Choosing the Right

Low-Pressure Sensor
Choosing the Right Low-Pressure Sensor
Rick Hagen, Exar Corp.

New low-pressure silicon sensors, offering response on

the order of tenths of pounds per square inch, have made
new products and applications possible. At the very lowest
ranges, silicon sensors are now capable of measuring
minute pressure changes in liquid levels or the pressure
exerted during exhalation. These devices are on the
leading edge of sensing technology and could replace
mechanical devices in many applications. But how do you
go about selecting the best one for your application? A
good way to decide is to examine the difference between
silicon and conventional components, the markets in
which they excel, and the technical specs of your silicon
options.

What, exactly, constitutes low pressure? Typical pressure

ranges available in silicon sensors range from 0–0.15 psi
F.S., and often up to 0–10,000 psi. Manufacturers'
definitions of low pressure differ, based on their sensors'
designs and their production process. A sensor that
responds to pressures <5 psi typically requires different die Micromachined sensor chips have progressed to a
point where pressure sensing elements are available
topology and process techniques. For purposes of this in high volume. This one is a standard 1.5 mm by 1.5
discussion, therefore, anything < 5 psi will be considered mm die used in consumer applications. The sensors
shown here are packaged in temperature-
low pressure. compensated, calibrated, and amplified hybrid
designs and can be used as a turnkey solution in
many low-pressure applications.
The Silicon Difference
Micromachined silicon elements intended for low-pressure
sensing are manufactured by a process akin to that used to
make standard pressure range components, but with certain key differences. Standard-range elements
incorporate a resistor (Wheatstone) bridge implanted in silicon that in turn is etched into a thin
diaphragm. When stimulated by a voltage source pressure deflecting the diaphragm changes the
resistor value and results in a change in output voltage. Low-pressure silicon sensors work similarly,
but have distinctly different features, including bossed diaphragm structures and ~ 50% larger
diaphragm areas for stress concentration. Thin, precisely etched diaphragm thickness and strategically
placed resistor implants also greatly extend the sensor capability. In addition, conventional
semiconductor batch processes make high-volume production at low cost a reality for silicon sensors.

Low-pressure silicon sensors are currently used in three key markets:

HVAC. Low-pressure sensors play an integral part in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
systems. Among other tasks, they monitor venting and airflow, determine airflow volumes, detect
loading caused by dirty filters, and control overall system pressure. These demanding applications
require the ability to detect differential pressure changes on the order of 0.015 psi.

Medical. Many medical applications would not be possible without reduced physical sensor size and
increased ability to detect environmental changes and conditions. Designers have met these
requirements with relatively miniature (1–2 mm) sensors that measure internal fluid pressures in the
human body. These devices are typically catheter-mountable elements that can be inserted into such
areas as the cranium, heart, or uterus for real-time monitoring during delicate surgical procedures,
where disposability and low cost are musts. The lower pressures used in respirometers require sensor
ranges under 0.5 psi. These tasks were previously accomplished by mechanical pressure switches
whose characteristics tended to change over time.

Automotive. Low cost and high reliability are essential to components that sense peripheral
automobile conditions such as emissions, fuel vapor, and exhaust. Newer vehicles rely on silicon to
monitor tire, manifold, and hydraulic brake pressures. The useful application range of silicon
semiconductor sensors has been extended through creative packaging techniques that protect the
element in harsh automotive environments.

Application Requirements and Sensor Types

Because each application has its own peculiarities, you must factor all aspects of the overall system
into your selection process. Be sure to consider the pressure source input, the desired output, and all
pertinent operating conditions. Mounting location and orientation, proximity to the pressure source,
stress on leads, port and pressure linkage, and shock and vibration dictate package style and influence
overall accuracy. In medical applications, for instance, the pressure-sensing die element must be
mounted with no external packaging at all. Temperature fluctuations influencing span and offset may
require more sophisticated sensors that are compensated and calibrated to negate the temperature
coefficients of the materials. Environmental conditions such as moisture and contaminants govern the
level of media protection required. The resulting tradeoffs in accuracy can be overcome by using
microprocessor-based control to characterize and cancel undesired effects. System components (e.g.,
power sources, amplifiers, A/D converters, control circuitry) compatible with the sensor's analog
output signal must be able to provide the desired resolution and accuracy of the overall design.

Each type of pressure sensor has material properties that change under applied pressure to produce
quantifiable outputs. Keep your application requirements in mind as you consult the following list of
commonly used detectors.

