is vital for designed a steam-powered, program-control-
digital computers because they use only com- led calculator. When he finished his first
binations of the numbers 0 and 1 for making design in 1833, he claimed that it would
calculations (Figure 15.6). mechanize the thought process itself. The
Frenchman Blaise Pascal invented the first huge, noisy contraption had pulleys and
mechanical calculator (or adding machine) wheels that were used to make calculations
in 1642 when he was 19 years old. Pascal was (Figure 15.8). Although theoretically capable
a troubled genius who also invented the of storing 1,000 numbers of 50 decimal places
each on punch cards, the Analytical Engine,

Figure 15.6 number systems, 1000 - 1400 AD as it was called, never got much beyond the
As this infographic shows, design stage. Although brilliant in its concep-
unlike lettering systems, tion, Babbage's machine was too far advanced
numbers were standardized for the technology of the day. He died a lonely
relatively quickly throughout and bitter man.
the world. Herman Hollerith, an American, had
more success with his machine. He invented
the first electric calculator, which was used
I ~*
g?0I for the enormous task of compiling the de-
cennial U.S. census. The son of German

Italy immigrants, Hollerith went to work for the
after Davie ailing Image 2 S. Census Office in 1879. By 1880 the task of
collecting the data took months, and analyz- Figure 15.7
ing all the information took almost nine In this eighteenth-century
years. Hollerith invented an electromechani- woodcut, Blaise Pascal is
cal system that could count and sort data seated in front of his
from punch cards. Holes punched in each
invention, the "Pascaline."
card represented demographic information
(age, sex, educational level, etc.) for each
American. When the cards were placed in the
machine, it collated the data so that it could
be analyzed more easily. Hollerith's device
was first used for the 1890 census (Figure

15.9) . Although it was only two years faster
than the previous system and cost almost

twice as much money, the machine was a
great financial success. Orders came from all
over the world from banks and other institu-

tions that required quick tabulations. In 1911,
Hollerith had too much business to handle

alone, so he merged his company with three
others to form the Computing-Tabulating- leading producer of data-processing ma-

Recording Company (CTR). This business chines in the world for government and
eventually became the International Business business applications. In 1952, the senior
Machines Corporation (IBM). Watson retired and his son succeeded him.
Thomas Watson built IBM into an inter- In the 1940s and 1950s computers were
national leader, and with the help of his son, room-sized behemoths that cost millions of
Thomas Watson, Jr., moved IBM into making
computers. The elder Watson started his ca-
Figure 15.8
reer as a salesman who hawked everything
Charles Bahbage interrupted
from sewing machines to pianos (Figure
the construction of his
15.10) At 19 he
. grew tired of his hometown
and left it for Buffalo, New York, where he complicated computer (he
eventually got a job with the National Cash called it the Analytic;)!
Register Company (NCR). Company officials Engine) in 1834 after cos
were so impressed by his selling abilities that overruns and the resignath
he was transferred to NCR headquarters in of his chief instrument

Dayton, Ohio. His future looked bright until maker. Niei trtheless,
he was jailed for a year and fined $5,000 along Bahbage continued his work
with other company officials for violating the
and developed a
Sherman Antitrust Act. After his release from
oi gram computer that
jail, NCR fired him, but CTR soon hired him. J the development of
He applied an impressive personality and
modern computers.
business mind to advance rapidly, and, when
the president of CTR died, Watson was
named to replace him. In 1924, CTR changed
its name to IBM. The company grew tremen-
dously during World War II and became the

370 COMPUTERS
show every possible number, the 10 digits (0
to 9) needed to be separately represented.

Thus decimal-based computers were large
and slow. The binary numerical system (also
called base 2) needed far fewer tubes because

A WEEKLY ItirUMI. HE MMlTU'll iMiiKMYfUA. m'IEV M IIANICS. CHEMISTRY AMI MANI
IliT. I K« ! II II RES.
it represented all numbers by translating
them into 0 and 1 combinations. For exam-

ple, the numbers 3 through 9 are represented
in base 2 as 11, 100, 101, 1 10, 1 11, 1000, and

1001. Vacuum tubes can represent 0 and 1
simply by being off or on. Hence the binary

system is the simplest, fastest, and most
efficient numbering method to use with com-
puters.
In 1946, the first computer based on the

binary system was announced to the public.
Called the ENIAC (for Electronic Numerator,
Integrator, Analyzer, and Computer), it was a
top-secret project sponsored by the U.S. mili-
tary and produced by a team led by John

Mauchly at the Moore School of Electrical
Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania

(Figure 15.11). The machine, given the code
name PX, could multiply 333 ten-digit num-
bers in one second. Its first use was to
perform complicated calculations for hydro-
gen bomb research. But the computer was an
expensive and awkward machine that re-
quired workers to set hundreds of switches,

replace defective vacuum tubes, and make
connections through telephone patch cords
before they could perform any calculations.
THE JEW Oaim OE IH CKIIH) ittCTEICAL LN p MEB AT1AO MECKit SISM i

l»j
An important innovation for computers,
which eventually led to visual computer dis-
Figure 15.9 dollars and performed haphazardly. Early plays, was the combination of computer and
TVii's 1890 issue of Scientific niters were analog devices — that is, they cathode ray tube (CRT). At Manchester Uni-
American magazine intro- ted data (words and numbers) into versity in England, F. C. Williams and col-
duced readers to Herman electrical impulses. The conversion leagues used CRTs similar to those in radar
Hollerith's electrical
>ccurred in a row of vacuum tubes of and television sets to view the inner workings
type used for sound amplification in of their Manchester Mark I computer in
tabulating machine.
arly television sets. The electrical 1948. The following year Jay Forrester and
Although it was faster than
charge rated by the tubes translated graduate student Kenneth Olsen, who later
counting census data by
words mbers into either the decimal established the Digital Equipment Corpora-
hand, it was still an
nuns or the binary numerical tion (DEC), began working on the Whirl-
enormous and tedious job to
system. ! ,rmer (also known as base 10) wind computer at MIT. After the Soviet
process the census data. requiro ibes because, in order to government exploded an atomic bomb in
Figure 12.15
Photographers often use an
electronic flash to help
balance different light
sources for a setting and

isolate subject in the
foreground from the
background.
Figure 13.29
This scene is from Ridley

Scott's acclaimed science
fiction masterpiece, Blade
Runner. In this shot,
Harrison Ford leaps between
vehicles while foreground
and background graphic

elements offer a visual treat
for the viewer.
Figure 14.12
Video artist Nam June Paik
created the "Video Arch"

- 1
composed of 106 televii
sets for the lobby <
Anaheim Arc
southern Cal
The mon
fast-pa nd
abst by
P:
Figure 15.1
In the movie The Abyss,
computer-generated image
technology comes of age in
the form of a lifelike
pseudopod created by a race
of underwater creatures sent
to investigate the crew of an
underwater oil rig.
Figure 15.2
Two views of the T-1000
cyborg character in the
movie Terminator 2. Note
how the use of lights and

shadows aids in creating the
illusion of depth for the
computer-generated image.
Figure 15.3
The Pixar computer comp-
any won an Academy Award
for the first all-computer
short subject film, Tin Toy,
in 1988. The use of perspec-

tive and lighting gives a
realistic rendering to the
enduring characters.
Figure 15.4
With its array of menu

choices and workspace
desktop windows (left), the
AutoDesk company of
Sausalito, California, can be
used to create complicated
and delicate drawings, as
indicated by the dragonfly
rendering ( right).
Figure 15.20 (left)
Apple Computer's current
trademark is a round,
organic, colorful logo that
emphasizes the computer's
ease of use, enjoyment, and

slightly irreverent company
philosophy.
Acclaim's Mortal Kombat,
designed for Sega and

Nintendo video game
machines, has been
criticized for its violent
scenarios.
Figure 15.30
Eastman Kodak's Cineon

computer manipulation
process was used to digitally
clean each frame of the Walt

Disney classic Snow White.
Note how the dust-filled
film frame (top) contrasts
starkly with the digital
version ( bottom ). Use of the
computer made the film
clearer than it was when

originally released.
Figure 16.1
In Rick Smolan's From

Alice to Ocean interactive
multimedia presentation, a
user can sit back and watch
the unfolding story of Robyn

Davidson's 1, 700-mile trek
across Australia or use a
mouse to chart a
personalized course.
Figure 16.4 CompuServe Information Manager

With its colorful icons,
File Edit Services Mail Special Window Help
Connected
CompuServe's opening
4:36 1
frame, as seen with a
Microsoft Windows Services

program, lets a user easily
decide what information to
access. Basic Services News/Weather/Sports
Computet s I
m
mums
it
Communications Associated Press Online
Weathei
I IS Nl
S
W.
1
IIK News/Sports t
2
(Inline 1 inlay Doily I dition o
&
News Investments Hcleience
t xecutive Ni;ws Service ($)
- NewsGrid US/World News •
.3?
if I
Sports
I I.IVfil Shopping lj. lines Newspapei I ibiaty
I lorida I oday I oium B
I J ll ili.ll I H i- I i IIUMI • oq
I iieslyles
It
Professional Membei Select Cancel
Figure 16.10
Virtual reality programmers
at Rockwell International
designed this computerized
office. VR systems may

provide high-quality digital
images with data gloves that
allow a user to interact as
in an actual office.
1949, U.S. military officials asked Forrester to Figure 15.10
develop a comprehensive air defense system Above: A middle-aged
to warn the military of a nuclear missile Thomas Watson, Sr., sits in
attack. The SAGE (for Semi-Automatic his austere office and

Ground Environment) project became opera- appears to be too absorbed
tional in 1955. The important aspect for
in a document to notice the
graphic designers about the Whirlwind com-
photographer. Below: A few
puters used by the SAGE system was that it
years later, his portrait is
introduced the concept of the individual
radically different. Bound
workstation (Figure 15.12). Fifty monitors
volumes of classical
could display the radar blips of up to 400
planes at a time. An operator seated in front books — note the Holy Bible
of a large CRT monitor could aim a light pen prominently displayed on
at a specific blip on the screen, and the the shelf to his right —
computer would supply information about within a wooden bookcase, a
that plane and its location. globe turned to Africa, a
The last room-sized, vacuum tube com- Foreign Affairs journal, a

puter of note was the UNIVAC (for UNIVer- book entitled Chinese Art,
sal Automatic Computer). The UNIVAC the IBM company magazine,
computer system was intended for general
Think, with the word
purposes. In other words, it could be pro-
repeated above, and direct
grammed by an operator to perform almost
eye contact with the camera
any type of data-sorting task. In 1950, J.
combine to convey the image
Presper Eckert and John Mauchly devel-
of a person of wealth,
oped the computer, which Remington Rand
worldwide influence, and
bought immediately. The significance of the
machine was that it could store instructions confidence.
in the form of random-access memory

(RAM). With ten round magnetic tapes, the
UNIVAC could reserve ten million zeros or

ones to run the computer's internal opera-
tions. No longer did the tedious job of load-
ing hundreds of punch cards have to be
performed before each operation. This devel-
opment led Grace Murray Hopper in 1951 to
produce a high-level program to scan a set of

computer instructions and carry them out.
Hopper's computer language, Pascal, led IBM

to write FORTRAN (for FORmula TRANsla-
tion) so that anyone could learn to be a
computer programmer. Later, COBOL (for
COmmon Business-Oriented Language) and The general public knew more about the
BASIC (for Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic UNIVAC than the other computers of the day
Instruction Code) were introduced and fur- because CBS News used it to predict the
ther allowed amateurs to get involved in outcome of the 1952 presidential election.
writing computer programs. The machine was fed the results from thou-
372 t:OMPUTERS
Figure 15.11
The 1946 ENIAC machine

was linked with telephone
patch cords and powered
through vacuum tubes. One

of the most time-consuming
tasks of working with the
computer was checking and
replacing defective tubes-—a

duty the two people in this
picture are performing.
sands of voting districts in previous elections hot, cost pennies to make, and could be as
and with early voting returns on election small as a pencil's eraser (Figure 15.13). In
night. With only 7 percent of the vote in, the 1956 the Nobel Prize in physics was awarded
machine announced that Dwight Eisenhower to the three-person team, William Shockley,
would defeat Adlai Stevenson in a landslide of Walter Braittain, and John Bardeen, who had
electoral votes — 438 to 93. CBS officials in- invented the transistor. One of its first appli-
stantly panicked because every political ana- cations was for hearing aid amplifiers in
lyst had predicted a close vote. CBS faked the 1953, and the next year transistor radios were
data on television to make it appear that the introduced. In 1958, Jack Kirby linked tran-
voting was tight. But the machine had it right: sistors on an integrated circuit board, allow-
The actual electoral vote result was 442 to 89. ing complex computer operations to occur in
a vastly reduced space (Figure 15.14). With
Transistors One of the most important dis- his new invention, Kirby formed Texas In-
coveries in the twentieth century was an- struments in Dallas and became a multimil-
nounced to the public in 1948 with almost no lionaire. Room-sized computers, commonly
coverage by the media. A team of scientists referred to as mainframes, were soon replaced
working for Bell Telephone Laboratories in with much smaller machines called mini-
Murry Hill, New Jersey, invented the transis- computers (Figure 15.15).
tor — a semiconductor with the same func-
tion as the vacuum tube but made out of Minicomputers In 1963, DEC researchers
silicon, the chief component of sand. As developed the first minicomputer, the
opposed to tubes, silicon transistors didn't get PDP-8. It was still the size of a refrigerator
and slower than a mainframe, but it was far
less expensive. The DEC computer cost about
$18,000, compared to several million dollars
for an ENIAC or a UNIVAC.

Minicomputers were too expensive and
large to be used by people generally. But in
1975, a cover story in Popular Electronics

about the Altair 8800 computer launched the
personal computer industry. Floridian
Edward Roberts began the Micro Instru-
mentation and Telemetry Systems company

(MITS) in 1974 to make and sell pocket
calculators. But he soon fell into debt when
many transistor companies flooded the mar-
ket with cheap calculators. His next project,
however, would give him an important place

in the history of computing. He decided to
sell computer kits to amateurs. He convinced
a bank's loan officer to let him borrow
$65,000 with the assurance that he would sell
800 kits a year. After the Popular Electronics

article about the Altair reached newsstands,
Edwards immediately received thousands of
orders. However, the computer was a simple
Figure 15.12
design that could be used only to play un-
The SAGE computer system
complicated games. To become a more fully
was designed as an early
functional machine, it needed a built-in
warning defense system in
(called an interpreter) program that would
allow the computer to understand BASIC the event of enemy attack. It
commands. When Harvard student Paul Al- was one of the first to use a
len saw the article about the $650 computer monitor. Above: Military
on a newsstand, he was intrigued and showed personnel study a map

it to his friend, fellow freshman William generated by the a
Gates. They called MITS to offer their ser- system. Below: A technician
vices in writing a BASIC interpreter. Six obtains more nfoi
weeks later the two had finished. MITS hired

about a specific plane with a
Allen, and Gates dropped out of college to
light pistol.
become a free-lance computer software writ-
er. The two eventually teamed up again to chip companies established near San Francis-
form Microsoft Corporation, America's larg- co) organization, the Homebrew Computer
est and most successful software company. Club, with about thirty interested members,
The Altair also inspired numerous com- met for the first time in 1975 near Stanford
puter clubs around the country to share University. Soon its membership exceeded
information and programs that could be used 500. Present at the first meeting was a young
on the simple computer. A Silicon Valley computer genius named Stephen Wozni
(named for the many silicon semiconductor "Woz," as he is known by his friends, built a
374 COMPUTERS
win a position selling "Pong" video games for
a small company called Atari that would soon

become one of the largest video game manu-
factures in the United States. But Jobs was a
free spirit who would not follow the usual
corporate path. He became interested in East-
ern religions and vegetarianism and quit his

job after he had saved enough money to travel
to India. In 1974, his money ran out and he

returned home.
Wozniak and Jobs met again to build and
sell their own computer. Wozniak had fabri-
cated a simple machine that used a BASIC

interpreter. Although it was even less sophis-
ticated than the Altair, it could be plugged
into a television set to play video games. Jobs,
who had shed his shy exterior, immediately

searched for buyers and funding for the
Figure 15.13
transistorized calculator when he was thir- computer. When Atari and HP officials
Advances in computer teen years old. Although he attended colleges weren't interested, Jobs sold his Volkswagen
technology reduced machine in Colorado and California, he dropped out bus, borrowed $5,000 from a friend, and
cost and size and increased because the courses didn't interest him. Hew- formed Apple Computer. In 1975, the two
machine power and speed. lett-Packard (HP) eventually hired him as an introduced their Apple I computer and sold
The most important engineer in its calculator division in Palo 175 machines at $500 each (Figure 15.17).
advances were from the Alto. In 1971, he met Steven Jobs, a 16-year- While Wozniak worked on a more sophisti-
vacuum tube (left) to the

old, long-haired, and somewhat shy individu- cated model, Jobs tried to get financial back-
transistor (center) to the

al (Figure 15.16). The two teamed up to make ers.He found a 32-year-old millionaire,
a "blue box," a device that emitted dial tones Armas C. Markkula, Jr., former marketing
silicon chip (right).
so that a user could make illegal telephone manager for Intel, a manufacturer of semi-
calls. They sold more than 100 for $150 each conductor chips used in IBM computers.
to family members and friends. Jobs tried Markkula came by Jobs's garage, Apple's
college but, like Wozniak, soon dropped out. manufacturing and business center, and liked
Figure 15.14 (left,
His experience with computers helped him what he saw. He invested $91,000 of his own
In 1958, Jack Kirby linked
numerous transistors on a
circuit board to give
computers added speed and
reliability.
Silicon chip circuit boards as
small as sewing needles
further reduced size and cost
without sacrificing speed or
accuracy.
money, arranged a $250,000 line of credit
with the Bank of America, and found inves-

tors who eventually contributed more than
half a million dollars. In 1977, the Apple II
computer was introduced and became an

enormous success. In the first year, sales of
the $2,000 computer totaled $775,000. In a
brilliant marketing move, Jobs offered the

Apple II at a nominal cost to elementary
school systems throughout the United States.

School children across the country soon were
experiencing computing for the first time on
Apple computers. And when those children
became adults, they often bought Apple com-
puters for themselves. When Apple's stock
went public in 1980, Wozniak was $88 mil-
lion richer, Markkula $154 million richer,
and Jobs $165 million richer by the end of the

first day of over-the-counter trading. By
1981, annual sales had reached $335 million, computers. Xerox executives also couldn't Figure 15.16
making Apple Computer the fastest growing figure out how to fit the Alto into the Holding the first Apple I
firm in American history. company's office copying business. But Jobs circuit board are two
But Jobs wasn't content to use his money was so enthusiastic about the Alto's design Steves — Stephen Wozniak
idly traveling around the world. One of Ap- that he immediately hired his Xerox tour and Steven Jobs. The
(left)
ple's early investors was the Xerox Corpora- guide, Lawrence Tesler, to help with a new two are living examples of
tion, and in 1979, Jobs toured Xerox's Palo Apple computer, the Lisa.
Stefan Lorant's "third
Alto Research Center (PARC). During the All was not golden for the Apple team. In
effect.
" Each one alone
tour, Xerox engineers showed him their latest 1980, the company introduced its Apple III,
probably could never have
computer, the Alto. The Alto was the first but, because it was rushed into production, it
achieved what the two of

computer that presented multiple windows contained many technical problems and nev-
on a became popular. them accomplished together.
screen, used icons to describe various er All hopes then rested on
functions, contained a built-in paint program the Lisa to be a success. Bill Atkinson had
for making computer drawings, possessed the designed the Lisa as the first machine that
capability to display various fonts for word could be used by graphic designers. Tesler was
processing, and used a three-button mouse to brought onto the project to make a single-
control a cursor's movement on the screen. button mouse for the Lisa. Introduced in
Figure 15.37
More than any other feature, use of the
An inside view of the
mouse probably set this computer apart from '
computer
others. Made of wood, the first mouse had
f n Wozniak in
been invented in 1963 by a team of research-
ill that is
ers at the Stanford Research Institute.
... the monitor and
Although Xerox had been selling its Alto
rd. Note that the
computer since 1976, management strongly
believed, as did IBM personnel at the time, ood-grain paneling never
that the future of computers was in net- became a computer
worked business applications, not personal standard.

—
376 COMPUTERS
3
C
Figure 15.18
Above: As a marketing
gimmick, IBM used Charles
Chaplin's Little Tramp
character to promote its new

PC, probably to assure
potential consumers that the 1983, but at $10,000 each, few sold. That drawing of Sir Isaac Newton sitting under a
computer was easy to same year, however, Apple brought in John tree reading a book (Figure 15.19). Above his
operate. Above right: Sculley, a former marketing executive for head is an apple that has just become de-
Meanwhile, Apple Computer PepsiCo, Inc., as CEO to resuscitate the tached from the branch. The apple is on its
introduced its graphic company. Jobs could now concentrate on his way to inspire Newton to theorize about the
interface computers that

next project — the Macintosh computer law of gravity. Around the picture is the
included a mouse — the Lisa

(Figure 15.18). strangely cryptic quotation: "A mind forever
voyaging through strange seas of thought

2 (left) and the original
Apple versus IBM: A War of Logos and alone." Soon, however, the company changed
Macintosh. Many people Machines the logo to a symbol that could be easily
discovered that they were
Although many companies make desktop condensed into one, simple visual message
much easier to operate than
computers, Apple and IBM dominate the (Figure 15.20). The rainbow-colored Apple
the IBM PC. Note that the
industry. Various publications carried stories with a bite out of it symbolized two different
screen is dark in the IBM it ted the counterculture gurus with messages: ( 1 ) a computer was the pot of gold
photograph and that Apple r long hair, beards, and sandals against awaiting a user at the end of the Apple
highlighted its icon-driven 'iishment executives with their white rainbow, and (2) the Garden of Eden myth
screens. sh nservative ties, and blue suits. Jobs made it somewhat sinful to bite into the
parked I :
motorcycle next to several video forbidden fruit. The logo perfectly summa-
games and a grand piano in the lobby of rized Apple Computer — bright, innovative,
Apple Con mter. Uniformed security guards perfectly natural, rewarding, and anti-estab-
greet visitors to an IBM site. lishment.
But ik is the contrast between the two The IBM logo is certainly a contrast in
companies is clear as in their two logos. The style (Figure 15.21). Designed by Paul Rand
original Ap •
ago was a black and white line and architect Eliot Noyes in 1956, it originally
comprised three black capital letters in a Figure 15.19

square serif typeface. Rand added the blue The original Apple
color and the distinctive horizontal stripes Computer logo was a

later because, as he writes, "since each letter
and
confusing array of text
is different, the parallel lines, which are the
graphics — not the kind of
same, are the harmonious elements that link
symbol that can be easily
the letters together." But for others, the
reduced and remembered by
stripes reminded them of a prison uniform.
consumers. Nevertheless, the
The logo is a no-nonsense, conservative de-
trademark introduced the
sign, and like the Apple logo, visually com-
world to the connection of
plements the underlying philosophy of the
company. the computer firm to Sir
One of the reasons that Apple hired Scul- Isaac Newton and apples.
ley was that competition for the personal
computer market with IBM was heating up. Figure 15.20
IBM had always been known for the produc- See color section following
tion of expensive mainframe computers for page 310.

use by large corporations. Although several
companies produced typesetting computers
for publications, IBM personnel, like Xerox
executives, didn't realize that a huge market
existed for desktop, personal computers for
writers and graphic designers. IBM intro-

Figure 15.21
duced its first personal computer in 1975, but ^
Paul Rand's IBM trademark
sold only about 15,000 of the machines, I
s presents bold, capital, square
called the 5100. After Apple's success, IBM
serif letters linked by
officials decided to try the personal computer
market again. In 1981, it introduced the IBM horizontal white lines. The
PC, which was an instant hit. Through the logo symbolizes the
company's worldwide distribution system, it for their products to other companies. IBM company's powerful position
sold more than 800,000 PCs the first year. PCs also appealed more to those who used in the industry and its
The letters "PC," standing for "personal computers at their companies or for home worldwide networking
computer," became synonymous with IBM office applications. Without a mouse and capabilities.
desktop computing. Suddenly, IBM was the convenient visual interfaces, the PC was
most popular maker of personal computers in used mainly for word processing (letter and
the world and inspired many other compa- report writing) and statistical analysis. Al-
nies to create similar machines, called clones. though the IBM machine was an effective
But IBM executives still were not con- business tool, learning its word-based pro-
vinced of the importance of the home com- gram commands wasn't easy. As a result,
puting market. This attitude resulted in deci- many consumers weren't interested in the
sions that they would later regret. In order to computers.
rush the development of the PC, IBM used In the middle of the 1984 Super Bowl
Intel semiconductor chips and Microsoft soft- telecast, viewers watched a stunning com-
ware. Consequently, IBM officials could only mercial made by motion picture direct
watch as Intel and Microsoft became enor- Ridley Scott (Alien, Blade Runner,
mously successful enterprises, selling licenses Thelma and Louise). With an obvious link to
378 COMPUTERS
George Orwell's novel 1984, the advertise- improved version of the original Macintosh
ment presented a "Big Brother" (i.e., IBM) and popularly priced at under $1,000. A
theme in which computer operators all better portable computer, Powerbook, came
looked alike and worked in drab surround- out in 1991 and has been a great success. A
ings. Suddenly a young, athletic woman wear- combination Powerbook and desktop work-
ing running clothes and carrying a sledge station called a Duo system was offered to the
hammer runs toward the giant screen. When public in 1992 (Figure 15.22).
she throws the hammer at the picture of the The computer industry is currently under-
leader, the screen crashes to reveal behind it going restructuring as it prepares for teleputer
the latest revolution in computing — a lower technology. Many less connected and fi-
priced version of the Lisa computer, the nanced computer clone companies either
Macintosh. The Macintosh, designed mainly have merged or gone out of business. As a
by Andy Hertzfeld and Atkinson, sold for less reaction to the popular visual format of the
than $2,000 and contained a graphic interface Macintosh computers, Microsoft introduced
that made many of the functions of the an icon-oriented program called Windows for
computer intuitively simple for the average the IBM. When linked with a powerful IBM
person. Atkinson created the core graphics computer, it lets users open multiple win-
routines that quickly produced images on the dows on the screen with a mouse, just like a
screen, the MacPaint program for easy com- Macintosh system does. Once thought of as
puter drawing production, and the Hyper- an impossible alliance, the two computer
Card program, a notecard creation software giants agreed in 1992 to construct similar
tool used primarily for interactive lessons. operating systems so that files could be used
The overworked phrase "user friendly" be- in either machine. The first computer to have
came a part of the popular culture to describe built-in sharing capabilities is the Power PC,
the Macintosh computer line. With its con- introduced by Apple in 1994. In the near
nection to a high-quality laser printer intro- future the only difference between an Apple
duced soon afterward, everyone from home and an IBM computer may be their familiar
users to newspaper personnel suddenly had logos. :
access to a low-cost machine for word proc- In 1993, Sculley resigned as CEO of Apple
essing and graphic design. Desktop or com- and was succeeded by a no-nonsense, 50-
puter-aided publishing was born with the year-old German, Michael Spindler. One of
Macintosh computer. Apple again was the Spindler's first acts was to announce the
established leader in the home computer layoff of 2,500 employees. Armas Markkula,
market. one of the founders of the company, now
Disagreements over the direction of the serves as chairman. At IBM, Lou Gerstner
any led Wozniak and Jobs to resign from replaced John Watson's successor, John
i 1985. Jobs, married with two chil- Akers, because the value of the company's
to form another computer compa- stock was slipping. In 1993, IBM announced
uak retired from the computer that it would reduce its work force by 35,000
d lives with his third wife and six employees. To prepare for the new communi-
childre northern California. cation technologies, both IBM and Apple
I
next several years, Apple intro- officials are forming alliances with publishing
duced ! different Macintosh models. companies, cable television firms, electronics
Mac Poi ne out in 1 989 but were too manufacturers, telephone companies, and
expensive t popular. The company Hollywood studios. One of the technological
introduced lassie in 1990 as an results of this union with support companies
is what Sculley calls the "personal digital Figure 15.22
assistant" (PDA). In 1993, the first-gen- The Apple PowerBook Duo

eration PDAs from Apple, the Newton 270c is shown with a screen
MessagePad, the ThinkPad from IBM, the filled with text, graphics,
Casio Z-7000, and the EO 400 from AT&T and a spreadsheet in this
were introduced (Figure 15.23). A pocket-
publicity picture. The Duo
sized PDA acts as a beeper, fax machine, and
was the first portable-
scheduling assistant. The user can scribble
desktop combination.
notes on a flat, liquid crystal display (LCD) in
regular handwriting with a stylus, which the

computer can read. Some more expensive
models (as much as $9,000) come equipped
with a portable telephone and are able to
understand the user's voice commands. Many .
0 _ j
experts predict that, as with motion pictures
and television, stand-alone, desktop comput-

ers eventually will be replaced by multi- Figure 15.23
functional teleputers. One of the latest products
from Apple is a personal
Technical Perspective digital assistant known as
the Newton MessagePad.

