University of Technology Computer Engineering Department: Second Class 2018 / 2019 Ass. Lecturer Suhad Haddad

Second Class / 2018-2019 (First Subject) / Digital Electronics
University of Technology
Computer Engineering Department
Second Class
2018 / 2019
Ass. Lecturer Suhad Haddad
Integrated Circuit Technologies

© Ass. Lecturer // Suhad Haddad Page 1
TTL Characteristics
References:-
1- Digital Design / (4th edition) / Morris Mano & Michael Ciletti.
2- Digital Fundamentals / ( 9th edition ) / Thomas L. Floyd
3- Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory/Robert Boylestad, Louis
Nashelsky.
1-Introduction:-
The growing popularity of digital circuits is due in part to the
availability of inexpensive integrated circuits (ICs). Manufacturers
have developed many families of digital ICs-groups that can be used
together in building a digital system. The ICs in a family are said to be
compatible, and they can be easily connected. Digital ICs can be
categorized as either bipolar or unipolar. Bipolar digital ICs are
fabricated from parts comparable to discrete bipolar transistors, diodes,
and resistors. The TTL (transistor-transistor logic) family is the most
popular of the ICs using the bipolar technology.
Unipolar digital ICs are fabricated from parts comparable to

insulated-gate field-effect transistors (IGFETs). The CMOS
(complementary-metal-oxide semiconductor) family is a widely used
group of ICs based on the metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS)
technology.
A bipolar junction transistor (BIT) can be either an npn or a pnp

junction transistor. In contrast, the field-erect transistor (FET) is said to
be unipolar. The operation of a bipolar transistor depends on the flow

of two types of carriers: electrons and holes. The operation of a

unipolar transistor depends on the flow of only one type of majority
carrier, which may be electrons (in an n-channel transistor) or holes (in
a p-channel transistor).
Main Logic Families

Most digital systems are designed by combining various logic
functions discussed in digital electronics.
All these logic circuits are available in IC modules and are divided
into many families. Each family is classified by abbreviations which
indicate the type of logic circuit used. For example, RTL means
resistor-transistor logic. We will discuss the following seven transistor
logic families although the first two are, at present, of historic interest
only.
1. Resistance-transistor logic (RTL): it was the first family group of

logic circuits to be developed and packaged in IC form in early 1960s;
2. Diode-transistor logic (DLT): It followed RTL in late 1960s;
3. Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) OR (T2L): was introduced in the

early 1970 s;
4. Schottky TTL: was introduced to improve the speed of TTL;
5. Emitter-coupled logic (ECL): It is fastest logic line currently

available;
6. Integrated-injection logic (I2L): It is one of the latest of the bipolar

types of logic;
7. Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS): It has the

lowest power dissipation of the currently-available logic circuits.
The various logic families discussed above posses different

characteristics as detailed below.

Figure (1):- Example of Vcc and ground connection and distribution in an IC

package .Other pin connections are omitted for simplicity.
2- Basic definition:-
Integrated circuits are sometimes grouped by manufacturers as to
their circuit complexity. Circuit complexity of ICs is defined as
follows:
1. SSI (small-scale integration ):

Number of gates: less than 12
Typical digital devices: gates and flip-flops
2. MSI (medium-scale integration):

Number of gates: 12 to 99

Typical digital devices: adders, counters, decoders, encoders,

multiplexers, and demultiplexers, registers
3. LSI (large-scale integration ):
Number of gates: 100 to 9999
Typical digital devices: digital clocks, smaller memory chips,
calculators
4. VLSI ( very -1arge-scale integration ):

Number of gates: 10,000 to 99,999
Typical digital devices: microprocessors, larger memory chips,
advanced calculators
5. ULSI (ultra-large-scale integration):

Number of gates: over 100,000
Typical digital devices: advanced microprocessors
The basic circuit in each IC digital logic family is a NAND or NOR

gate. This basic circuit is the primary building block from which all
other, more complex digital components are obtained. The statement
of NAND gate and NOR gate is shown below:-
Figure (2):- positive –logic NAND gate
Figure (3):- positive –logic NOR gate

All TTL series are available in SSI components and in more
complex forms, such as MSI and LSI components. The differences in
the TTL series are not in the digital logic that they perform, but rather
in the internal construction of the basic NAND gate. In any case, TTL
gates in all the available series come in three different types of output
configuration:
1. Totem-pole output.
2. Open-collector output.
3. Three-state (or tristate) output
DC Supply Voltage

The voltage used to represent a 1 and a 0 called logic levels. One

voltage level represents a HIGH and another voltage level represents a
LOW. The both can be between a specified minimum and maximum
level. There can be no overlap between the accepted range of HIGH
levels and LOW levels.
Figure (4) illustrates the general range of LOWs and HIGHs for digital
circuit.
Figure (4):- logic level ranges of voltage for digital circuit
 The variable VH (max) represents the maximum HIGH voltage value,

and VH (min) represent the minimum HIGH voltage value.
 The maximum LOW voltage value is represented by VL (max), and the
minimum LOW voltage value is represented by VL (min). And the
voltage value between VL (max) and VH (min) are unacceptable for proper
operation.
 The HIGH values for a certain type of digital circuit called CMOS
may range from 2V to 3.3V and the LOW values may range from
0V to 0.8V.

 For example, if a voltage of 2.5 V is applied, the circuit will accept

it as a HIGH or binary 1.
 If a voltage of 0.5V is applied, the circuit will accept it as a LOW or
binary 0.
 For this type of circuit, voltages between 0.8V and 2V are
unacceptable.
There are four different logic-level: VIL , VIH, VOL and VOH. As shown
below.
Figure (5):- Input and output logic levels for CMOS

The input and output logic levels for TTL are given in figure (6).Just
as for CMOS; there are four different logic level specifications.
Figure (6):- Input and output logic levels for TTL
Basic Operational Characteristics and Parameters:-

When you work with digital ICs, you should be familiar not only
with their logical operation but also with such operational properties as
voltage levels, noise immunity, power dissipation, fan-out, and
propagation delay time. In this section, the practical aspects of these
properties are discussed.

