Airlift Kuwait

Proceedings of IMEC2004
International Mechanical Engineering Conference

December 5-8, 2004, Kuwait
IMEC04-3080
Modeling the Performance of an Air Lift Pump Operating in

Two-Phase Flow Regime
S. Z. Kassab, H. A. Kandil, H. A. Warda, and W.H. Ahmed
Mechanical Engineering Department,

Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University,
Alexandria, 21544, EGYPT
Abstract
The present study is dealing with the performance of airlift pumps operating in two-phase
flow regime. A theoretical model is proposed in this study taking into account the flow
patterns where the pump is usually operated. The present results showed that the pump
capacity and efficiency are functions of the air mass flow rate, submergence ratio, and riser
pipe length. The results of the proposed model are compared with the experimental results
and the results of two other models available for the airlift pump operating in the two-phase
flow regime. Good agreement between the present results and the experimental results as well
as the results of the other models was obtained.
Nomenclature
A Pipe cross-sectional area, m2
b Wetted perimeter of pipe
D Pipe diameter, m
f Friction factor
g Gravitational acceleration, m/s2
Hs Static depth of water, m
Hd Static lift
K Friction parameter
L Pipe length, m
Ls Pipe suction length, m
P Pressure, N/m2
Q Volume flow rate (discharge), m3/s
Sr Submergence ratio
s slip ratio
U Superficial velocity, m/s
V Velocity, m/s
W Weight, N
ρ Density, kg/m3
η Efficiency, %
τ Wall shear stress, N/m2
ε Pipe roughness
Re Reynold`s number
Copyright © 2004 by the Kuwait Society of Engineers. All rights reserved.

Kassab et.al. / Modeling the Performance of an Air Lift Pump Operating in Two-Phase Flow Regime 1026
Subscripts
1 Entering injection zone

2 Leaving injection zone
a Atmospheric
gs Gas as a single phase
g gas
L Liquid
ls Liquid as a single phase
S Solid
Key words
Airlift pump, two-phase flow, multi-phase flow in a vertical pipe
1. Introduction
Air Lift Pump is a deep-well pump. It can be used to pump slurries of sand and water or other
"gritty" solutions. In its most basic form, this pump has no moving parts. Compressed air is
introduced down a vertical pipe. The air then returns up a discharge pipe carrying the liquid
with it. The pump works by "aerating" the liquid in the discharge pipe. The added air lowers
the specific gravity of the fluid mixture. Since it is lighter than the surrounding liquid, it is
pushed upwards.
Although the geometry of the pump is very simple, the theoretical study of its performance is
very complicated. The efforts to explain and study its performance started very early in the
last century. Among the early classical theories of the airlift pump, are those proposed by
Harris, Lorenz, Gibson, and Swindin, as mentioned by Stepanoff (1929). Harris considered
the force of buoyancy of the air bubbles as the motive force of the pump. He analyzed the
motion of the bubble, and obtained the relation between the size of the bubble, slip (relative
velocity of the air bubble with respect to the water), and the head produced. Lorenz, in
developing his theory, wrote Bernoulli's equation for a differential head corresponding to a
given flow in the discharge pipe, introducing variable pressure, density of mixture, and
integrating between the head limits and thus he obtained the relation between the variables
involved. Stepanoff (1929) used the thermodynamics theory in studying the effect of the
submergence, the diameter of the riser pipe, air to water ratio, climate, and introducing
compressed air above the surface of the water in the well, on the efficiency of the airlift
pump. He found that treating the airlift pump thermodynamically has a definite advantage in
explaining many points of its operation.
More than three decades later, a theoretical treatment of the airlift pump, based on the theory
of slug flow, was presented by Nicklin (1963). He studied the effect of different parameters
including; diameter, length, pressure at the top of riser tube, submergence ratio, and water
volumetric flow rate, on the airlift-pump efficiency. He found that, by neglecting the entrance
effects and assuming slug flow in the riser tube, the performance of the airlift pump may be
obtained based on two-phase slug flow regime. He used a definition of the efficiency of the
pump as the work done in lifting the liquid, divided by the work done by the air as it expands
isothermally.
The theory presented by Nicklin was extended by Reinemann et al. (1986) taking into
account the effect of surface tension on the bubble velocity.
Another analytical study of airlift-pump performance was presented by Stenning and Martin
(1968). They used the continuity and momentum equations, assuming one-dimensional flow