A computer has five basic components: mem-
With the modem
ory and storage, the central processing unit
attachments shown, the
(CPU), a switching device, peripherals, and
device can be used to
software (Figure 15.24).
communicate with others
Memory and Storage anywhere in the world.
Memory in a computer refers to informa-

tion that the computer uses to operate itself.
Figure 15.24
IBM introduced its personal
computer in 1981 as a
business-oriented machine
for the home office. The
monitor (with
uncharacteristic graphic
display) rests on the CPU

re ted to a
ni an inexpensive
tatrix printer.
380 COMPUTERS
Memory can either be volatile (lasting only as stored temporarily in RAM while a user
long as the computer is turned on) or perma- makes changes to text or pictures. When a
nent (retained after the machine is turned computing session is finished, the user can
off). Storage is the housing of information on save the work in permanent storage. If the
permanent recording devices that can be part work isn't transferred into permanent stor-
of or separate from a computer. age, it is lost as soon as the machine is turned

In order to speed its processing time, a off.
modern computer uses the binary numerical Read only memory (ROM) refers to infor-
system rather than the decimal system. Con- mation that is permanently stored in the
sequently, the basic unit of a computer is the computer by the manufacturer and that gives
binary digit or bit. Eight bits combined form the computer operating instructions. For the
a byte. A single byte can represent up to 256 IBM PCs, the operating system is MS-DOS,
bits— from 00000000 to 11111111. A com- created by Microsoft. For a Macintosh, the
puter software program is simply a large operating system is simply called System,
collection of zeros and ones that act like followed by the latest version number. ROM
individual off or on switches. An 8-bit byte is cannot be altered by the typical user and lasts
required to represent a single number, letter, for the life of the machine. A high-end,
or symbol. The words kilobyte, megabyte, desktop publishing computer typically lias <S
gigabyte, and terabyte are used to make talk- to256MB of RAM and at least IMG in its
ing about a large number of bits easier. ROM. The higher RAM figure allows a user
Although the prefix means "thousand," a to work on several different software pro-
kilobyte (called a K) is actually 1,024 bytes. grams at the same time. For example, a user
The extra 24 bytes represent the difference often will switch from a word processing to a
between the binary and decimal systems. A graphics program when creating a complicat-
single K equals about 171 words. A megabyte ed document. Because ROM only needs to be
(MB) is 1,024 kilobytes, a gigabyte (GB) is large enough to run a computer's operating
1,024 megabytes, and a terabyte (TB) is 1,024 system, it can have much less capacity than
gigabytes, or more than a trillion bytes. If a RAM. The amount ;of RAM within a com-
megabyte is the equivalent of an average sized puter can be increased by snapping additional
book, a terabyte equals about 10,000 books. chips, called single in-line memory modules
No term has yet been coined for a thousand (SIMM), into the computer.
terabytes (maybe a zigabyte?), but no doubt Storage refers to a way of creating a perma-
one will be invented as storage systems re- nent space for information that the user
quire it. wants to save for a long time. Most storage
There are two types of computer memory: systems are capable of both reading and
i accessmemory and read only memo- writing information. After data are placed in
ypes of memory store information storage, they can be accessed any number of
on tiny microchips. Random access memory times, changed, and saved for as long as the
I
netimes called internal memory, storage mechanism is operational. There are
is the more common of the two. Random two kinds of storage devices: magnetic and
access means that the computer can quickly optical. Floppy disks and most hard disks are
find and display data regardless of the se- magnetic computer media, whereas CD-
quence i
.
it is stored. Unfortunately, ROM (laser) disks use laser technology for
that int. , s lost when the computer is their optical drives.
turned of i , S cd for opening, chang- All floppy disks have an iron-oxide (the
ing, and s .
Words and images are chief component of rust) coating layered on a
COMPUTERS AND THK SIX PERSPECTIVES 381
substrate, a flexible backing (which is why the Figure 15.25
disks are called "floppies") that is similar to The original floppy disk
recording tape (Figure 15.25). Inside the ( when the disk was still
disk's plastic shell is a round substrate with a

flexible) as introduced by
hole in the center. A computer's read/write
IBM. Note that this
head is mounted on an arm that moves from
publicity photograph uses a
the center to the outer portion of the disk. As
female model's hands. Many
the disk spins quickly, the arm places data on
users of IBM products
the disk in the form of magnetic charges
worked as secretaries in
when writing to the disk or moves through-
large corporations.
out the disk to read information previously
saved. After formatting (also called initiali-
zing), a disk is divided into various sectors

where data is stored. Floppy disks come in
5.25-inch and 3.5-inch sizes, although the
3.5-inch version is now the industry stan-
dard. A floppy drive comes in single-sided
(discontinued), double-sided, or high-density
formats with varying memory capacities. A
double-sided disk has 800K, whereas a high-
density disk, with its layer of more finely "flopticals") that slide into the CPU of a
ground iron oxide flakes, has a storage capaci- computer. These cartridges are a more porta-
ty of 1.4MB. Hard disks (sometimes called ble version of the large round disks filled with
hard drives) are so named because their magnetic tape used for mainframe computers
substrate usually consists of nonfloppy alumi- and can hold over 200MB on one disk. A
num platters set on top of each other. The desktop publisher can easily take removable
number of platters that a hard disk contains cartridges to a service bureau to have multi-
determines the amount of storage possible. page documents and color images printed.
Computers have internal hard disks that typi- When Eastman Kodak's Cinesite company
cally are capable of containing from twenty to was asked to clean the dust from the film of
hundreds of megabytes of information. A user the 56-year-old movie Snow White, computer
also can purchase an external hard drive for operators scanned the entire animated classic
additional memory capacity. frame by frame so that it could be digitally
Because visual messages require many retouched. As each digital color frame used
more bytes of information than words, a 40MB, the entire 1 19,500-frame movie re-
computer graphics designer must have as quired almost 5TB of memory. The motion
much memory available in a computer sys- picture was stored on about fifty high-density
tem that he or she can afford. For example, a removable gigabyte tapes that look like video-
low-resolution, black and white picture might tape cassettes. More than three million regular
use about 400K of memory, a high -resolution 1.4MB high-density disks would be required
black and white image needs about 2MB of to record the same amount of information.
disk space, and a high-resolution color pic- The other type of storage medium is the
ture may take 40MB of disk space. Conse- A compact disk, read only mem
optical disk.
quently, many graphics designers use remov- ory (CD-ROM or laser disk) device is t
:
able tape cartridges that fit inside an external most common optical disk system. Like an
player or high-density floppy disks (called old-fashioned phonograph record, tnfi
382 COMPUTERS
tion in the form of words, pictures, and tions a second because it uses gallium arse-
sound can only be played, not recorded, with nide chips, which are even faster than silicon.
CD-ROM disks as they are presently offered But supercomputers that cost millions of
to the public. To save stories and images for dollars and mainframe machines might not
future use, many newspaper librarians use be needed in the future for even the most
WORM (for Write Once Read Many) CD- complex computer operations. In 1986, mo-
ROMs. The technology allows an archivist to tion picture special effects personnel had to
save a large amount of material on a disk for use a Cray supercomputer to perform their
later viewing. Consumers were introduced to movie magic. Today much smaller work-
CD-ROM technology in the form of movies stations produced by companies such as Sili-
and educational programs on 12-inch laser conCraphics can perform the same duties at
disks. The public recognized that 4-inch much less cost. In 1993, IBM officials an-
computer-digitized music disks were superior nounced RISC System 6000. The supercom-
in quality to cassette tape and long playing puter has the power of a Cray machine but at
(LP) recordings when Sony and Philips intro- one-tenth of the cost. Cray responded to the
duced them in 1984. Music CDs and cassette competition by offering a downsized comput-
tapes soon replaced LPs. Lower prices for er, Superserver 6400, that features a Sun
recordable CD-ROMs probably will phase out Microsystems Sparc microchip.
cassette tapes as well. The coprocessor made the switch to desk-
top workstations possible. Coprocessors are
Central Processing Unit companion chips that perform many high-
Although it is housed in a large section of level math and graphic functions faster than
the computer, the central processing unit the CPU can. When the CPU gets a job that
(CPU) actually is composed of several micro- the coprocessor can handle, it simply hands
chips. The CPU receives information from a off the task to the coprocessor. That way the
user, executes the tasks specified by a software CPU is available for other tasks.
program, and conveys the output to various Computer technicians are working on the
peripherals. A computer software program next generation of computer, which is a
may contain millions of lines of instructions continuation of the CPU coprocessor-shared

that the CPU reads one line at a time. relationship. Originally inspired by David
Obviously, the faster a CPU can process Hubel and Torsten Wiesel's work on the way
information, the more the computer will be the visual cortex in the brain communicates
able to accomplish. There are several different through links between individual nerve cells
s of computers: supercomputers, main- (Chapter 4), extremely complex actions may

minicomputers, desktops, and port- be performed at low energy levels and at
ich kind of computer processes infor- much faster processing speeds if computers
mation in the same way, but at vastly are linked in a system called parallel process-
differt Is. Since the 1940s, the processing. Several computers working as a group
ing speed of computers has increased, on form a much more powerful union at a
average, i times every seven years. The fraction of the cost of one supercomputer
fastest c r in the world is the Cray 3, alone. Many experts believe that parallel
developed Seymour Cray and his compa- computing will make virtual-reality technol-
ny. Cray f ed Control Data in 1957, Cray ogy and other networked interactive multi-
Research i "2, and the Cray Computer media services possible. A California compa-
Company ). His Cray 3 supercomputer ny, Oracle Software, will soon participate in a
can process 'ion mathematical calcula- test of its parallel computing software with
U.S. West, a regional Bell telephone company. of a computer are linked because of all the
Says Oracle president Larry Ellison, "Mas- peripheral devices needed for visual commu-
sively parallel computing is inevitably the nication.
successor of mainframes."
Until parallel processing becomes a reality Peripherals
for desktop computing, a visual communica- Desktop publishing is the production of
tor needs a computer that holds the fastest printed materials through the aid of a com-
CPU that can be afforded. A chip's speed puter, whereas presentation graphics is the
(called clock speed or clock rate) is measured production of frames for screen media.
in millions of cycles per second, or megahertz Sometime in the near future, publishing and
(MHz). A graphic designer should have a presentation probably will be merged into a
CPU chip with a speed of at least 33MHz. form of screen communications. Conse-
Most of the chips in high-end models satisfy quently, a visual communicator will need to
that requirement. Macintosh computers con- be familiar with all the tools that will make
tain chips made by the Motorola company. Its the new Information Age happen. Peripherals
first-generation 68000 chips were used in the are the tools at a graphic designer's disposal,
early Macintosh computers; its more recent of which there are three types: those that send
chip, the 68040, runs at a much faster rate. messages to the CPU, those that deliver
IBM computers use chips manufactured by messages from the CPU, and those that both
Intel Corporation. Its early CPUs were num- send data to and receive data from the CPU.
bered 8086 and 8088; computers used for
desktop publishing and other advanced appli- Incoming Peripherals Incoming peripherals
cations use the faster 80386 and 80486 chips. include the keyboard, mouse, tablet, voice,
Apple, IBM, and Motorola scientists recently and scanner devices. The keyboard is an
created a faster CPR chip, the PowerPC, that out-of-date, almost quaint, computer con-
can be used in both companies' computers. nection that reflects the machine's link with
The new microchip is a valuable improve- the manual typewriter. The Q-W-E-R-T-Y
ment for desktop designers because it has a letter configuration, so named for the first six
clock speed of 66MHz. letters of the top row, initially was designed to
be a confusing arrangement of characters that
Switching Devices would slow down a typewriter operator to
Switching devices simply are cords that prevent the mechanical arms from jamming
connect the CPU with all other functions of a in the machine. But with other letter place-
computer. They can be telephone-type links ment schemes (the most popular is called the
or complex fifty-pin devices called small Dvorak), more than 5,000 words can be
computer systems interface (SCSI, pronounced typed with the home keys (those in the center
"scuzzy") connectors. Memory and storage, of the middle row). With foot pedals, as with
as well as all the peripheral functions, are a piano, shift and space keys let keyboard
connected through switching devices some- operators greatly speed up their word-per-
times referred to as a bus. A bus can be an minute production. A computer keyboard
internal or external connection. Program in- doesn't have mechanical arms that jam, so
structions and other information are sent converting from the QWERTY system makes
through a switching device to the CPU and sense. However, old habits are hard to breai
out to a monitor or printer depending on the Nevertheless, skill with a typewriter is a
need of the user. A graphic designer should dying art. High schools no longer re
know something about how the various parts typewriter courses. Already the m<
384 COMPUTERS
whether tied to a computer through its "tail" units used for smaller images. A scanner
or connected through infrared radiation like moves a beam of light across a page of text, a
a television's remote control, has reduced the picture, or a frame of film and measures the
number of keystrokes required. The Microsoft amount of brightness reflected from the sur-
Corporation earns $250 million annually on face of the scanned material (or the amount
sales of its mice alone. But concern over of light transmitted, in the case of film). It
carpal tunnel injuries and "mouse finger," a then divides the picture into a grid of small
form of tendinitis from too much mouse rectangles called picture elements or pixels.
clicking, has forced researchers to develop The scanner software assigns a number to
stylus, voice, and even "data glove" techno- each pixel based on a gray scale. The number
logies in which more natural movements of corresponds to shading levels from black to
the hand and fingers and use of the voice can white; 16 levels of gray tones will produce an
effect changes on the computer monitor. The image of moderate quality, but 264 levels of
"500-series" Power Books introduced by Ap- gray tones obviously are much better. Color
ple in 1994 do not contain a mouse. Users images require more memory space because,
make screen selections by pressing a finger on instead of one number assigned to each pixel,
a pressure-sensitive interface. Illustrators of- a color scan assigns three numbers — one for
ten use a pressure-sensitive stylus on a graph- the brightness level of each primary color.
ics tablet to create art that has all the nuances The physical act of converting a page of text
of hand-drawn creations. With a MessagePad, or an image into a series of pixels is called
users have the opportunity to write notes and digitization. If the digitized material is text,
commands with a stylus on a flat-screen pad, optical character recognition (OCR) software
which the computer's CPU can interpret. But converts it to a format that can be used by a
the most exciting development that forecasts word processing program. If a picture is
the end of the keyboard as it is presently digitized, image manipulation software can
known is voice-activated technology. Some be used to make exposure and content chang-
programs can already identify more than es. A color flat-bed scanner can cost several
10,000 words spoken by the computer user thousand dollars. But a small hand scanner
(Figure 15.26). The next generation of Mac- can be purchased for less than $500.
intosh computers will include voice-activated CCD scanners are light-sensitive semicon-
technology. In the future, writers may simply ductor chips that can digitize millions of
dictate their text into the computer. Immedi- pixels instantly. Their speed coupled with
ate applications of voice recognition software their high resolution makes them valuable for
(VRS) may include lecture, media interview, lightweight video and electronic still cameras.
and courtroom transcript production. Com- Unfortunately, CCD chips are extremely ex-
puter users with physical disabilities also will pensive because they are difficult to make.
have more access with such systems. Sony's Mavica electronic digital camera in-
A scanner is a device that converts words troduced in 1984 is not a CCD scanner. It
or images into digital form so that the com- captures images with a low-resolution, analog
puter can manipulate and store them. There video signal and saves them on a small floppy
are two types of scanners: microdensitome- disk. Conversion software digitizes the image
ters and charge-coupled devices (CCD). Mi- when the disk is placed in a computer. The
crodensitometer scanners can be large, flat- Kodak Megaplus XRC camera is a true CCD
bed units similar to a photocopying machine, digital attachment for a Nikon 8008 camera.
units that digitize a single frame of photo- Unfortunately, the price is high for the digital
graphic negative or slide film, or hand-held feature. The Nikon camera without the Ko-
Figure 15.26
Apple's Quadra 840AV
offers a built-in CD-ROM

drive with audio
capabilities. A user can
simply speak into the
microphone above the
monitor to perform a variety
of functions.
dak equipment costs about $650. If you of pixels that reach the mind is much less
include the Kodak back, the price jumps to (Chapter 3). Consequently, the resolution of a
about $9,000. But, like all other pieces of single frame of digitized film with the Cineon
computer equipment, the price is expected to process is so good that even under a micro-
come down in the future. scope no difference can be discerned between
Currently, the best image scanner possible analog film and digital imagery.
is used for movie special effects. A frame of
35-mm, fine-grain film contains about 18 Outgoing Peripherals The monitor and
million pixels in the form of light-sensitive printer are two of the most common comput-
crystals. The Kodak CCD chip in the Mega- er peripherals that send information from the
plus XRC divides a picture into 2.6 million CPU. Monitors can be discussed in terms of
pixels in about two seconds. Kodak's Cinesite their size, color, and resolution. A visual
company with its high-priced Cineon tech- communicator who works with images on a
nology for motion picture scanning uses a screen for long periods of time shouldn't
high-resolution CCD chip that creates a digit- choose a monitor casually. A graphic designer
al equivalent with over 4 million pixels in should try to obtain the largest and most
about three minutes. Even though there is a colorful monitor with the best resolution
big difference between 4 and 18 million affordable.
pixels, the resolution of the image has ap- The original Macintosh screens were only
proached the point where the human eye nine inches in size (as with television moni-
cannot detect the difference between film and tors, screens are measured diagonally proba-
digital images. The photoreceptors (or pixels) bly to make you think that the frame is large'
responsible for color vision in the eye (the than it actually is). Viewing an entire page <
cones)number about 7 million. But because the little screen was impossible. A dc
many share channels to the brain, the number should at least have a 13-inch monitor, avail-
386 COMPUTKRS
able in either the standard horizontal (land- windows to information sources. But they
scape) format or a vertical (portrait) format. can be dynamic and do not have to depend
Many companies now make 19- and 21 -inch, on a keyboard or a mouse. Touch -sensitive
two-page displays that show two vertical screens use a programmable clear layer that
pages side by side. This feature is extremely fits on top of a monitor. A command is
useful for designers producing multipage activated whenever the screen is touched in a
documents or motion pictures. Radius makes particular location. Touch displays are useful
a 13-inch monitor, which pivots for either in public places where a keyboard or mouse
horizontal or vertical viewing, that is a little may be damaged or stolen. Many shopping
cheaper than a two-page display monitor. malls and hotel lobbies have computer kiosks
Computer screens mimic television's almost that offer information about various stores or
square Academy standard for its display. But entertainment opportunities in a town.
as computers become teleputers, screens most Touch-sensitive controls combined with voice
likely will coincide with the widescreen ori- activated commands also may speed up the
entation similar to newer television models. editing process, so long as the user's fingers
If a computer is to be used exclusively for aren't covered with pizza grease.
word processing, color monitors aren't need- High-definition television (HDTV) allows
ed. But anyone creating illustrations or ma- monitors to have as much sharpness as film.
nipulating photographs must have a color Even nonprofessional viewers notice the tre-
display because color and resolution are mendous improvement between traditional
closely related. The more colors that can be monitors and HDTV screens. There are two
displayed on a screen at one time, the better is main ways HDTV can be broadcast into
the monitor's picture. High -definition tele- homes: interlaced and progressive scan tech-
puters will display sharp, digital images be- nologies. Although the human eye can't tell
cause of their high resolution. The original the difference between the two systems, there
Macintosh black and white screen contained is an important difference. Interlaced HDTV
only about 175,000 pixels. Modern high- is not computer friendly, whereas progressive
definition monitors display images at a reso- scan systems easily allow the digital transmis-
lution rate twenty-five times higher — much sion of information. Just as the war between
better than an ordinary television screen. Beta and VHS video players delayed the
Color monitors require a video card that introduction of a standardized system, having
plugs into a computer that controls the out- two HDTV displays complicates the process.
put to the screen. The more memory a video Because Japanese scientists, particularly from
ird contains, the more colors the screen can Sony, had been working on interlaced HDTV
lay. Some computers come with a built- technology longer than anyone else, viewers
eo card; for those that don't, a video in Japan can use the technology to watch a
i be purchased separately. Because limited number of programs on their TV sets.
is assigned a number in the binary However, computer manufacturers who want
ideo card with an 8-bit (one byte) to merge the telephone, television, and com-
display 256 possible colors. But puter into a teleputer, advocate the progres-
designers and animators often need sive scan system. Digital HDTV systems took
moi equiring 24-bit color video a giant leap forward in 1994 when Japanese
cards. 24-bit card, more than 16 government officials announced they favored
million n b e displayed on the screen digital HDTV instead of their outdated ana-
at one I
log systems. For home television viewers to
Many ople >.
link of monitors as passive take full advantage of database offerings
provided by digital electronic highways, tele- the file. With professional quality printers
vision sets will have to be retooled to act more that cost several thousand dollars, such as
like computers. It is hoped that an all-digital those manufactured by the Linotronic-Hell
system sponsored by a "Grand Alliance" of company, dpi resolution as high as 2,540 is
United States companies will become a world possible. Such a dpi is seventy times better
standard quickening the pace of HDTV ac- than most ink-jet or laser printers and more
ceptance. In the future the "D" in HDTV than 1,000 times better than dot-matrix
will most likely stand not for definition, but printers.
for digital.
Another problem with large-screen televi- Interactive Peripherals Interactive periph-
sions is their size and weight. For example, erals offer two-way communication between
Sony's HDTV 38- inch set weighs about 800 one computer user and another. The infor-
pounds. Monitors do not have to be thick mation typed on a keyboard or duplicated

boxes that house cathode ray tubes as do with a scanner can be sent electronically to
television sets. LCD technology allows the use another computer user anywhere in the world
of flat-screen monitors that can be used for and returned. Electronic mail (E-mail) is one
large, wall-mounted or portable computers. of the most popular forms of computer activ-
JVC and Hughes Communication have devel- ity and is sure to become a valuable educa-
oped a 38-/oof LCD video projection screen tional and entertainment feature in the future
that works with any video system. Its clear, (see Chapter 16). Generally, computers may
bright image may soon revolutionize motion be connected to E-mail through a device
picture theater projection. For several years, known as a modem (short for modulator/
portable computers have used LCD technolo- demodulator). A modem sends and receives
gy to make screens that can be carried easily. data over telephone lines at varying speeds.
There are three types of printers: dot A graphic designer should have the fastest
matrix, ink jet, and laser. A dot-matrix modem affordable. Modems are measured
printer is a low-cost alternative that should be in bits per second (bps), sometimes called
avoided because of its poor quality. "What the baud rate. Obviously, a modem that
you see is what you get" (or WYSIWYG, transfers data at 14,400 bps is more desir-
pronounced "wizzy-wig") describes printers able than those that only run at 2,400 bps
that faithfully reproduce what is presented on or less.
a computer monitor. A graphic designer Other types of interactive peripherals in-
needs a close approximation between the two. clude interactive laser disks, image "frame
Dot-matrix printers convert screen characters grabbing" devices, and special-effects tech-
into a pattern of dots that have tiny spaces nology. Designers with expensive equipment
between them giving a rough appearance. A can create interactive programs on laser disks
printer's resolution is measured in dots per for entertainment, education, or a combina-
inch (dpi). Dot-matrix printers typically have tion of the two for use on another computer
a resolution of only 72 dpi. Relatively inex- (see Chapter 16).
pensive ink-jet and laser printers have resolu- Frame grabbing is the ability to capture a
tions of 300 to 600 dpi. Consequently, the still image from a videotape and use it in
quality of the printout is much better. Be- some other program. A newspaper or maga-
cause color printers are expensive and slow, zine graphic designer might want to include a
most graphic designers will use a black and single image from a news event on a page
white laser printer to check work for mistakes layout if a still photograph of the even
and give a disk to a service bureau to print doesn't exist. CNN and other media outlets
388 COMPUTERS
offer licensing of their images to newspapers print and screen presentations. Hence, a full-
for that purpose. service visual communicator should be famil-
Television station and independent pro- iar with

ducers often utilize special-effects devices to
word processing programs such as Word-
make visually stimulating transitions be-
Perfect or Word,
tween scenes. Many products, including 3D
illustration programs such as FrecHand or
Studio by Autodesk, Galileo Video by Silicon-
Adobe Illustrator,
Graphics, and the Video Toaster by NewTek,
allow sophisticated switching between two or picture manipulation software such as
more videotapes with numerous special ef-

PhotoShop or Digital Darkroom,
fects. The Toaster is used prominently in the spreadsheet software such as Excel or Lotus
special video effects for Steven Spielberg's 1-2-3,
television series "seaQuest DSV" on NBC. database programs such as 4th Dimension
The final output can be another videotape, a and AskSam,
film, or some other computer. More and
audio programs such as MacRecorder or
more, interactive peripherals — in which
Audioshop,
words, images, and sounds are created for
page layout programs such as PageMaker
presentation in some other venue — are be-
or QuarkXPress,
coming more important as new communica-
presentation programs such as Persuasion
tion ideas are developed.
or PowerPoint,
Software motion picture software such as MacroMe-

A computer with its memory, CPU, dia Director or QuickTime, and
switching devices, and peripherals is good hypertext programs such as Mosaic and
only as a place to stick yellow Post-it Notes Lynx.
without software. Software is a set of instruc-
In addition, architects and product design-
tions that links the user with the computer.
One of the chief attributes that separates a

ers must make precise computer-assisted
computer from many other machines is that
drawings (CAD) of building plans and ob-
jects. A lot of money can be saved by making
the same device can be used for several
different purposes. A single computer can be changes on a three-dimensional computer

rendering instead of an actual product. Popu-
used to write letters or books, draw pictures
or make movies, and play or record music for
lar CAD and 3-D programs are ClarisCAD
educational or entertainment benefits. What and Infini-D.

In the past, hardware always has been con-
makes the computer so versatile is the pro-
grams that run its many functions. Graphic
sidered separate from software. Some people
designers, like the computers they work on, knew more about hardware and others concen-
trated on software. Just as words and images
also must be versatile. A visual communica-
tor must be comfortable writing and editing are being united, hardware and software are
words, creating and manipulating still and becoming intricately linked. Probably the
moving images, working with numerical out- ultimate software-hardware fusion is the tech-
put, and sorting and finding information in

nology called virtual reality (VR), so named
databases. The visual communicator also
by self-confessed VR guru Jaron Lanier,
must have a working knowledge of audio an early advocate. Also called virtual world
reproduction and be able to put all the

and virtual environment, VR challenges the
elements together in graphic designs for both old-fashioned notion that hardware is sepa-
rate from its software — or even that a user scenarios that feature gratuitous sex, violence,
is separate from a computer (see Chapter 16). and stereotypes. Many critics are concerned
that children become obsessed with playing
Physical Concerns About the Technology video games at home and thus are slow to
Care should be taken to avoid unnecessary learn how to interact socially with other
contact with any device that emits electro- people. As pressing as those issues are, there
magnetic radiation. Scientists still aren't sure are also concerns about image manipulation
whether CRT screens produce harmful side (Chapter 12).
effects. In an office, users should avoid sitting

next to the back of a computer, where radia- Violent Themes
tion tends to accumulate. One of the advan- The Atari company of Sunnyvale, Califor-
tages of LCD screens is their extremely low nia, pioneered computer video games with its
radiation level. 1972 tennislike simulation, Pong. The com-

Ergonomics is the study of human- pany followed its success with the action-
machine interaction. A computer workstation adventure game Space Invaders (1978), and
should be designed ergonomically so that a the hungry chalk-colored robot Pac-Man
user has comfortable lighting, desk, and seat- ( 1981 ). But the video game fad quickly faded,
ing arrangements. One of the most serious and no American company was willing to
physical conditions resulting from repeated invest in the video game business. This lack
hand and wrist movements and poorly de- of vision allowed two Japanese companies,
signed computer workstations is called carpal Nintendo and Sega, to dominate the genre
tunnel syndrome. The carpal tunnel is a small completely. In the early 1 980s, Japanese play-
passageway between the small bones of the ing card manufacturer Hiroshi Yamauchi suc-
wrist through which tendons, blood vessels, cessfully expanded his business into video
and nerves extend from the lower arm to the games with his Nintendo Entertainment Sys-
hand. Numbness and weakness in the wrist tem. Yamauchi's son-in-law, Minoru Ara-
and hand may result if the tunnel becomes kawa, leased a warehouse in Seattle to pro-
swollen from repeated actions. The condition duce Donkey Kong and bring the business
was first noticed in the 1800s and was called to the United States. The red-capped Mario
the "washer woman disease." Typists, gro- was named after the warehouse landlord
cery store checkout personnel, and even who often complained about late rent pay-
salmon cannery workers who use their hands ments. Sega was a small company barely man-
in a repetitive motion are susceptible to aging to compete with giant Nintendo un-
repetitive strain injuries, of which carpal til 1989 when company officials introduced
tunnel syndrome is one form. A computer the Genesis, a 16-bit high-quality game
user should always stop and exercise the system, with an aggressive advertising stra-
wrists if they start to grow numb. Otherwise, tegy. With its game character, Sonic the
the condition can worsen and may even Hedgehog, Sega sales exceeded those of Nin-
require surgery. A long pad that sits in front tendo. Mario and Sonic now are almost as
of a keyboard sometimes reduces the chances familiar to children around the world as
of carpal tunnel syndrome. Mickey Mouse.
By 1993, the video game industry had
'« become a multibillion-dollar business. Re-
Ethical Perspective
sponding to the need from consumers foi
As with motion pictures and television, com- higher quality products, video game s
puter games have been accused of displaying have been introduced by many companies.
390 COMPUTERS
Sony Corporation will introduce a high- the games teach a child, as do violent exam-
performance game system in 1995 for its own ples in other media, that conflicts are easily
games while creating games for both the resolved, not through compromise, but
Nintendo and Sega systems. IBM recently through direct, violent action. Critics believe
teamed with Atari in a $500 million deal to that video game violence has a higher poten-
create a new game system called Jaguar, tial for adverse personality disorders among
which will compete directly with games from children than motion pictures or television
Nintendo and Sega. Another major U.S. vid- because a child is actually responsible for the
eo game provider is the 3DO (for three- killing in the game, rather than being a
dimensional optics) company. The REAL passive viewer of the action on a screen.
system manufactured under Matsushita's Two recent CD-ROM games that raised
Panasonic brand is a 3DO interactive multi- alarms of concern are Night Trap and Mortal
player entertainment and educational game Kombat. In Trap, if a player doesn't rescue
system that uses 32-bit technology to deliver several scantily clad women by the end of the
high-quality graphics and digital sound. With game, they are murdered by blood-sucking
more than 100 software products, the 3DO vampire characters. Kombat features decapi-
machine turns a home television set into a tations and spinal cord and heart removals
video game arcade for under $700. (Figure 15.27). Nintendo and Sega both sell
However, U.S. companies have a tough versions of Kombat, which is produced by

climb ahead. Nintendo's Game Boy or Super Acclaim Entertainment. Nintendo officials
Nintendo game systems are so popular that sanitized its version of the game, whereas
they are in one of every three homes in the Sega offers two different versions — one that
Figure 15.27 United States. But the real competition for is toned down and one that is gruesome. Sega
See color section following Nintendo and Sega may come from video also has introduced a rating system for its
page 370. game producers who team with cable opera- games that is similar to that of the motion
tors. These alliances will make possible the picture industry. In recognition of the influ-
provision of interactive games without the ence that games have over moral decision
need for separate systems attached to televi- making, the video game industry has "pro-
sion sets (see Chapter 16). hibited games that display gratuitous and
Social critics raise important concerns excessive violence, sexual and racial stereo-
about children who become obsessed with typing or profanity." Nevertheless, in both
video game playing. Users often forsake versions of Mortal Kombat, the object is to
homework, friends, family, and even meals as kill people, many of them women. Despite
they move through the fantasy scenes. Curi- criticisms about the game, in the first two
ously, playing video games seems to be an months of its introduction, more than 3
activity dominated by 12-year-old boys — few million copies were sold.

girls are ever observed playing a video game
at home or in an arcade. Most video games Sexual Themes
can be criticized because they reward a player In this age of "safe sex," many interactive
for committing some kind of violent act. The video and CD-ROM games feature soft por-
object ol most video games is to kill as many nography, as opposed to hard-core porno-
other video characters as possible with guns, graphic adult themes. The popularity of these
knives, or kicks. Advocates of such games say disks shouldn't be surprising — pornographic
that video playing improves hand-eye materials are a cultural phenomenon. For
coordination (as if there were no other way to example, in the first years of the videotape
improve that skill). But critics point out that rental business, pornographic programs ac-
COMPUTERS AND THK SIX PERSPECTIVES 391
counted for more than 50 percent of total officials when a group of individuals sent
revenue. Today it is down to 15 percent, scanned images of underage models perform-
largely because of the many types of video- ing sexual acts over its telephone network.
tapes available. Most of the CD-ROM games Computer users may be arrested if they
involve women characters who are willing to download child pornography to their home
take their clothes off and perform sexual systems. The much discussed scene in the
services in response to a mouse-generated movie The Lawnnwwer Man, in which the

command. Digitized video images and audio lead character has virtual-reality sex with his
effects give the illusion of a one-to-one en- girlfriend, inspired many stories in the me-
counter. One of the first sex-oriented dia. Some writers have predicted that VR sex
"games" was MacPlaymate, created by Mike between partners thousands of miles from
Saenz. As the user clicked a mouse on various each other but linked through a fiber optic
parts of the main character's cartoon cloth- network may be the "killer app" — jargon
ing, Maxie would oblige by undressing. The among program developers for an application
program also contained a "panic button." If that everyone will want to have.
someone came into the room unexpectedly, The name for VR computer sex is "teledil-
the user could quickly switch the screen to a donics." Mike Saenz defends the use of adult-
simulated spreadsheet program. Saenz now oriented games as educational. "Just as a
runs the Chicago-based company Reactor, flight simulator is used to train pilots before
which has produced the most popular CD- they climb into a real plane," Saenz says, "I
ROM adult game, Virtual Valerie. The CD- think sex simulation could be used to prevent
ROM game is an enhanced animation version unwanted pregnancies and warn about sexu-
of the Maxie line drawing. The tremendous ally transmitted diseases." One writer states
success of Virtual Valerie led Saenz and that, with VR technology, "you may be able
others to create additional adult-oriented to experience love, sexual orgasm and ulti-
programs. Saenz will soon introduce Donna- mately death, and then remove your Walk-
Matrix (you can guess the content). ICFX of man-like headset, have a smoke, take a show-
San Rafael, California, has Penthouse Interac- er and go to work." What if the games
tive — the user is a Penthouse magazine pho- become so popular that no one goes to the
tographer taking pictures of the models. At trouble of making real babies?
the end of the shooting session, printouts can

be obtained if the computer is hooked up to a
Image Manipulation
printer. The Interotica company has a pro- Manipulation of still digital photographs
gram called NightWatch, in which you are a is a valuable tool for photographers who can
voyeur in control of a singles' resort security easily and without chemicals perform all the
camera system and can spy on all sorts of functions that traditionally were reserved for
people who don't know that you're watching darkrooms (Figure 15.28). However, critics,
them. are concerned that manipulations are going