Silicon Micromachined. These consist of a micromachined silicon diaphragm with implanted

resistors that piezoresistively change value under the influence of pressure. Applications include
medical ventilators and intrabody pressure measurements, and automotive air, vacuum, and vapor
pressures.

Electronic. These include strain gauges and variable capacitance sensors that are not made of
micromachined silicon. The strain gauges use the coupling effect of a deflected thick/thin film, foil, or
bonded foil diaphragm. The variable capacitance components interpret a capacitive change and convert
it into a signal. Strain gauges are used in tactile and mechanical pressure applications.

Vacuum. Vacuum sensors measure gas pressure indirectly by using resistive changes in a heated wire
as one leg of a balanced bridge. They are used primarily to sense vacuum levels attained in pumped
vacuum chamber environments such as scanning electron microscopes and processing equipment.
 Piezoelectric. These sensors are made of polymers, crystals, ceramics, and films that generate electric
polarization when mechanical force is applied. They are best suited for applications with a dynamic
pressure source rather than for continuous static events such as barometric pressure. They work well in
rugged environments.

Variable Reluctance. Variable reluctance sensors incorporate an inductive half-bridge configuration

in the form of a deflecting sensing diaphragm between two coils. The resulting change in
inductance/impedance creates a varying AC signal. Typical applications include low-pressure HVAC.

Understanding the Specs

Once you define your design requirements, prioritize them to determine the most important selection
criteria and judge which technology is most suitable for your job. How do you decide which criteria
are more important than others? System specification requirements generally have certain aspects that
cannot be violated. A prime example is the pressure operating range, which usually commands the
highest priority. With low-pressure micromachined devices now available in volume, you can consider
a wide response range in situations where it was previously too expensive. Along with pressure range
and sensitivity, common criteria to rank are physical size, cost, accuracy, temperature performance,
reliability, long-term stability, and media compatibility.

Accuracy and temperature performance often prove the most complex factors to manage. Each
manufacturer has a slightly different way of describing accuracy specifications, which must be
converted into comparable units to make a fair comparison possible. (Don't get caught by misleading
"specsmanship"!) To help you make sense of the performance specs, the following lists explain the
most commonly used definitions of accuracy, as well as some notable variations for each. The first
group assumes a reference temperature of 25°C.

Zero/Offset. The value of the output voltage at databook excitation conditions at 25°C with zero
pressure applied. It is typically expressed as 0 ±mV. Due to ratiometricity, a higher supply voltage or
current will result in a higher offset.

Pressure Hysteresis of Zero. A measure of the repeatability of the zero when the sensor is subjected
to one or more full-scale pressure cycles. Units are expressed as percent of full-scale output. Different
sensor manufacturers may use different numbers of pressure cycles and various full-scale ranges when
calculating the pressure hysteresis of zero.

Span Pressure Hysteresis. A measure of the repeatability of the output span when the sensor is
subjected to one or more pressure cycles. The value usually expresses the worst-case variation as a
percent of full-scale output.

Span Temperature Hysteresis. A measure of the repeatability of the span when the sensor is
subjected to temperature cycling. In other words, the sensor is subjected to minimum and maximum
operating temperatures. The difference in the span reading after cycling is a measure of temperature
hysteresis of span. This parameter is specified in the percent of full-scale output. Thus, the full-scale
pressure reading normalizes the worst-case variation in span over the full temperature cycle.

Sensitivity. The ratio of the output signal change vs. the change in pressure. Units vary widely
depending on supplier, but the value is usually expressed in mV/V or I/psi. Sensitivity is a key
performance criterion defining the system's resolution.
 Long-Term Drift. A measure of the change in span output
or zero behaviors over time. It is typically expressed in mV.

Span Nonlinearity. Micromachined silicon sensors tend to

have proportionally less and less output gain as pressure is
increased. A pressure transfer

line therefore shows less output for high pressure than a true
linear extrapolation would indicate. There are two basic
methods for calculating linearity. A best fit straight line
(BFSL) error provides a measure of average error where the
straight line is shifted for equal errors above and below the
Figure 1. For calculating linearity, the best fit straight
measured pressure (see Figure 1). A terminal base linearity is line error provides a measure of average error where
defined as the end point linearity from zero to full-scale the straight line is shifted for equal errors above and
below the measured pressure. Terminal base
pressure measured at the mid span. Terminal base nonlinearity linearity is the end point linearity from zero to full-
scale pressure measured at the mid span.
is typically 2 x BFSL nonlinearity.