1026
in the pump riser, and used the results of two-phase flow research to solve the governing
equations. They found that one-dimensional-flow theory forms a good basis for the
performance analysis of airlift pumps. A simple form of the momentum equation was used
also by Todoroki et al. (1973) to derive the basic equation of airlift pumps. They used an
analytical model which makes use of the accepted and suitable correlations for liquid holdup
and frictional pressure drop in two-phase flow.
The instabilities in the operation of airlift pumps were first studied by Hjalmars (1973). He
described the oscillation phenomenon occurring during the operation of the pump. He found
that the instability of the pump starts when the riser length is increased to about 7-8 m. This
phenomena was later studied by De Cachard and Delhaye (1988) and by Kajishima and Saito
(1996). The stability of an air-lift pump has also been investigated by Alimontic and
Galardini (1992) who showed that the pumping system has a self-controlling mechanism.
Among the theoretical models for the airlift pump design and performance predication is the
model developed by Husain and Cantab (1975) that can predict output and isothermal
efficiency over the whole range of operation regardless of the flow regime. Also, Clark and
Dabolt (1986) introduced a general design equation for airlift pumps operating in slug flow
regime by integrating the differential momentum equation over the whole pump length. The
model was validated by the operation curves plotted from their experimental results. They
indicated also that the analysis presented by Nicklin (1963) was accurate only in the design of
short pumps, since there is no provision for variation in gas density over the tube length. In
addition, they concluded that, the frictional pressure loss becomes significant for small riser
diameter of about 10 mm.
Recently, De Cachard, and Delhaye (1996), concluded that as the gas velocity is increased,
there is a transition towards churn flow. This transition was studied also by Jayanti and
Hewitt (1992). De Cachard and Delhaye predicted the pump performance by a combination
of models describing slug and churn flow regimes. They studied also the influence of length
to diameter ratio on the pump performance. They found that the maximum liquid flow rate in
the airlift pump decreases when the length to diameter ratio is increased. As the length of
pipe riser increases, as in deep-sea mining systems, the unsteadiness effects become very
important. Moreover, a numerical model for an airlift system of a depth of 200 m was
introduced by Takeo and Saito (1996).
Another important parameter which is the method of air injection, was studied by several
researchers. For example, Parker (1980) studied the effect of foot-piece design on the
performance of the airlift pump. Meanwhile, Fahmi (1996) studied the effect of the air
injection method on the airlift-pump performance. In addition, Khalil et al. (1999)
investigated experimentally the performance of the airlift pump under different submergence
ratios using different air injector foot-piece designs. They found marked effect on the pump
performance when operated with different types of injectors at different submergence ratios.
The airlift-pump capacity and efficiency were found to be functions of air flow rate, lift ratio,
and injection pressure.
Recently, the performance of an airlift pump under various geometrical and operating
conditions was extensively investigated experimentally by Kassab et al. (2001). Experiments
were performed for nine submergence ratios, and three lengths of pump risers with different
air injection pressures. Moreover, the different flow regimes and the transition of the flow
patterns were observed. The experimental results showed that the maximum water flow rate
increases when the submergence ratio and/or the riser pipe length, at the same submergence
ratio, is increased. The best efficiency range of the airlift pump operation was found to be in
the slug and slug-churn flow regimes.
The present study reviewed the previous models, dealt with the airlift pump performance
when operating in two-phase flow regime. A modified version of these models is developed.

1027
The results of the proposed modified model are then compared with the experimental
measurements of Kassab et al. (2001) and other available models.
2. Modeling the airlift-pump performance

The problem considered is the prediction of the liquid mass flow rate as a function of the air
mass flow rate. The geometric parameters (L, Hs, Ls, and D), the pressure conditions (Pa, Pin),
and the fluid properties are given as input data to the theoretical model equations. Where L is
the riser-pipe length, Hs is the static head of water, Ls is the length of the suction part of the
pipe, D is the pipe diameter, Pa is the atmospheric pressure, and Pin is the injection pressure to
the riser pipe. As the basic performance data of the airlift pump is computed, secondary
results such as the efficiency may easily be determined.
Clark and Dabolt Model