Responsible industry executives have es- beyond simple cropping or color balance
tablished guidelines for adult themes. They adjustments and altering the content of news
state that no underage models, animals, sa- editorial pictures (Chapter 12). The ability to
distic and masochistic (S&M) practices, or alter motion pictures, disks, and videotape>
violence toward women are to be featured in by computer technology also exists. In the
these programs. But they are only guidelines movie Rising Sun (with special digital efi
with which compliance is voluntary. A bulle- created at ILM), police officials were re o
tin board system ran into trouble with police arrest a suspect because unethical tec! icians
—
392 COMPUTERS
concern is the fact that many media organiza-

<* fliicy '*-
tions are willing to publish or broadcast

questionable images (Figure 15.29).
More commonly, digital images are ma-
nipulated for commercial reasons. Besides the
use of computer-generated images in motion
pictures to heighten the sense of realism, the
technology also is used to turn classic black
and white motion pictures into pastel-colored

movies in a process known as colorization.
Ted Turner's Entertainment Company owns

many of the movies in the MGM and Warner
Bros, film library. He pays Color Systems
Technology of Marina Del Rey, California,
about $300,000 a film to turn old black and
white motion pictures into color versions.
Turner is willing to invest so much money in
the process because color movies on televi-
sion are more popular than black and white

movies. Consequently, he can charge more
for advertising. Turner admits that "all I'm
trying to do is protect my investment with
MGM." Turner owns the movies outright
and can do anything he wants to with them.
Computer technology also allows taking
parts from one film and combining them

with another film. A recent Coca-Cola com-
mercial featured living musician Elton John
singing with several dead entertainers
Louis Armstrong, Humphrey Bogart, and

James Cagney — all shown in movies owned
by Ted Turner. Never mind that the families
Figure 15.28 had altered a security camera's CD image. As of the deceased actors might not want their
Steven Jobs' s image is easily manipulation techniques become easier and image tarnished by appearing in a soft drink
manipulated with the help more common, all visual materials will be- commercial. The director of the movie Cat
come unacceptable as evidence in trials. Ballou, Eliot Silverstein says that "colori-
of the PhotoShop software
program manufactured by
Journalism manipulation, especially by zation represents the mutilation of history,
amateurs with access to inexpensive software, the vandalism of our common past, not
the Adobe Corporation.
is a serious threat to the integrity of the merely as it relates to film, but as it affects
profession because it distorts the historical society's perception of itself." Motion picture
record of a culture. Bob Greenberg of R7 directors and actors deserve to have their
Greenberg Associates, Inc., a computer image work preserved as originally produced. The
manipulation company, has boasted that with height of hedonism is to alter classic works
the technology at his disposal he could make simply for monetary gain.
it look like Rodney King had never even been One positive application of computer tech-
touched by the LAPD police officers. Of equal nology is the preservation of old motion
COMPUTERS AND 1111 SIX PERSPECTIVES 393
pictures. The reissue of Disney's classic ani- as Stagecoach and Dr. Strangelove have been Figure 15.29
mation movie Snow White is cleaner now lost to fading. The cable network American TV Guide magazine caused
than when it was viewed originally in theaters Movie Classics (AMC) and the Film Founda- a minor controversy when it
more than fifty years ago (Figure 15.30). The tion of Hollywood Directors are investing in was learned that the cover
movie also is permanently preserved because the transfer of documentaries and newsreel
photograph of talk show host
it is now a digital, rather than an analog, mo- footage to safety film because of their histori-
actually was
I
tion picture. Early motion picture film stock cal value. An example of an ethically positive
a computer-manipulated
used a substrate composed of cellulose nitrate, application of colorization is AMC's restora-
sing a publicity
which shrinks, emits gas, and can ignite spon- tion of the faded 1935 color classic Becky
"ess Ann-Margret.
taneously. Consequently, half of all the films Sharp, the first three-strip Technicolor mo-
le that the cushion
made before 1950 have been lost through de- tion picture, to its original luster. Compute:
\d into a pile of bills.
terioration. After 1950, cellulose acetate (also technology can preserve a digital version ol
motion picture permanently. However, Figure 15.30

called safety film) was developed and used. Al- at
though it isn't explosive, safety film can fade. present, transferring a movie to a computer See color section following
The original negatives for movie classics such format is quite expensive. page 370.
394 COMPUTERS
Much of the concern over digital still and people senseless. No culture ever generated a
moving image manipulations is because the "printing press nerd" or a "typewriter nerd"
original often is altered. Once a picture is because those machines never evoked the
changed, it is changed forever. Photographic irrational fears that computers did.
credibility — the idea that seeing is believing Science fiction writers helped spread com-
— may be a naive, old-fashioned concept. puterphobia. People in their stories often are
But every image in the mind's eye, every controlled by giant, impersonal "super-
subject before a camera's lens, and every still brains." During the 1950s, audiences were
and moving picture produced in the dark or frightened by a computerized robot featured
light is manipulated to begin with. And in The Day the Earth Stood Still that was so
because more and more people are learn- powerful it could halt the flow of electricity to
ing how images are produced, fewer and every machine on the planet. Fear of nuclear
fewer believe in the inherent truthfulness Armageddon, in which people had no control
of a picture anymore. An early signal of how over the powerful machines they had created
little images are believed was the jury's reac- to protect them fueled such movies as Failsafe
tion to the videotape of George Holliday. and Dr. Strangelove. In Arthur C. Clarke's
Viewers saw Rodney King beaten, but the 2001: A Space Odyssey, the benign, protective
pictures, although dramatic and purportedly and slightly condescending computer HAL
the truth, didn't make much difference to (each letter in the name is one down from the
the jury. letters IBM) suddenly turns into a psycho-
When a picture's content no longer is pathic killer. Today's version of the murder-
credible, context and the words that accom- ous computer can be seen in both Terminator
pany a photograph will become more crucial movies, in which computer-controlled ma-
to deciding what is true. The credibility of a chines can be stopped only if the robot is
picture may rest more on a media outlet's destroyed — usually through some lucky cir-
reputation and the text used to explain an cumstance. Even real-life serial killers are
image than the picture itself in this compu- described in media reports as having the
ter-manipulation age. Computer technology "calculating mind of a computer." With the
didn't start the decline in the credibility of vision of computers so forceful that they
pictures, but it has hastened it. control every aspect of a person's life, stereo-
typing the creators and operators of these

mighty machines as impotent and unattrac-
tive isn't surprising.
The stereotypical image of an individual The desktop publishing revolution has

sually a male) with mussed hair, glasses helped end the nerd stereotype and the nega-
>gether at the bridge of the nose with tive view of computers. The image of a sterile,
ipe, about ten pens and pencils carried serious, and a bit obsessed IBM executive in a
pocket protector, wrinkled cloth- white starched shirt has been replaced by the
ii aigh similar to a donkey's bray is image of a passionate, relaxed, and a bit
idt n this culture as that of the "com- obsessed Apple user wearing a rainbow-
puter his stereotype emerged during colored, tie-dyed shirt. With easy-to-operate
the tu, n research scientists and techni- computers and software programs, anyone
cians dom ed the computer industry. The could learn how to operate the machine.
general j all too eager to make fun Desktop publishing educated the average user
of these lea yet socially awkward, indi- about the difference between a software pro-
viduals be e technology scared most gram and the task of computing. No longer
FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR COMPUTERS 395
does a computer user need to know how to tic, free-market democracies have consistent-
write the program that makes a computer ly demonstrated that almost any innovation
operate. Similar to the time when George divides people into those who can afford to
Eastman invented roll film cameras so that use it and those who cannot. For example,
anyone could enjoy photography, the diversi- some schools are better equipped to teach and
ty of tasks that can be performed relatively some restaurants have higher quality entrees
easily on a computer makes it a tremendously because of the economic status of those who
popular machine. live nearby. Many experts look to teleputers
The mystique of the computer is lessened — interactive multimedia, network-connec-
further when elementary school children can ted machines — to help solve many of socie-
create their own graphic programs and write ty's problems. As more people are educated
papers for assignments. With computer chips through technology, so the argument goes,
now essential for the operation of such di- the world will become a better and more
verse machines as wristwatches, microwave tolerant place.
ovens, and automobiles, computers and their At present, half of all the messages on
users are admired by the culture that embrac- worldwide electronic information networks
es such technology. A computer, especially in are simple notes that could just as easily be
the home, is a status symbol — not nerdism. sent by telephone or postcard. If teleputers
Its owners are considered to be forward- simply turn out to be low-cost alternatives to
thinking, progressive, and mentally sharp. telephone and postal services with unfair
The same terms were spoken about those in access, a potentially great societal benefit will
the 1940s who had a television set at home. be lost.
Because almost everyone has a TV set, the

new symbol of an upwardly mobile family is
the computer in the extra bedroom. Soon, Future directions for

however, the sight of a computer at home will computers
be as ubiquitous as that of a television set.
Speculating about the future of computers is
always risky. Because of the delay between

writing a manuscript, having it published,
Without question, computers represent a ma- and your reading these words and images,
jor technological breakthrough on a par with this book already may be outdated in some
Gutenberg's printing press. The fact that all respects. (One advantage of the networks of
the media are becoming dependent on com- the future will be the E-mail "publishing" of
puters
— "digital convergence" — ensures that textbooks the moment they are produced. A
the world will never return to a precomputer book's data file will be sent instantly to a
time. But computers simply are machines that paying customer in a version with encryption
reflect on the culture that makes them. As software that won't allow a computer to make
with other means of expression, if a society any copies of the material. Continual updates
accepts violence, sexism, and the perpetua- also will be possible through interactive dis-
tion of cultural stereotypes, that type of con- cussions with the author. However, such a
tent will pervade the digital medium. A soci- prediction might make the folks at Wads
ety always gets the media images it deserves. worth nervous.) One trend is clear: compui
Computerphiles advance the simplistic ers as they are presently known eventually
notion that more computer technology can will become as quaint and old-fashioned as
solve all the evils of the world. But capitalis- manual typewriters.
396 COMPUTERS
An indication of the end of computers is phics — didn't even use the word in their
evident in the fact that few companies use the program descriptions. Apple's entry says,
word to describe their products anymore. At "See Apple's newest products and latest solu-
the 1993 SIGGRAPH conference in Anaheim, tions for graphic design and illustration,
California, the program stated that the orga- design modeling, rendering, scientific visua-
nization started in 1967 and now boasts a lization, and animation applications." IBM's
membership of more than 12,000 — from art- blurb states, "Featured is the high-through-
ists to mathematicians. Mark Resch, cochair put IBM POWER Visualization System for
of the convention, perpetuated the computer digital film and video production and post-
operator stereotype when he called the gath- production." SiliconGraphics entices a con-
ering the "Woodstock for nerds." SIG- ferencegoer with "See SiliconGraphics' full
GRAPH stands for the Special Interest Group line of workstations and servers, including its
on Computer Graphics. It is part of a larger new desktop and deskside graphics systems
organization called the Association for Com- and video servers." Computers are turning
puting Machinery (ACM). Although the into workstations, desktops, desksides, multi-
word "computer" is featured in the SIG- processing units, servers, development tools,
GRAPH and ACM name and literature, three high-end processors, virtual-reality stations,
of the largest companies represented at the and, of course, teleputers.
conference — Apple, IBM, and SiliconGra-
CHAPTER 16
Networked Interactive Authors increasingly
Multimedia will need to write not
just words, but words,
sound, music, and
video.
Larry Shiller,
BUSINESS LEADER
In 1977, 27-year-old Robyn Davidson, an "down under," and became a successful
ex-graduate student who was unsure about publisher in collaboration with David Cohen.
her future, set out on an eight-month, 1,700- He borrowed $150,000 to finance a photo-
mile trek with four camels and a dog across graphic project that sent 100 of the world's
the Australian outback to test her character. best photographers to Australia to take pic-
She was accompanied from time to time tures during the same 24-hour period. The
by National Geographic photographer images were published in a colorful coffee
Rick Smolan. The next year subscribers table book, A Day in the Life of Australia. He
learned Davidson's story through her own followed that successful project with A Day in
words and Smolan's color photographs. the Life of America, which quickly became the
Davidson's trek was featured on thirty-two best-selling photography book in the history
pages of the May 1978 issue; the article of U.S. publishing. More than a million
contained two maps and thirty-three pic- copies were sold, and it stayed on the New
tures, including the cover. In 1980, Davidson York Times bestseller list for fifty-four weeks.
published a book about her journey, entitled Smolan went on to supervise other Day in the
Tracks, which became an international best- Life projects, ending with a day in Russia,
seller. It was translated into eleven languages, after which he sold his company to Australian
sold over 500,000 copies, and earned media mogul Rupert Murdoch in 1987 t
Davidson more than a million dollars. Julia pursue other projects.

Roberts is set to play Davidson in a Disney Several years later Smolan thought of r
movie. visiting his project with Davidson. He had

Smolan was fascinated by the continent taken more than 18,000 color slide photo-
39/
'
398 NETWORKED INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA
M IM — LIKE TALKING TO A FRIEND

graphs (500 rolls) during her journey, but the
general public had seen only a few of them.
Smolan signed a publishing contract with

Imagine sitting in a coffee shop with a
Addison-Wesley to print a photography book.
long-time friend who has just returned from
But in a move that would make this project
a vacation in Ireland. She excitedly starts to
different from all others, he received primary
tell you the story of her summer, aided by a
financial support from the National Geo-
stack of color photographs. As you quietly sip
graphic Society, Apple Computer, and East-
coffee from a white mug, you are amused by
man Kodak to make a laser disk version of the
your friend's enthusiastic tale that is filled
work. Introduction of his book, with a two
with magical moments. Her story begins with
disk set, in December 1992, received much
touchdown at the Limerick airport when the
media attention because it was the first time
plane's passengers clapped and proceeds to
such a combination had ever been attempted.
the customs check, a sleepy check-in at a bed
Smolan's collaboration produced one of the
and breakfast, the train trip to Dublin and
best examples of interactive multimedia (IM)
adventures there, a music festival near Tralee
to date: From Alice to Ocean: Alone Across the
on the west coast, seeing the Atlantic Ocean
Outback.
for the first time in Donegal, the friends she
Release of From Alice to Ocean coincided
met and the countless pints of Guinness
with the emergence of laser disk presentations
enjoyed while music seemed to always play in
as one of the fastest growing media for all
the background, the conversations with beg-
kinds of communications (Figures 16.1 and
gar children in downtown Galway, the fright-
16.2). By 1988, only about 200,000 disk
Figure 16.1 ening urban violence witnessed in London-
players had been sold worldwide for a mere
See color section following derry and Belfast in Northern Ireland, hiking
handful of interactive multimedia programs.
page 370. the Morne Mountain, the sunrises and sun-
Five years later people had bought more than
sets, the country walks through the "forty
2 million players and some 400 interactive
shades of green," and on and on.
programs. Laser disk sales eventually are
Throughout her recitation, as you finger
expected to reach $2 billion a year. With its
her precious photos, you interrupt with ques-
latest Macintosh computers, which have
tions: How much money did you take? How
built-in players, Apple includes the 127MB
did you know where to go? Were you ever
From Alice to Ocean presentation with other
afraid? What camera did you use? How much
IM programs as part of a promotion of the
film did you take? How did you get that
technology.
photograph? Did you fall in love? Did you
hear any great music? Did you discover the
Figure 16.2 heart and soul of Ireland?
—
NOItl HMvN
ihii'ouv
From Alice to Ocean is a After every query, she patiently diverts
CD-ROM program in which from her main story and answers your ques-
a viewer can suddenly

f
1= OS
•-
tion. When you are satisfied with her re-
. .» -* vv-' v « ' — •* i
"5 in,
Cj* m *<~,
»','Cleruylc Aycre R<xk
sponse, you nod and she returns to her
become a user by getting a
description. At the end of her tale, you pay
wide array of additional
the check and thank your friend for a won-
information with a series of
derful story by giving her a hug. As she waves
mouse clicks.
good-bye on the busy, downtown sidewalk,
you promise yourself that someday you will
make that same journey.

IM — LIKE TALKING TO A FRIEND 399
Because the give-and-take of two-way control the order, amount, and type of infor-
conversation is an ancient form of human mation presented (Figure 16.3).
communication, interactive multimedia Interactive multimedia presentations have

should be as effortless and rewarding as three principal applications: government,
talking with an old friend. Consequently, the corporate, and consumer. State and federal
best IM presentations combine words and governments use laser disks (also called CD-
images in such a way that they surprise, ROMs) for training employees, storing large
delight, teach, and satisfy the user. database collections, and keeping archives.
Although often referred to by writers and For example, California government officials
producers as if they are the same medium, have established stand-alone kiosks featuring
multimedia and interactive multimedia are laser disk technology whereby a resident can
quite different. Multimedia without an inter- renew a driver's license or pay a minor traffic
active feature is a book with pictures, photo- ticket. The Central Intelligence Agency uses
graphs with cutlines, a movie, a television IM lessons for foreign language training. And
program, or listening to a friend explain a because of their large storage capacity and
snapshot without asking any questions. An ease of use, more and more word, number,
interactive multimedia presentation uses and image databases are being created on CD
words in both text and audio formats, sound formats for simple access to information by
as music and noise, and images in animated government and private researchers. In addi-
and live-action still and moving formats, as tion, laser disk lessons in 4-inch and 12-inch
do many multimedia presentations, but in formats for students of all ages have been
addition has a design interface that lets a created to teach everything from mathematics
person be either a passive viewer or an to multicultural awareness. Although not re-
inquisitive user. The computer operator can placing traditional textbooks yet, the pro-
Figure 16.3
Tibs Kiaa&oi'y off iPBiailogs'aipSiy The History of Photography
The HyperCard software
program for Macintosh
computers allows an
unsophisticated user lo
Volume I: 900 - 1899
create interactive
A HyperCard lesson that
charts photography's 1000-
year-old history. multimedia presentations for
Developed by Dr Paul
Lester of California State
University at Fullerton.
personal and educational
purposes. For example, The
History of Photography
Photo History Pholo History
1 j j j
I
teracti lesson is used by
The Histor_y__of Photography
j
T e c h n o log i c a 1 D eve I o p m e n t s \> 1 839

S Key Points: students as a computerized
On January 7, the French scientist, Several scientists, working
I
Francois ARAGO reported
Science Daguerre s
to the
Invention, the
Academy of
independently, announced the
results of their experiments in textbook. A menu system
DAGUERREOTYPE Upon seem? (he process, preserving images taken with •
camera In addition to the known
I
the painter Paul Delaroche
m today, painting Is deed
remarked,
1
*
contributors, an editor of the day activated by moving a
noted that many nventors were
i
experimenting with other metals

r photography were manufactured by
and processes that produced to a desired button
[Atphonse Clroux In Paris for DAGUERRE i
permanent pictures
1839
in modern limes, the most sers access to an
iam Henry Fox TALBOT, who had ccessful inventor was the on.
rimenled with photographic process

a
'en the most media attention
9 sensitized paper, war shocked to mely, DAGUERRE nous amount of

Click the pointer on a CAPITALIZED vord and gel more
information about that person or technological development
information in the form of
text and graphics.

grams offer an added approach to the teach- documentary, featuring sixty-six songs and
ing of a growing number of subjects. facts about the rock-and-roll band in its laser
Training, point-of-sale kiosks, interactive disk. An Apple QuickTime movie version of

brochures, and database collections are some the Beatles' A Hard Day's Night with the
of the uses of laser technology for business. soundtrack included is on a Voyager disk with
Steelcase, the furniture manufacturer, and a complete script that includes a brief history
American Airlines have training disks for of rock and roll. Microsoft's Encarta and
their employees In some Home Depot stores, Grolier's entire 21 -volume encyclopedia are
customers can learn how to remodel their huge databases with moving video, still imag-
kitchens at an interactive multimedia kiosk. es, illustrations, and text on disk. Newsweek
They are then directed to the right aisles to magazine subscribers can receive a quarterly
find the necessary supplies and tools. The IM laser disk that contains a twelve-minute
American Medical Center in Denver provides news program that can be stopped at any
a kiosk to help cancer patients who cannot point so that the user can grasp a topic before
read English. General Motors offers in-depth moving on.
CD-ROM informational sales pitches, and Typically, IM programs use every medium
Sony and many other companies give out of presentation discussed in Chapters 8-15.
press releases in the form of disks to media For example, From Alice to Ocean, designed
representatives. and produced by San Francisco-based Mag-
Children and adults use 4-inch and 12- num Design, features the following.
inch laser disk programs for entertainment,
informational, and educational purposes at 1. Text: About 50 percent of the written
home. Robert May, President of Ikonic Inter- material in Davidson's Tracks is read by
active, an IM producer, says, "We're at the Beverly Dunn. The typographical presen-
birth of a new Hollywood." Interactive mul- tation includes headlines, text blocks, and
timedia versions of the 1993 motion pictures cutlines in roman and sans serif typefaces.
Clijflianger, The Addams Family, and The Last

2. Graphic Design: The user can follow the
Action Hero include scenes from the movies
narrative uninterrupted (which takes
for added realism. Players imagine themselves
about thirty minutes) or use innovative
as characters in the movies and control their
presentational elements (on-screen but-
own actions. But many film directors, James
tons activated by clicking a mouse) to find
Cameron included, believe that viewers won't
a personalized trail through the program.
be attracted to these games because many Pop-up screens with still and moving
adults just want to sit and be entertained various times
video present themselves at
without having to work at it.
to illustrate the narrative. Text often is
Nevertheless, role-playing games and in-
reverse type on
cleverly presented in a
ional disks are gaining in popularity.
gray-colored screen in front of a black and
The A r Company has an IM version of
white photograph.
Shake Macbeth in which the user can
select a i
ter to perform. Murder myster-
3. Informational Graphics: A map of Austral-
ia shows Davidson's route through the
ies such Voyeur and Sherlock Holmes,
outback. Icons representing photo tips (a
Consulting elective, are popular; users can
camera) and sidebars (a coffee cup) help a
interview \ lesses, examine evidence, and
user find additional information.
make arres; e Beatles is a popular topic
for adults i r thirties and forties. Comp- 4. Cartoons: A humorous cartoon printed in
ton's The C< eat Beatles offers a two-hour an Australian newspaper commenting on
ANALYSIS OF LASER DISK PRESENTATIONS 401
Davidson's journey is reproduced. In ad- 1,000 still images, 2,000 informational graph-
dition, special animated effects in which a ics, six hours of high-quality sound, the
part of a photograph magically disappears equivalent of 10,000 pages of text, and an
help emphasize the narrative. operating program to make the disk work.
5. Photography: The main strength of the

The advantage of the CD-I format is that it
work is the hundreds of photographs taken

isn't bound by a computer. The machine is a
portable education and entertainment infor-

by Smolan, including many that do not
appear in the book.
mation source whereby programs may be
viewed on a small monitor that is included
6. Motion Pictures: The Apple motion picture
with the device or they can be viewed on
program QuickTime allows the addition of
television. However, recording full-motion
many moderate resolution moving digital
video on a CD-I disk isn't possible. Only
images with audio. Because Davidson
poor-quality animation at about fifteen
wasn't interviewed for the program, most
frames a second can be recorded. In 1987, the
of the digital movies show Smolan ex-
Philips company announced CD-Video, and
plaining a photography tip.
NBC introduced DVI (for Digital Video In-
7. Television: With a Kodak PhotoCD player, teractive). Both systems provide an hour of
a viewer can see Smolan 's high -resolution full-motion digital images on a disk. The
photographs on a television set. As the tremendous amount of visual data required
Academy aspect ratio is a standard for IM for thirty frames per second motion is ac-
presentations, the images fill the screen of complished by compression software that
a regular television set. shrinks the graphics file to a size that allows it
8. Computers: The software program Mac- to fit on the disk. In order to take advantage
roMedia Director combines all the graphic of this higher quality digital imagery, George
elements into an interactive format where Lucas, director of Star Wars and owner of the
users not only can follow the journey as Lucasfilm company, has joined forces with
programmed, but also can obtain addi-

the National Geographic Society and Apple
tional information about Australia and to produce interactive multimedia books.
photography. But even with Rick Smolan's stunningly

beautiful photographs, the poetic words of
Robyn Davidson, and the convenient interac-

Analysis of laser disk tive format of the program, From Alice to
presentations Ocean and other IM programs can and

should be much more. At best, current IM
Optical disk technology has fostered interac- formats can be considered only a first-genera-
tive multimedia. Each 4-inch laser disk can tion effort. Someday IM technology will be
hold about 600MB of information or the viewed with the same quaint amusement as
equivalent of about 500 books. Through ex- Niepce's photograph of his country view, the
ternal drives or computers with built-in Lumiere brothers' factory film, and Zwory-
drives, graphic designers can have access to a kin's first televised image of Felix the Cat.
much larger assortment of typographical At present, an IM laser disk program is
fonts, clip-art, and still and moving images. limited to what is included on the disk. The
Another class of machines inspired by information cannot be updated without pm
optical disk technology is the compact disk- ducing another disk. Furthermore, laser
interactive (CD-I) format. A single disk, cannot supply the huge amount of in
smaller than a typical laser disk, can contain tion that is available about a subjeci hen a
—
computer is connected to text and graphics with networks of educational and entertain-
databases throughout the world. The future ment providers, laser disks — whether CD-
of IM productions is networked interactive ROM or CD-Is — probably will become as
multimedia (NIM). The word that describes extinct as the LP record.
NIM that use the telephone, television, and

computer for their delivery and presentation Historical Perspective
is teleputer.
The U.S. military initiated one of the first
communication networks. During the 1960s,

m Networked interactive powerful mainframe computers were popular
MULTIMEDIA AND THE SIX at government, business, and university re-
PERSPECTIVES search sites around the world. With all the

activity generated by the new machines, sci-
entists soon realized that they needed com-

munications links among research centers so
Think of all the possible questions that might that computer operators could transfer data
come to mind as you look through Smolan's and talk with each other electronically. Cer-
From Alice to Ocean, which cannot be an- tain corporations and government agencies
swered by the laser disk format. For example: developed local area networks (LANs) to
What are the details of Robyn Davidson's and meet this need. As the demand for transmit-
Rick Smolan's early lives? Where did David- ting information over long distance telephone
son go to school? How could she afford the lines grew, the Department of Defense devel-
trip? Did Davidson and Smolan ever have a oped the first network for such commu-
more personal relationship? Why didn't nication in 1969. This system, called the
Davidson read her own text for the program? Advanced Research Projects Agency Net
How was the presentation made? What is (ARPANET), linked computers at universi-
Davidson doing today? What is Smolan's next ties in Los Angeles, Santa Barbara, and Utah.
project? Why were the Australian media so As word of the network spread, ARPANET'S
interested in her journey? What are the histo- membership grew. In 1983, it had grown so
ry, geography, politicals, and economics of large that it was divided into two networks
Australia? How can I get a ticket to travel to the original ARPANET for research and MIL-
Australia? Where can I buy a camera like NET for military use. When satellite links
Smolan's? were added to the system, international com-
With all their bells and whistles, IM pres- munication became possible. Its name was
entations without network connections re- changed to the International Network, or
main tightly controlled computer programs Internet. In 1992, commercial access to the
that merely give the illusion of interactivity. Internet was begun, opening a wider range of
Although entertaining and educational, they products and service world wide. By 1993,
are similar to a frustrating conversation with Internet could be accessed in 30 countries,
a secretive or uneducated friend who answers comprised about 11,000 separate networks,
your qu with "I can't say" or "I don't and had between 10 and 20 million users.
know." inadequacy is why Bill Gates, Besides electronic mail (E-mail) communica-
cofounder Microsoft, predicts that the tion, users can gain access to thousands of
current laso jisk boom is a transitional databases on almost every subject imagin-
phase until teleputers become widespread. able.
Once fiber opt: technology links teleputers Growth in the interest of the Internet
NETWORKED INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA AND THE SIX PERSPECTIVES 403
system is due to expand because of what has tive system, Prestel. The Prestel system con-
been called the "killer app" for the Internet, nected computer databases to the home
the Mosaic software program developed by through telephone or cable lines. Users could
researchers at the National Center for Super- receive the latest news, order products from
computing Applications (NCSA) at the Uni- stores advertised on the system, and make
versity of Illinois. Mosaic makes accessing hotel and airline reservations.
and downloading files that contain still and Other countries soon followed the British
moving pictures with audio almost as easy as model. One of the most successful in the
selecting television programs with a remote world is the French government's Minitel
control device. When linked to the World system, begun in 1981 by the French Telecom
Wide Web (WWW or W3), a network of telephone company. It provides low-cost
largely university-based computers through- computers to every telephone subscriber in
out the world, Mosaic turns the ASCII, text- France. The government saves millions of
dominated Internet into a colorful content- dollars by not having to print telephone
filled excursion. Apart from the program's directories because users obtain phone num-
graphic capabilities, much of the appeal of bers through their home computers. Since its
Mosaic comes from the fact that it allows a adoption, Minitel has created dozens of new
person to create and use hypertext connec- businesses and more than 30,000 new jobs
tions (colored or underlined keywords within and has generated millions of dollars for the
a text file a user presses with a mouse) to French economy. By 1993, more than 6 mil-
discover a seemingly inexhaustible amount of lion Minitel terminals were in use, with about
information and services. When President 30 percent business-owned. In 1993, French

