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Chapter 15 – Differential Reinforcement

Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior

 Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior: A procedure for decreasing a problem behavior
by reinforcers a functionally equivalent alternative behavior (a competing behavior) to replace the
problem behavior
 The desirable behavior is reinforced each time it occurs, which results in an increase in the future
probability of the desired behavior
 DRA involves combining reinforcement for desirable behaviors and extinction of undesirable behaviors
 Differential reinforcement of alternative behaviors (DRA) and differential
reinforcement of incompatible behaviors (DRI) are both procedures designed to
decrease the rate of targeted unwanted behaviors. Targeted behaviors decrease due to
two mechanisms – reinforcement of appropriate behaviors that will replace the
unwanted behavior and the withholding of reinforcement that historically followed the
unwanted behavior. DRI is often considered a type of DRA procedure.

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When to Use DRA/ Rationale

 To determine whether DRA is appropriate, you must answer three questions:
o Do you want to increase the rate of a desirable behavior?
o Is the behavior already occurring at least occasionally?
o Do you have access to a reinforcer that you can deliver after the occurrence of the behavior?
 The desirable behavior must be occurring at least occasionally if you are to reinforce it
 If you cannot identify a reinforcer or if you have no control over the reinforcer, you cannot use DRA

 The rationale is that the child cannot simultaneously engage in two incompatible behaviors, so as one is
strengthened, the other must be weakened.
 A DRI procedure could be used to intervene with a child who is continually out of his seat in the
classroom. 
How to Use DRA/ procedure
 Define the desirable behavior
You must clearly identify and define the desirable behavior that you plan to increase with DRA. A clear
behavioral definition of the desirable behavior helps ensure that you are reinforcing the correct behavior and
allows you to record the behavior to determine whether treatment is successful.
 Describe the undesirable behavior
You must also clearly define the undesirable behaviors you plan to decrease with DRA. A clear behavioral
definition of the undesirable behaviors helps ensure that you are not using reinforcement when the undesirable
behavior occurs and also allows you to record the undesirable behaviors to determine whether they decrease
after DRA.
 Identify the reinforcer
The DRA procedure involves reinforcing a desirable behavior and withholding reinforcement for undesirable
behaviors. Therefore, you must identify the reinforcer you will use in the DRA procedure. Because reinforcers
may be different for different people, it is important to determine a reinforcer specific to the person with whom
you are working.
o Important to determine a reinforcer specific to the person whom you’re working with
o One possibility is to use the reinforcer that is currently maintaining the undesirable behavior
(you already know that this reinforcer is effective)
o Another way to identify a reinforcer is to observe the person and note which activities or interests
he or she pursues
o Another way to identify reinforcers for specific people is to ask them questions
o Another option is to try out a variety of different stimuli and see which ones the person prefers
Preference Assessment: A process of denitrifying reinforcers for an individual that involves presenting
potential reinforcers and measuring whether the individual approaches, manipulates, or consumes the item
 Single Stimulus Assessment: Each potential reinforcer (from an array of
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potential reinforcers) is presented, one at a time, to see whether the

individual approaches the stimulus or not
o After each stimulus is presented numerous times, the researcher
calculates the percentage of times that the individual approached each
stimulus to indicated which stimuli are likely to be reinforcers
 Paired Stimulus Assessment: Two potential reinforcers (from an array of
potential reinforcers) are presented to the individual and the researcher records
which stimulus the individual approaches
o Each stimulus is presented with every other stimulus multiple times
and the researcher calculates the percentage of times that the
individual approaches each stimulus, indicating which stimuli are
likely to reinforcers
 Multiple Stimulus Assessment: An array of potential reinforcers is presented to
the individual and the researcher records which potential reinforcer the
individual approaches or chooses first
o This stimulus is then removed from the array and the researcher
records which stimulus the individual chooses next
o That stimulus, in turn, is then removed from the array and the
process continues until the individual has approached/chosen all of
the stimuli
o The array of stimuli is presented a number of times (with the stimuli in
different locations on the table each time) to identify the order in which
the stimuli are chosen
 Reinforcer Assessment: A process in which an item from a preference assessment is
delivered contingent on a behavior to see if the behavior increases – if the behavior
increases, the item functions as a reinforcer
o Another technique to assess reinforcers is to make each potential reinforcer contingent on an
operant response
 Reinforce the desirable behavior immediately and consistently
o A delay in the reinforcement of the desirable behavior will make DRA less effective
o You should reinforce the desirable behavior every time it occurs
o It is important to reinforce a behavior immediately after it occurs if you want it to increase.
Correspondingly, a delay in reinforcement of the desirable behavior will make DRA less effective.
o A behavior that is reinforced on a continuous reinforcement schedule, at least initially, is more likely
to increase to the desirable level and to replace the undesirable behaviors that are not being