The general design equation for airlift pumps operating in the slug flow regime that was
developed by Clark and Dabolt (1986) is taken as a preliminary investigation model of the
pump performance. A computer program was developed for the equations derived by Clark
and Dabolt (1986), using the momentum balance. Derivation is based on the assumption that
the two-phase flow remains within the slug flow mode and the flow is one-dimensional.
The theoretical predictions using Clark and Dabolt model together with the corresponding
experimental results of Kassab et al. (2001) are presented in Fig. 1 for a submergence ratio of
0.4. The agreement between these two results is quite reasonable up to an air mass flow rate
of 3.4 kg/hr. The theoretical model does not predict the experimental data for air mass flow
rates higher than 3.4 kg/hr. The results obtained for different submergence ratios (not shown),
were also compared with those predicted by the model proposed by Clark and Dabolt (1986).
The comparison showed that the model is suitable only for the first region of pump
performance, where the flow regime is slug.
From the previous comparison and in order to extend the operating range of the air lift pump,
it is essential to develop a model which is more general than that proposed by Clark and
Dabolt (1986).
A modified model for the performance of the air lift pumps

As discussed earlier in the literature review, the direct approach to study the airlift-pump
performance employs the momentum equation and the continuity equation, assuming one-
dimensional flow. This assumption is valid for the practical operating range of the airlift
pump as concluded by Clark and Dabolt (1986).
Consider a vertical pipe partly full of liquid, and let the base of the pipe have a reference
height of zero as shown in Fig. 2. Since the tube is filled to a static head of Hs, then the static
pressure, Po, at the base of the pipe is given by Bernoulli's equation as follows:
1
Po = Pa + ρ L gH s − ρ LV12 (1)
2
where ρL is the liquid density, Pa is the atmospheric pressure and V1 is the water velocity at
the inlet section.
Neglecting the density changes of the air, the continuity equation can be written as follows:
AV2 = Qg +QL= Qg + AV1 (2)

1028
where V2 is the mixture velocity of air and water leaving the injector. Dividing all terms of
Eq. (2) by QL= AV1, gives:
⎛ Qg ⎞
V2 = V1 ⎜ 1 + ⎟ (3)
⎝ QL ⎠
Neglecting the air mass flow rate compared to the liquid mass flow rate, the continuity
equation can be written as follows:
ρ2 AV2 = ρL AV1 (4)
So,
V1
ρ2 = ρL (5)
V2
Substituting Eq. (3) in Eq. (5), we obtain
ρL
ρ2 = (6)
⎛ Qg ⎞
⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ QL ⎠
The momentum equation applied to the injector as a control volume, neglecting the wall
friction, is given by:
P2 = Po − ρLV1 (V2 − V1 ) (7)
From equation (3) in (7), then
ρLV1Qg
P2 = Po − (8)
A
Hence, combining (1) and (8), gives:
1 ρ LV1Qg
P2 = Pa + ρ L gH s − ρ LV12 − (9)
2 A
Neglecting momentum changes caused by the flow adjustment after the mixer, the
momentum equation for the upper portion of the pump can be written as suggested by
Stenning and Martin (1968) in the form:
Lb W
P2 − Pa = τ + (10)
A A
where τ is the average wall shear stress, b is the wetted perimeter of the pipe, and W is the
total weight of the gas and liquid in the pipe.
An expression for the average shear stress, τ, was suggested by Griffith and Wallis (1961) as
follows:
⎛ QL ⎞ ⎛ Qg ⎞
2
τ = fρL ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 1 + ⎟ (11)
⎝ A ⎠ ⎝ QL ⎠
where f is the friction factor assuming that the water alone flows through the pipe.
The weight of the fluid in the pipe equals the total weight of liquid plus gas, which can be
obtained as follows:
(
W = L ρL AL + ρg Ag ) (12)

1029
where AL is the area for the liquid phase, and Ag is the area for the gas phase.
A = AL+ Ag (13)
Qg = Ag Vg (14)
QL = AlVL = AV1 (15)
Substituting (13), (14), and (15) in (12) and neglecting the density of gas with respect to the
liquid density, we obtain:
ρL A
W=L (16)
⎛ Qg ⎞
⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ sQL ⎠
where s is the slip ratio which equals:

