1

INTRODUCTION

Coagulation and flocculation are essential processes in a number of diverse disciplines,

including biochemistry, cheese manufacturing, rubber manufacturing, and in water and
wastewater treatment. In water and wastewater treatment, coagulation and flocculation
phenomena are extremely important, In the area of potable water treatment, clarification of
water with coagulation agents has been practiced from ancient .

The whole treatment process of coagulation-flocculation can be divided into two distinct
procedures, which should be applied consecutively. The first one termed coagulation, is the
process whereby destabilization of a given colloidal suspension or solution is taken place. The
function of coagulation is to overcome the factors that promote the stability of a given system.
It is achieved with the use of appropriate chemicals, usually aluminum or iron salt, the so
called coagulant agents. The second sub-process, termed flocculation, refers to the induction
of destabilized particles in order to come together, to make contact and thereby, to form large
agglomerates, which can be separated easier usually through gravity settling[ 1 ]

Coagulation/flocculation is a commonly used process in water and wastewater treatment in

which compounds such as ferric chloride and/or polymer are added to wastewater in order to
destabilize the colloidal materials and cause the small particles to agglomerate into larger
settleable flocs. Several studies have reported the examination of this process for the
treatment of industrial wastewater, especially with respect to performance optimization of
coagulant/flocculant [ 2 ]

The optimization of water treatment should be done in order to remove both hydrophobic and
hydrophilic organic compounds. Due to water quality problems and stricter regulations for
drinking water treatment, there is needed for more efficient and still economical method for
removal suspended material, the most common and economically feasible process for the
removal these material are considered to be coagulation and flocculation followed by
sedimentation and filtration [ 3 ] .

Ambient waters contain a wide variety of particles in the general categories: mineral (e.g.,
clays), biological (viruses, bacteria, algae, protozoan cysts, etc. ), and organic matter (e.g.,
natural organic matter (NOM)). These particles range in size from nanometers to perhaps 200-
300 mm. The many aspects of coagulation practice include:
1-Selection of type of coagulant (generally alum or ferric salt).
2-Selection of a coagulant aid, that is, a polymer (which may or may not be used ) .
3-Determination of dosage of each chemical .
4-Design of rapid-mix .
5-evaluation of coagulation effectiveness .
Coagulation effectiveness has been measured traditionally by removal of turbidity. Color
removal is another traditional objective in drinking water treatment [4].

-1-
The objective of the coagulation process depends on the water source and the nature
of the suspended, colloidal, and dissolved organic constituents. Coagulation by the
addition of chemicals such as alum and iron salts and/or organic polymers can involve:
1-Distabilization of small suspended and colloidal particulate matter.
2-Adsorption and/or reaction of portions of the colloidal and dissolved NOM to particles.
3-Creation of flocculants precipitates that sweep through the water enmeshing small
suspended, colloidal, and dissolved material as they settle.
Coagulants such as aluminum sulfate (alum), ferric chloride, and ferric sulfate hydrolyzes
rapidly when mixed with the water to be treated. As these chemicals hydrolyze, they form
insoluble precipitates that destabilize particles by adsorbing to the surface of the particles and
neutralizing the charge (thus reducing the repulsive forces). Natural or synthetic organic
polyelectrolytes (polymers with multiple charged functional groups) are also used for particle
destabilization. Because of many competing reactions, the theory of chemical coagulation is
complex[ 5 ].

The operation of a coagulant-based water treatment sequence relies on two fundamental sets
of processes irrespective of whether the treatment sequence applies conventional gravity
based settling, newer high rate clarification concepts, or a direct filtration sequence in which
no clarification step is applied. The first set of processes consists of the mixing and
flocculation steps, which include the addition of a coagulant chemical and application of
mixing to disperse the chemical, followed by conditions under which the chemically
conditioned particles will come into contact to build floc of appropriate size for removal in
downstream particle removal processes. The second set of processes consists of the
downstream clarification and filtration steps in which the flocculated particles are separated
from the water [ 6 ] .