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reinforced

• Eliminate reinforcement for the undesirable behaviors

o You must identify and eliminate the reinforcer for undesirable behaviors
o IF it cannot be eliminated completely, it must at least be minimized so that the contract
between the reinforcement of the desirable and undesirable behaviors is maximized
o For example, the nurses may not be able to eliminate all attention to Mrs. Williams when she
complains. They may have to respond to some complaints to determine whether they are
legitimate. However, their attention to complaints will be minimal, whereas their attention to
her positive talk will be enthusiastic and extended in duration. In this way, the attention for
positive talk is much greater than that for complaining. In other words, there is much more
reinforcement for talking about positive things than there is for complaining.
 Use intermittent reinforcement to maintain the target behavior
Continuous reinforcement for the desirable behavior is used in the early stages of DRA. However, once the
desirable behavior is occurring consistently and the undesirable behaviors occur rarely, if at all, you should
start to thin the schedule of reinforcement and reinforce the desirable behavior intermittently. Intermittent
reinforcement maintains the desirable behavior over time by making it more resistant to extinction.
 Program for generalization
o Generalization means that the target behavior should occur outside the training situation in all
relevant stimulus situations
o If the target behavior does not occur in all relevant situations, the DRA procedure has not been
entirely effective.

Using Differential Negative Reinforcement of Alternative Behaviors

 When differential reinforcement is use successfully, the desirable behavior should increase, and
the undesirable behavior should decrease
 DNRA has been used in a variety of studies to decrease problem behaviors that are maintained by
negative reinforcement and to increase appropriate behaviors to replace the problem behaviors
Variations of DRA
A couple of variations of DRA exist in which different types of alternative behavior are reinforced to replace the
problem behavior.

1. Differential Reinforcement of an Incompatible Behavior (DRI): A type of DRA procedure in

which a physically incompatible behavior is reinforced to replace a problem behavior.

For example, if the problem behavior is head-slapping, in which individuals slap themselves on the side
of the head with their hands, any alternative behavior involving the use of the hands would be an
incompatible behavior. Playing with toys or completing tasks that involve the manipulation of materials
with their hands would be examples of incompatible behaviors that could be reinforced to replace the
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head-slapping in a DRI procedure.

2. Differential Reinforcement of Communication (DRC): A type of DRA procedure in which a

communication response is reinforced to replace the problem behavior
o Also called “Functional Communication Training”
Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior
 Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior (DRO): A procedure in which the reinforcer is
delivered after intervals of time in which the problem behavior does not occur – involves reinforcing
the absence of the problem behavior
 One of the subjects, Sara, was a 3-year-old girl who spent her days in a day care program while her
parents were at work. In day care, Sara took a nap for an hour each afternoon and sucked her thumb
throughout most of the nap time. The experimenters used a differential reinforcement procedure to
reduce the duration of Sara’s thumb-sucking during nap time. Because Sara liked to have stories read to
her at nap time, they used reading to her as a reinforcer. In this differential reinforcement procedure,
the experimenter sat down next to Sara at nap time and read to her whenever she was not sucking her
thumb. The reinforcer was delivered when the problem behavior was absent. Whenever Sara put her
thumb into her mouth, the experimenter stopped reading. Because the reinforcer was contingent on the
absence of thumb-sucking, the length of time without thumb-sucking increased until there was no more
thumb-sucking during nap time. This same procedure was effective with two other children who sucked
their thumbs. It was implemented by their mothers in their homes at bedtime.
Defining DRO
 The reinforcer is contingent on the absence of the problem behavior
 The reinforcer is no longer delivered after the problem behavior (extinction), but the reinforcer is
delivered after an interval of time in which the problem behavior does not occur
 Although the name of the procedure suggests that you will reinforce other behavior, in fact, you
will reinforce the absence of the problem behavior
Implementing DRO
 Identify the reinforcer for the problem behavior
Extinction of the problem behavior is a component of the DRO procedure. You must conduct a functional
assessment to identify the reinforcer for the problem behavior before you can implement an extinction
procedure. Research demonstrates clearly that you must eliminate the reinforcer maintaining the problem
behavior for a DRO procedure to be successful
 Identify the reinforcer to use in the DRO procedure
There are various ways to identify reinforcers that you can use with particular people. You can ask people their
preferences for various potentially reinforcing events. You can observe what activities or objects people choose
when given choices. You can experimentally manipulate potential reinforcers to observe which ones increase

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the behaviors that they follow.