Vg
s= (17)
VL
where Vg and VL are the actual velocities of gas and liquid, respectively.
Substituting from equations (11) and (16) in equation (10), we get:
4 fL ⎛ Qg ⎞ L
P2 = Pa + ρLV12 ⎜ 1 + ⎟ + ρL (18)
D ⎝ QL ⎠ ⎛ Qg ⎞
⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ sQL ⎠
This equation was obtained by Stenning and Martin (1968) and it can be written as follows
Hs 1 V12 ⎡ Q ⎤
− = ⎢( K + 1) + ( K + 2) g ⎥ (19)
L ⎛ Qg ⎞ 2 gL ⎣ QL ⎦
⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ sQL ⎠
where K is the friction factor which is given by

4 fL
K= (20)
D
Stenning and Martin (1968) used the above equations in their analytical model but they fixed
the values of the slip ratio (s), and the friction factor (K). Physically, the slip ratio changes as
the water mass flow rate and air mass flow rate changes. Also, the friction factor changes
with changing the flow conditions.
In the present work, the slip ratio is considered as a function of the water and air mass flow
rates as expressed by Griffith and Wallis (1961) for slug flow in the form:
Q g 0.35 gD
s = 1 .2 + 0 .2 + (21)
QL V1
Also, the friction factor is obtained using Colebrook formula where the friction factor, f, may
be obtained by solving the following equation:
⎛ε 2.51 ⎞⎟
= −2.0 log⎜⎜ D +
1
(22)
f 3.7 Re f ⎟
⎝ ⎠

1030
where ε is the pipe roughness and Re is the Reynolds number.

Finally, the pump efficiency is calculated in the present study using the definition given by
Nicklin (1963) as follows,
ρgQL ( L − hs )
η= (23)
pin
Pa Qa ln
Pa
Where QL is the water discharge, Qa is the volumetric flow rate of air, Pin is the injection
pressure of air, and Pa is the atmospheric pressure.
The modified model is obtained by inserting equations (21) and (22) in equation (19). Using
this modified model, a computer program was developed in order to investigate the airlift
pump performance over an extended range of the pump operation. A calculation procedure
was followed to obtain the results using the proposed model. Details of this procedure is
given by Mohamed (2000).
3. Comparison With The Experimental Data

In order to evaluate the validity of the results obtained using the proposed model a
comparison with the experimental results of Kassab et al. (2001) was performed. This
comparison is shown in Fig. 3-a for a submergence ratio of 0.48. It is clear from this figure
that the agreement between the results of the proposed model and the experimental data is
good over a range of air mass flow rates up to 8.3 kg/hr while there is a large deviation for
the remainder of the pump performance curve. This is due to the transition to the annular
flow regime that is not taken into account in the present model.
More comparisons between the results of the proposed model and the experimental results
obtained by Kassab et al. (2001), for some other submergence ratios, are shown in Figs. (3b,
c and d). In general, good agreement is obtained for all presented submergence ratios. In
addition, comparing the results presented in Fig. 1 with those in Fig. 3, one notices that the
agreement of the present modified model with the experimental data is better than that of
Clark and Dabolt (1986).
The average deviation between the results of the present model and the experimental results
is about 5 percent, which is acceptable if the model is used to investigate the performance in
practical applications. It appears that the one-dimensional theory forms a good basis for the
performance analysis of airlift pumps.
The influence of the riser pipe length on the airlift performance was also studied using the
modified model. Figure 4 shows the effect of the riser pipe length on the airlift pump
performance in both theoretical and experimental results. It is noted that, the model proposed
in the present study senses well the change of riser pipe length.
The efficiency of the airlift pump is computed using the present model based on the
definition presented by Nicklin (1963). The obtained results are presented in Fig. 5 and are
compared with the experimental results of Kassab et al. (2001). Good agreement between the
theoretical and experimental results is achieved.
4. Comparison With Other Models

Figure 6 shows a comparison between the results of the proposed model and the
corresponding results obtained using Clark and Dabolt (1986) as well as Stenning and Martin
(1968) models. It is clear from the comparison that the model proposed in the present study
gives better agreement with the experimental data than the other two models.