Clinton and others speak about the "infor- and British officials announced a collabora-
mation superhighway," they most often refer tive effort to permit users in both countries to
to the Internet computer network. access the information on either the Prestel or
Minitel system.
Videotex Systems The first U.S. videotex system wasn't suc-
Videotex (called teletext or viewdata in cessful. The Knight-Ridder newspaper chain
Europe) is the name for communications and AT&T teamed up in 1981 to provide a
systems that deliver information over the videotex service (named Viewtron) to users
video blanking interval of a broadcast televi- in Coral Gables, Florida, an affluent suburb of
sion signal to a person's home. With a small Miami. In the initial experiment, users
keypad and a television set-top computer, a weren't asked to pay for the videotex termi-
home user can control which frames are nals or the service. But beginning in 1983,
viewed. Viewers can access hundreds of tele- home viewers were asked to pay for the
vised "pages" from which news, shopping, computer terminal (which cost about $300)
and other kinds of information can be read. and pay a monthly service charge (about
In 1974, the British Broadcasting Corpora- $30). After investing more than $50 million
tion began Ceefax, and a group of indepen- in the electronic information experiment,
dent television stations started Oracle — both Knight-Ridder abandoned it. Few users were
teletext systems. British users paid about $200 willing to spend the additional money to
a year for the service. However, a user at access information they already could get
home could download only selected pages, from a newspaper or TV. However, lessons
and the system had no interactive feature. In learned from the Viewtron experiment help-
1979, the British Post Office (known as ed commercial bulletin board operators
British Telecom) began the first truly interac- launch successful systems.
404 NKTWORKED INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA
Figure 16.4 Bulletin Boards those listed in the promotional literature for
See color section following The chief presentation platform for net- America Online, including
page 570. worked interactive multimedia is the elec- over 30,000 files containing applications,
tronic bulletin board (Figure 16.4). Bulletin
games, and fonts,
boards (BBs) range from local telephone
on-line support from Microsoft, Claris,
text-only systems with a handful of users to
WordPerfect, and over 100 other software
worldwide networks that have millions of
and hardware companies,
subscribers. Worldwide, BB members send
about a billion electronic messages to each product reviews and articles from Mac-
other every day. Systems such as America world magazine,
Online, CompuServe, Delphi, GEnie, Prodi- international E-mail gateway to MCI Mail,
gy, the WELL, and ZiffNet have about 2.5 CompuServe, and Internet,
million total subscribers. Bulletin boards are
personalized news, sports, and stock
popular because they offer a wide range
of services — news, information, shopping,
prices,
banking, software downloading, and airline on-line classes and homework help, and
reservations. For example, CompuServe offers real-time conferencing with people who
a mail service, news, and a vast amount of share your special interests.
information stored in more than 200 data-

The strength of a successful bulletin board
bases. Users can hold real-time discussions in
is that it offers something for everyone in a
organized conferences on almost any subject
graphically pleasing format.
or chat informally through the CB (citizen's
In 1981, John Wooley, editor of the View-
band) Simulator feature.
tron system, admitted that "news is a critical-
Typical of the services offered by a BB are
ly important ingredient in a successful View-
tron system." Consequently, several commer-
cial bulletin boards have expanded their news
Figure 16.5
services. CompuServe offers up-to-the-min-
America Online bulletin
ute stories from the Associated Press and
Welcome to OMNI Chock "What's Happening"
board users linked with the £t omni index
Cl The OMNI Sampler
under OMNrChal to get me
limes K>r urn new it neiluleil
United Press International news services. The
t] OMNI Reddiny Room sessions on such
system through a telephone ' hal lonir 6.
Prodigy system, owned by IBM and Sears,

D OMNI Editorial by Keith FeneH as SF/Fantdsy
CJ Learning With OMNI
modem can read the stories CD Curnpulinr) What's Your favorite st lence presents stories from the Los Angeles Times
C3 Shopping lit honor book''
lion, fantasy, or
in Omni and Time D Resource Canter Let us know on the SFffantasy

and Newsday. Electronic versions of Time
message boarri
magazines before the paper magazine, USA Today, the Chicago Tribune,
Answoi our new survey, unrlpr
versions arrive on Your Two Cents' Worth ahujl and the San Jose Mercury News are available
religious experiences and brain
newsstands.
chemistry on the America Online service (Figures 16.5
and 16.6). Such expanded news services are

sure to increase subscriptions to the systems.
For example, America Online went public in
1991, and two years later it had more than
TIME This Wed/? issue
400,000 members. The tremendous growth in
COVER STORY HOvVUH HEl-AN
russia in limbo subscribers is typical of many other bulletin
the week news dice 31
the week the morning unl
the week shifting balance
boards. Prodigy has been growing at a rate of
the wee1- informs 0urc1
i
!
the week down in the upper chamber almost 500 percent per year. Consequently,
the week dispatches
the sale of computers with telephone modems

J is up about 1,000 percent a year, a much
faster rate than the sale of TV sets.
Welcome To Mercury Center federal judges to allow the company to offer Figure 16.6
information and entertainment services. If The opening screens of the
US'
Mercury
Ml successful, AT&T most likely will be a major electronic Mercury Center
o provider of teleputer services, along with
Er
and Chicago Online,
&>y Ares Llvki
What's New Today
BUSCH BUVS STflK Ml UK .!
':! i-l [
',1
giant cable companies such as Tele-Commu- available through the
PBKISTBHI 2 SONflLIS HILLED TODRV J s
TONIGHT IN THE CHNT ROOM
nications, Inc. (TCI) and U.S. West. Not
JUDGE SETS EXECUTION DATE
America Online bulletin
coincidentally, AT&T is the first company to
board, list top news stories
air teleputer commercials in its "You Will"
and provide buttons that
campaign, narrated by Tom Selleck (Figure
give information on other
16.7). In one advertisement, teleputer users
subjects of interest in the
UJelcome To Chicago Online!
are shown selecting a movie and the time
they want to watch it, asking a professor northern California or
questions during a long-distance learning Chicago areas.
class, and saying goodnight to a child

CHICAGO News, Business
and Weather
through the teleputer's picturephone feature.
Click Here for COL News/Events
The coming teleputer age was dealt a
Windy Citg
Curious which flick to
pick ^ Check ouUhe Movie
Chat
setback in 1994 when the planned merger
laSSSl.
4
Guide 1
between TCI and Bell Atlantic fell through.

Wondering what to do next The $44 billion company would have become
week or next month? The
the sixth largest corporation in the world
ahead of General Motors and IBM. But fears
over potential profits and control of the

company sullied the deal. However, the race
Besides commercial bulletin boards, at to wire the United States began in 1993 when
least 50,000 privately owned E-mail bulletin Pacific Bell announced plans to spend
boards exist in the United States alone. With
as few as ten and as many as several hundred
regular users, a private BB links any modem-
connected computer with people who have Figure 16.7
similar interests, usually at little or no cost to The "You Will" advertising
the members. campaign by AT&T is the
first set of commercials that

Cable and Interactive Communications
feature the technology,
AT&T probably will be a major participant lifestyle, and promise of
in teleputer technology and services because
Networked
teleputcrs.
of its unique history. Judge Harold Green split
interactive multimedia — at
the huge AT&T company into regional "Baby
envisioned by
Bells" in 1984 because of fears about mo-
.
-
ne company
nopolization. His ruling banned the newly
— have the potential
formed regional communications companies
idically change everyday
from participating in long-distance services,
equipment manufacturing, and information life.
services. AT&T can offer long distance serv-

ice, but was prevented by the ruling from
entering local telephone markets. Over the
years, AT&T lawyers have tried to persuade
$16 billion to wire 5 million homes and wireless modem, such as the Mobidem made
business in southern California with fiber by Ericsson GE, and payment of a monthly
optic connections by 1996. Movies on de- charge to a wireless provider, such as Radio-
mand, time-shifted television programs, in- Mail, allow a user to receive and send E-mail
teractive news, tele-education, home shop- messages on a portable computer without
ping, and video games are some of the having a telephone or cable connection.
services that the telephone company will offer AT&T is involved with actual tests and
to consumers. Arthur Bushkin, President of partnership discussions with Matsushita,
Information Services for Bell Atlantic, says Time Warner, 3DO, Viacom International,
that the teleputer industry is "not just a $10 Bell South, U.S. West, and Zenith Electronics
billion or $20 billion market. We're talking in Corporation. Apple Computer and Silicon
the $100 billion category." Other experts Graphics, Inc., have teamed up to offer video
have estimated that the teleputer industry computer services by which a user can send
will be worth as much as $3.5 trillion. text, graphics, sounds, and moving images at
fifteen frames per second over telephone

lines. With such computers as the Apple's
Quadra 840AV and the Indy Workstation
Teleputers connected to homes with high- from Silicon Graphics, face-to-face confer-
bandwidth fiber optic cable will allow several ences and speech recognition programs will
machines to operate at the same time in the spread the use of visual messages. When
office, kitchen, den, and bedroom (Figure commands and messages can be activated by
16.8). The user of each machine will decide a user's voice, these new machines will make
the task to be performed — whether for desk- participation in electronic communication by

top publishing, to talk to a friend across town physically impaired individuals easier.
or in another country, to watch the previous Although the potential profit of teleputer
night's episode of "Seinfeld" that was missed, services is enormous, the cost of creating the
to select which camera's perspective to watch system is staggering. The cost of wiring every
a sporting event, to buy groceries, to take a home and office in, the United States with
college course, to listen to the radio or CD fiber optic cable is estimated to be $500
player, to read a multimedia book, to choose billion. The network for the entire country
a movie from thousands of choices, or many will take about fifteen years to complete. In
other services. Portable teleputers also will be the interim, look for expanded cable offerings
available because microwave transmission with more sophisticated set-top converter
links will allow users to receive all the same boxes and cellular systems as inexpensive
services wherever they go. alternatives to teleputers. Cellular technology
A growing number of computer users are will eventually become vital for the portable
taking advantage of the information that can teleputer industry, whereas fiber optic cable
Figure 16.8
be obtained through various computer sourc- will be used for home connections.
Because data are
es. Electronic mail connections can be made The price tag and the long wait for the
transmitted through a fiber
by direct cable or microwave links. Use of a U.S. network are considered worth it because
optic cable at the speed of
of fiber optic's almost unlimited bandwidth
186,000 miles per second,
capability. The number of channels possible
huge amounts of
with glass pulsating laser networks is estimat-
information can be sent and ed to be 1,000 times greater than of the
received, making the frequencies possible for radio and television
information highway stations combined. When fiber optic connec-
possible. tions are in place, visual messages can be
transported easily from computer database to Angeles, General Telephone and Electric
home viewer. (GTE) started a networked interactive multi-

Besides the vast number of offerings, fiber media experiment in 1992. Despite being able
optics technology greatly increases the speed to play interactive games with neighbors,
of delivery. With conventional technology, shop electronically from local stores, order
sending movies to home users simply isn't movies for viewing at any time, obtain infor-
practical. For example, with a 2,400 baud mation from an encyclopedia that was up-
telephone modem, a two-hour motion pic- dated four times a year, and take practice SAT
ture that contains two gigabytes of com- tests, only 275 of a possible 7,000 cable
pressed images would take fourteen days to subscribers signed up for the service. Some
deliver to a home computer. With a fiber critics complain that spending such huge
optic line, the movie can be transmitted to a amounts of money on a technology that few
waiting viewer in about a second. With fiber may actually want is ethically wrong.
optic lines, the array of information that can Despite the previous failures, U.S. con-
be communicated between teleputer users is sumers someday will have teleputer technolo-
virtually unlimited. gy in their homes to use for shopping, billing,
Choice and speed are why the Clinton entertainment, and education. If the prices
administration is committed to an informa- for set-top boxes and services are reasonable,
tion infrastructure in which homes, business- if the system is easy to use, and, most
es, and government agencies are intercon- important, if the educational system changes
nected with fiber optics. In the future, to prepare the public to take full advantage of
information highways will be as valuable and this new medium, early NIM failures won't
necessary for communication as backwoods inhibit future acceptance.
trails, shipping lanes, telegraph wires, rail- A new test of teleputer acceptance will be
road lines, roadways, and airline flight paths made in Orlando, Florida. Time Warner Ca-
are. The challenge for government agencies, ble, with fiber optic equipment from Scientif-
corporate executives, creative producers, ic Atlanta, Inc., plans to offer an interactive
educators, and concerned citizens is to en- full-service network (FSN) to 10,000 homes
sure that everyone can ride the glassy infor- in 1994. Warner, a unit of Time Warner
mation highways as easily as those made of Entertainment Company, is the second larg-
asphalt. est cable operator behind TCI. The cable
giant serves over 7 million homes in thirty-
" ' Ethical Perspective

six states. The Orlando users will be able to
get movies on demand, personal communi-
One of the major questions to be answered by cations services, video phone, computer net-
researchers is whether people will want televi- working, and other services. Unfortunately,
sion sets turned into teleputers. Most of the potential customers won't be trained to use
previous tests for this technology have failed. their teleputers. To make the quantum leap
In 1977 the Warner Amex Cable system between viewer to user, a company must
introduced its QUBE technology to 30,000 invest in education along with programs and
subscribers in Columbus, Ohio, in an effort equipment.
to increase civic awareness — few bothered
with it. Knight-Ridder and AT&T tried to Education — The Key for Teleputer
drum up support for its videotex interactive Acceptance
system, but critics complained that the sys- Even if everyone is given the opportunity
tem was too costly for everyday use. In to participate in the new Information Age,
Cerritos, California, an eastern suburb of Los many people won't want or be able to do so.
Besides costing a lot of money, taking advan- device on their clothing. Through sensors in
tage of all the services offered with a teleputer the ceiling, the tiny snap-on computer lets a
network takes a lot of motivation — some- bossknow where employees are at all times. It
thing that passive television viewers might even reveals how much time is spent in the
not favor. A recent AT&T survey of potential rest room.
teleputer system users revealed that almost all If advertisers have access to a person's
of them wanted simple-to-operate remote buying habits, they can amass a detailed
control devices that they could use to select computer-based profile on that individual.
movies whenever they want to see them. Marketing firms can use the information to
Most respondents said that they wouldn't try to sell them additional products or ser-
bother with many of the other databases and vices. But the data also can be used to
services that might be offered. investigate the unique habits, political beliefs,
Consequently, the explosion in verbal and economic situation, and other personal infor-
visual services available to teleputer users, mation divulged through networks. In this
will require expansion of the educational age of computer technology, a person should
system. Besides reading, writing, and arith- be extremely careful about giving out social
metic, students from an early age must also security and credit card numbers and other
be taught visual literacy, how to use comput- personal information.
ers, and, more important, why using telepu- One answer to privacy concerns may lie
ters for more than watching movies is impor- with digital signature technology (DST).
tant. However, without careful long-term Conducting official business, transmitting
planning by government, corporate, and edu- government documents, and writing checks
cational interests, many individuals will not in security may be possible with electronic
bother. mail services using DST. An electronic sig-
—
nature actually a series of coded electronic
Privacy and Access Considerations numbers — creates a signature with a secret
Because computers connected through key. Only a reader with another key can read
electronic networks make communication the information. This system may be a step
between individuals and databases easy, mil- toward a true paperless society in which all
lions of users take advantage of services transactions can take place electronically.
offered by private companies. But computers However, government officials are concerned
also can record every message and purchase that such a system would make it impossible
made through a network. Computers also for them to conduct investigations into crim-
have long memories. Hence buying products inal activity that takes place through elec-
and services over E-mail systems can chip tronic transmissions. Therefore they are ask-
away at a person's right to privacy. When you ing that a government agency be given a
write a letter to a friend and seal it in an record of every person's key. Groups con-
envelope, you are sure that no postal employ- cerned with privacy fear that the government
ee will open and read it. But a personal note might overstep its authority and pry into
transmitted over an E-mail network can be personal activities.
intercepted and read by any number of indi- The other side of the privacy issue is
viduals. Moreover, management may monitor concern about free and open access to com-
employees who work on computers to make puter information sources for all individuals.
sure that they are engaging only in company- The Clinton administration's hope for a
approved computer use. Some businesses "wired America," in which all individuals
even require employees to wear a beeperlike can obtain information and educational ben-
efits from computer databases, will work only publications that can be found through key-
if prices of computer equipment and access to word searches with the software provided by
networks are lowered. Many experts advocate the company. As more corporations are dis-
a telephone model for computers in which covering the cost-effective Internet system,
the price for the computer and services is low that network is being used increasingly for
enough that most families can afford them. data transfers. As a result, some are con-
Public libraries also offer computers and cerned that large corporations will seek to
database access for those without the eco- privatize Internet. Such a move would force
nomic means to purchase home systems. financially strapped university researchers off
Internet is a good model for database access. the network if a high access fee were imposed.
Besides the tremendous amount of informa- Not all data transfers involve purely eco-
tion available, the cost of the service is about nomic interests. For example, in 1993, the
fifty cents an hour. Private BB systems charge U.S. Army in Somalia provided high-quality
from $10 to $100 an hour for specialized medical consultation to field units with a
services. More than likely, future networks technology called tele-medicine. Digital still
will consist of multitiered services similar to and moving images were transmitted over
the television medium — low-cost, low-value satellite links from field hospitals to medical
basic services as in broadcast channels and facilities in the United States. Patients suffer-
high-cost, highly informative premium data- ing from Dengue fever, malaria, starvation,
bases similar to cable movie channels. Such a and gunshot wounds were given immediate
system at least would guarantee access to care based on consultations with experts in
everyone and would be a familiar and accept- other parts of the world through NIM-linked
ed payment system. visual messages. The same technique may
eventually link areas in the United States that
have few medical facilities with doctors in
large medical facilities. Physicians may even
The use of networked interactive multimedia be able to diagnose illnesses of patients in
can be divided into three main areas: data their homes through teleputer imaging.
transfer, game playing, and informal chat-
ting. One of the reasons that computers are so Game Playing
popular is that they offer quick and easy One of the most popular features of BB
two-way communication that can be valuable systems for many users is the playing of
to business, government, and personal users. games. Almost all BB companies offer inter-
As with a computer, communication made active games for their subscribers and have
possible by NIM technology is versatile and plans for additional entertainment opportun-
has enormous potential. ities. And some BBs have been created for the
sole purpose of game playing by its members.
Data Transfer
Multiple-user dungeon, multiple-user di-
Banks and scientific organizations have mension, or multiple-user dialogue (MUD)
used electronic networks to transfer large games are text-based adventures in which
amounts of information for years. Mead Data players can create their own persona and
Central, for example, offers data transfer environment in order to interact with othe:
capabilities on its system and also offers news users. MUDs developed from players of sir
and legal databases for professional and stu- gle-user adventure games such as Co
dent users. With its Lexis-Nexis service, Cave (originally titled Adventure) and Zork
Mead has full-text stories from hundreds of who wanted to include other players Partici-
pants have access to other players in an UseNet, a worldwide bulletin board system.
artificially created environment and play Another popular MOO is Cyberion City at
elaborate fantasy and adventure scenarios the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

inspired by the board game Dungeons and (MIT). At an MIT MOO, an Internet user
Dragons. An adventure game might start with can connect to a building on campus and
the phrase, "You are in a cave lit by a single "build" virtual-reality spaces filled with ob-
candle sitting on a table. To the north is an jects that other users can explore.
exit. Nearby, amonkey sits casually on the MUDs and MOOs and their descendants
floor. He seems to beckon you to come are text-based games. But adventure games
closer." The player proceeds through the on some bulletin boards use colorfully realis-
game with simple text-based commands such tic still and moving images. One example of
as "pick up candle," "search monkey," or the MUD and MOO approaches expanded to
go north. a graphics-oriented bulletin board is the
In 1979, two students at Essex University ImagiNation Network (INN). Formally
in England, Roy Trubshaw and Richard called the Sierra Network, INN is an on-line
Bartle, wrote the first MUD system. Trub- service that costs players less than $10 a
shaw created MUD1 for single-player users. month. The bulletin board lets subscribers
Bartle improved on the concept by allowing meet people and play chess or several elabo-
several players to enjoy the game at the same rate adventure games with a large group of
time over a computer network. Within five players at home on their computers anywhere
years, MUD1 had players throughout the in the world. One adult-oriented game is
world. Eventually programmers developed CasinoLand, which features a character called
their own games on other computer networks "Leisure Suit Larry." CasinoLand is set in Las
and the idea of MUDs grew. Vegas where a user can play gambling games,
A version of Trubshaw's game is played on fight bouncers, and talk dirty to a character
CompuServe. That MUD is called British known as "Slut4u." A password is provided
Legends and can accommodate several play- for parents worried that their children might
ers at one time. According to the seven-page play. The ImagiNation Network also has
instructional manual that comes with the plans for an interactive flight simulation
game, game that will be available for Prodigy sub-
scribers and on computer terminals in bars,

it has rolling pastures, dense forests and
restaurants, and hotel lounges. On the
mist-swathed graveyards. It has treacherous
strength of its popularity, AT&T has invested
cliffs, vast, underground mines and wild,
$13 million to finance development of soft-
open seas. It has malevolent beings, lurking
ware for Sega and 3DO home gaming systems
in the shadows.
that will connect users to the ImagiNation
The goal of British Legends is to amass Network. One AT&T official has predicted
points by finding treasures and outwitting that the market for home video games
other creatures to become a wizard. through E-mail systems is "likely to be ten
An offshoot of MUDs are MOOs (MUD- times the size of the personal computer
object-oriented systems). In a MOO system, market."
the player has greater freedom to create
buildings and objects that interact with other Chatting
players. The first MOO, named Lambda- Rather than being the stereotypical com-
MOO, was created at the Xerox PARC facility puter operator who shuns all social contact
and opened t the public in 1991 through and withdraws to a room to play with the
computer, NIM allow a wide range of social LOL laugh out loud;
interaction on a level unthinkable in the past.
IMHO in my humble opinion; and
Some users stay on the computer an average
of five hours a night — not to play video
GMTA great minds think alike.
games, but to talk with other users all over USING ALL CAPITAL LETTERS IS EQUIV-
the world. Through chatting (or real-time ALENT TO SHOUTING.
conferencing), friends meet over the E-mail
A typical chat session on American Online
Some members fall in love without ever
lines.
is filled with members greeting each other,
meeting face to face. Some E-mail subscribers
making trivial conversation, and flirting.
have even gone through "virtual marriages"
Members send messages that include aliases
while maintaining a traditional family life on
they have created, BB jargon, typographical
the other side of the computer monitor.
errors, smileys, and shorthands. For example,
Because E-mail systems are text-based,
within "La Pub," conversation is light. A
communication between people who do not
friendly bartender always is wanting to give
know or cannot see each other sometimes
you a free, VR alcoholic drink. (Perhaps these
can be difficult. Fortunately, a system of
E-mail bars are the answer to the drinking
keyboard characters has been developed to
and driving problem.) One evening the topic
give added meaning to messages and clear up
was whether a cat or a dog makes a better pet.
misunderstandings. Named "emoticons" or
"smileys," these characters are used to convey Blade wolf: "They'll go gaga at the gogo
pleasure, sadness, or sarcasm. Message writ- when they see me in my
ers use hundreds of types of smileys. Letters "
toga
in place of long phrases, called shorthands,
GSCAL69: I:-) <— Puppy!
also speed communication. Some of the most
Blade wolf: LOL, GS!!!
widely used smiley and shorthand symbols
(turn the page sideways to get a clear view) PubTendGal: Hiya Les :) Nice to see you
include: tonight! :)
:) smiley face — happiness, laughter

PubTendGal: Pull up a bar stool and let me
get you something special to
and occasionally sarcasm (by far the
drink! :)
most common symbol);
:( — sadness or
sad face anger;
Puntpuppy: LOL Gal — trust me, you'll
love it when you don't see

;) winking — only
face half serious or hair all over the couch! ;D
flirtatious;
Puntpuppy: LOL GSCAL! ;D
:/ wry face — suspicion;
PubTendGal: LOL Puppy, my cats leave
:~ tongue sticking out — playfully enough hair on the couch as it
teasing; is ;)
{ } hug — friendly supportive; EmeraldGrO: LOL . . . Blade :D
:* kiss — you should know what it Puntpuppy: Sigh — oh well. ... If I ever
means; got a dog, it would be a rough
>:0 scared face — hair standing on end;

collie — but I'm sure my blad
Apples0773: o/~ oh say can you see, my
:& silent face — the lips are sealed;
eyes, if you can, then my
BTW by the way; hair's too short. . . .
Puntpuppy: sofas will love him. . . . no idea what they had. Imagine telling a
PubTendGal: Les, would you like a drink nineteenth-century writer that you will give
this evening??
her a portable computer. Her obvious ques-
tion is: What is a computer? Those who have
In the absence of aural or visual commu- experienced only the passive nature of televi-
nication, smileys are necessary to convey sion may not understand the possibilities
feelings and emotions. When visually based with teleputers, which millions of computer
VR systems become common, such a symbol users have discovered.
set may not be needed. Because of limited funding at most uni-
However, text-based systems will always
versities, hardware and software companies
be an important form of E-mail communica- should provide financial assistance to educa-
tion because they offer a real chance for John tional institutions so that students can learn
Rawls's veil of ignorance philosophy to work. how to use and make the NIM systems of the
For example, with an alias, no one can tell if
future. But today, even those with a college
the message writer on the other end of the education don't take advantage of all the data
line is male, female, Asian, Anglo, young, old, available from network services. One reason
wheelchair-bound, or deaf. Consequently, is that the amount of information available in
people in an E-mail world are judged not by thousands of databases is overwhelming.
their physical attributes but by the content of Mitch Kapor, creator of the popular spread-
their messages. sheet program Lotus 1-2-3, says that "getting
In his science fiction novels, William Gib- information off the Internet is like taking a
son uses the word cyberspace to describe the drink from a fire hydrant."
ethereal world of the electronic highway One innovation that may solve that prob-
where unusual and unlimited communica- lem is called a software agent. A user will be
tion links are available. Space on the electron- able to have the program search through
ic highway comprises, not asphalt or concrete, thousands of databases for information of
but electricity and light. Writer John Perry particular interest. For example, if you are
Barlow describes cyberspace as having interested in any news related to a particular
a lot in common with the 19th Century company or individual, your computer will
find that information in a fraction of the time
West. It is vast, unmapped, culturally and
legally ambiguous, verbally terse (unless you it would take you to find it yourself. Bill
happen Atkinson, one of the original Macintosh soft-

to be a court stenographer), hard to
get around in, and up for grabs. ... In this
ware designers, and others have formed a
il world, all conversation is typed. To

company called General Magic to develop
for it, one forsakes both body and place software agents for database searching. The
becomes a thing of words alone. ... It
importance of software agents to the wide-
course, a perfect breeding ground for

scale use of NIM systems is underscored by
outlaws and new ideas. . . .

the fact that Atkinson's company has the
endorsement of corporations such as AT&T,
Apple, Motorola, Philips, and Sony.
•J Technological innovations once again have

Perspective
brought human civilization to a great cross-
Educai tizations eventually must roads. Do we use the new tools of communi-
accept, en ?, and teach NIM technology. cation to perpetuate the same old themes of
The reaso. past experiments with the violence as a way to resolve conflicts, sexual
technology j was that users simply had objectification as a positive value, and stereo-
FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR NETWORKED INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA 413
types that promote the dominant culture's digitized images, and other services common
way of life? Or do we use the technology to to any other bulletin board can be accessed.
learn from one another in the hope of creat- Fidler predicts that by the year 2000, this kind
ing a world in which ideas are valued more of presentation format will be as common as
than physical attributes? In either event, we newspapers are today. Although you can't
live in an extremely exciting and challenging wrap fish in the tablet, you can chop fish on
time in the history of communication — both it.
in interpersonal relationships and the mass Another prediction by many in the field of
media. communications is the widespread, everyday

Networked interactive multimedia will be use of VR technology. Recall that VR refers to
a positive social force only if visual commu- numerous three-dimensional formats — from
nicators learn to use words and pictures as projected screens that the user can control
equal partners. As television's "Sixty Min- with arm movements to elaborate setups in
utes" reporter Morley Safer says, "They have which a person wears a helmet and a body
to get very cozy with each other — those suit (Figure 16.9) — with which the user en-
pictures and those words." What is true for joys the illusion of being a character within a
television is true for teleputer production. computerized scenario.