 Choose the initial DRO time interval

o To implement DRO, you must choose the initial time interval for delivering the reinforcer
o The length of time should be tied to the baseline rate of the problem behavior
 If the problem behavior occurs frequently, the DRO interval will be short
 If the problem behavior occurs infrequently, the DRO internal will be longer
o As the frequency of the problem behavior decreases, the DRO intervals can be lengthened
gradually
 Eliminate the reinforcer for the problem behavior and deliver the reinforcer for the absence of the
problem behavior
 Reset the interval if the problem behavior occurs
 Gradually increase the interval length
Implementing DRO
After you identify the reinforcer for the problem behavior, choose a reinforcer to use in the DRO procedure, and
establish the initial interval length, you are ready to implement the DRO procedure. First, the change agent (e.g.,
the parent or teacher) must be taught how to implement the procedure. The change agent is instructed to
eliminate the reinforcer for the problem behavior and to deliver the reinforcer at the end of every interval in
which the problem behavior does not occur. The change agent has a stopwatch (or other timing device) to time
the DRO interval. At the end of each interval, the stopwatch cues the change agent to deliver the reinforcer if the
problem behavior has not occurred. If the problem behavior does occur at some point, the reinforcer is not
delivered, and the interval for reinforcement is reset. Suppose that the DRO interval is 10 minutes. Then, any
time the problem behavior occurs before the end of 10-minute interval, the change agent resets the interval for
10 minutes. After 10 minutes, if the problem behavior has not occurred, the reinforcer is delivered. Once the
reinforcer is delivered, the interval is reset for another 10 minutes. If the person with the problem behavior can
understand instructions, you should tell the person that the reinforcer will be given when the target behavior
does not occur for a specific period of time.
Research Evaluating DRO Procedures
 Whole-Interval DRO: A type of differential reinforcement of other behavior procedure in which the
problem behavior must be absent throughout the entire interval of time for the reinforcer to be delivered
– most DRO procedures involve the whole-interval
o Behavior is absent throughout the entire interval
o Reinforcer is delivered

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 Momentary DRO: A type of differential reinforcement of other behavior procedure in which the
reinforcer is delivered if the person is refraining from the problem behavior at the end of the DRO
interval – the problem behavior does not have to be absent throughout the entire interval for the
reinforcer to be delivered
o Behavior is absent when the interval ends
o Reinforcer is delivered
o Typically not effective unless it follows the use of a whole-interval DRO procedure

Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Responding

 Differential Reinforcement of Law Rates of Responding (DRL): A procedure in which a lower
rate of a particular behavior is reinforced to decrease the rate of the behavior – involves reinforcing
the absence of the problem behavior
Defining DRL
 In DRL, the reinforcer is delivered when the rate of the problem behavior is decreased to a criterion
level – used when a low rate of the problem behavior can be tolerated of when the behavior is a
problem only because of its high rate
 In DRL procedure, you do not reinforce the absence of the behavior, as in the DRO procedure; rather,
you reinforce a lower rate of the problem behavior
Variations of DRL
 Full Session DRL: A type of differential reinforcement of low rates of responding procedure in
which the reinforcer is delivered if fewer than a specified number of responses occur in a specific
period (the session) – it is used to decrease the rate of behavior
o Fewer than X responses occur in the session
o Reinforcer is delivered
 Spaced-Responding DLR: A type of differential reinforcement of low rates of responding
procedure in which the reinforcer is delivered when responses are separated by a specific time
interval
o Response occurs after an interval of time since the last response
o Reinforcer is delivered
 When the behavior occurs after the end of the DRL intervals, the behavior is reinforced
o However, if the behavior occurs before the end of the DRL interval, the behavior is not
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reinforced, and the interval is reset

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How are DRO and Spaced-Responding DRL Different?

 In DRO, the reinforcer is delviered for the absence of the behavior after an interval of time has
passed – if the behavior occurs, the reinforcer is not delivered
 In spaced-responding DRL, the reinforcer is delivered for the occurrence of the behavior after an
interval of time has passed since the last instance of the behavior
 DRO is used when you want to eliminate a problem behavior; spaced-responding DRL is used when
you want to decrease the rate of a behavior that occurs too frequently
 Interval DRL: A type of differential reinforcement of low rates of responding procedure that
involves dividing a session into consecutive intervals or time and providing the reinforcer if no
more than one response occurred in each interval
Implementing DRL Procedures
 Determine whether DRL is the appropriate procedure to us
o If the goal is to decrease the rate of a behavior but not to eliminate the behavior, DRL is
appropriate
 Determine an acceptable level of the behavior
o In full-session DRL – you must decide how many responses per session are acceptable
o In speed-responding DRL – you choose the interval of time that must elapse between each
occurrence of the behavior
 Decide whether to implement full-session DRL or spaced-responding DRL
o If timing of behavior is important and it is necessary to have an interval of time between
responses, spaced-responding DRL is most appropriate
o If the timing of each response is less important and you simply want to decrease the overall rate
of the behavior in a session, full-session DRL is most appropriate
 Prior to implementing the DRL procedure, you should inform the client about the procedure so
that they know the criterion for reinforcement
o In full-session DRL – you should tell the client that maximum number of responses that is
acceptable in the session
o In spaced-responding DRL – you should tell the client how much time you expect between each
instance of the behavior
 Often useful to give the client feedback on their behavior when implementing the DRL procedure
 Research Evaluating DRL procedures
 Stereotypic Behavior: Repetitive behaviors that do not serve any social function for the
individual – they are often called “self- stimulatory behaviors” because they function to produce
some form of sensory stimulation for the individual
 Inter-response Time (IRT): The time between the occurrence of consecutive responses
Clinical applications
Homework completion
Toilet training