1031
5. Concluding Remarks
The following concluding remarks can be deduced from the present study:
• The one-dimensional model proposed in the present study can predict the airlift pump
performance and it can be used in the design of airlift pumps for a wide range of operating
conditions.
• The proposed model gives a good agreement with the experimental results within the
practical range of operation of the airlift pumps.
References
1. Alimonti, C. and Galardini, D., 1992 “Modeling Of An Air-Lift Pump For The Design
Of Its Control System”, European Journal of Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 37, No. 3,
Sep, 1992, pp. 191-197.
2. Clark, N.N. and Dabolt, R.J., 1986 “A General Design Equation For Air-Lift Pumps
Operating In Slug Flow”, AICHE J., Vol. 32, pp. 56-64.
3. De Cachard, F. and Delhaye, J.M., 1996 “A Slug-Churn Flow Model For Small
Diameter Air-Lift Pumps”, Int. J. Multiphase Flow Vol. 22, pp. 627-649.
4. De Cachard, F. and Delhaye, J.M., 1998 “Stability Of Small Diameter Air-Lift Pumps”,
Int. J. Multiphase Flow, Vol. 24, pp. 17-34.
5. Fahmy, R.I., 1996 “Effect Of Air Injection Method On The Performance Of The Air-
Lift Pump”, M. Sc. Thesis, Alexandria University, Egypt.
6. Griffith, P. and Wallis, G. B., 1961 “Two-Phase Slug Flow”, Trans. ASME, Series C,
Vol. 83, pp. 307-320.
7. Hjalmars, S., 1973 “The Origin Of Instability In Air-Lift Pumps”, Trans. ASME J.
Applied Mechanics, Paper No. 73-APM-D, pp. 399-404.
8. Husain, L.A., and Cantab, M.A., 1975 “On The Gas-Lift Pump: A New Approach”, 2nd
Symposium on Jet Pumps, Ejectors and Gas Lift Techniques, Churchill College,
Cambridge, England, pp. G2-11-35.
9. Jayanti, S. and Hewitt, G.F., 1992 “Prediction Of The Slug-To-Churn Flow Transition
In Vertical Two-Phase Flow”, Int. J. Multiphase Flow, Vol. 18, pp. 847-860.
10. Kajishima, T. and Saito, T., 1996 “Numerical Simulation Of Unsteady Flow In Air-Lift
Pump”, JSME International Journal, Series B: Fluids and Thermal Engineering, Vol.
39, No. 3, Aug, 1996 JSME, Tokyo, Japan, p 525-532.
11. Kassab, S.Z., Kandil, H.A., Warda, H.A. and Ahmed, W.H. 2001 ”Performance Of An
Air Lift Pump Operating In Two-Phase Flow”, Proceedings of ICFDP7: The Seventh
International Congress on Fluid Dynamics & Propulsion, Dec. 18-20, 2001, Cairo,
Egypt, Paper No. ICFDP7-2001004.
12. Khalil, M.F., Elshorbagy, K.A., Kassab, S.Z. and Fahmy, R.I., 1999 “Effect Of Air
Injection Method On The Performance Of An Air-Lift Pump”, Int. J. of Heat and Fluid
Flow, Vol. 20, pp. 598-604.
13. Mohamed, W.H. 2000 ”Performance Of An Air Lift Pump Operated In Multi-Phase
Flow”, M. Sc. Thesis, Alexandria University, Egypt.
14. Nicklin, D.J., 1963 “The Air-Lift Pump Theory And Optimization”, Trans. Inst. Chem.
Engrs., Vol. 41, pp.29-39.
15. Parker, G.J., 1980 “The Effect Of Footpiece Design On The Performance Of A Small
Air-Lift Pump”, Int. J. Heat and Fluid Flow, Vol. 2, pp. 245-252.
16. Reinemann, D.J., Patrlange, J.Y., and Timmons, M.B., 1986 “Theory Of Small-
Diameter Air-Lift Pump”, Int. J. Multiphase Flow Vol. 16, pp. 337-355.

