SHEAR WALL STRUCTURES—DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION PROBLEMS WILEM W. FRISCHMANN, SUDHAKAR S. PRABHU, in Tall Buildings 1967 FOUNDATIONS With the knowledge and experience of soil mechanics large buildings can now be economically founded on relatively poor soils. Sites can, therefore, be better utilized than was possible in the past when foundation difficulties were often a major restriction. To determine the characteristics of the soil and predict its possible behaviour under the final loading, samples of soil are tested in the aboratory. From its mechanical properties it is then possible to =stimate the probable distribution of stress in the soil, the settlement, and the sub-structure most suited to support the building. IN proportioning foundations the allowable bearing pressure must be chosen to provide an adequate factor of safety against shear failure, and to ensure that both the overall and the relative settlements are within tolerable limits. On non-cohesive soils, e.g. sand and gravels, since the water can move freely the settlements are largely completed by the end of the construction. On cohesive soils, e.g. clays, the spaces between the particles are very small and the movement of water under pressure can only take place slowly. Theoretically consolidation can take place almost indefinitely, although perceptibly for some years only. It is this ong, continued settlement which causes so much trouble with structures and finishes. 4 good deal of experience has been gained in big cities like London n founding tall blocks, in forming deep basements and in stabilizing neighbouring buildings against possible lateral and vertical movements. The London area is underlain by a great depth of clay which increases in strength and decreases in compressibility with increased depth. The choice of foundation for tall blocks therefore lies mainly between a raft, a buoyant foundation, a piled foundation or a combination of these. The principle of the buoyant foundation which has been applied to towers in London consists of excavating sufficient earth for the sub- structure to balance, as far as possible, the weight of the buildings and thus reduce the average settlement to a minimum. The practical difficulties of forming excavations deep enough to make 1 full buoyant foundation are expensive and normally, therefore, a compromise has to be accepted. This consists of either using a raft at say, the sub-basement level, extending well beyond the outline in plan of the tower block, or a raft placed at a shallower depth used in conjunction with piles which transfer the loads into the stiffer and ess compressible soil. Large diameter augered piles transferring oads, partly in friction, partly in end bearing, have been found to be yery economic. The bases of these piles can be enlarged by underreaming, if required. The function of a raft is to spread the load over a large area in order fo reduce the bearing pressure to the allowable limit. Normally it is made stiff enough either by itself or in combination with the sub- structure, so as to distribute the load and to reduce the differential settlements in the structure to acceptable values.