The new Information Age isn't a time when Ivan Sutherland at MIT originally devel-
visual communication triumphs over textual oped the technology in the early 1960s for
communication. This new age is a time for flight simulators to train commercial and
recognizing the power of communication in military pilots. In research labs, NASA later
all its formats. developed the technology to control robots

working on space stations. A lightweight hel-
met that displays a low-power LCD image for
Future directions for each eye (for a stereoscopic view) and body
networked interactive gear (gloves and a suit) maintain the illusion
multimedia of being "virtually" within a computer envi-
Roger Fidler, who was part of the videotex Figure 16.9

experiment in Florida, runs the Knight-Rid- A technician for Rockwell
der Newspaper Lab in Boulder, Colorado.
International wears a
The newspaper lab has developed a 9-inch by
lightweight imet used in
12-inch portable tablet that weighs about a
virtual-reality systems.
pound. It presents news in a graphics format
with familiar typography, graphic design,

and images that make it look like a newspa-
per — not a computer screen as in many
bulletin board news services. Users will be
able to carry the tablet with them easily after
loading it with one or more newspapers from

a cable outlet. By simply touching the screen,
readers will be able to see all the news,

information, and advertisements provided by
a traditional newspaper. But because the
portable tablet actually is a computer, in-
depth background stories, still and moving

ronment. Virtual reality has been described for your dinner. Fly like a bird around your
as "jumping into your television." In the city or walk the streets of nineteenth-century
cyberspace computer world, VR can be a New Orleans. Editing with VR will mean that
realistic view of a city in which the user has a user can actually step inside a page and
the feeling of flight or the illusion of being move words around. A picture can be easily
inside a complicated organic molecule. When manipulated when a user is reduced to the
the head is turned, the image also turns; size of an individual pixel and can move them
when a computer object is grabbed and around like building blocks.
squeezed, the body suit simulates its weight. Such applications may seem far-fetched
Virtual-reality motion simulator rides are a (and admittedly they are), but imagine what
common feature of amusement parks around it must have felt like to see a photograph, a
the world. Across the U.S., action-adventure motion picture, or a television program when
VR arcades have opened with names such as each medium was first invented. No one in
"Cybergate" (created by the same people who awe of the early reproduction of images could
built the hands-on display for the Apache anticipate where visual communication
helicopter — Kaiser Electro-Optics), "Cine- would lead a hundred years later.
tropolis" (co-owned by Don Iwerks, son of My great-grandmother lived to be 100

animation pioneer, Ub), and "Battletech" years old. She once admitted that she laughed
(produced by Walt Disney's grandson, Tim). when she first heard about automobiles.
In 1994, Sega will introduce goggles for its When I asked why she thought cars were so
video games so that home players can enjoy funny, she replied simply, "Because how
the VR illusion. could everyone have their own train?" We
Imagine a future in which teleputers are always tend to evaluate and anticipate tech-
combined with virtual reality. There will be nology based on our previous experiences.
little need to physically visit some other But the future of mass communication may
person when the illusion of VR communica- have little to do with our understanding of
tion is real enough. Work in your office or the past or present. The best plan for antici-
attend any lecture or conference as a VR pating the future is to keep an open mind so
participant from the comfort of your home that you will be prepared, to paraphrase
Figure 16.10 (Figure 16.10). Be an actor in a David Mamet Aldous Huxley, for the brave new (visual)
See color section following play or sit on Archie Bunker's couch with world. We can only hope that it is a world in
page 370. users playing other roles while in their homes which everyone is, can be, and wants to be
anywhere else in the world. Tour an Egyptian invited to participate.
bazaar or your local grocery store to buy food

CHAPTER 17
The More You Know, No machine, no matter
the More You See how extraordinary,
as interesting as its
is
maker.
Stan Augarten,
WRITER
The theme for Visual Communication: Imag- The most characteristic fact about the func-
es with Messages is taken from The Art of tioning of the total organism, or of any part
Seeing by Aldous Huxley, a book he wrote in of the organism, is that it is not constant, but
the hope that others would learn to see more highly variable. Sometimes we feel well,
clearly (Figure 17.1 ). To Huxley, the eyes of a sometimes we feel poorly; sometimes our
police officer on the lookout for criminal digestion is good, sometimes it is bad; some-
activity or a youngster playing a video game times we can face the most trying situations
would be basically the same. There is no such with calm and poise, sometimes the most
thing as superhuman eyesight, but a police trifling mishap will leave us irritable and
officer knows more about apprehending a nervous. This non-uniformity of function-
criminal in the real world than a teenager, ing is the penalty we pay for being living and
who is better able to hunt down bad guys on a self-conscious organisms, unremittingly in-
computer monitor. If the situations were volved in the process of adapting ourselves to
reversed, the officer and the youth would be changing conditions.
lost in unfamiliar environments. The functioning of the organs of vision
Huxley understood, as do many research- the sensing eye, the transmitting nervous
ers in the field of visual communication, that system and the mind that selects and per-
seeing is a complex process that involves the ceives — is no less variable than the function-
mind as well as the eyes of the viewer. ing of the organism as a whole, or of any
Consequently, clear seeing is a combination other part of the organism.
of how much you know and how you feel at
any particular moment. The mental state of Because the retina is the only part of the
the viewer is a vital link in the visual com- human body where brain cells are expose '
munication process. As Huxley notes: the outside world, vision (unlike hea
415
416 THE MORE YOU KNOW, THE MORE YOU SEE
Figure 17.1
Pictures— learned before
Aldous Huxley's facial
words
gesture indicates a person
who later in his life learned

Before we are four years old, most of us have
to combine his natural
learned "The Alphabet Song." Sung to the
curiosity about the world same tune of "Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star,"
with improving his eyesight. it is unlike any other song because no pictures
came to mind when we sang it. With "Twin-
kle," we could look up into the night's sky
and imagine a little star among the billions

shining just for us. But a song about the
letters of the alphabet doesn't have any visual
equivalents. However, we soon began to
match concrete nouns with images for each

letter in the song. Children's books helped
solve the mystery. "A is for apple. . .
." Each
letter of the alphabet became a picture that
corresponded to a complex set of direct and
mediated images. We no longer had to think
of an actual red, juicy apple. We simply saw

smelling, tasting, or feeling) has much to do the letter "A" and knew that it stood for that
with how you feel about what you see. fruit.
But this book isn't concerned only with Before we learned to read and write, we
seeing. Visual communication requires a didn't know the difference between a line
two-way path between the producer and drawing and a letter. When we first wrote an
receiver of a message. Consequently, the focus "A," it was simply another drawing. It was a
of this work has more to do with remember- picture, different from a face or a house, but
ing than seeing. If you learn to analyze visual still just another image drawn with a colored
messages in terms of your personal reaction, pencil on white paper. Soon we learned that
their historical context, how they are made, combinations of these letter-pictures mean
the moral responsibilities of the producer, more complicated things. When the individ-
and their impact on society, you will be able ual drawings "A-P-P-L-E" are combined,
to create and use memorable pictures. they form another picture, which, we learned,
More often than not, images that are stood for the name of the fruit. Now the
remembered are the ones that combine aes- letter-pictures became word-pictures that
tlly pleasing design elements with con- could spark other images in our minds of the
tent that matters. However, works that thing they stood for. We further learned that
combine both beauty and meaning are enor- these word-pictures could be combined with
mously difficult to produce. Because emo- other word-pictures to form sentence-pic-
tional and intellectual attributes are cultural- tures. But we still couldn't differentiate be-
ly bound, the two seldom agree. Abstract art tween words and pictures — they remained
is a clear example of visual works that depend one and the same.
on the .
! state of the viewer for its Soon afterward, however, we were taught
appreciai to distinguish words from pictures — to not
LIVING IN A PICTURE-FILLED WORLD 417
think of them in the same way. We were in books that only a few individuals will read.
taught that, although we could gain meaning Reading is losing to watching because view-
from each, reading words was valued more ing requires less mental processing.
than reading pictures. We were taught that Critics blame everything from the rise in
pictures play a separate and subservient role the crime rate to the deterioration of educa-
to the words. And although we learned how tional institutions on the concurrent rise in
to make pictures with our colored pencils and the number of mediated images that we see
our watercolor paints, we received much daily. Rebellious youth cling to visual sym-
more instruction on how to form, with our bols because words are associated with old
large lead pencils, the lines and curves that ways of communicating and old ways of
made letters and words. We usually had one establishing social order. Words are repres-
class where we made pictures — art. The oth- sive, but pictures are fascinating, easily un-
er classes were devoted to writing or reading derstood within a particular culture, and can
stories, whether in a grammar or in a geogra- be made personal methods of expression.
phy class. We were taught to read stories but One of the first acts in 1917 by the new
we're never taught how to read images. Russian government was to transform
In the Disney classic Beauty and the Beast, churches into motion picture theaters in
the macho Gaston satirizes Belle's reading order to show propaganda films. One of the
habits. "How can you read this?" he asks. first tasks in a modern-day rebellion is to
"There are no pictures." She answers with a capture the television station. All rebellious
condescending, "Well, some people use their leaders understand that to control a country,
imagination." And yet, when the viewer of they must also control the pictures.
the animated movie is shown a close-up of a More than twenty-five years ago, a head-
page in her book, she points to a picture of a line alarmed many parents around the coun-
castle that illustrates the story. try: Why Johnny Can't Read. Educators who
worry about the thinking and writing capa-
bilities of their students still ask the question.
Living in a picture-filled Often, the answer is simplistic: too many
world pictures and not enough words. But there are
other answers. Maybe little is written that

There are strong indications that the status of people — particularly young people — want to
images is improving. We live in a blitz of read. Maybe people now believe that there is
mediated images. Pictures fill our newspa- no point in reading when many jobs require
pers, magazines, books, clothing, billboards, no reading. Maybe parents don't read and
TV screens, and computer monitors as never don't encourage their children to do so. Or
before in the history of mass communica- maybe individuals are reading, but what they
tions. We are becoming a visually mediated read is not understood by those from other
society. For many, understanding of the cultures.
world is being accomplished, not by reading Visual messages, with their own rules of
words, but by reading images. Philosopher syntax, are being read, but this language
Hanno Hardt warns that television is replac- means nothing to those who can only read
ing words as the important factor in social words. Wall space and signs in many cities
communication. Shortly, predicts Hardt, often are coated with multicolored spray-
words will be reserved only for bureaucratic painted messages (Figure 17.2). Terme !
transactions by means of business forms and art, vandalism, graffiti, or tagging, deptviding
viewed on the screen by a laser disk player,
the announcer asserts that "pictures have

never been so powerful." When television
sets and computers are linked into teleputers,
viewers will be able to alter the content and

technical considerations of programs to suit
their individual interests. The combination

will indeed be a powerful medium for pic-
tures.
Computers make the production and dis-
tribution of images available at incredible
speed. More than any other technological

innovation, computers are responsible for the
explosion in images. In 1993, 20 percent of
the entire U.S. population could use a com-
puter. But 80 percent of school-age children
have become computer literate. By the turn of

the century, John Sculley, former CEO of
Apple Computer, predicts that 98 percent of
all the words and pictures created in the
world will be computer mediated. By then,
m teleputers
become
— the ultimate fusion of
and computer technologies
active users of the
in
medium
television
which viewers
— will be
inexpensive and accessible.

Figure 17.2 on the viewer, these visual messages actually Educational psychologist Jerome Bruner of
Vandalism, folk art, or are a complex written form of communica- New York University cites studies showing
communication, graffiti is a tion. Graffiti may mark the border of a gang's that people remember only 10 percent of what
controversial visual message

territory, plea for understanding and hope for they hear and 30 percent of what they read
the future, express grief for a killed loved one, but about 80 percent of what they see and do.
because of its antisocial
vent anger toward an enemy, demonstrate When people, whether at home, in school, or
connotations. Nevertheless,
playfulness and humor as part of a national on the job, learn to use computers for word
spray-painted symbols on
fad, be acts of criminal vandalism, or simply and picture processing, they switch from
buildings, street signs, or
signify the writer's existence. As with any passive watching to active using. When that
drainage culverts offer a
symbolic communicative system, if you do happens, the barrier between the two sym-
unique look at a pictorial
low the language, you will have trouble bolic structures falls, and words and pictures
language that has roots to
cring the message. become one powerful and memorable mode
the ancient Sumerians. I the most common medium for of communication. Although the social, reli-
vi pression — television. Programs can gious, and educational effects that a visual
be wa rom direct broadcast, from cable culture may have on society are unclear, the
and fil ptics, from satellites, from VCRs, use of images may foster a return of the
and fron disks. On some TV sets you word's importance. Or rather, a communica-
can wai than one program at a time. tion medium in which words and pictures
In a tele\ nmercial for Kodak's Photo have equal status may be a result of the recent
CD techn. in which still images can be explosion in pictures.
HELPING EXPLAIN UNFAMILIAR PICTURES WITH WORDS 419
The Itsy-Bitsy Spider went up the water

Helping explain unfamiliar
spout.
pictures with words
Down came the rain and washed the spider
out.
As an exercise in the need for words to form
Out came the sun and dried up all the rain
an equal partnership with pictures, take time
And the Itsy-Bitsy Spider went up the spout
to study Figure 17.3. At first glance, the
again.
drawing undoubtedly is confusing. Until you
learn that a 3-year-old child produced it, you The simple words and tune teach people
may make an assumption about the person's not to quit trying to reach a goal despite
inner state of mind —
anxious, nervous, hy- setbacks that sometimes occur.
peractive, or seriously disturbed (but be cau- With the words, you are in a much better
tioned that the artist is my daughter, Allison). position to analyze the image because now
In fact, none of those characterizations are you can identify some of the symbols used in
true. the picture. Dots suddenly appear to be rain

The picture is a result of my asking Allison drops and a black shape might be interpreted
to draw on a piece of paper the story of a as a spider. But some of the shapes in the
well-known song. With that bit of informa- drawing remain unclear. For example, lines
tion, you may try to arrange the seemingly form symbols that resemble letters, but offer
random array of black markings into a coher- little additional meaning for the viewer.
ent story. Most likely, however, you will need What is needed is an interpretation by the
more information. If a visual communicator artist herself. Fortunately, Allison was able to
desires to convey aesthetic and meaningful articulate the symbolism used in her work.
values to an audience, words should be in- Figure 17.4 is a simplified version of her
cluded to help explain the picture's message. picture that highlights the major elements.
Mass communication cannot afford ambigu- According to Allison, the dots and lines
ous or misunderstood messages. Unfortu- throughout the piece are intended to be rain.
nately, that condition occurs far more often The group of "letters" at the top left "lets
than not. people know this is a song." The black area at
The title for the drawing is the same as the the top center is the sun. The smaller dark
song it is based upon, "The Itsy-Bitsy Spi- area below the sun is the spider. The "words"
der." As a reminder for those not familiar to the right of the spider read, "Don't scream
with the lyrics, here is a version based on my at a spider because he might bite you." The
faulty memory: third large black area is the spider's web. The
Figure 17.3 Heft)
Any visual menage that uses
5 outside the
ience can be a
array of elements
on a page.
| me 17.4 (right)
5
>rds are vital in helping
. xplain the mystery of a
visual message.
large "letters" that run along the bottom edge The perceptual cues of color, form, depth,
are the words of the song. Finally, the small and movement quickly sort light into
group of letters at the bottom right beginning helpful or harmful classifications.
with the letter "A" represent her name.
Gestalt, semiotic, and cognitive approach-
es help explain why some light messages
are remembered longer than others.
and words
Pictures in mass
communication Techniques used in advertising, public
relations, and journalism help explain how
A 3-year-old is at that curious stage in a
light can so effectively attract and per-
person's development between seeing all im-
suade.
ages as pictures and understanding (as adults
Light without reason or compassion pro-
do) that images can be divided into words
duces pictorial stereotypes that mislead
and pictures. As indicated by her explana-
and harm.
tions, Allison knows that there are words and
that there are pictures. In a couple of years she Light in the form of typography, graphic
will learn how to write and be more clearly design, informational graphics, cartoons,
understood. photography, motion pictures, television

But when she learns to read and write, her and video, computers, and networked in-
telling of "The Itsy-Bitsy Spider" story on teractive multimedia makes us sad, angry,
paper probably will have the same unimagi- happy, tense, calm, smart, dumb, loving,
native style as the text of the song. The price cynical, or bored — but by all means, it
for knowing the literal meaning of a work always makes us something.

therefore is high. The magic and wonder Light.
inherent in a strange, almost indecipherable
The light of day, the light of reason, and
visual message is somehow diminished once
the light of compassion make us who we
we understand it. Nevertheless, the price of
have been, who we are, and who we will
making images for mass audiences that they
become.
misunderstand or ignore is even higher.
Huxley probably would disagree with too
literal a reading of "the more you know, the
Light—the link more you see." Seeing certainly is a major

component in visual communication, but it
Regardless of whether a presentation is meant isn't the only way to know.

for print or screen media, words and pictures Get yourself invited to a photographic
have a better chance of being remembered if

darkroom. But you'd better hurry because
they are used together. That union is possi- they won't be around much longer. Ask the
ble because of light. In fact, light links all the photographer to turn out all the lights — the
information presented in this book. fluorescent, the incandescent, and the phos-
phorescent. Stand or sit quietly in the dark
Light, with its color component, creates
chamber for a few moments. Study the blank,
and shapes our visual world.
enveloping absence of photons. You will soon
The eye, retina, and brain receive and hear the sound of running water, smell the
process raw light data so that they can be chemicals, taste the stale air, and feel the
interpreted. temperature.
LIGHT — THE LINK 421
Knowing how and why sensations are The more you know, the more you see.
produced increases your repertoire of obser-

The more you know, the more you are
vations. And the more observations you col-
you.
lect, the more you learn about the world,
people, and yourself. The next generation of communicators

Figure 17.5
will have the tools necessary to activate all the
The more you know, the more you hear.
senses with words, pictures, and sounds. As diurnal creatures, we are
The more you know, the more you smell. When that happens, memorable messages naturally attracted and
the only ones that challenge and enrich a intrigued by light. The Arch,
The more you know, the more you taste.
The more you know, the more you feel.

person's life — will be the result. St. Louis, Missouri.
GLOSSARY
. . . words, words,
words.
William Shakespeare,
WRITER
A B
aberrant decoding: a message from a sender that balloon: enclosed area in a comic strip (usually)
is misunderstood by the receiver. for a character's dialogue.
academy standard: the 4:3 aspect ratio approved bandwidth: the number of frequencies allowed
for early motion pictures (before sound) and for a given signal.
television screens (before widescreen teleputers). baud rate: the speed of a modem measured in bits
advertorials; infomercials: paid announcements per second.

in print or screen media designed as an entertain- belief: conviction of truth or reality.
ment or educational presentation.
bias: a preference that interferes with objective
aesthetic value: relating to the often fleeting and judgments.
evolving concept of beauty.
binary: any system composed of two different
ambient optical array: visual display from the parts.
eyes that takes in the surroundings that a person
binocular vision: using both eyes at the same
can actually see.
time.
analog: numerical data represented by measura-
bit: a single unit of information in a binary
ble quantities, such as lengths or electrical signals.
system.
archetypes: original models that inspire other blacklisted: denied employment (usually) or sus-
things or ideas.
pected of disloyalty to a company or country.
artifact: object produced by human effort. bulletin board: any display intended for public
artificial intelligence: not actual, natural, or gen- viewing — from file cards stuck with thumb tacks
uine but made to appear like human mental on a cork board to computer-mediated systems.
activity. byte: a series of binary numbers acting as a un:
aspect ratio: the look or appearance of a screen or

frame. c
attitudes: feelings about a person, situation, or captions; cutline: text presented above or
idea. picture that contains information about tl image.
423
424 GLOSSARY
carrier waves: electromagnetic frequencies that

F
can be used to transmit text, sounds, and images.
font: a set of letters for a particular typeface
coaxial cable: a transmission line comprising a family that includes all its sizes and attributes.
wire (usually) surrounded by another wire that is
free-lance: to sell work or services to clients but
insulated.
not have permanent employment status.
codes: systems of signs for textual or visual mes-
sages.
communication: the exchange of messages be- G

tween a sender and a receiver in which the message genre: a particular type of written or visual work.
is understood by the receiver.
connotation: a combination of the figurative and

H
literal meanings of a word or image.
habituation: unconscious patterned or repeated
credible: believable and deserving of respect and
behavior.
confidence.
hippocampus: that part of the brain where long-
cultural norms: standard and acceptable sets of
term, memorable images are permanently stored.
customs of a particular society at a particular time.
humanist: a person who supports a system of
attitudes that recognizes the value of all people.
D
I
database: a full-text and/or image-based system
image: an optically formed, mediated, or mental
containing an enormous amount of information
picture.
that can (usually) be accessed through digital
communications networks. interface: where two or more systems have com-
decimal: number system having 10 different

mon boundaries.
parts.
decisive moment: Henri Cartier-Bresson's con- L

cept of the instant when form and content are one. legibility: the degree to which text or images are
decode: to explain or convert a message into an capable of being read or seen.
easily understood format.
logo: a distinctively identifying symbol for a com-
demographic: a characteristic of a person or pop- pany, publication, or screen presentation.
ulation, such as age, gender, economic status,
educational level, etc.
denotation: refers to the literal meaning of a

M
specific name or symbol. media: plural of medium.
discrimination: to act in a prejudiced or biased mediated images: visual messages that are repro-
way toward people (usually) having apparent, but duced by means of print or screen presentations.
not essential, differences. medium: format for communicating messages.
diss (ftce: unpleasant combination of words, metaphor meaning that is transferred from one
sounds, ..ul/or images. object to another by comparison.
diurnal: primarily active during daytime hours. mnemonics: any procedure that aids the memory.
dominant culture: societal group with superior montage: an artistic composition of several dif-
power or authority. ferent parts.
myths: stories in words or pictures that people in
a culture understand because they express deep
E and commonly held emotions.
encode: <i \ >r visual message, translated into

a code and sen a receiver. N
ethos: a particu culture's system of values. nocturnal: primarily active during the night.
GLOSSARY 425
nonverbal: communication that relies on visual semiotics: the study of the meaning of signs in
messages. aural, verbal, or visual presentations.
serial: any presentation that is offered in regular
o installments.
objectivity: a state of mind in which thoughts or service bureau: printing firm that can output
actions are not influenced by personal opinions. high quality reproductions.
operating system: a software program that sup- shot: a single photographic image or continuous
ports the running of a computer. take in motion pictures.
opinion: a view or judgment not supported by sign: a symbol that stands for an object, idea, or
facts or absolute knowledge. quantity.
signified: the interpreted meaning of a sign by the
P receiver of the message.
pathos: any element that causes the viewer to feel signifier: the sending of a sign, through the
the emotions of pity or sorrow. communications process, to a receiver.
perspective: an element of an image that gives the simile: a figure of speech in which an object or
illusion of distance and depth. concept is compared to something else.
pointillism: a painting technique in which an stereotype: a highly opinionated, biased, and

image is composed of small dots that blend togeth- simplistic view.
er as the viewer moves away from the picture. stylus: any pointed device used for writing.
popular culture: widespread, prevalent, and cur- substrate: the final layer in which all others rest
rent trends or fads. or fall.
prejudice: bias for or against a person or idea surreal: any presentation that surprises the viewer
without knowing all the facts. through grotesque or fantastic elements.
print media: any presentation that uses paper or a symbol: any aural, verbal, or visual element that
paperlike substrate. represents some other, non-literal meaning for the
viewer.
symbolism: the use of symbols by communica-

R
tors to express a complicated, often abstract, idea.
racism: discrimination based on the belief that
symmetry: any arrangement of graphic elements
some races are better than others.
that is balanced and harmonious.
readability: the degree to which text or images
syntactics: the way symbols combine in a print or
are capable of being comprehended.
screen presentation to form complicated messages.
s
salience: the degree to which a subject is impor- T
tant or prominent.
tablet: any flat pad or panel used for the produc-
sarcophagus: any stone coffin, usually Egyptian.
tion of a presentation.
satire: caustic verbal or visual wit that critically
tarot cards: a set of 22 fortune-telling cards that
attacks a person, group, thing, or situation.
uses symbolic illustrations to depict various hu-
scale: the relative size of a graphic representation man traits.
in relation to the actual object.

teledildonics: possible term for virtual reality sex
scapegoat: a person who is unreasonably and simulation presentations.
unjustifiably blamed by others for a social prob-
teleputer: possible term that will be used I
lem.
describe a machine that combines the function
screen media: motion picture, television, and a telephone, television, and computer.
computer messages presented on a flat panel.
template: a standardized pattern of basic ;
;
scribe: a person employed as a copyist of manu- elements that is used to make copies of a presenta-
scripts. tion.
426 GLOSSARY
transistor: a semiconductor device used for the

sending and amplification of an electrical signal.
triptych: any presentation consisting of three

pages or screens.
typecast: an actor that is hired repeatedly for

basically the same kind of role.
typeface: any specific style of printing font.
V
vactors: possible term for computer-generated ac-
tors in still or moving presentations.
vaudeville: any stage show that consists of a

variety of entertainment genres — songs, animal
acts, and comedy sketches.
virtual reality: term used to describe a technolo-
gy that simulates an actual, living experience for
the user.
visual communication: any optically stimulating

message that is understood by the viewer.
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INDEX
Abacus, 367 Airplane!, 309 Anatomy of a Murder, 163

ABC, 90, 190, 308, 333, 339, 353; Broadcast Akers, John, 378 Anderson, Laurie, 362
Graphics, 199; and cable, 340, 358; merger of, Aladdin, 238, 241, 312 Andrews, Wright, 89
334 Alberti, Leon Battista, 47 "Andy Griffith Show, The," 164, 363
Abe, Shuya, 342 Aldine Press, 145 Animated films, 218, 227, 233-238
Aberrant decoding, 64, 65 Aldus, see Manutius, Aldus Anne, Queen, 220
Abortion, 114, 115-116 Alexander, Susan, 277 Annie Hall, 308
Abyss, The, 241, 344, 361, 364 Alexander, Vicky, 269 Antiabortion activists, 115-116
Academy Awards, 278, 297, 300, 306, 308, 361, Alexander the Great, 12 Antiportraits, 220
363 Alfred A. Knopf publishing company, 168 Antonioni, Michelangelo, 306, 315
Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, Alhazen, 9, 253 Antonius, Marcus Aurelius, 145
297, 300 Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore, 313 Aperture, 260-261
Academy of Science, 254 Aliens, 364,365 Apianus, Petrus, Cosmographia, 195
Academy standard, 300, 347 All About Eve, 310 Apocalypse Now, 167, 301, 314
Acker, Ally, Reel Women, 312 Allen, Bryant, 322, 325 Apple Computer, 119, 148, 198, 264, 383, 398,
Action Comics, 231 Allen, Paul, 373 412; Apple I of, 374; Apple II of, 375; Apple
Action sequences, in cartoons, 240 Allen, Steve, 334, 356 III of, 375; vs. IBM, 376-379; and interactive
Adams, Ansel, 269, 270 Allen, Woody, 233, 308, 315 multimedia, 401; Lisa computer of, 375-376,
Adams, Eddie, 96 Alley, 155 378; Macintosh computer of, 376, 378, 383,
Adamson, Robert, 255, 268 "All in the Family," 212, 339, 350, 356 384; program description of, 396; and John
Addams, Charles, 226 All Quiet on the Western Front, 314 Sculley, 346, 376; video computer services
"Addams Family, The" (cartoon), 226 Alphabets, 68, 133; Greek, 143, 144; Phoenician, from, 406
Addams Family, The (motion picture), 400 140, 143 Applegath, Augustus, 146
"Addams Family, The" (television program), Altair8800 computer, 373, 374 Aqueous humor, 22
359 Altman, Robert, 174, 306, 308, 315, 318, 344 Arago, 254, 255
Additive colors, 13, 39 Alto computer, 375 Arakawa, Minoru, 389
Adobe Photoshop, 264 Altsys Corporation, 156 Arbuckle, Roscoe "Fatty," 296-
Adolf, Archbishop, of Mainz, 135 Ambient optical array, 60 Arbus, Diane, 264, 268
Advanced Research Projects Agency Net Amblin Entertainment, 305 Archer, Frederick Scott, 25i
(ARPANET), 402 Ambroise, Georges d\ 169 Area chart, 200

Advertising, 351; campaign, Benetton, 75, 76-80, American Airlines, 400 Ares Software Corporation, 156
86, 98, 99; cigarette, 84; classified, 83; American Express, 119-120 Aristippus, 125-126
commercial, 83; display, 83; goodwill, 83; American Graffiti, 233 Aristotle, 81, 112, 126, 146, 167, 176; on color,
growth of, 84-86; impact of, 96-98; influence American Medical Center, 400 12; on phenomenon 12, 253
in newsrooms of, 92; noncommercial, 83-84; American Meteorological Society, 190 Arithmometer, 368
and public relations, 88; sexism in, 114-116; American Movie Classics (AMC), 393 Armat, Thomas,
shock, 76-80, 99; trade, 83; visual persuasion American Mutoscope and Biograph Company, Armstrong, Loui
in, 82-86 288 Army Signal I )fl
Advertising Age, 84, 351 American Pathe Studio, 292 Arnaz, Do 340
Advertising Council, 83 American Photographer magazine, 183, 366 Arnold, Ro ( ne, 214, 266,354
Advertorials, 86 American Psychiatric Association, 117 Around th< < ; Days, 164
African-American(s), 326-327, 328, 329; Americans With Disabilities Act (1990), 102 Art deco 179-180
2, 177,
stereotypes, 107-111, 311, 312, 350; on American Weekly, 277 Artifici- intelligence (AI), 67
television, 338-339, 350 America Online, 403, 404-405, 411 Art nouveau, 177-178
Age of Innocence, The, 164 "Amos 'n' Andy," 350 Ash-, in, Clive, 212
Agfa Company, 257 Ampex, 340, 342 As;,; Ameru n stereotypes, 312
Agriculture, Department of, 189 Analogic code, 66 Aspect 300
ratio,
Ahle, Dorothy, 220 Analog watch, 44 Assimilation, 239