1032
17. Stapanoff, A.J. 1929 “Thermodynamic Theory Of Air-Lift Pump”, ASME, Vol. 51, pp.
49-55.
18. Stenning, A.H., and Martin, C.B., 1968 “An Analytical And Experimental Study Of
Air-Lift Pump Performance”, Trans. ASME, J. of Engineering for Power, Vol. 90, pp.
106-110.
19. Takeo, K., and Saito, T., 1996 “Numerical Simulation Of Unsteady Flow In Air-Lift
Pump”, JSME, Series B, Vol. 39, No. 3, pp. 525-531.
20. Todoroki, I., Sato, Y., and Honda, T., 1973 “Performance Of Air-Lift Pump”, JSME,
Vol. 16, pp. 733-741.

1033
1500
Submergence Ratio 0.4
Submergence ratio= = 0.4
Clark & Dabolt Model

Water mass flow rate (kg/hr)
Experimental data
1000
slug flow
500
0
0 4 8 12
Air mass flow rate (kg/hr)
Figure 1. Comparison between the results of Clark and Dabolt (1986) and the experimental
results of Kassab et al. (2001).
Figure 2. Model for analysis of airlift pump

1034
1500
Submergence ratio = 0.484
experimental data
Present theortical model

1000
500
Annular flow regime
0
0 4 8 12
Figure 3. Comparisons between the proposed model and the experimental results of Kassab et al. (2001):
a) Submergence ratio = 0.484
1500
1000
500 Submergence ratio = 0.57
Theoretical model
Experimental data
0
0 4 8 12
b) Submergence ratio = 0.57

1035
Water mass flow rate (kg/hr) 2000
1500
1000

500
Theoretical model
Experimental data
0
0 4 8 12
c) Submergence ratio = 0.67
2500
2000
1500
1000
Theoretical model
500
Experimental data
0
0 4 8 12
d) Submergence ratio = 0.74

1036
1000
Water mass flow rate (Kg/hr)

500
Theoretical model (L = 3.75m)
Theoretical model (L = 2.75m)
Experimental data (L = 3.75m)
Experimental data (L = 2.75m)
0
0 4 8 12
Air mass flow rate (Kg/hr)
Figure 4. Effect of the riser pipe length on the airlift-pump performance.
40
Submergence ratio=0.48
Experimental data
Theoretical model
η%
20
0
0 4 8 12

Figure 5. Comparison between the calculated efficiency and that obtained experimentally by Kassab et al.
(2001).

1037
1500

Experimental data
Clark&Dabolt(1986)
1000 Stenning&Martin(1968)
Proposed model
500
0
0 4 8 12
Figure 6. Comparison between the results of various models and the experimental results of Kassab et al.
(2001).

1038

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Proceedings of IMEC2004

International Mechanical Engineering Conference

Modeling the Performance of an Air Lift Pump Operating in

S. Z. Kassab, H. A. Kandil, H. A. Warda, and W.H. Ahmed

Mechanical Engineering Department,

Copyright © 2004 by the Kuwait Society of Engineers. All rights reserved.

1 Entering injection zone

Copyright © 2004 by the Kuwait Society of Engineers. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2004 by the Kuwait Society of Engineers. All rights reserved.

2. Modeling the airlift-pump performance

Clark and Dabolt Model

A modified model for the performance of the air lift pumps

Copyright © 2004 by the Kuwait Society of Engineers. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2004 by the Kuwait Society of Engineers. All rights reserved.

where s is the slip ratio which equals:

where K is the friction factor which is given by

Copyright © 2004 by the Kuwait Society of Engineers. All rights reserved.

where ε is the pipe roughness and Re is the Reynolds number.

3. Comparison With The Experimental Data

4. Comparison With Other Models

Copyright © 2004 by the Kuwait Society of Engineers. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2004 by the Kuwait Society of Engineers. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2004 by the Kuwait Society of Engineers. All rights reserved.

Clark & Dabolt Model

Figure 2. Model for analysis of airlift pump

Copyright © 2004 by the Kuwait Society of Engineers. All rights reserved.

Present theortical model

500 Submergence ratio = 0.57

Copyright © 2004 by the Kuwait Society of Engineers. All rights reserved.

Water mass flow rate (kg/hr) 2000

Submergence ratio = 0.67

Copyright © 2004 by the Kuwait Society of Engineers. All rights reserved.

Submergence ratio = 0.484

Air mass flow rate (kg/hr)

Copyright © 2004 by the Kuwait Society of Engineers. All rights reserved.

Submergence ratio = 0.4

Copyright © 2004 by the Kuwait Society of Engineers. All rights reserved.

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