Coagulants are also used to enhance the performance of membrane microfiltration and
ultrafiltration system and in Pretreatment to prolong the bed life of granular activated carbon
contactors . The development of new coagulant chemicals , advance in floc removal processes
and filter design , particularly membrane processes , and challenging particle removal
performance standards and goals stimulated substantial diversity in the design and operation
of the coagulation process . Change can be expected to continue into the future [ 7 ].

Flocculation is the unit process in which larger particles are formed from smaller particles due
to collisions between them. The collisions occur by the ''transport'' mechanisms of velocity
gradients (induced by laminar flow or turbulence), Brownian motion, or a sequence of the
two.
The term flocculation is the process of causing collisions between:
1-Primary particles.
2-primary particles and floc.
3-Floc particles and other floc.
In water treatment, the starting point is the rapid mix where ''microflocs'' form from
coagulation chemicals and which may incorporate ''primary'' particles, e.g., mineral turbidity,
microorganisms, and other ''microscopic particulates''. The next step is flocculation; the
objective is to cause collisions such that the microflocs grow in size to become ''floc''
particles. If the treatment train is conventional filtration, the flocculation objective is to
produce large settleable flocs.

-2-
In flotation, on the other hand, the objective is to form a floc of small size, e.g.,
50 mm, that rises readily when small gas bubbles attach. The common flocculation
technology is the paddle wheel. Other technologies include impeller basins, baffles, and
proprietary innovations. These various technologies provide the ''transport'' mechanisms that
include floc collisions[4] .

Two general types of flocculation can be identified: (1) microflocculation (also known as
perikinetic flocculation) in which particle aggregation is brought about by the random thermal
motion of fluid molecules (known as Brownian motion) and (2) macroflocculation (also
known as orthokinetic flocculation) in which particle aggregation is brought about by
inducing velocity gradients and mixing in the fluid containing the particles to be flocculated.
Another form of macroflocculation is brought about by differential settling in which large
particles overtake small particles to form larger particles[5] .

The purpose of the flocculation process is to promote the interaction of particles and form
aggregates that can be efficiently removed in subsequent separation processes such as
sedimentation, flotation, and granular media bed filtration. For efficient flocculation to occur
the suspension must be destabilized. This is usually accomplished by the addition of
coagulant.
The water treatment literature sometimes makes distinction between the terms coagulant and
flocculent . When this distinction is made , a coagulant is a chemical used to initially desta-
bilize the suspension and is typically added in the rapid –mix process . In most cases a
flocculent the strength of the floc structure . It has awkwardly been called a coagulant aid .
flocculents are often used to increase filter performance ( they may be called filter aids in this
context ) and to increase the efficiency of the sludge dewatering process[7] .

Flocculation is the agglomeration of small particles and colloids to form settleable or

filterable particles (flocs). Flocculation begins to form immediately after destabilization in the
zone of decaying mixing energy following rapid mixing, or as a result of the turbulence of
transporting flow. In some instances, this identical flocculation may be an adequate
flocculation process. A separation flocculation process is most often included in the treatment
train to enhance contact of destabilized particles and to build floc particles of optimize size,
density, and strength .

Floc begins to form within 2 second of coagulant addition and mixing. If high turbulence or
shear is subsequently applied to the water, the formed flocs may be fragmented, and broken
floc may not readily settle or re-form. Optimum floc that is efficiently settled or filtered is
usually formed under conditions of gradually reducing energy. In large plants, it may be
difficult to distribute water to flocculation basins or filters without quiescent stages and high
energy stages[8].

-3-
The precipitated material or ''floc'' is not a simple hydroxide and organic material is often
adsorbed onto the floc. As a result the best chemical conditions for coagulation vary widely
from one water to another. Coagulant and pH adjustment chemicals are usually added, by
means of a metering pump, at the same point in the system and must be mixed thoroughly
and quickly. This is usually achieved by a flash mixer or by an in-line static mixer. JAR
TESTS are used to determine the optimum coagulant concentrations and pH conditions for
coagulation-flocculation[9].

For coagulation – flocculation process advantages and disadvantages may be taken into
consideration.

ADVANTAGES

1-Simplicity and cost-effectiveness.