AIDS, 78-79, 98, 116, 117, 118 Analytic perspectives, 123-127; applying, 127 Associated Press (AP), 189, 199, 404
.35
1 4 1 1 1
436 INDEX
Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), Bayeux Tapestry, 227 "Bloom County," 230
396 Bazin, Andre, 278, 280 Bloomer, Carolyn, 69
Astrological signs, 69 "B.C.," 230 Bochco, Steven, 237
AT&T, 165, 298, 338, 360, 379, 412; and Beardsley, Aubrey, 178 Bodoni, Giambattista, 151, 152
ImagiNation Network, 410; and teleputer Beat generation poets and writers, 180 Bogart, Humphrey, 302, 392
technology, 405, 406, 407; and videotex Beatles, 237, 400 Bohr, Neils, 1
service, 403, 407 Beauty and the Beast, 238, 417 Boldface, 152, 154
Atari, 374, 389, 390 "Beavis and Butt-Head," 348-349, 352 Bonnie and Clyde, 314
Atget, Eugene, 271 Beck, C. C, 231 Books of the Dead, 141, 168
Atkinson, Bill, 376, 378, 412 Becky Sharp, 393-394 Boorstin, Daniel, 86
Atoms, 1 "Beetle Baily," 230, 239 Booth, George, 226
Attitudes, 64, 80 Beliefs, 71, 80 Boston Massacre, 221
Audimeter, 349 Bell Atlantic, 405 Boston News-Letter, 146
Audio considerations, of motion pictures, Bell Laboratories, 361, 372 Bow, Clara, 312
309-311 Bell South,406 Boyle, Peter, 188
Augarten, Stan, 415 "Ben Casey," 330 Boyle, Robert, 253
Augustine, 62 Benedek, Laslo, 315 Boyz Nthe Hood, 311, 313, 314
Austin, Bruce, Immediate Seating: A Look at Benetton, Luciano, 76 BP America, 165
Movie Audiences, 320 Benetton advertising campaign, 75, 76-80, 86, Bradley, Will, 178
Autochrome, 256-257, 288 98, 99 Brady, Mathew, 255, 268
Autodesk, 388 Bennett, James Gordon, 228, 234 Brain, 28-30; as complex image
cells, 51;
Automated dialogue replacement (ADR), 310 Bentham, Jeremy, 125 processor, 68; computer compared with, 67,
Avedon, Richard, 268 Bergman, Ingmar, 306, 315 72; hippocampus of, 31; storage of signs in, 63;
Avery, Fred "Tex," 229, 236 Berkley, Busby, 301 visual cortex of, 30-31
Berle, Milton, 333, 355 Braittain, Walter, 372
Babbage, Charles, 368 Berman, Shelley, 107 Brando, Marlon, 315
Baby Bells, 405 Bernays, Edward L., 87 Brave One, The, 303
Baby boomers, 113, 217 Bernstein, Carl, 96 Bray, John, 235
Bacon, Sir Francis, 23 Bernstein, Elmer, 163 Breathed, Berke, 230
Baird, John, 343-344 Bernstein, Maurice, 276 "Brideshead Revisited," 350
Bakersfield Californian, 265 226
Berryhill, Clifford, Bridges, Clyde, 266
Bakker, Jim, 356 Berryhill, James,226 266
Bridges, Hilda,
Bakshi, Ralph, 237 Bertolucci, Bernardo, 315 Brigham, Tom, 362-363
Balance, in graphic design, 166, 174-175 Best Years of Our Lives, The, 275 Brightness, of color, 1 5, 38
Ball, Hugo, 178 Betamax, 299, 342 Brinkley, David, 98
Ball, Lucille, 85, 277, 305, 334, 355 Betty Boop, 235 Briseno, Theodore, 323, 324, 326, 328
Balloons, in cartoons, 218, 239-240 "Beverly Hillbillies, The," 330, 337, 359 British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), 201, 403
Bank of America, 375 Bias, 92 British journal of Photography, The, 258
Banning, Kendall, 87 Bible, 8, 20, 108, 117 British Museum, 141
Barbarians at the Gate, 358 Biederman, Irving, 68 British Telecom, 403
Barbera, Joseph, 237 Big Country, The, 164 Broadcast, 345
Bar chart, 200 Binary numerical system, 370 Broadcast News, 164
Bardeen, John, 372 Biograph Studio, 288, 290, 291 Broken Blossoms, 291-292, 307
Barefoot Contessa, The, 310 Birth of a Nation, The, 162, 290-291, 293, 294, Brooks, James, 213, 214
Barlow, John Perry, 412 311 Brooks, Mel, 344
Barnack, Oscar, 258 Bit, 380 Brown, Tina, 201
Barnhurst, Kevin, 48; News as Art, 183; Black, Roger, 149, 156 Brownjohn, Robert, 164
the Newspaper, 156 Black Entertainment Television (BET), 111 Brown v. Board of Education, 109
Barthes, Roland, 52, 62, 65-66, 83 Blackletter typeface family, 149 Brunelleschi, Filippo, 47
410
Bartle, Richard, 335
Blacklisting, 303, Bruner, Jerome, 418
BASIC, 371, 373, 374 "Black or White," 363 Brunet, Diane, 365
Basic Instinct, 3 1 Black Pirate, The, 300 "Buck Rogers," 230
Baskerville, John, 151 Black Power movement, 3 1 Buena Vista Pictures Distribution, Inc., 305
Bass, Elaine Makatura, 162 Blake, William, 18 Buffalo Room, 1 1
Bass, Saul, 161, 162, 167, 171, 176; contnl. Blank, Ben, 199; Professional Video Graphic "Bugs Bunny," 229
of, to graphic design, 162-166, 206; and 1
Design (with M. Garcia), 172 Bulletin boards (BBs), 403-405, 408-409
Man with the Golden Arm, 162-163, 166 !
K'.azing Saddles, 344 Bullock, Wynn, 270
and Psycho, 164, 308 Blight, Isaac, 203 Bunny Lake Is Missing, 164
Bass/Yager & Associates, 163 Blindness, 29 Bunuel, Luis, 315
Batman (comic book), 231 Blind spot, 27 Bureau of the Census, 208
"Batman" (television program), 359 "Blipverts," 86 Burk, Darcy, 352
Batman Returns, 365 159-160
harles, Burns, Ken, 359
Battleship Potemkin, The, 179, 294, 309 Block, Herbert, 224-225 Burroughs, Edgar Rice, 230
Baud rate, 387 ter Video, 344 Burton, Tim, 237
Bauhaus art movement, 162, 163, 167, 177, Block si f, text, 154 Bus, 383
184-185 "Blondie," 230 Busch, Wilhelm, 228, 229
INDEX 437
Bush, George, 41, 88-89, 324 Caslon, William, IV, 152 Cinema verite, 307, 308
Bushkin, Arthur, 405 Castle, William, 304 Cinerama, 300-301
"Buster Brown," 228 Castle Rock Entertainment, 305 Cinetype, Inc., 309
Byte, 380 Cat Ballou, 392 Circle, 43-44, 182
Categorical imperative, 125 Circle dance, visual communication's, 6
Cabaret Voltaire, 178 Cathode ray tube (CRT), 332, 370, 389 Citizen Cohn, 358
Cabinet of Doctor Caligari, The, 293-294 Catlwlican, 135 Citizen Kane, 274-275, 310; analysis of, 280-282;
Cable companies, 319, 320 Catholic Church, see Roman Catholic Church Orson Welles and making of, 275-280, 283,
Cable News Network (CNN), 188, 324, 339, 388 "Cathy," 230 307
Caesar, Sid, 355 Catnach, Jemmy, 231 City Lights, 314
Cagney, James, 302, 392 Caxton, William, trans., Recuyell of the Histories Civil Rights laws (1960s), 109, 1 10
Calculator, 367-368, 369 of Troy, 150 CivilWar, 92, 108, 169, 196-197, 223;
Calendars, 206 CBS, 90, 97, 208, 276, 333, 339; and cable, 340, photographs taken during, 256, 267, 268
California, University of, 217 358; and color television, 335; creation of, 332; "Civil War, The," 359
California Highway Patrol, 323 News, 199, 372; "Sixty Minutes" on, 95, 96, Clarke, Arthur C, 338, 361, 394
California Milk Board, 119 412-413; and violence on television, 353 Claymation process, 241
California State University, 86 "CBS Reports," 303 Clay tablets, 140
Calkins, Richard, 230 CD-I disk, 401, 402 Cleopatra, 219
Callahan, Harry, 270 CD-ROM disks, 299, 306, 320, 380-381, 382, Clifflumger, 306, 363, 400
Callahan, Sean, 366-367 402 Clinton, Bill, 89, 118, 402, 407, 408
Calligraphy, 130; Chinese, 142-143 Cells: brain, 51; complex, 36; hypercomplex, 36; Clip art, 221
Calotype, 170, 255-256 simple, 36 Clockey, Art, 241
"Calvin and Hobbes," 230 Cellular systems, 346 Clockwork Orange, A, 299
Camcorders, 324, 326, 327 Celsius scale, 37 Coaxial cable, 337, 346-347
Camera(s): blur, 261; digital, 263-264; Kodak, Censorship, television, 352-354 COBOL, 371
258; Kodak Megaplus XRC, 385; Leica, 258; Central Intelligence Agency, 399 Cocteau, Jean, 300
Mavica, 260, 264, 384-385; Nikon, 385; Central Park Zoo, 79 Codes, 66; analogic, 66; condensed, 66-67;
obscura, 9, 13, 48, 49, 253, 254; Polaroid, 38, Central processing unit (CPU), 382-383 displaced, 66; metonymic, 66
259; television, 344-345; type, 262-264 Cerebrum, 29 Cognition, 61, 67-72
Camera Work, 270 Chain of associations, 65-66 Cohen, David, 397
Cameron, James, 323, 361, 364, 365, 400 Chamberlain, Neville, 183 Cohl, Emile, 234, 289, 362
Cameron, Julia Margaret, 268 Chamberlain, Richard, 356 Colbert, Claudette, 302
Camouflage, principle of, 56 Champion, 162 Cold type production, typography and, 148-149
Caniff, Milton, 230 Champollion, Jean -Francois, 141 Cold War, 302, 303
Canon, 260 Chandler, Otis, 225 Coleman, John, 190
Cape Fear, 164 Chaney, Lon, 362 Collier's magazine, 178, 358
Capital Cities Communication, 339 Channel grazing, 329 Colmar, Thomas de, 368
Capp, Al, 230 Chap-Book, The, 178 Color, 12-16, 36; achromatic, 38; additive, 13,
Capra, Frank, 293, 302 Chapbooks, 227 39; chromatic, 38; and depth, 46; describing,
"Captain and the Kids, The," 229 Chaplin, Charles, 291, 292, 293, 294-296 37-40; materials, invention 256-257; in
of,
Captain Marvel, 231, 232 Chapman, Neil, 270 motion pictures, 299-300; sociological uses of,
Captions, 138 Characters, cartoon, 239 16-17; subtractive, 12-13, 39; in television,
Carey, James, 80 Charge-coupled device (CCD), 344, 384-385 335-337; of type, 153-154; wheel, 38, 39
Caricatures, 218, 219-220 Charts, 200-201, 208-209 Color blindness, 27
Carlson, Arne, 1 18 Chatting, and networked interactive multimedia, Coloreme, 68
Carmen Jones, 162 410-412 Color film process, invention of, 1 1, 257
Carolco Pictures, 320 Cheap Little Books, 231 Colorization, 309, 392
Carpal tunnel syndrome, 389 "Cheers," 164-165 Color reversal internegative film (CRI), 300
Carracci, Agostino, 220 Chemist, The, 256 Color slide, 256
Carracci, Annibale, 220 Cher, 85, 91 Color Systems Technology, 392
Carracci, Ludovico, 220 "Cheyenne," 333 Columbia Phonograph Record Company, 332
Carrier waves, 345 Chicago Film Festival, 164 Columbia Picture-. 8, 299, 302, 305, 320, 333;
Carroll, Diahann, 339 Chicago Sun-Times, 224 and TriStar Pictures, Inc., 339
Carson, Johnny, 214, 215, 278, 334, 356 Chicago Tribune, 198 Columbia Universiry, 58, 246, 247
Cartier- Bresson, Henri, 247, 258, 271 Chicago Tribune Graphic Service, 199 Columbus, Christopher, 131, 137
Cartoons, 204, 212; critical perspective on, 244; Chinese, writings of, 142-143 Column chai I
cultural perspective on, 243-244; editorial, Choroid, 23 Comcast CableVision, 356-358

218, 221-226; ethical perspective on, 241-243; Christians, Clifford, 125 Comic books, 218, 227, 231-233; underground,
future directions for, 244-245; gag, 218; Chroma, of color, 15, 38 180
historical perspective on, 219-238; humorous, Chroma keying, 190, 197 Comic lode, 232; Authority, 243
218, 226-227; multi-framed, 218, 227-238; Chrysler Building, 179 Comic .(rips, 204-205, 218, 227, 228-231
personal perspective on, 217-218; and "The Chwast, Seymour, Graphic Style (with S. Heller), Commission on Civil Rights, U.S., 105, 115
Simpsons," 212-217; singleframed, 218, 177 ( ntee Dii Public Information (CPI), 87
219-227; technical perspective on, 238-241 Cincinnati Reds, 110 Common fate, law of, 54
Casablanca, 302, 314 Cinema, 283, 287 Communist party, Communists, 95, 302-303,
Caslon, William, 151, 152 CinemaScope, 301 335
1 22 1
438 INDEX
Comparative method for describing color, 37-39 Crawford, Joan, 20, 302, 312 "Death Valley Days," 85
Composograph, 94 Cray, Seymour, 382 Decimal numerical system, 370
CompuServe, 403, 404, 410 Cray Computer Company, 382 Decisive moment, 271; photojournalism, 79
Computer-assisted drawings (CAD), 388 Cray Research, 382 Declaration of Independence, 151
Computer-generated images (CGI), 361-362; Cray 3 supercomputer, 382 Decoding, 64; aberrant, 64, 65
evolution of, 363-364; future of, 365-366; and Creature Comforts, 241 Deep focus, 279-280
morphing, 362-363 Credit Lyonnais, 305 Defense, Department of, 402
Computer graphics, analysis of motion picture, Creel, George, 87,224 De Forest, Lee, 235, 298, 331
366 Creel Commission, 87 Delaroche, Paul, 249, 255
Computer nerd, 394, 396 Crichton, Michael, 362 Delia Femina, Jerry, 77
Computers, 361-366; and cameras, 260; critical Critical perspective for analyzing images, 124, Delia Femina McNamee agency, 77
perspective on, 395; cultural perspective on, 126-127; on cartoons, 244; on computers, 395; DeMille, Cecil B., 292, 293, 302
394-395; ethical perspective on, 389-394; on graphic design, 185; on informational Demme, Jonathan, 164, 310
future directions for, 395-396; historical graphics, 210; on motion pictures, 317-319; Demotic script, 141
perspective on, 367-379; and informational on networked interactive multimedia, De Niro, Robert, 313
graphics, 198-199, 209, 210; and maps, 412-413; on photography, 271-272; on Denisyuk, Yuri, 259
203-204; personal perspective on, 366-367; television and video, 358-359; on typography, Dennis, Everette, 82
technical perspective on, 379-389; use of, by 158 Dennis the Menace, 314
researchers, 67 Cronkite, Walter, 356 Denny, Reggie, 394
Computing-Tabulating- Recording Company Crowther, Bosley, 274 Denny's restaurant, 1 1
(CTR), 369 Cruikshank, George, 231 Denotation, 64

Conceptual perspective, 49 Cruise, Tom, 85 Denver Post, 225
Condensed code, 66-67 Crumb, Robert, 230, 237 Depth, 44-45; cues, eight, 45-49
Cone (volumetric form), 45 Crystal Palace Exhibition (London, 1851), 255 Depth of field, 260
Cones (of eye), 24, 26-27 Cube, 45 Depth perception, 28, 42, 45, 46; test, 60
Congregation for Propagating the Faith, 8 Cultural norms, 112 Desilu Productions, 305, 334
Connotation, 64 Cultural perspective on analyzing images, 124, Desktop publishing, 148, 378, 383, 394-395
Conrad, Frank, 331, 335 126; on cartoons, 243-244; on computers, De Stijl, 177, 182-184
Conrad, Joseph, Heart of Darkness, 277 394-395; on graphic design, 177-185; on Destiny, 294
Conrad, Paul, 224, 225 informational graphics, 210; on motion Detective Comics (DC), 231
Constancy, color, 38 pictures, 314-317; on networked interactive Determinatives, 141
Constantine, Emperor, 137, 145 multimedia, 409-412; on photography, Detroit News, 191
Constitution, U.S., 151, 326; Equal Rights 268-271; on television and video, 354-358; on DeVito, Danny, 164
Amendment to, proposed, 114; First typography, 157-158 Diagrams, 204
Amendment to, 243, 326; Nineteenth Culture: defined, 104; dominant, 104; popular, Dial M for Murder, 304
Amendment to, 113; Thirteenth Amendment 166; visual perception and, 69, 71-72 Diamond Sutra, 133
to, 108 Culture shock, 70 Dichromatism, 27
Constructivism theory of visual communication, Cuneiform, 140, 143 Dickson, William Kennedy Laurie, 286, 288, 290,
50, 58-59, 69 Cunningham, Richie, 363 291
Continental Airlines, 165 Currier, Nathaniel, 169 "Dick Tracy," 230 ,
Continuation, law of, 54 Currier and Ives, 169 "Dick Van Dyke Show, The," 164, 355-356
Contrast: defined, 264-265; in graphic design, Cursive writing, 151 Die Hard 2, 313
166, 172-174 Curtis, Richard, 192 Diesel (jeans manufacturer), 77
Control Data, 382 Cyberspace, 4 1 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), 371,
Cool World, 237, 241 Cylinder, 45 373
Cooper, Gary, 302 Digital photography, 260
Copernicus, Nicolaus, 10 Dadaism, 177, 178-179, 271 Digital signature technology (DST), 408
Copper telephone wire, 346 Daguerre, Louis J. M, 254, 255 Digital Theater Sound (DTS), 299
Coppola, Francis Ford, 301, 306, 315 Daguerreotype, 254-255 Digital typesetting, 148-149
Cordle, Barb, 79 Dances with Wolves, 365 Digital watches, 43-44
Corman, Roger, 315, 364 Dark Ages, 136, 145 Digitization, 158, 384
Cornea, 21-22 Data maps, 201 306
Diller, Barry,
Cornell, Katharine, 276 Data transfer, and networked interactive Dioramas, 254
Cornell University, 60 multimedia, 409 Dippe, Mark, 364
Cornford, F. M„ 81-82 !>diimier, Honore, 222 Direct cinema approach, 307-308
Corpus callosum, 30 Davidson, Robyn, 211, 397-398, 400-401, 402; Direct cut, 308
Corpuscular theory, 10 Tracks, 397, 400 Directors, movie, 293-294, 315-317
Cosby, Bill, 217, 338-339 Davies, )ohn, 326 Dirks, Rudolph, 229
Cosell, Howard, 356 Davies, Marion, 277 Disabled, stereotypes of, 101-102
Coster, Laurens Janszoon, 133 Bette, 3 1 Disco Vision, 344
Costner, Kevin, 365 Davis, Jack,232 Discrimination, 102, 108-109. See also
Cotliar, George, 188 315
Peter, Stereotypes
("often, Joseph, 275 Day, Doris, 312 Disney, Roy, 236
Courtroom drawings, 205 Dayltg] color film, 262 Disney, Tim, 414
Cowper, Edward, 146 th Stood Still, The, 275, 394 Disney, Walt, 85, 216, 235-236, 241, 414
Crane shot, 307 Dean, )., nes, 316 Disneyland, 41, 236, 288, 304
INDEX 439
Disney Studio, 238, 241, 300, 305, 312. See also El Capitan Theater, 304 "Family Dog," 237
Walt Disney Company Electromagnetic energy, 11-12, 256 Faraday, Michael, 255
Disney World, 236 Electronic mail (E-mail), 158, 387, 406, 408, Farm Security Administration (FSA), 95, 247,
Displaced code, 66 410-412 271
Disraeli, Benjamin, 207-208 Electronic news gathering (ENG) videotape Farnsworth, Philo, 332
Dissonance, visual perception and, 69, 71 trucks, 342 Farrow, Mia, 233
Diurnal, 7, 19 Ellington, Duke, 163 "Far Side, The," 226
Dixon, Thomas, The Clansman, 290 Ellison, Larry, 383 "Father Knows Best," 213, 350
Dobie, Frank, Coronado's Children, 147 Ellul, Jacques, 105 Faulkner, William, Sanctuary, 229
Documentary, 283, 293 Lmakimonos, 227 Federal Communications Commission (FCC), 84,
Doesburg, Theo van, 182, 184 Emery, Michael and Edwin, The Press and 329, 332, 333, 334, 360; content regulation by,
Dolby, Ray, 299 America, 191 335; and Fairness Doctrine, 339; and LMDS,
Dollys, 307 Emitter, 64 346
Dominant culture, 104 Emmy Awards, 355 Federal Radio Act (1927), 332
Donahue, Phil, 326 Emot icons, 41 Federal Radio Commission (FRC), 332
Donahue, Troy, 356 Empedocles, 8 Feiffer, Jules, 230-231
"Donna Reed Show, The," 350 Encoding, 64 Fellini, Federico, 306, 315
"Doonesbury," 225, 231, 242 Energy: electromagnetic, 11-12; waves, 11 Female stereotypes, 112-116
Dots, and form, 40-41 Englemann, Godefroy, 169 Fessenden, Reginald, 331
Douglas, Kirk, 162, 303 EN AC, 370, 373
I Fiber optic cable, 273, 347, 406-407
Douglas, Melvyn, 22 Entertaining Comics (EC), 232 Fidler, Roger, 413
Dow Jones Industrial Average, 208 "Entertainment Tonight," 358 Figgins, Vincent, 152
Dracula, 294 Epcot Center, 236 Film(s): action-adventure, 289-290; animated,
"Dragnet," 359 Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), 114 218, 227, 233-238; choices, for motion
Drawings, first, 138-139 Equilateral triangle, 44 pictures, 308-309; color, 262; defined, 283;
Dream Quest Images, 320 Ergonomics, 389 monster, 240; silent, 290-292, 293, 297-298;
Drew, Richard, 307-308 Ericsson GE, 406 speed, 261; type,261-262
Drive-in movies, 304 Erie, 179 Film Foundation of Hollywood Directors, 393
Dr. No, 164 Escher, M. C, 56 Final Nightmare, The: Freddy's Dead, 314
Dr. Strangelove, 393, 394 Esquire, 149 FineLine Features, 305
Drucker, Mort, 232 Ethical perspective for analyzing images, 124, First Amendment Publishing Company, 232-233
Dr. Zhivago, 314 125-126; on cartoons, 241-243; on Fisher, H. C. "Bud," 229
Duchamp, Marcel, Nude Descending the Staircase, computers, 389-394; on graphic design, Flagg, James Montgomery, 224
179 176-177; on informational graphics, 207-210; Flaherty, Robert, 293
Duchenne, Guillaume, 100 on motion 311-314; on networked
pictures, Fleischer, Dave, 235
Duchenne MD, 100-101 407-409; on
interactive multimedia, Fleischer, Max, 235, 242
Dukakis, Michael, 89 photography, 265-268; on television and Flight of the Navigator, The, 362
Dumont, Allen, 332, 333 video, 348-354; on typography, 156-157 "Flintstones, The," 212, 216, 237, 359
Dumont Network, 333, 334 Ethnic groups, 105-106. See also names of Flip book, 53, 227
Dunn, Beverly, 400 individual groups Floaters, 23
Dunne, Irene, 274 Ethos, 81 Floppy disks, 380, 381
E.T. The Extraterrestrial, 85, 233, 310 Flowcharts, 207
Eastman, George, 258, 285, 395 Euclid, 8 Flowers and Trees, 236, 300
Eastmancolor, 300 Eumenes II, King, of Pergamon, 144 Fluorescent lamps, 12
Eastman Kodak Company, 260, 264, 286, 289, "Eustace Tilley," 226 Flying gnats, 23
300, 381, 398 Evans, Harold, 201; Pictims on a Page, 201 Foley artist, 310-311
Eckert, J. Presper, 371 Evans, Walker, 247 Fonda, Peter, 362
Eco, Umberto, 62 Evening Telegram, 234 FontChamleon, 156
Ecological approach to visual perception, 59-61 Evers-Manley, Sandra, 350 Fontographer, 156
Edinburgh, University of, 195 Exodus, 163, 303 Fonts, 146, 154; "garbage," 156
Edison, Thomas Alva, 233, 285-287, 288, 289, Expectation, visual perception and, 69, 70 "For Better or for Worse
293, 306, 343; Kinetophonograph of, 286, 298 Explanatory maps, 203 Ford, Henry, 88
Edison Electric Institute, 89 Exxon, 165 Ford, John, 275
Editorial cartoons, 218, 221-226 Eye contact, 65 Form, 40; and dol and lines, 41-42; and
Educational Comics, 232 Eyelashes, 21 shapes, 4.
Edward II, 17 Eyelids, 21 Forrester, ).r
Edwards, Douglas, 340 Eyes: historic, 18-20; physiology of, 21-23; as FORTRAN
Edwards, James, Sr., 304 windows to soul, 20-2 1 . See also Retina Fortune 50? «s, 161
Edwards, Vince, 356 Eyes on the News, 59 Foster, Hai
Egan, Pierce, Life in London, 231 "Four len," 87
Egyptians, writings 140-142
of, 253
Fabritius, Carel, Fovea centralis, 24, 26
Einstein, Albert, 11, 12, 259 "Fabulously Furry Freak Brothers," 230 Fovea) field, 21
Eisenhower, Dwight, 372 Fact boxes, 201-202 fovea] vision, 23-24
Eisenstein, Elizabeth, 137 Failsafe, 394 Fox, William, 292
Eisenstein, Sergei, 179, 292, 294 Fairbanks, Douglas, 291, 292, 294, 295 isting Company, 339, 353, 358
Eisner, Will, 240 Fairness Doctrine, 339 "Foxy G tndpa," 229
3 1
440 INDEX
Frame, for cartoons, 238-239 Generalizations, stereotypical, 80. .See also 171-176; use of colors in, 40
Frame grabbing, 387-388 Stereotypes Graphs, see Charts
Frank, Leo, 107 General Magic, 412 Grauman, Sid, Chinese Theater of, 304
Frank, Robert, 258, 271; The Americans, 180 General Motors, 85, 400, 405 Gray, Harold, 230
Frankenstein, 314 General Telephone and Electric (GTE), 407 Great Depression, 84, 94, 95, 235, 246, 271;
Frankfurt, University of, 53 Geneva, University of, 62 movie attendance during, 284
Frank Leslie's llli4Strated Newspaper, 196, Gensfleisch, Friele and Else, 131 Great Dictator, The, 296
222-223 Geometrical perspective, 49 Great Tram Robbery, The, 289-290, 293, 299
Franklin, Benjamin, 146, 221; Poor Richard's Geons, 68; verbal, 68 Greeks, writings of, 143-144
Almanac, 146 George III, 222 Green, Harold, 165, 405
Frare, Therese, 78, 79, 99 Gere, Richard, 313 Greenberg, Bob, 392
Free form artistic styles, 177-180, 185, 186 Gerstner, Lou, 378 Greenfield, Meg, 322
Free-lance writer, 102 Gertie, the Trained Dinosaur, 235 Gregory, Richard, 68
Freleng, Friz, 229,236-237 Gestalt theory of visual perception, 53-58, 59, Grid approach, 177, 180-185, 186
artistic
French Revolution, 146 104 Griffith, D. W., 293, 305, 306, 319; and The
French Telecom, 403 Ghast, Roz, 226 Birth of a Nation, 290-291, 293, 294; and
Fressola, Peter, 77, 79 Gibson, Charles Dana, 224 Broken Blossoms, 291-292, 307
Freud, Sigmund, 113, 161, 226 Gibson, James J., 60-61 Griflfo, Francesco, 146
Friedan, Betty, The Feminine Mystique, 1 1 Gibson, William, 412 Groening, Deborah Caplan, 214
Friends of the Forest, 79 Gifford, Frank, 356 Groening, Homer, 213
Frito-Lay Company, 351 Gigabyte, 380 Groening, Matt, 212, 213-215, 216
"Fritz the Cat," 230 Gilliam, Terry, 241 400
Grolier,
From Alone Across the Outback,
Alice to Ocean: "Gilligan's Island," 337 Grooms, Red, 244
211, 398, 400-401, 402 Gillray, James, 222 Gropius, Walter, 184, 185
From Here to There, 164 Ginsberg, Allen, 180; Howl, 180 Gross, Larry, 117
Frost, A. B.,228 Ginsburg, Charles, 340 Gross, Lynn, See/Hear: An Introduction to
Frost, Mark, 329 Girl Scouts, 165 Broadcasting, 349
F-stop, 260-261 Gish, Lillian, 291 Guback, Thomas, 318
"Fugitive, The," 359 Glaser, Milton, 156 Guilds, 145
Fulton, Robert, 146 Glass Menagerie, 1 1 Guisewite, Cathy, 230
Funnies, see Comic strips Glaucoma, 22 Gulf War, 41, 77, 198, 204
Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum, Gleason, Jackie, 217, 338 Gumbasia, 241
A, 310 Glory, 314 "Gunsmoke," 349
Furlong, Edward, 364, 365 Godard, Jean-Luc, 315 Gutenberg, Johannes, 138, 142-143, 144, 145,
Fust, Johann, 134-135, 136 Godfather, The, 301 158; and golden age of typographical design,
Futureworld, 362 Godfrey, Arthur, 334 157-158; and graphic design, 168; grid used
Godowsky, Leopold, Jr., 257 by, 181; history of, 131-136; and justified
Gable, Clark, 302 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 13, 135 type, 155; legacy of, 146; typeface style of, 130,
Gabor, Dennis, 258-259 Goldberg, Vicki, 98; The Power of Photography, 136, 137, 149. See also Gutenberg Bible
Gabriel, Peter, 324 272 Gutenberg Bible, 129,-131, 138, 149; analysis of,
Gag cartoons, see Humorous cartoons Goldberg, Whoopi, 214 136-137
Gaines, Max, 231 Golden mean, 126 Gutter, 155
Gaines, William, 231, 232 Golden rule, 126, 137
Galileo, 10 Goldman, Timothy, 394 Habituation, visual perception and, 69, 70
Game playing, and networked interactive Gold Rush, The, 296 "Hair light," 46
multimedia, 409-410 Goldwyn, Samuel, 292, 293 Hakim, 9
Gamma rays, 12 Gone With the Wind, 300, 312, 314, 332 Halftone engraving process, 170
Gance, Abel, 293, 300 Goodfellas, 164, 301, 306 Halftone printing screen, invention of, 45, 146,
Gannett newspaper chain, 187, 191 "Good Morning America," 190 168, 169-171, 189
Garamond, Claude, 150, 157 Gordon, Larry, 313 Hall, Edward, The Dance of Life, 47
Garbo, Greta, 22, 296, 302 Gore, Fred, 188 Hallelujah, 311
Garcia, Mario, 58, 172; Contemporary Newspaper Gould, Chester, 230 Halley, Edmond, 188-189
Design, 183; Professional Video Graphic Design Gracie Films, 214, 216 Hallmark Cards, 85
(with B. Blank), 172 Graffiti, 219, 417-418 Hamilton, Linda, 364, 365
Gardner, Howard, 71-72 Grand Prix, 164 Hammurabi, Code of, 140
Garroway, Dave, 334 Granjon, Robert, 151 Hampton, Lionel, 350
Gates, Daryl, 324, 326 Grant, Cary, 274 Hanna, William, 237
Gates, William, 373, 402 Grant, Ulysses, 223 Happy Days (motion picture), 301
Gay and lesbian stereotypes, 116-119 Grapes of Wrath, The, 275, 314 "Happy Days" (television program), 363
Gay liberation movement, 17 1 Graphic design, 161-162; Bass's contributions to, Hard disks, 380, 381
Geffin Pictures, 305 166; and concept of time, 42; critical Hardt, Hanno, 417
Geipel, John, The Cartoon, 218 live on, 185; cultural perspective on, Hardy, Oliver, 293
Gelatin-bromide dry plate process, 257-258 1/ 185; defined, 167; ethical perspective on, Harper's Bazaar, 179
General, The, 296 176-177; future directions 185-186;
for, Harper's Monthly, 178
General Electric (GE), 298, 332, 339 ;l perspective on, 168-171; personal Harper's Weekly, 169, 196, 223
General Foods, 165 on, 168; technical perspective on, Harring, Keith, 244
INDEX 441
Harris, Ed, 364 Hogarth, Burne, 230 Ideographs, 139, 141

Harrower, Tim, 202; The Newspaper Designer's Hogarth, William, 221, 222; A Harlot's Progress, Ikh-naton, 219
Handbook, 194 221 Ikonic Interactive, 400
Harryhausen, Ray, 240, 363 Hollerith, Herman, 368-369 Illinois Institute of Technology, 185
Hart, Johnny, 230 Holliday, George, 322; his video of Rodney King Illusionary perspective, 48-49
Harte, John, 265 incident, 323-326, 327, 328, 394 Illustrations, 196, 197-198, 207
Harvard University, 291, 362 Hollywood, 301-306 "I Love Lucy," 85, 166, 305, 334, 340, 355
Hasegawa, Machiko, 244-245 Hollywood Pictures Company, 305 Image Entertainment, 364
Haskell, Eddie, 214 "Hollywood Ten," 303 Images: brain as complex processor of, 68; as
Hatcher, Evelyn, 42, 47; Visual Metaphors: A Holmes, Nigel, 200-201, 208; Designer's Guide to collection of signs, 65-67; computer-generated,
Methodological Study in Visual Creating Charts and Diagrams, 201; Designing 361-366; manipulation of, 391-394;
Communication, 48 Pictorial Symbols, 201 reinforcing stereotypes with, 103-104
Hauer, Rutger, 4 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 254-255 ImagiNation Network (INN), 410
Hauron, Louis Ducos du, Photography in Color, Holocaust, 233 j Married a Communist, 303
256 Holography, 258-259 Imax, 301
"Have Gun, Will Travel," 356 Holtom, Gerald, 180 Impressionism, 158, 271
Hawn, Goldie, 75 Home Box Office (HBO), 339, 345, 358 Incredible Shrinking Man, The, 304
Hays, Will, 297 Homebrew Computer Club, 373-374 Indecent Proposal, 313
Hayworth, Rita, 278 Home Depot, 400 Indexical signs, 63-64
Hearst, William Randolph, 178, 224, 228, 229, "Home Improvement," 353, 354 Indiana University, Lilly Library at, 129, 130
235, 292; and Roscoe "Fatty" Arbuckle, 297; " Honey mooners, The," 212, 217 Industrial Light and Magic (ILM), 363, 364, 365,
and Citizen Kane, 277-278, 280-281, 282, Hoogstraten, Samuel van, 253 392
283; and Spanish-American War, 93-94 Hopkins, Will, 183 Industrial Revolution, 67, 113, 146, 158, 271; and
Hedonism, 125-126, 136 Hopper, Grace Murray, 371 miscellaneous typeface family, 151, 152
Hefner, Hugh, 214 Horgan, Stephen, 170, 171, 189, 258 Infomercials, 86, 91
Heincken, Robert, 271 Horner, W. G., 234 Informational graphics (infographics), 187;
Heliography, 253-254 Horton, Willie, 88-89 critical perspective on, 210; cultural
Heller, Steven, Graphic Style (with S. Chwast), Hot type production, typography and, 144-147 perspective on, 210; ethical perspective on,
177 Houdini, Harry, 296 207-210; future directions for, 210-211;
Helmholtz, Hermann von, 13 Houseman, John, 276 historical perspective on, 194-199; newspaper,
Helms, Freddie, 322, 325 House of Wax, The, 303-304 196-199; nonstatistical, 200, 201-207;
Henson, Jim, 362 House on Haunted Hill, The, 304 personal perspective on, 194; pioneers in,
Hepburn, Katharine, 312 House UnAmerican Activities Committee 195-196; 199-201; technical
statistical,
Hermann, Bernard, 275, 280, 310 (HUAC), 302-303, 333 perspective on, 199-207; in USA Today,
Herriman, George, 229, 236 Hovland, Carl, 81 187-188, 191-193; use of, 194; and weather
Herschel, Sir John, 255 Howard, Ron, 363 maps, 188-191
Herschel, William, 1 Howard, Tom, 94 Infrared radiation, 1
Hertz, Heinrich, 11,12 Howard's End, 306 Inge, M. Thomas, Comics as Culture, 244
Hertzfeld, Andy, 378 How the West Was Won, 301, 347 Instant photography, 259-260
He Said-She Said Comics, 233 Hoyem, Andrew, 147 Intel, 375, 377, 383
Hewlett-Packard (HP), 374 Hubel, David, 35-36, 51, 382 Intelligences, types of, 71-72
Heyl, Henry, 284 Hue, see Chroma Interactive multimedia (IM), 199, 397-399;
Hieratic script, 141 Huebner, William, 148 applications of, 399-401; defined, 399. See also
Hieroglyphics, Egyptian, 140-142 Hughes, Howard, 162, 305 Networked interactive multimedia
High definition television (HDTV), 348, 386-387 Hughes Communication, 345 Interfaces, 377
Hill, Anita, 115 Humanist movement, 137 International House of Pancakes, 111
Hill, David O., 255, 268 Humorous cartoons, 218, 226-227 International Typeface Corporation, 149
Hill, Irving, 326 Hunter, Tab, 356 Internet, 402, 408, 409, 412
Hine, Lewis, 247, 271 Hurd, Earl, 235 Interotica Company, 391
Hip hop, 181 Hurlburt, Allen, The Grid, 181 Interposition, as depth
Hippocampus, 31, 36 Husbands and Wives, 308 Interpreter program, 3'
Hirschfeld, Al, 220 Hussein, Saddam, 41, 204 Interview, 176