A second class of specifications describes temperature-related accuracy. All sensors have some shift in
zero in addition to nonrepeatability when subjected to temperature variations. The bridge resistance
typically changes by about +3000 ppm/°C (mV/V/°C for others) above room temperature. However,
below room temperature (usually below –20°C), the resistance may actually show a zero slope and
then invert. Under these conditions, the assumption that the resistor changes linearly with temperature
is invalid and a second-order correction term must be incorporated into the sensor model. The result is
that all sensors have both a linear and a second-order error. The best that can be done is to minimize
the error, dependent on the acceptance criteria used by a specific manufacturer. Each manufacturer
may trim parts slightly differently to achieve the optimum conformance to its criteria.

Temperature Coefficient of Zero (Three Methods). This is not well defined, and the exact
specification varies by manufacturer. Some use a simple line from the reference temperature (25°C) to
the two extremes and specify that the error must be less than
that butterfly pattern over the range of interest. A second
definition of the temperature coefficient of zero is that the
temperature error will be less than a given percentage of full
scale anywhere within the temperature range. This is one of
the least critical measures of performance, but it is currently
the most widely used. The third approach is to compute the
BFSL determined by the three data points.

Of the three techniques, the first provides the maximum

information, while the third (BFSL error) provides the user
with limited accuracy. The second approach provides the
least information on device performance. Figure 2
graphically compares the three approaches.
Figure 2. Three techniques can be used to determine
the temperature coefficient of zero. A simple line from
the reference temperature to the two extremes provides
the most information. Full-scale error provides the least
information on device performance but is nonetheless
the most wiedly used.

Temperature Hysteresis of Zero. This reading is a measure of the repeatability of the zero when the
sensor is subjected to one or more temperature cycles. The difference in the zero reading after cycling
is a measure of temperature hysteresis and is usually specified as a percent of full-scale output. Thus,
the full-scale pressure reading normalizes the worst-case variation in offset over the full temperature
cycle.

Temperature Compensation. This method of canceling the effects of various temperature

coefficients uses complex algorithms to determine the trim value of thick film resistors. Systems
operating under various temperature extremes will require some form of compensation either through
system electronics or preset by the sensor manufacturer.

The combination of all error components can then be used to describe the sensor error's contribution to
system performance. The following two definitions are most commonly used to describe overall sensor
accuracy:

Worst-Case Error. A sum of all of the relevant individual errors, where:

error (worst case) = E1 + E2 + E3 . . . En

Most Probable Error. Defined as the square root of the individual errors summed and squared, where:

error (most probable) = (E12 + E22 + E32 + . . . En2)

RMS is independent of the direction of the error.

Chart Your Choices

Now that you know the choices available, you've made a set of a selection criteria, and you have a list
of design constraints, you are ready to use them to make a decision. A simple spreadsheet can help as a
tool for comparison. Often, many of the technologies fall out right away, and your comparison comes
down to just a couple of manufacturers. As an example, suppose you are building a medical respiration
device that must activate other electronics at a pressure switch point. Electronic switches can take care
of this task, but the key design parameters might be pressure range, size, cost, and long-term stability
(see Table 1).

TABLE 1
Evaluating the Choices
Critical Design Rank Silicon
Example Rank Switch
Constraints Sensors
Pressure Range 0-0.2 psig 1 - Actuates at 0.2 psi 1 - Sensor range is 0-0.3 psi
Sensitivity None required 2 - Will switch in desired 1 - 5mV/V/psi; more controlable
range
Physical Can be 0.3 in.2 4 - Exceeds target by 10% 1 - Meets spec
dimensions
Target cost <$2.00 5 - Exceeds target 1 - Meets target; additional switch
circuitry required
Accuracy < 1% Overall accuracy 3 - Actuation point not as 2 - Better; more consistent accuracy
consistent and controllable
Temperature Must operate from 0°C- 1 - Meets requirements 2 - Meets requirement; compensation
Performance 45°C required
Long-term stability < 0.1% F.S. drift over 10 4 - Requires mechanical 2 - <0.2% over 5 yr.
(reliability) yr. recalibration periodically
Media Air 5 - Works with air 5 - Works with air
compatibility
Performance Must switch when 3 - Mechanical wear; may 3 - Element does not wear out, but
pressure reaches 0.015 require recalibration needs additional circuitry to do the
psi ± 10% switch function
Totals 31 18

As the general comparison in Table 1 suggests, the switch and low-pressure sensor can perform
comparably, but each has its own advantages and disadvantages. What is important here is that this
selection process was not possible before the introduction of low-pressure micromachined silicon
sensors. As you evaluate new designs, use both mechanical as well as silicon considerations. The
advent of more environmentally harsh conditions, coupled with increasingly short product launch
windows, gives designers the potential for new and untapped markets.