2-Separates many kind of particles from water.
3-Inhances Filtration process.
4-Uses abundant and low cost chemicals
5-Proven reduction of viruses, bacteria, protozoa.
6-Pesticide and heavy metal removal.

DISADVANTAGES

1-May be toxic if used improperly.

2-Could be more expensive and complicated than other methods due to increased number of
required materials and skill.
3-Input of chemicals required.
4- Qualified personnel required for design (e.g. construction of chambers and dosage of
chemicals) and system maintenance.
5-Relativly time consuming process.
 Literature Review

Nikos and Anastasios found that The development of simple pre - polymerized coagulant
(e.g. polyaluminium chloride ), seems no longer to be sufficient enough The need for more
effective coagulant has lead to the development of new coagulant, via the introduction of
various additives in the structure of pre-polymerized coagulants. Nowadays, the range of
additives has expanded, including organic compounds, such as anionic, cationic or non ionic
polyelectrolytes, leading to new composite coagulants. The application of the new generation
of coagulation reagents exhibits several advantages, compared to the conventional and simple
pre-polymerized coagulants. The incorporation of various additives, inorganic or organic,
results in an increment of molecular weight and components size, which compensates
efficiently the decrease of charge neutralization capability in the new coagulants. Overall they
present better treatment performance, lower residual metal concentration and wider effective
of pH range, which are the main advantages of the composite coagulants[10].

Arkan explained that effect of using types of coagulants aid on the percentage
removal of turbidity and to find the optimum dosage of coagulant (alum) and coagulant aid.
The coagulants used in this study were alum, Porcelanite and Silica Gel The initial turbidity at
450 NTU was used with floc growth and floc formation was studied for Kaolinite 10
micrometer particle size. In this study used coagulant aid with alum in different percents (0,
50%, 60%, 75%). The results indicated that the efficient coagulant type with dose of 30 mg/l
is 4.56 NTU residual turbidity and removal percentage of 98.98% by using alum with silica,
with the percentage of alum is 60% and 40% of Silica and pH value 7.66
The increasing dosages of coagulants with different percentages have effective influence on
reducing of the final water turbidity, also the increasing in dosages values of the Silica
coagulants increased the value of pH especially if the Silica used alone with 100% percentage,
and there are no more changes in the values of TDS, Ec and Salt after the coagulants (Silica
Jel and Porcelanite) have been added[11].

Basma and Hussein studied that removal of turbidity from produced water by chemical
coagulation/flocculation method using locally available coagulants was investigated.
Aluminum sulfate (alum) is selected as a primary coagulant, while calcium hydroxide (lime)
is used as a coagulant aid. The performance of these coagulants was studied through jar test
by comparing turbidity removal at different coagulant / coagulants aid ratio, coagulant dose,
water pH, and sedimentation time. The best conditions for turbidity removal using jar test
process can be o btained at 75% alum+25% lime coagulant at coagulant dose of 80 mg/l at pH
6 and 120 min for sedimentation time.The aluminum sulfate (alum) combination with
coagulant aid (lime) provided higher removal efficiencies of turbidity compared to
coagulation with alum alone[12].

-5-
Abdul Fattah Abu Bakar , Azhar Abdul Halim and Marlia Moh Hanafiah studied that
Based on the coagulation-flocculation process, an automotive wastewater was treated using
polyaluminium chloride (PAC) as the coagulant and an anionic polyacrylamide (PAM) as the
flocculant. Response surface methodology was applied to optimize the operating variables:
coagulant dosage, flocculant dosage and pH. In this experiment, 10% concentration PAC
solution was used and 5% anionic PAM/feedstock solution was prepared using distilled water.
The results show that the optimal conditions for chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal
were a coagulant dosage of 73.3 mg/L, a flocculant dosage of 3.46 mg/L and pH 7.45, while
the optimal conditions for heavy metal (Fe, Cr, Cu) removal were in the coagulant dosage
range of 65.26-170.9 mg/L, a flocculant dosage of 5.36 mg/L and pH 6.13. The experimental
data and predict model proved that response surface methodology (RSM) is a suitable
approach for optimizing the coagulation-flocculation process in treating automotive
wastewater. [13]