Historical perspective for analyzing images, 123, Huxley, Aldous, 15, 61, 62, 414, 420; The Art of In the Line of Fire, 3(
1
125;on cartoons, 219-238; on computers, Seeing, 4-5, 415; Brave New World, 4 Intolerance, 291, _
367-379; on graphic design, 168-171; on Huygens, Christiaan, 233 Invasion of the Body Snatchers, The, 303
informational graphics, 194-199; on motion Hyman, Eliot, 305 Inverted pyramid writing style, 94-95
pictures, 284-306; on networked interactive Iowa, Univcrsi; >
multimedia, 402-405; on photography, IBM, 198, 208, 365, 369, 371, 405; vs. Apple Iris, 22
253-260; on television and video, 330-344; on Computer, 376-379; and Intel, 375, 383; Irish-American stereotypes, 106
typography, 138-149 program description of, 396; supercomputer Irvin, Rea, 22;>
Hitchcock, Alfred, 164, 275, 304, 306, 308, 315 from, 382; video games from, 390 Isley, Alexander, 164, 181
Hitler, Adolf, 236, 276, 293, 294, 296 ICFX, 391 Isosceles triangle, 44
HIV, 117 I-Ching, 69 Isotypc (international system of typographic
Hochberg, Julian, 50, 58-59, 69 Iconic signs, 63, 64 picture education), 159
Hoe, Richard, 146, 169 Iconoscope, 345 It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World, 164, 301
Hoefler, Jonathan, 129, 156 Icons, 63, 206-207 It's a Wonderful Life, 302
1 1 1
442 INDEX
Ives, Frederick, 170-171, 258 The Nature and Art of Motion, 184; Sign, Lansing (Ml) State Journal, 190
Ives, lames, 169 Image, Symbol, 184; The Vision Arts Today, 184 Lanston, Tolbert, 147
Iwerks, Don, 414 Kepler, Johann, 253 Lantz, Walter, 237
Iwerks, Ub, 236, 414 Keppler, Joseph, 222 Larson, Gary, 226
Keratitis punctata, 4 Laser, invention of, 259, 344
Jackson, Andrew, 222 Kerner Commission report, 105, 109-110 Laser disk presentations, analysis of, 401-402
(ackson, Jesse, 326 Kerning, 155 Laser printers, 148, 378, 387
Jackson, Michael, 352, 363 Kerouac, Jack, 180; On the Road, 180 Lasswell, Harold, 82
Jackson, William, 269 Keyboard, 383-384 Last Action Hero, The, 167, 233, 299, 306, 318,
Japanese-American Citizens League, 312 Keystone Film Company, 293 400
Japanese-American internees (WWII), 248 Keystone Kops, 293, 295 Last Starfighter, The, 362, 365
Japan Victor Company (JVC), 342, 347 Kilobyte, 380 "Laugh-In," 75, 339
Jaws, 227 Kinemacolor, 300 Laughlin, Clarence John, 7
Jazz Singer, The, 298 Kineograph, 227 Laugh-O-Grams, 236
Jean, Georges, Writing: The Story of Alphabets Kinetograph, 286, 287, 288 293
Laurel, Stan,
and Scripts, 138 Kinetophonograph, 286, 298 Lawnmower Man, The, 363, 391
Jenkins, Charles, 332 Kinetoscope, 286, 287, 288 Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, 324
Jenson, Nicolas, 150 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 110, 118 Leading, 155
"Jeopardy!," 356 King, Rodney, 110, 119, 392, 394; incident, "Leave It to Beaver," 214, 350
Jerome, St., 130 322-326; video, analysis of, 326-329 Le Corbusier, 182, 183; Modulor, 183
Jewish- American stereotypes, 106-107 King Kong, 240, 275 Lee, Ivy, 87-88
JFK, 318, 365 Kirby, Bill, 78, 79, 99 Lee, Russell, 247
Jobs, Steven, 374-376, 378 Kirby, David, 78-79, 98, 99 Lee, Spike, 311, 315, 318, 319, 326
John, Elton, 392 Kirby, Jack, 372 Lee, Stan, 231
Johns Hopkins University, 35 Kirby, Kay, 78, 79 Legibility, 138
Johnson, Robert, 1 1 Kirby, Susan, 79 Leigh, Emmet, 259
Johnston, Lynn, 242 Kircher, Athanasius, 233 Leigh, Janet, 164
Jolson, Al, 298 Klee, Paul, 56, 184 Leno, Jay, 334
Jones, Chuck, 229, 236-237 KJein, Calvin, 76 Lens, 22; normal, 260, opening, 260-261;
Journalism: celebrity, 97; objectivity and, 92-98; Knight-Ridder newspaper chain, 403, 407 telephoto, 260; type, 260; wide-angle, 260
and public relations, 89-91; tabloid, 97; visual Knight-Ridder Newspaper Lab, 413 Leonardo window, 47-48, 49
persuasion in, 91-98; yellow, 83, 92-94, 228. Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Graphics Network, Lesbians, see Gay and lesbian stereotypes
See also Newspaper(s) 191 Lester, Richard, 315-316
J. Morgan, 293
P. Kodachrome, Kodacolor, 2^7, 300 Letterbox format, 301, 344, 347
Judge, Mike, 349 Kodak camera, 258 Letterman, David, 190, 214, 356
Jupiter, discovery of, 10 Kodak Research Laboratories, 257 Leveling, 239
Jurassic Park, 233, 238, 306, 314, 362, 365; CGI Koenig, Frederich, 146 Levine, David, 220
technology in, 363; combined live action and Koon, Stacey, 323, 324, 326, 328 Levi Strauss, 119, 351
animation in, 241; Digital Theater Sound in, Kopple, Barbara, 308 Levy, Louis, 171
299; digitized dinosaurs in, 240, 366; technical Korean War, 303 Levy, Max, 171
perspective on, 309, 310, 311 Koren, Edward, 226 Lewis, Jerry, 100, lOf, 102
Jussim, Estelle, 163 Kraft Cheese, 85 Library of Congress, 247, 286
Justice Department, 340 Kramer, Stanley, 162 Lichtenstein, Roy, 244
Justification, text, 154-155 "Krazy Kat" (comic strip), 229 Liefield, Rob, 232
Krazy Kat (film), 235, 236 "Life in Hell," 214, 215
Kael, Pauline, 274 Kress, Gunther, 86 Life magazine, 95, 107, 162, 176, 308, 358;
Kaiser Electro-Optics, 414 Kricfalusi, John, 237 Benetton advertisement of AIDS victim in, 78,
Kalman, Tibor, 164, 181 KRTN, 191, 199 98, 99; cartoons in, 224; and Walt Disney,
Kane, Charles Foster, 275, 276, 28 Kruger, Barbara, 271 235-236; first issue of, 192, 247;
Citizen Kane KTLA, 324, 325-326, 327 photographers for, 248, 271, 311
Kant, Immanuel, 125 Kubrick, Stanley, 66, 299, 309, 315 Life ofan American Fireman, The, 289-290
Kapor, Mitch, 412 Ku Klux Klan (KKK), 107, 224, 290, 291 Lifesaver Candy Company, 333
"Katzenjammer Kids, The" (comic strip Kurosawa, Akira, 315 Light, 7-8, 420-421; origin of, 8-9; as particles
Katzenjammer Kids, The (film), 235 or waves, 10-11; speed of, 9-10
Kazan, Elia, 31 ibels, photo, 204 Lighting: artificial, 264; as depth cue, 46; natural,
KDKA, 332 mth, 362 264
Keaton, Buster, 296 train Shanghai, The, 278 Lightness, of color, 38
Kefauver, Estes, 335 tta, Jake, 308 Lights of New York, The, 298
Keillor, Garrison, 216 Edwin, 38, 259 "Li'l Abner," 230, 242
Kellogg Company, 1 19 Ebenezer, 222
, Lilliput magazine, 182
Kelly, Walt, 230 Lai itz, 294 L' Illustration, 170
Kelvin scale, 37 othea, 246-249; An American Exodus Lincoln, Abraham, 169, 223, 224, 268
Kennan, George F., 82 S. Taylor), 248; "Migrant Mother," Lindbergh, Charles, 298
Kennedy, John F., 224, 308, 338, 356 246 ! 17, 248, 249-252 Linear perspective, 49
Kepes, Gyorgy: Language of Vision, 162, 184;
:
angei vanne, 35 Line chart, 200, 209

Module, Perception, Symmetry, Rhythm, 184; l-'nier, ;
ron, 389 Lines, and form, 41-42

INDEX 443
Linotype machine, 147 Mad magazine, 231, 232 Memory: computer, 380; visual perception and,
Lippershey, Hans, 9-10 "Madonna and Child" paintings, 246, 250 69
Lippmann, Walter, 100; Public Opinion, 80, 88, Magazines, 176; homemade, 159 Mental attention, size and, 46
91-92 Magic lantern, 233-234 Merchant/Ivory Productions, 306
Liquid crystal display (LCD) technologies, 348, Magnificent Ambersons, The, 278 Mercury Theater on the Air, 274, 275, 276
379, 389 Magnum Design, 400 Meredith, Don, 356
Lisa computer, 375-376, 378 Maiman, Theodore, 259 Mergenthaler, Ottmar, 147
Lithographic process, 169 Maine (battleship), 94 Merrill, John, 82, 86, 98
Lithography, 170, 222; invention of, 146, "Major Dad," 351 Merry Widow, The, 293
168-169 Malcolm X, 311, 312, 318, 326 Metaphor, 66
Little Mermaid, The, 238 Malkovich, John, 363 Metonymic code, 66
"Little Nemo Slumberland," 229, 234, 235
in Malle, Louis, 310, 316 Metrolight, 363
"Little Orphan Annie," 230, 242 Maltese Falcon, The, 314 Metropolis, 294, 314
Live action and animation, combined, in M&Co., 164 MGM, 237, 277, 292, 296, 302, 305; film library
cartoons, 241 Manipulation: by computers, 391-394; of of, 392
Lloyd, Harold, 293 photographs, 266-268 Michelangelo, 222
Lobbyists, 89 Mankiewicz, Herman, 275, 277, 278, 280, 310 Michelson, Albert, 10
Local area networks (LANs), 402 Mankiewicz, Joseph, 310 Mickey Mouse, 236, 241
Local multipoint distribution system (LMDS), Mannes, Leopold, 257 Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems
346 Manutius, Aldus, 145-146, 150, 157; The Dream Company (MITS), 373
Locator maps, 203, 210, 211 of Poliphilus, 146 Microsoft Corporation, 119, 373, 377, 378, 384,
Lodge, David, 127; Small World, 123 Man with the Golden Arm, The, 162-163; 400, 402
Loew, Marcus, 292 analysis of, 166-167 Midler, Bette, 214
Loew's theater, 278 Maps: data, 201; explanatory, 203; first, 194-195; Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig, 187
Logograms, 142 locator, 203, 210, 211; newspaper, 196-198; "Migrant Mother," 246, 247, 248, 249; analysis
Logos (logical arguments), 81 non-data, 202-204; weather, 188-191, 193, of, 249-252
Logos (trademarks), 56, 206-207; Apple 201 Milestone Media comic books, 242
Computer's, 376-377, 378; Saul Bass's "March of Time," 276 Military, homosexuals in, 118
contributions to, 165-166, 206; Benetton, 76, Marconi, Guglielmo, 11-12, 330 Mill, John, 125
77; IBM's, 376, 377, 378 Marey, E. J., 196 Miller, Mark, Boxed In, 329
Lombard, Carole, 277 Mariotte, Edme, 27 MILNET, 402
Look magazine, 58, 95, 183, 247, 358 Mark, Mary Ellen, 271 Minard, Charles, 195, 196, 201
Looney Tunes, 236 Marketing, of cartoons, 241-242 Minicomputers, 373-376
Lorant, Stefan, 182-183 Markey, Edward, 353 Minitel system, 403
Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD), Markkula, Armas C, Jr., 374-375, 378 Minneapolis Tribute, 190
322-325, 327, 328, 392 "Married with Children," 212 Minolta, 165
Los Angeles Reader, 214 Marsh, Reginald, 226 Minow, Newton, 329
Los Angeles Times, 102, 188, 204, 225, 352 Martin, Don, 232 Miramax Films, 305
Lost World, The, 240 "Mary Tyler Moore Show, The," 213, 339 Miscellaneous typeface family, 151-152
Louis XII, 169 M*A*S*H, 174 Missouri, University of, 95, 208
Louis XIV, 220 Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Mnemonics, 69
Louis Philippe, 222 362, 371, 410, 413 Mobidem, 406
Lubalin, Herb, 149 "Masterpiece Theatre," 330 Modems, 387
Lucas, George, 233, 316, 362, 363, 401 Mastrantonio, Mary Elizabeth, 364 Modular design, 183-184
Lucasfilm company, 401 Materials, for cartoons, 241 Modules, 183
Luce, Henry, 192 Matewan, 164 Moen, Daryl, 208
Luks, George, 228 Matsushita Company, 267, 299, 342, 390, 406 Moholy-Nagy, Laszlo, 184, 185
Lumiere, Antoine, 287 Mattlin, Ben, 102 Moire patterns, 51
Lumiere brothers (Auguste and Louis), 258, 287, Mauchly, John, 370, 371 Monaco, James, 309; How to Read a Film, 289
288, 289, 293, 306; animated films of, 233, Mauldin, Bill, 224 Mondo 2000, 176
234; autochrome plates of, 256-257; and Maus, 233 Mondrian, Piet, 182
widescreen, 300 Max, Peter, 180 Monitors, 385-387
Lynch, David, 316, 329 "Max and Moritz," 228, 229 Monmonier, Mark, with the News, 210
Maxwell, James Clerk, 11, 37, 256 Monochromatic
McCarthy, Joseph, 95, 224, 230, 303, 335 Maxwell, Marilyn, 162 Monotype ma<
McCarthyism, 224 May, Robert, 400 Monroe, M 312
McCay, Winsor, 229, 234-235 Mayer, Louis B., 292 Monster fill
McDaniel, Hattie, 312 Mayhew, Henry, 222 Montage, I
McDonald's restaurants, 188, 351 MCA, 299 "Monty Pythoi '

241, 356
Macintosh computer, 376, 378, 383, 384 MCA/Universal, 305 Moog, < ol, re they selling her lips?"
Maclay, Scott, 266 Mead Data Central, 409 Ad< i i Identity, 102
McLuhan, Marshall, 41, 137, 179, 186 Media events, 90 Moor; Demi, 313
,
MacNelly, Jeff, 225, 230 Megabyte, 380 Moore, Mike, 217

Macula lutea, 24 Meggs, Philip, A History of Graphic Design, 156 Moorehead, Agnes, 275
Macular field, 21 Melanin, 22, 23 MOOs, 410
Mad Dog and Glory, 313 Melies, Georges, 234, 241, 288-289, 290, 306 Moreno, Rita, 312
Maddox, Richard, 257-258, 285
,
444 INDEX
Morey, Walter, 147 Napoleon, 293, 300, 314 New York Herald Tribune, 183
Morphing, 362-363 Narasaki, Karen, 312 New York magazine, 156
Morris, Charles, 62, 64, 65 Narcissism, 125 New York Morning Journal, 93, 228
Morris, Erroll, 316 NASA, 189, 338, 362, 413 New York Sun, 93
Morse, Samuel F. B., 255, 330 Nast, Thomas, 169, 222-223 New York Times, 94, 96, 98, 187, 203, 208;
Mosaic, 403 National Association for Down
Syndrome, 351 bestseller list of, 397; caricatures in, 220; on
Motion lines, in cartoons, 239 National Association of Broadcasters (NAB), 84, Citizen Kane, 274; diagrams in, 204; weather
Motion picture(s), 274; Saul Bass's contributions 339, 340 map in, 189
to, 162-164; and Citizen Kane, 274-282; National Book Critics Award, 233 New York University, 418
computer graphics, analysis of, 366; critical National Bureau of Standards, 38 New York World, 93
perspective on, 317-319; cultural perspective National Cartoonists Society, 230 Next (computer company), 378
on, 314-317; defined, 283; ethical perspective National Cash Register Company (NCR), 369 Nicholson, Virginia, 276
on, 311-314; future directions for, 319-321; National Commission on the Causes and Nickelodeon (network), 245, 353
historical perspective on, 284-306; personal Prevention of Violence, 105, 109-110 Nickelodeons (theaters), 290
perspective on, 282-284; preservation of old, National Gay and Lesbian Task Force, 118, 119 Nielsen (A. C.) Company, 334, 349, 350
393-394; technical perspective on, 306-311; National Geographic, 259, 267, 397 Niepce, Isidore, 254, 255
visuals, recent trends in, 167 National Geographic Society, 398, 401 Niepce, Joseph N., 169, 253-254
Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), National Institute of Mental Health Advisory Night of the Living Dead, 314
297, 313, 353 Committee, U.S., 105 Nihilism, 125
Motion Picture Rating System, 297 National Institutes of Health, 29 Nikon, 260
Motion Pictures Producers and Distributors of National Organization for Women (NOW), 114 Nintendo, 389, 390
America, 297 National Press Photographers Association, 95 Nipkow, Paul, 332
Motorola, 383, 412 National Weather Service, 189 Nixon, Richard M., 81, 88, 224-225, 231, 303,
Mouse, computer, 198, 384 Native Americans, 311-312 338
Movement, 50; apparent, 50; graphic, 50-51; Natwick, Myron "Grim," 235 Noble, Edward, 333
implied, 51; real, 50 Nazis, Nazi party, 107, 179, 182-183, 185, 236; Noise, in motion pictures, 310-311
Movie posters, 161, 162, 163, 167, 180 and motion pictures, 293, 294 Non-data maps, 202-204
Movies, defined, 283. See also Motion picture(s) NBC, 90, 188, 208, 276, 308, 333; and cable, 340, Nonstatistical infographics, 200, 201-207
Movie stars, 294-296 358; creation of, 332; DVI of, 402; "Late Norms, cultural, 112
Movietone News, 298 Night," 214; and RCA, 339; and violence on North by Northwest, 164
Moyers, Bill, 75, 352 television, 353 Nosferatu, 294
Mr. Deeds Goes to Town, 302 Negative, 255 Notes on Popular Art, 164
"Mr. Ed," 337 Ness, Elliot, 337 Nowlan, Phil, 230
"Mr. Natural," 230 Networked interactive multimedia (NIM), 156, Noyes, Eliot, 377
"Muckrakers," 94, 96 158, 191, 206, 402; critical perspective on, "NYPD Blue," 308, 352
MUDs, 409, 410 412-413; cultural perspective on, 409-412;
Multiculturalism, 79, 242 ethical perspective on, 407-409; future Object animation, in cartoons, 240
Multi-framed cartoons, 218, 227-238 directions for, 413-414; historical perspective Objective method for describing color, 37
Multimedia, 399 on, 402-405; personal perspective on, 402; Objectivity and journalism, 92-98
Multiplex, 304 technical perspective on, 406-407. See also O'Brien, Austin, 318
:
Multiview perspective, 49 Interactive multimedia O'Brien, Conan, 214
Munsell, Albert, 38 Neuharth, Allen, 187, 188, 190, 192, 193 O'Brien, Willis, 240, 363
Munsell Book of Color, 38 Neurath, Otto, 159, 160, 210 Ocean's Eleven, 164
Murdock, Rupert, 305, 339, 397 Newbery, John, Little Pretty Pocket Books, 227 Ochs, Adolph S., 94
Muren, Dennis, 364, 366 New Deal, 247 Ogilvy, David, 84
Murnau, F. W., 294 New Jack City, 313 Ohio University, 78
"Murphy Brown," 353 New Line Cinema Corporation, 305 Oh Mabel, 235
Murrow, Edward R., 95, 303, 335 Newspaper(s): emergence of objective reporting Ohman, Jack, 225
Muscular Dystrophy Association (MDA), 101; in, 94-95; first American, 146; impact of O'Keeffe, Georgia, 270
telethon, 100, 101-102 advertising on, 96-97; infographics, 196-199; Old Testament, 108
Museum of Modern Art, 185, 248, 277 penny War, 92;
press, 92, 147; pre-Civil Oliphant, Pat, 225
Music, in motion pictures, 310 weather maps used by, 188-189. See also Olsen, Kenneth, 370-371
Music Television (MTV), 181, 238, 351 lournalism Olympia, 294
358 Newspaper Publicity Law (1912), 85 Olympics: Atlanta (1996), 349; Berlin (1936), 294
Mussolini, Benito, 276 News expanded, 91; video, 90-91
releases: Ombres chinoises, 227
Mutoscope, 288 Newsrooms, corporate influence in, 92 Omnimax, 301
"Mutt and Jeff," 229 Newsweek, 149, 176, 187, 208, 362, 400 One From the Heart, 306, 309
Muybridge, Eadweard, 258, 284-285 NewTek, 388 On the Waterfront, 314
Mydans, Carl, 247 Newton, Henry J., 170 Operating systems, 378
My Dinner with Andre, 310 l, Sir Isaac, 10, 11, 13, 28, 376; Opticks, 10 Ophthalmoscope, invention of, 13
Myths, 314 New wave, 181 Opinions, 80
New York City Public Library, 131 Optical character recognition (OCR), 384
NAACP, 291, 350 k Daily Graphic, 94, 170, 189, 258 Optical ("op") art, 51
Nadar (Caspard Felix Tournachon), 222, 268 New York Daily News, 94 Optic chiasma, 28
Nanook of the North, 293 New Yorker, The, magazine, 156, 201, 218, 220, 226 Optic nerve, 27-28
Napoleon, 141, 152, 196, 222 New Yort Herald, 189, 228, 234 Oracle Software, 383
INDEX 445
Orwell, George, 1984, 378 Perils of Pauline, The, 292 Picasso, Pablo, 49
Oscar, 297 Peripheral field, 21 Pickford, Mary, 291, 292, 294, 295, 297
O'Sullivan, Timothy, 269 Peripherals, 383; incoming, 383-385; interactive, Pictographic language, 159-160
Our Gang comedy series, 293 387-388; outgoing, 385-387 Pictographs, 139, 141, 142, 200, 208, 209;
Outcault, Richard F., 93, 215, 228, 233 Peripheral vision, 23-24 defined, 201; verbal, 158
"Outland," 230 Perkins, Anthony, 164 Picture(s): -filled world, living in, 417-418;
Out of the Inkwell, 235 Perkins, Jack, 330 helping explain unfamiliar, with words,
Peroni, Geraldine, 308 419-420; learning, before words, 416-417
Pacific Bell telephone company, 321, 405 Persistence of vision, 50 Picturephones, 346
Pacific Data Images, 363 Personal computers, 373, 375, 377-378 Picture Pos1 magazine, 182
Packaging, Saul Bass's contributions to, 165-166 Personal digital assistant (PDA), 379 Pie chart, 200
Paik, Nam June, 342 Personal perspective for analyzing images, 123, Pincus, David, 86
Painting, typography and, 138-139 124-125; on cartoons, 217-218; on Pinky, 311
Pal, George, 240 computers, 366-367; on graphic design, 168; Pioneer, 344
Palazzo, Peter, 183 on informational graphics, 194; on motion Pi-Sheng, 133
Paley, Sam, 332 pictures, 282-284; on networked interactive Pixar Company, 363
Paley, William, 332 multimedia, 4(12; on photography, 232 233; Pixels, 384
Pan, panning, 279, 307 on television and video, 329-330; on Planck, Max, 10-11
"Pan and Scan" techniques, 301 typography, 138 Plateau, Joseph, 234
Panasonic, 347 Perspective, 9; conceptual, 49; as depth cue, Plato, 8-9, 69, 181-182
Panavision, 301 47-49; geometrical, 49; illusionary, 48-49; Platoon, 365
Panning, 279, 307 linear, 49; multiview, 49; social, 49 Playboy Channel, 345
Panter, Gary, 181 Persuasion: fine line between propaganda and, Player, The, 174, 306, 344
Pantone color systems, 38 80-81; as life and death issue, 99; role of, 81. Playfair, William, 195; The Commercial and
"Paper Chase, The," 276 See also Visual persuasion Political Atlas, 195-196
Papyrus, 141, 143 Petroglyphs, 138, 194 Plessy v. Ferguson, 109
Parallelogram, 43 Pfeiffer, Michelle, 313 Poetry, 65-66
Paramount Communications, 305-306, 358 Phallic imagery, 66 "Pogo," 230, 242
Paramount Pictures, 278, 292, 299, 302, 313, 320, Phantasmagoria, 234, 362 Pointillism, 40-41
359-360 Phasmatrope, 284 Points, measurement of type size in, 153
Parchment, 134 Phenakistoscope, 234 Poitier, Sidney, 31
Paris, John, 234 Philadelphia Inquirer, 196 Polachrome, Polacolor, 259
Paris to Monte Carlo, 234 Philips Company, 344, 347, 382, 401, 412 "Police brutality," 326-327
Park, 311 Philip Morris, 85, 165 Political messages, in cartoons, 242-243
Park, Nick, 241 Phoenicians, writings of, 143 Politics,and public relations, 88-89
Parks, Gordon, 311 Phoneme, 68 Polo, Marco, 133, 137
Parks, Rosa, 166 Phonofilm, 298, 299 Pop art, 177, 180
Parr, Jack, 334, 356 Phonograms, 140, 141, 143 "Popeye," 229, 242
Parrish, Maxfield, 178 Phonovision, 343 Popular culture, 166
Parsons, Louella, 277 Phosphene phenomenon, 23 Popular Electronics, 373
Particles, light as, 10-11 Photo compact disk (CD) technology, 260 Portapak, 342
Particle theory, 10 Photogram, 184 Porter, Edwin Stratton, 289-290, 292, 293, 299,
Pascal, Blaise,368 Photographer: as artist, 270; as landscape 306
Passenger, The, 306 documentation, 269-270; as painter, 268-269; Positive, 255
Patch, Richard, 203 as portraitist, 268; as social documentarian, Post modern, 177, 180-181
Pater Noster House, 78, 79 270-271 Powell, Adam Clayton, 111, 86
Pathe brothers (Charles and Leon), 289 Photographers' Association of America, 83-84 Powell, Lawrence, 323, 324, 326, 328
Pathe corporation, 302 Photographs, 83-84; with press releases, 90 Powter, Susan, 91
Pathos, 81 Photography, 246-249, 252; analysis of "Migrant Poynter Institute for Media Studies, 58
Patrick, Robert, 365 Mother," 249-252; coining of word, 255; Pragmatics, 65
Paul, Robert, 287, 288 critical perspective on, 271-272; cultural Praxinoscope, 234
"Peanuts," 229, 230, 239 perspective on, 268-271; digital, 260; ethical Predator, 365
Peirce, Charles Sanders, 62-63, 65 perspective on, 265-268; future directions for, Prejudicial thinking, media coverage and,
Pencil of Nature, The, 255 272-273; historical perspective on, 253-260; 104-105. Sec also Stereotypes
Penis envy, 1 13 instant, 259-260; invention of, 169, 252, 254, Preminger, Otto 162, 163, 303
Pennsylvania, University of, 105, 370 271; personal perspective on, 252-253; Press agents, 8'
Pennsylvania Gazette, 146, 221 straight, 269; technical perspective on, PressLink, 1 9
"Penny Dreadfuls," 227 260-265 Press rele.i-
Penny press newspapers, 92, 147 Photojournalism, 192, 247; decisive moment, 79; Prestel syste
Penthouse magazine, 391 first degree in, 95 Pretty Won 313
PepsiCo, Inc., 376 Photons, 11 Price, Vincent, 303-304, 315
Perceiving, 5 Photon 200B, 148 Prince, Richard, 269
Perception: defined, 52; visual, vs. visual Photo ops, 90 Printers: dot-matrix, 387; ink-jet, 387; laser, 148,
sensation, 52 Photoreceptors, 24-27 378, 387
Perceptual theories of visual communication, 52, Phototypesetting, see Cold type production Printing press: Gutenberg's, 129, 131-134, 136,
61-72 Piaget, Jean, 46, 57 137, 146; invention of commercial, 168, 220
1 1
446 INDEX
Print quality, 264-265 "Red menace," 95, 303 Romano, Frank, 149
Privacy: and access considerations, networked Red Onion, 1 1 Romans, writings of, 144
interactive multimedia and, 408-409; Reebok, 324 Roman typeface family, 150; modern, 151; old
photography and right to, 266 Rehe, Rolf, Typography: How to Make It Most style, 150-151; transitional, 151
Prodigy, 403, 404, 405 Legible, 147 Romero, Edward, 265-266

