PRACTICAL NO: DATE:

AIM: To study input offset voltage, input offset current, input bias current, CMRR, slew
rate, for the op-amp.

THEORY:
1. Input Offset Voltage:
-> Input offset voltage is the voltage that must be applied between the two input terminals
of an op-amp to null the output, as shown in figure.

->We denote input offset voltage by Vio. This voltage could be positive or negative.

->The smaller the value of Vio, the better the input terminals is matched.

2. Input offset current:

->The algebraic difference between the currents into the inverting and non-inverting
terminals is referred to as input offset current as Iio.

->The form of an equation is Iio = | Ib1-Ib2|

Where Ib1 = the current into the non-inverting input and

Ib2 = the current into the inverting input.

• The maximum input offset current for the 741C 200mA.

• As the matching between two input terminals is improved, the difference between
Ib1 and Ib2 becomes smaller, that is, the Iio value decreases further.

3. Input Bias Current:

It is the average of the current of the currents that flow into the inverting and non-
inverting input terminals of the op-amp.

In equation form: IB = (IB1+IB2)/2

• IB = 500mA maximum for the 741C

4. Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR):

-> The common mode rejection ratio can be defined as the ratio of the differential voltage
gain Ad to the common mode voltage gain Acm; that is;

CMRR = Ad/Acm
 The differential voltage gain Ad is the same as the large signal voltage gain A;
which is specified on the data sheets, however the common mode voltage gain can be
determined from the circuit of figure using the equation

Acm = Vocm/Vcm

Where Vocm = output common mode voltage

Vcm = input common mode voltage
Acm = common mode voltage gain

The higher the value of CMRR, the better is the matching between two input
terminals and the smaller the output common mode voltage

5. Slew Rate:

-> Slew rate (SR) is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage per unit
of time and is expressed in volts per microseconds. In the form of equation:

SR = dV0/dt

-> Slew rate indicates how rapidly the out put of an op-amp can change in response
to changes in the input frequency.

->The slew rate changes with change in voltage gain and is normally specified at
unity gain.

->The slew rate of an op-amp is fixed; therefore, if the slope requirements of the
output signal are greater than the slew rate, then distortion occurs.

->Slew rate is one of the important factors in selecting the op-amp for ac
applications particularly at relatively high frequencies.

->One of the draw backs of 741C is its low slew rate (0.5V/microseconds) which
limits its use in relatively high frequency applications, especially in oscillators,
comparators and filters.

Ideal Voltage Transfer Curve:

The curve shown in figure is called an ideal voltage transfer curve, ideal because
output offset voltage is assumed to be zero. In normal op-amp use (with negative
feedback) these voltage is near to zero and is ignored for simplicity of calculation. Notice
that the curve is not drawn to scale. If drawn to scale, the curve would be almost vertical
because of the vary large values of A
The ideal OP-AMP

An ideal OP-AMP would exhibit the following electrical characteristic.

1. Infinite voltage gain A

2. Infinite input resistance Ri, so that almost any signal source can drive it and there
is no loading of preceding states.

3. Zero output resistance Ro so that out put can drive any infinite number of other
devices.

4. Zero output voltage when input voltage is zero.

5. Infinite bandwidth so that any frequency signal from zero to infinity Hz can be
amplified without attenuation

6. Infinite common mode rejection ratio so that the out put common mode noise
voltage is zero.

7. Infinite slew rate so that out put voltage change occurs simultaneously with input
voltage changes.

Equivalent circuit of an OP-AMP

Figure shows an equivalent circuit of an OP-AMP.

AVid is an equivalent thevenin voltage source, and Ro is the thevenin equivalent

resistance looking back into the out put terminal OP-AMP.

The equivalent circuit is useful in the basic operating principal of OP-AMP and in
observing the effects feed back arrangements. For the circuit shown in figure, the out put
voltage is Vo = AVid = A (V1 – V2)

Where,A = large signal voltage gain

Vid = difference input voltage

V1 = voltage at the non inverting input terminal with respect to ground

V2 = voltage at the inverting terminal with respect to ground

Equation above indicates that the out put voltage Vo is directly proportional to the
algebraic difference between the two input voltages. In other words, the op-amp amplifies
the difference between the two input voltages, it does not amplify the input voltages, it
does not amplify the input voltages themselves. For this reason the polarity of the output
voltages depends on the polarity of the difference voltage.