O.S. Amuda and I.A. Amoo examine the effectiveness of coagulation and flocculation
process using ferric chloride and polyelectrolyte (non-ionic polyacrylamide) for the treatment
ofbeverage industrial wastewater. The optimum conditions for coagulation/flocculation
process, such as coagulant dosage, polyelectrolyte dosage and pH of solution were
investigated using jar test experiment.
Coagulation/flocculation process was conducted for the treatment of beverage industrial
wastewater to achieve maximum removal of COD (chemical oxygen demand), TP (total
phosphorus) and TSS (total suspended solid). Coagulant dose, polyelectrolyte dose, pH of
solution and addition of polyelectrolyte as coagulant aid were investigated and found to be
important parameters for effective treatment of beverage industrial wastewater.
The results of the present work indicated that the addition of 25 mg/L polyelectrolyte reduced
the dose of ferric chloride from 300 to 100 mg/L during which 99.97 and 91% of TP, TSS and
COD removal were, respectively, achieved [ 14 ] .

-6-
 References

[1] John bratby, Coagulation and flocculation in water and wastewater treatment, 3rd edition-2016 .
[2]A.A Tatsi, AI, Zouboulis, K.A Matis, P. Samara, Coagulation & Flocculation Pre-treatment of
sanitary Iandfill leachates, (2003)
[3] Jacangelo, Demarco J, Owen DM, Randtke SJ. J Am Water Works Assoc 1995 .

[4] David Hendricks, Fundamentals of water treatment Unit Process.

[5] John C. Crittenden & R. Rhodes Trussell & David W. Hand & Kerry J. Howe & George
Techobanoglous, Water treatment principles and design, 3rd edition.
[6] Operational Control of Coagulation and filtration processes, third edition.
[7] James K.Edzwald, Water Quality & Treatment, a handbook on drinking water, Sixth Edition.
[8] Edward E. Baruth, Water Treatment Plant Design, fourth edition.
[9] Richard Stuetz, Principles of Water and Wastewater Treatment Processes, 2009.
[10] Nikos Tzoupanos & Anastasios Zouboulis , „„ Coagulation – Flocculation processes in water / wastewater treatment :the
application of new generation of chemical reagents ‟‟, 6th IASME / WSEAS International Conference on HEAT
TRANSFER, THERMAL ENGINEERING and ENVIRONMENT ,Greece, August 20-22, 2008 .
[11] Arkan Dhari Jalal , „„ The effect of using coagulants and coagulants aid (Porcelanite and Silica Jel) in improving
water efficiency treatment ‟‟ , Anbar Journal for Engineering Sciences ,College of Engineering –University of
Anbar.
[12] Basma Abbas Abdul-Majeed & Hussein Basim Oleiwi, „„Evaluation of Alum/Lime Coagulant for the Removal of Turbidity
from Al- Ahdab Iraqi Oilfields ‟‟, Journal of Engineering ,College of Engineering- University of Baghdad ,Vol.21 , No.7 ,
July- 2015.
[13] Abdul Fattah Abu Bakar & Azhar Abdul Halim & Marlia Moh Hanafiah, “ Optimization of Coagulation and Flocculation
for Automotive Wastewater Treatment using Response Surface Methodology , Nature Environment and Pollution
Technology - An International Quarterly Scientific Journal, Vol.14 , No.3, pp.1-8 , Selangor -Malaysia , 2015.
[14] O.S. Amuda & I.A. Amoo , “ Coagulation / Flocculation process and sludge conditioning in beverage industrial
wastewater treatment ”department of chemistry, federal university of technology, Akure, Nigeria , 24 july 2006
 180

160

140

120
Turbidity (NTU)

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Conc.of coagulant (g)

Fecl3 , 350 rpm

Alum, 350 rpm
Alum , 200 rpm
Fecl3 , 200 rpm
Alum, 150 rpm
Fecl3 ,150 rpm
 140

120

100
Turbidity (NTU)

80

60

40

20

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Conc. of coagulant (g)

Alum , 60 rpm
Fecl3 , 60 rpm
Alum , 55 rpm
Fecl3 , 55 rpm
Alum , 45 rpm
Fecl3 , 45 rpm