Program, The, 314 Reiner, Carl, 355 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 247, 332-333
Projection, visual perception and, 69-70 Reiniger, Lotte, 227, 235 Roosevelt, Theodore, 224
Pronay, Nicholas, 82 Rejlander, Oscial, 268-269; "The Two Ways of Rope, 306
Propaganda, 224; fine line between persuasion Life," 269 Rorick, George, 190, 191
and, 80-82, role of, 81-82 Relational chart, 200, 209 Rorschach inkblot test, 69
Proportion, 172 Religions, attitude toward women in major, Rose, Brian, TV Genres, 354-355
Proximity, law of, 54 112-113 "Roseanne," 212, 214, 353, 354
Pseudoevents, 90 Remains of the Day, 306 Rosenberg, Howard, 353
Psychedelic art, 180 Remington, Frederic, 93-94 Rosetta stone, 141
Psycho, 164, 275, 308, 314 Remington Rand, 371 Ross, Harold, 226
Ptolemy V of Alexandria, 141, 144 Renaissance, 136, 137, 181, 195 Ross, Scott, 365
Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), 349-350, 359 "Ren and Stimpy," 237 Rothstein, Arthur, 247
Public relations: advertising and, 88; criticism of, Reno, Janet, 353 Royal Institution (London), 255, 256
91; journalism and, 89-91; politics and, Resch, Mark, 396 Royal Society (London), 45, 254
88-89; visual persuasion 86-91 in, Resettlement Administration (RA), 247 Rubin, Edgar, 46, 56, 71
Public Relations Society of America (PRSA), 91 Resnais, Alain, 316 Rushmore, Mount, 46
Public service announcements (PSAs), 83 Retina, 23; and color deficiency, 27; and cones, Ruskin, John, 3
Puck, 222 24, 26-27; light path to, 23; and optic nerve, Russell, Bertrand, 329
Pulitzer, Joseph, 93, 228, 229 27-28; and photoreceptors, 24-27; regions of, Russell, Rosalind, 277
Punch, 222 23-24; and rods, 24, 25-26. See also Eyes
Punk, 180, 181 Revere, Paul, 221 Saccades, 25-26
Pupil, 22 Reverse type, 154 Saenz, Mike, 391
Pyramid, 45 Reynaud, Emile, 234 Safer, Morley, 413
Pyramid workers, uncovering of tombs of, 142 R/Greenberg Associates, 164, 392 Sagansky, Jeff, 353
Rhode Island School of Design, 362 SAGE system, 371
Quaker Oats Company, 165 Rhythm, in graphic design, 166, 175 St. Louis Evening Post, 93
Qualter, Terence, 82 Richards, Eugene, 271 St. Louis Post- Dispatch, 93
Quanta, 1 Riefenstahl, Leni, 294 Saint-Martin, Fernande, 68; Semiotics of Visual
QUBE technology, 407 Riis, Jacob, How the Other Half Lives, 271 Language, 68
QVC Network, Inc., 306 Riots: after Rodney King trial, 325, 329; Watts, Salience, visual perception and, 69, 70-71
109, 110 Samuel Goldwyn Jr. Company, 305
Racism, 108; lasting legacy of, 109-110 Ripple effect, 46 Sander, August, 268
Rack focus, 307 Rising Sun, 312, 362, 392 San Francisco Chronicle, 229
Radiation: infrared, 11; ultraviolet, 12 Ritchin, Fred, 97 San Francisco Examiner, 93, 229
Radio City Music Hall, 277-278 RJR-Nabisco, 84 San Francisco News, 248
Radio Times, 201 RKO (Radio-Keith-Orpheum), 162, 274-275, Sans serif typeface family, 152-153
Radio waves, 11,12 305; and Citizen Kane, 276, 277, 278, 280 Sarcophagus, 143
Raging Bull, 301, 308-309 Roach, Hal, 293 Sarnoff, David, 332, 340
Rambo, 233 Robe, The, 301 Satellite, 345-346
Rambo: First Blood Part II, 364 Roberts, Edward, 373 Saturation, of color, 15, 38
Rand, Paul, 206, 377 Roberts, Julia, 313, 397 Saturday Evening Post, 358
Random access memory (RAM), 380 Robin Hood, 295 "Saturday Night Live," 356
Rather, Dan, 97-98, 348 Robinson, Edward G., 302 Saussure, Ferdinand de, 62-63, 64, 65
Ratings, television, 349-350 Robinson, Henry Peach, 268; "Fading Away," 269 Sayles, John, 164
Rawls, John, 126, 411; Theory of Justnr Rockefeller, John D., 88 Scale, size and, 46
Ray, Nicholas, 316 Rockefeller, Nelson, 277-278 Scandals: Hollywood, 296-297; television quiz
Ray, Satyajit, 316 Rockefeller banking group, 293 show, 335
RCA, 332, 333, 335, 339, 340, 348, 359 Rocky, 227, 233 Scanner, 384
Reactor Company, 39 Rocky Horror Picture Show, The, 297 Scanning, 50
Readability, 138 Idenberry, Gene, 356 Scapegoats, 107
Read only memory (ROM), 380 R nls, 24, 25-26 Scarface, 314
Reagan, Ronald, 85, 225, 303, 305 mer, Olaus, 10 Schaefer, George, 276, 277, 278
Real, Manuel, 340 en, Wilhelm, 12 Scheiner, Christopher, 9
Reality-based programming, 324 Wade, 114 Schenck, Joseph, 292
Rebel Without a Cause, 303 !'eter Mark, 50, 234 Schenck, Nicholas, 277
Receivers, 64; of signified relationship, 64; Stone, 149, 362 Schneider, Lawrence, 109
television, 347-348 uholic Church, 77-78, 81, 106, 130, SchoefTer, Peter, 134, 136
Rectangle, 43 Schott, Marge, 110-111
"Red eye," 23 ire, fall of, 136, 145, 168 Schreck, Max, 294
Redford, Robert, 313 Roman ihday, 303 Schultz, Charles, 229, 230
Red Lion Broadcasting v. FCC, 339 . leral system, 367-368 Schuster, Joe, 231
INDHX 447
Schwarzenegger, Arnold, 233, 306, 318, 323, 363, Short Cuts, 308 Sorel,Edward, 226
364-365 Shot, inmotion pictures, 306-308 Sound, in motion pictures, 298-299
Scientific Atlanta, Inc., 407 Showtime, 345 Sound of Music, The, 275, 310, 314
Sclera, 21, 22 Shutter speed, 261 Southern California, University of, 359
Scorsese, Martin, 164, 301, 306, 308, 313, 316 Siegel, Jerry, 231 Space: as depth cue, 45; negative and positive,
Scott, Byron, 214 S1GGRAPH convention, 396 55-56
Scott, Ridley, 316, 378 Sightline Systems, 363 Spanish-American War, 93-94, 224
Scott, Willard, 188 Sign(s), 62; color as, 16; images as collection of, Special effects, in motion pictures, 309
Screen Gems, 333 65-67; storage of, in brain, 63; three types of, Spectrum Information Systems, Inc., 346
Scribes, 140, 141, 142, 143; religious, 130 63-65. See also Semiotics Speech, in motion pictures, 310
Scriptores, 145 Signified, 49, 64 Sphere, 45
Scriptorium, 145 Signifier, 64 Spiderman (comic book), 231
Script typeface family, 151 Silent movies, 290-292, 293, 297-298 "Spiderman" (comic strip), 239
Sculley, John, 346, 376, 377, 378, 379, 418 Silhouettes, 205 Spiegelman, Art, 233
Seagram's, 85 SiliconGraphics, 119, 363, 382, 388, 396, 406 Spielberg, Steven, 233, 237, 306, 316-317, 362;
Searching Eye, 164 Silicon Valley, 373 "seaQuest DSV" of, 365, 388
Sebeok, Thomas, 62, 63 Silly Symphonies, 236 Spindler, Michael, 378
Sega, 389, 390, 410, 414 Silverstein, Eliot, 392 "Spin doctors," 91
Segar, Elzie Crisler, 229, 235 Similarity, law of, 54 Sports Illustrated, 156
"Seinfeld," 165, 406 Simile, 66 Square, 43, 182
Seinfeld, Jerry, 165 Simon, Paul, 353 Square serif typeface family, 152
Selecting, 5 Simon, Sam, 213, 214 Stagecoach, 275, 302, 314, 393
Selectivity, visual perception and, 69, 70 Simonides, 66, 69 Stalin, 358
Selick, Henry, 240 Simplicity, 175 Stallone, Sylvester, 233, 306, 363
Selleck, Tom, 405 "Simpsons, The," 212-213, 214-215, 237; Stampfer, Baron von, 234
Selznick, David C, 300 analysis of, 215-217; success of, 339 Stanford, Leland, 285
Semantics, 65 Sinatra, Frank, 163 Stanford Research Unit, 375
Semiotics, 61-67, 71 Singing in the Rain, 299 Stanford University, 373
Sendak, Maurice: We Are All in the Dumps with Single-framed cartoons, 218, 219-227 Star Is Born, A, 300
Jack and Guy, 243; Where the Wild Things Are, Singleton, John, 311, 316 Stark, Pegie, 58
243 Sistine Chapel, 222 Starn, Douglas, 269
Senefelder, Aloys, 169 Sitcom, 334 Starn, Michael, 269
Sennett, Mack, 293, 295 "Sixty Minutes," 95, 96, 412-413 Stars and Stripes magazine, 224, 226
Sensation: defined, 52; visual, vs. visual depth cue, 45-46; type, 153
Size: as "Star Trek," 356, 359
perception, 52 Skoglund, Sandy, 270 Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, 362
Sensing, 4 Slavery, 108, 109 Star Wars, 233, 308, 310, 362, 364, 401
Sensual redundancy, 19 Sleepless in Seattle, 314 Static edit, 308
Sensual theories of visual communication, 52, Small computer systems interface (SCSI), 383 Statistical infographics, 199-201
53-61 Smileys, 411 Statistics, ethics of, 207-208
Sequencing, 175 Smith, Adolphe, Street Life of London (with J. Steam engine, invention of, 146
Serial, 218, 230 Thompson), 271 400
Steelcase,
Service bureau, 381 Smith, Ken, 217 Steffens, Lincoln, 94
239
Setting, for cartoons, Smith, W. Eugene, 271 Steichen, Edward, 257
Seurat, Georges, 40-41 Smolan, Rick, 397-398, 401, 402; Day in the Life Steinbeck, John, The Grapes of Wrath, 248
Seven Year Itch, The, 164 projects of, 267, 397 Stephenson, George, 146
Sex and violence: in motion pictures, 312-314; Smothers, Tom and Dick, 339, 356 Stereoscope, 45
on television, 352-354; in video games, "Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour, The," 339, Stereotypes: African-American, 107-111; in
389-391 356 cartoons, 242; disabled, 101-102; female,
Sexism, in advertising, 1 14- 1 16 Snow, Robert, 195, 196, 201 112-116; gay and lesbian, 116-119;
Sexual harassment, 115 Snow White, 381, 393 Irish-American, 106; Jewish-American,
"Shadow, The," 276 Snyder, Ruth, 94 106-107; media, 102-105; in motion pictures,
Shaft, 311 "Soap operas," 227 311-312; non-verbal, 49; overcoming,
Shakespeare, William, 10, 131, 276, 400 Social perspective, 49 119-121; reinforcing, with images, 103-104;
Shapes, and form, 42-44 Social satire, 213 specific exa 105-119; in television,
"Sharkey's World," 362 Society of Newspaper Designers, 198 350-351
Sharp, 347 Socrates, 125 Stereotyping, in digital typesetting, 148
Shaw, George Bernard, 246, 296 Soft news 97
stories, "Steve Cany '
230
Sheik, The, 296 Software, 388-389 Stevenson, Adlai, 372
"Shenanigan Kids, The," 229 Software agent, 412 Stewart, Jimmy, 306
Sherman, Cindy, 270 Solar Film, The, 164 Stieglitz, Alfred, 257, 270
Sherman Antitrust Act, 369 Some Like It Hot, 309, 314 Stock market crash: (1929), 179, 246, 290;
Shields, Brooke, 76 Something Wild, 164, 181 (1987), 208
Shiller, Larry, 397 Sony Corporation, 299, 342, 347, 382, 390, 412; Stoker, Bram, 294
Shock advertising, 76-80, 99 and HDTV, 386, 387; Mavica camera of, 260, Stone, Oliver, 318, 365
Shockley, William, 372 264, 384-385 Stop-motion, 240
"Shoe," 230 Sony Pictures Entertainment, Inc., 305 Stop the Insanity (diet program), 91
448 INDEX
Storage, computer, 380-382 Teletypesetter, 147 TIROS- 1, 189

Story of the Mosquito, The, 235 Television: Saul Bass's contributions to, 164-165; Today Show, The, 188
Streamlining, 183 Black Entertainment (BET), 111; cable, 90, Toland, Gregg, 275, 279, 280
Stroboscope, 53, 234 205-206, 335, 337, 340, 358; commercials on, "Tonight Show, The," 215, 278, 334
Stroheim, Erich von, 293 84, 97; contribution of, to objectivity in Toppfer, Rodolphe, 231
Stryker, Roy, 247, 248, 250 journalism, 95-96; critical perspective on, Toscani, Oliviero, 76, 78, 79
Stylus, 140 358- 359; cultural perspective on, 354-358; Total Recall, 363
Subjective method for describing color, 39-40 ethical perspective on, 348-354; expanded Touchstone Pictures, 305, 314
Substrate, 133, 134 news releases on, 91; future directions for, Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de, 158, 178
Subtractive colors, 12-13, 39 359- 360; guest appearances on, 90; historical "Tracey Ullman Show, The," 213, 216
Sullivan, Ed, 333 perspective on, 330-340; networks, top three, Tracking shot, 307
Sumerians, writings of, 139-140 90; 1940s, 333; 1950s, 334-337; 1960s, Tracy, Spencer, 302
Sunday Times (London), 201 337-339; 1970s, 339; 1980s, 339; 1990s, Transistors, 372
Sunday World, 228 339-340; personal perspective on, 329-330; Transitions, 174
Superman (comic book), 231, 232 power of, to influence other media, 99; roots Transmission modes, television, 345; air,
Superman (motion picture), 164, 227 of, 330-333; schedules, 205-206; technical 345-346; broadcast, 345; cellular, 346; coaxial
"Superman" (television program), 359 perspective on, 344-348; video news releases cable, 346-347; copper telephone wire, 346;
Supreme Court, U.S., 109, 114, 115, 118, 339 on, 90-91; weather segments, 190 earth, 346-347; fiber optic cable, 347; local
Surrealism, 229 Ten Commandments, The, 293 multipoint distribution system, 346; satellite,
Sutcliffe, Frank, 269 Terabyte, 380 345-346; wireless, 346

Sutherland, Ivan, 413 Terminator, The, 233, 364, 394 Trebeck, Alex, 356
Swaggart, Jimmy, 356 Terminator judgment Day, 238, 241, 314, 320,
2: Triangle, 44, 182
Swanson, Gloria, 292, 293, 302 323, 361; CGI technology in, 363-365; Trichromatic theory, 13
Swimming to Cambodia, 164, 310 murderous computer in, 394 Triple-7 Entertainment, 325
Switching devices, 383 Terms of Endearment, 213 Trip to the Moon, A, 234
Symbol (symbolism), 126; color as, 17; and "Terry and the Pirates," 230 TriStar Pictures, Inc., 339
motion pictures, 314-315; and semiotics, 64, Tesler, Lawrence, 375, 376 Triumph of the 294
Will,
66, 67; as type of sign, 64 Tess of the Storm Country, 295 Tron, 362, 363,365
Symmetry, 46, 168, 174-175 Texas, University of, 254 Trubshaw, Roy, 410
Syndication, 226 Texas Instruments, 372 Truck, in motion pictures, 307
Syntactics, 65 Text, for motion pictures, 309 Trudeau, Garry, 225, 231
Textur, 130, 136, 137, 149 Truman, Harry, 130
Tables, 202 Texture gradients, 60; as depth cue, 46 Trumbo, Dalton, 303
Talbot, William Henry Fox, 170, 255 Thalamus, 29 Trumbull, Douglas, 320
Tammany Hall, 223 Thalberg, Irving, 302 Ts'ai Lun, 133
Tarbell, Ida M, 94 That's Entertainment: Part 2, 164 Ts'ang Chieh, 142
Tarot cards, 69 Thaumatrope, 234 Tufte, Edward, 194, 200, 208, 209, 210;
"Tarzan," 230 Theatre Optique, 234 Envisioning Information, 208; The Visual
"Taxi," 213 Them!, 303 Display of Quantitative Information, 208
Taxi Driver, 301 Themes, inappropriate, in cartoons, 243 Tugwell, Rexford, 247
Taylor, Elizabeth, 212 Thesaurus, 50 Tungsten color film, 262
Taylor, Paul S., 246-247; An American Exodus Thief of Baghdad, The, 295 Turner, Janine, 363
(with D. Lange), 248 Third effect, 182-183 Turner, Ted, 339, 353; Entertainment Company
Tears, 21 Thomas, Clarence, 115 of,392
Technical perspective for analyzing images, 123, Thomas, J. Parnell, 302 Turner Broadcasting System (TBS), 353
125; on cartoons, 238-241; on computers, Thompson, Florence, "Migrant Mother" Tutankhamen, King, 329
379-389; on graphic design, 171-176; on photograph of, 246, 247, 248-252 Twain, Mark, Autobiography, 208
informational graphics, 199-207; on motion Thompson, John, Street Life of London (with A. Tweed, William "Boss," 223
pictures, 306-311; on networked interactive Smith), 270-271 20th Century Fox, 292, 298, 305, 312, 339, 364
multimedia, 406-407; on photography, Thomson Consumer Electronics, 348 Twenty Mule Team Borax, 85
260-265; on television and video, 344-34K: i
Thorne, Robert, 152 "Twin Peaks," 329
typography, 149-155 (• component theory, 13 2001: A Space Odyssey, 309, 314, 394
Technicolor Motion Picture Corporation, 300 dimensional motion pictures, 303-304 2010, 362
Technology, impact of, on weather maps, $90, 406, 410 Typeface, 130, 148-149; attributes, 153-155;
190-191 Three Little Pigs, The, 236 families, 149-153
"Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles," 359 Thure,Anna zu der Iserin, 132 Typeworld magazine, 149
Tele-Communications, Inc. (TCI), 320, 405, 407 rhurman, Uma, 313 Typography: in cartoons, 239; and cold type
Teledildonics, 391 "Till :
>eath Do Us Part," 350 production, 148-149; critical perspective on,
Telegraph, 95; introduction of, 189, 330 Tilts, 307 158; cultural perspective on, 157-158; defined,
Tele-medicine, 409 pt of, 41-42; as depth cue, 47 131, 136, 138; ethical perspective on, 156-157;
Teleputer(s), 186, 387, 395, 396, 402; acceptance, Time, Inc., 305 future directions for, 158-160; historical
education as key for, 407-408; and AT8cT, Time lines, 207 perspective on, 138-149; and hot type
405, 406; ethical perspective on, 407; and fiber Tii vine, 187, 201, 362 production, 144-147; and painting, 138-139;
optic cable, 406-407; 500 channel, 330, 360; Times, The (of London), 146, 189, 203 personal perspective on, 138; technical
and virtual reality combined, 414 Tim, 320, 406, 407 perspective on, 149-155; and writing, 139-144
Telescope, invention of, 9-10 Tingle The, .104 Tzara, Tristan, 178
INDEX 449
Ullman, Tracey, 213, 216 Video news releases (VNRs), 90-91 Wai of 1812, 196
Ultra high frequency (UHF) channels, 333, 345 Videotex systems, 403 War of the Roses, 164
Ultraviolet radiation, 12 Vidicon tubes, 345 "War of the Worlds" program, 274, 276, 280
Unforgiven, 314 Vidor, King, 311 Warriors, The, 313
United Airlines, 165 Vietnam War, 95, 96, 356 Washington, University of, 109
United Artists, 291, 292, 295, 296, 305 Viewmaster, 45 Washington Evening 226
Star,
United Features press syndicate, 230 Viewtron, 403, 404 Washington Post, 96, 187, 224
United Negro College Fund, 79 Village Voice, The, 214 Watches: analog, 44; digital, 43-44
United Paramount Theatres, 334 Vinci, Leonardo da, 20, 47, 131, 174, 220, 253; Watergate, 81, 88, 95, 96, 231
United Press International, 404 on color, 12; diagrams of, 195; grids used by, Watson, Thomas, 369-370
United Way, 165 181; Tlie Last Supper, 47; sequential drawings Watson, Thomas, Jr., 369, 370
Unity, in graphic design, 166, 175-176 of, 227 Watt, James, 146
UNIVAC, 371-372, 373 Vinton, Will, 241 Watterson, Bill, 230
Universal Studios, 299, 304, 305, 309, 320 Violence: in cartoons, 243; and computers, Watts riots, 109, 110
Universal Studios Florida, 238, 288, 320 389-390; media coverage of, 104-105; in Waves, light as, 10-11
"Untouchables, The," 337, 351 motion pictures, 313-314; photographing Wax tablet theory, 69
Upatnieks, Juris, 259 victims of, 265-266; on television, 339, Weather Bureau, U.S., 189
"Upstairs Downstairs," 350 352-354 Weather Channel, The, 190
Urban League, 1 10 Virgil, Opera, 146 Weather maps, 188, 201; impact of technology
USA Today, 97, 148, 183; and informational Virtual reality (VR), 49, 186, 286, 321, 389, 391; on, 190-191; newspaper use, 188-189, 193;
graphics, 187-188, 191-193, 198, 199; future directions for, 413-414 television weather segments, 190
pictographs in, 201; weather maps in, 188, Visual considerations, of motion pictures, Weather Service, U.S., 189
190, 191, 193, 201 306-309 Weather Services Corporation, 190
U.S. West, 383, 405, 406 Visual cortex, 29, 30-31, 35-36, 51 Webster's Dictionary, 68
Ut, Huynh Cong, 96 Visual perception: difference between visual Wegman, William, 259
Utilitarianism, 125, 137 sensation and, 52; and viewer's state of mind, Welles, Orson, 274, 294, 306, 319; and Citizen
69-72 Kane, 274-282, 283, 307; "War of the Worlds"
Vachon, John, 247 Visual persuasion: in advertising, 82-86; in program of, 274, 276, 280
Valenti, Jack,353 journalism, 91-98; in public relations, 86-91. Wells, H. G., 288; The War of the Worlds, 259,
Valentino, Rudolph, 296 See also Persuasion 274, 276
Value, of color, 15, 38 Visual process, 4-6 Wertham, Fredric, Seduction of the Innocent, 232
Van Doren, Charles, 335 Visual purple, 25 Wertheimer, Max, 53, 57, 227
Van Eyck, Jan, The Marriage of Giovanni Arnolfini Visual sensation, difference between visual West, Mae, 312
and Giovanna Cenami, 133 perception and, 52 West, Nathanael, The Day of the Locust, 212
Vanity Fair, 75-76, 201, 222 Visual vibration, 51 Western Electric, 298
Variety, 274, 278 Vitaphone, 298, 299 Western Kountry Klub, 1 1
Vatican II, 107 Vitascope, 233, 288, 289 Westinghouse, 331, 332
Vaudeville, 100, 292 Vitreous humor, 22-23 Weston, Edward, 269
VDOImages, 365 Vitruvius, 182 West Side Story, 275, 310, 312
Veil of ignorance, 126 Voice recognition software (VRS), 384 Wet-collodion process, 256
Velazquez, 253 Volume, 45 WET magazine, 214
Vellum, 134 Voyager Company, 400 What's Love Got to Do With It, 314
Venice Film Festival, 164 Vulgate, 130 Wheatstone, Sir Charles, 45
Vermeer, Jan, 253 Whirlwind computers, 371
Verne, Jules: Around the Moon, 289; From the Walker, Mort, 230, 239 White, Clarence, 246
Earth to the Moon, 289 Walker, Vernon, 275, 280 White, Vanna, 91
Vertical dominance, 302 Walkfoghel, Propius, 133 White space, 155, 172-173
Vertigo, 164 Walk on the Wild Side, 163-164* Whittle Communications, 85-86
Very high frequency (VHF) channels, 333, 345 Wallace, Mike, 96 Who Framed Roger Rabbit, 241, 363
VHS videotape format, 299, 342 Wall Street Journal, 89, 148, 187 Who's the Man?, 181
Viacom, 119, 245, 351 Walt Disney Company, 240, 314, 333, 337, 363. Why Man Creates, 164
Viacom International, 305, 406 See also Disney, Walt; Disney Studio Widescreen, 300-301
Victoria, Queen, 1 77, 207 Ward, Jay, 237 Wienz, Robert, 293
Victorian era, 177, 178, 234 War Department, 87 Wiesel, Torsten, 35-36, 51, 382
Video(s): critical perspective on, 358-359; Warhol, Andy, 180, 244, 324 Wild Bunch, The, 314
cultural perspective on, 354-358; ethical Warner, Albert, 293 Wild One, The, 303
perspective on, 348-354; historical perspective Warner, Harry, 293 Williams, F. C, 370
on, 335, 337, 338, 340-344; home, 324; of Warner, Jack, 293, 333 Williams, John, 310
Rodney King incident, 322-329; personal Warner, Sam, 293 Willis, Bruce, 313
perspective on, 329-330; technical perspective Warner Amex Cable system, 407 Willow, 363
on, 344-348 Warner Brothers Studio, 161, 278, 293, 298, 299, Will Vinton Productions, Inc., 241
Video blanking interval (VBI), 347 320; animated films of, 236; broadcast network Wilson, Gahan, 226
Video cassette recorder (VCR), 342 of, 358; closing of, 237; film library of, 392; Wilson, Pete, 325
Video games, 319-320, 374; sexual themes in, gangster movies of, 302; merger of, 305; Wilson, Woodrow, 81, 87, 224
390-391; violent themes in, 389-390 television productions of, 333 Wind, Timothy, 323, 324, 328
Video Hits 1 (VH1), 181 Warner Communications, 165 '.V'mogrand, Garry, 271
450 INDEX
Winston, Stan, 240, 365 World War II, 60, 84, 88, 180, 225, 277; and fact "Yellow Kid of Hogan's Alley, The," 93, 215,
Wireless systems, 346 boxes, 202; Japanese-American internees 228, 230, 233, 241, 244
Wisconsin, University of, 92 during, 248; massacre of Jews and
in, 107; Yellow Submarine, 237
Wise, Robert, 275, 280 motion pictures, 302, 312, 317; propaganda Yorty, Sam, 225
Wiseman, Fred, 308 during, 81, 224, 236, 242; and television, 333; Young, Chic, 229-230
Wizard of Oz, The, 308, 314 women's role during, 113 Young, Thomas, 10, 13, 256
Wolcott, Marion Post, 247 World Wide Web (WWW), 403 Young, Whitney, 1 10
Wolf Man, The, 362 Wozniak, Stephen, 374, 375, 378 Youngblood, 232
Women: in motion pictures, 312-313; Writers' Guild of America, 324 Young Frankenstein, 344
stereotypes, 1 12-1 16 Writing: Chinese, 142-143; Egyptian, 140-142; Young-Helmholtz theory, 13
Woodstock, 309 Greek, 143-144; Phoenician, 143; Roman, 144; Young Sherlock Holmes, 362
Woodward, Bob, 96 Sumerian, 139-140; and typography, 139-144 YWCA, 165
Wooley, John, 404 Wrong Trousers, 241
Words, visual perception and, 69, 72, 419-420 Wyoming, University of, 217 Zahn, Johannes, 234
World, The Flesh and the Devil, The, 299-300 Zajac,Edward, 361-362
World Exposition (Paris, 1900), 300 Zanuck, Darryl, 292
Xerox Corporation, 375, 377
World Series, 360 Zenith Electronics Corporation, 406
New
X rays, 12
World's Fair, York's (1939-1940), 180, 332 Zines, 159
World Trade Center, 321 Zoetrope, 234
World War I, 62, 87, 171, 178, 182, 234; and Yale University, 81, 194 Zooms, 307
Bauhaus art movement, 185; and Walt Disney, Yamauchi, Hiroshi, 389 Zukor, Adolph, 292, 299
235; and film industry, 292; propaganda "Year of the Woman," 312, 313 Zworykin, Vladimir, 332, 345
during, 81, 224 Yellow journalism, 83, 92-94, 228, 266
Are you visually literate?
Here's how to "read" a visual message.
THERE ARE FEW PLACES YOU CAN GO Special features:

and not be confronted with some sort • Includes an in-depth analysis of
of visual message. The invention of the ethics and stereotyping via the use
computer, the spread of desktop pub- of images, such as the recent
lishing, and advances in interactive Benetton ads and billboards.
multimedia have dramatically changed
• Sets the stage for the study of each
the role of images in the communica-
medium with a detailed, familiar
tion process. Visual Communication:
example — e.g., Gutenberg's Bible,
Images with Messages will help you pro-
the USA Today weather map, the
duce and analyze visual messages with
Simpsons, and the Rodney King
a technique similar to the one used to
beating — then discusses personal,
evaluate words.
historical, technical, ethical, cultural,
Paul Lester's lively and informal and critical perspectives along with
book will captivate you as you explore predictions for the future.
the many ways visual information is • Brings historical and contemporary
produced and consumed in today's references to life with 400 color and
media-rich society. First, he offers a black-and-white illustrations, infor-
physiological and theoretical back-
mation graphics, and photographs
ground on visual perception the — — many captioned with an analysis
"how" and "why" we see. Then his using terms from the book.
engaging discussions explore the vari-
• Explains some more
ous media —
from typography, graph-
of the
concepts and terms in a glossary.
difficult
ic design, informational graphics, car-

toons,and photography to television
and video, computers, and interactive
multimedia —
and the very "visible"
roles they play in our lives.
ISBN 0- S3 * -11530-1
1

Lester, Paul Martin - Visual Communication Images With Messages-Wadsworth (1997)

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VISUAL COMMUNICATION

Images with Messages

PAUL ARTIN LESTER

COPYRIGHT © 1995 by Wadsworth Publishing

Printed in the United States of America.

who gave me my eyes, 23456789 10—01 00 99 98 97 96 95

For more information, contact Wadsworth

who taught me how to Wadsworth Publishing Company International Thomson Editores

1 1 560 Mexico D. F. Mexico

messages 102 Dodds Street 221 Henderson Road

Nelson Canada International Thomson Publishing Japan

Canada M1K 5G4 Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102, Japan

Lesk 'a ul Martin.

P93.5.L47 1995 94-19173

Preface ix The Retina 23

Photoreceptors: Rods and cones 24

CHAPTER 2 LIGHT AND COLOR 7

Where Does Light Come From? 8

What Is the Speed of Light? 9

Particles or Waves? 10 CHAPTER WHAT THE BRAIN

CHAPTER 3 THE EYE, THE RETINA, AND Dots 40

Historic Eyes 18 Shapes 42

Windows to the Soul 20 Depth 44

Physiology of the Eye 21 The eight depth cues 45

Movement 50 A new form of communication? 98

Real movement 50 Persuasion: A life and death issue 99

Stereotyping Generally 102

Reinforcing stereotypes with images 103

Sensual Theories of Visual Irish-American stereotypes 106

Personal Perspective 124

Ethical Perspective 725

The role of persuasion 81

The role of propaganda 81 CHAPTER 8 TYPOGRAPHY 129

Visual Persuasion in Advertising 82 The Gutenberg Bible 129

Growth of advertising 84 Analysis of the Gutenberg Bible 136

Advertising and public relations 88 Personal Perspective 138

Politics and public relations 88 Historical Perspective 138

Journalism and public relations 89 Technical Perspective 149

Technical Perspective 238

Packaging and logos 165

Photography and the Six Perspectives 252

Graphic Design and the Six Historical Perspective 253

Critical Perspective 185 CHAPTER 13 MOTION PICTURES 274

Informational Graphics and the Six Cultural Perspective 314

Technical Perspective 199 CHAPTER 14 TELEVISION AND

Cultural Perspective 210 The Rodney King Incident 322

Cultural Perspective 354 Networked Interactive Multimedia and the

Future Directions for Television and Personal Perspective 402

Computer-Generated Images 361 Cultural Perspective 409

Morphing 362 Critical Perspective 412

Evolution of computer-generated Future Directions for Networked Interactive

Cultural Perspective 394 Light— The Link 420

Critical Perspective 395

CHAPTER 16 NETWORKED BIBLIOGRAPHY 427

Analysis of Laser Disk Presentations 401

ly and respectfully. stream of visual stimulation from all manner

to complete this first step. In this new technological age, a person

ed by computer technology, which someone interested in advertising, graphic

design, journalism, motion pictures, photo-

Computers allow professional and ama-

• More than 350 black-and-white and color

graphics and photographs from still and Section 1: How We See

words that are introduced in the text.