1- Noise immunity: -
Noise is unwanted voltage that is induced in electrical circuits
and can present a threat to the proper operation of the circuit.
Wires and other conductors within a system can pick up stray high-
frequency electromagnetic radiation from adjacent conductors in
which currents are changing rapidly or from many other sources
external to the system, also, power-line voltage fluctuation is a form of
low-frequency noise.
In order not to be adversely affected by noise, a logic circuit must
have a certain amount of noise immunity .this is the ability to tolerate
a certain amount of unwanted voltage fluctuation on its inputs without
changing its output state. For example, if noise voltage causes the
input of a 5V CMOS gate to drop below 3.5V in the HIGH state, the
input is in the un allowed region and operation is unpredictable. thus ,
the gate may interpret the fluctuation below 3.5V as a LOW level, as
shown in figure (7-a) .similarly ,if noise causes a gate input to go
above 1.5V in the LOW state, an uncertain condition is created ,as
shown in (7-B).
Figure (7-a-b):- illustration of the effects of input noise on gate operation

1-2 Noise Margin: -

A measure of a circuit's noise immunity is called the noise margin,
which is expressed in volts. There are two values of noise margin
specified for a given logic circuit ,the HIGH -level noise margin (VNH)
and the LOW-level noise margin (VNL).these parameters are defined by
the following equations:-
VNH = VOH (min) – VIH (min)

VNL = VIL (max) - VOL (max)
Sometimes you will see the noise margin expressed as a percentage of

VCC .from the equation, VNH is the difference between the lowest
possible HIGH output from a driving gate (V OH (min) ) and the lowest
possible HIGH input that the load gate can tolerate (VIH (min) ) .
Noise margin, VNL ,is the difference between the maximum possible
LOW input that a gate can tolerate (V IL (max) ) and the maximum
possible LOW output of the driving gate ( VOL (max) ), noise margin are
illustrated in figure (8) .
Figure (8):- illustration of noise margin, values are for 5V CMOS, but the
principle applies to any logic family


2- Power Dissipation:-
A logic gate draws current from the DC supply voltage source, as
indicated in figure(9) .when the gate is in the HIGH output state ,an
amount of current designated by ICCH is drown, and in the LOW output
state ,a different amount of current,ICCL, is drown.
LOW
Figure (9):- Currents from the dc supply, conventional current direction is shown,
electron flow notation is opposite
As an example, if ICCH is specified as 1.5 mA when VCC is 5V and if the

gate is in a static (no changing) HIGH output state, the power
dissipation (PD) of the gate is
PD = VCC ICCH = (5V) (1.5mA) =7.5 mW

When a gate is pulsed, its output switches back and forth between
HIGH and LOW, and the amount of supply current varies between I CCH
and ICCL. The average power dissipation depends on the duty cycle and
is usually specified for a duty cycle of 50%. When the duty cycle is
50%, the output is HIGH half the time and LOW the other half. The
average supply current is therefore:-
ICCH + ICCL
ICC = 2

The average power dissipation is

PD = VCC ICC
Power dissipation in a TTL circuit is essentially constant over its

range of operating frequencies. Power dissipation in CMOS, however,
is frequency dependent .it is extremely low under static (dc) conditions
and increases as the frequency increases. These characteristic are
shown in the general curves of figure (10).
Figure (10):- Power –versus- frequency curves for TTL and CMOS

3- Propagation Delay Time:-

When a signal passes (propagates) through a logic circuit, it always
experiences a time delay, as illustrated in figure(11) .A change in the
output level always occurs a short time ,called the propagation delay
time, later than the change in the input level that caused it.
Figure (11):- A basic illustration of propagation delay time
There are two propagation delay times specified for logic gates:-
1. tPHL: The time between a designated point on the input pulse and
the corresponding point on the output pulse when the output is
changing from HIGH to LOW.
2. tPLH: The time between a designated point on the input pulse and
the corresponding point on the output pulse when the output is
changing from LOW to HIGH.
These propagation delay times are illustrated in figure (12), with the
50% points on the pulse edges used as references.

Figure (12):- Propagation delay times
The propagation delay time of a gate limits the frequency at which it

can be operated .The greater the propagation delay time, the lower
the maximum frequency .Thus, a higher-speed circuit is one that has
a smaller propagation delay time .For example, a gate with a delay of
3ns is faster than one with a 10ns delay.
4- Speed-Power Products:-
The speed –power product provides a basis for the comparison of
logic circuits when both propagation delay time and power dissipation
are important consideration in the selection of the type of logic to be
used in a certain application. The lower the speed-power product, the
batter. The unit of speed-power product is the picojoule (pJ).
For example; HCMOS has a speed –power product of 1.2pJ at
100 kHz while LSTTL has a value of 22pJ.
5- Loading and Fan-Out:-

When the output of logic is connected to one more inputs of other
gates, a load on the driving gate is created, as shown in figure (13).

There is a limit to the number of load gate inputs that a given gate
can drive. This limit is called the fan-out of the gate.
Figure (13):- Loading a gate output with gate inputs
1- CMOS loading: - Loading in CMOS differs from that in TTL,

because the type of transistors used in CMOS logic present a
predominantly capacitive load to the driving gate, as illustrated in
figure (13). In this case, the limitations are the charging and
discharging times associated with the output resistance of the
driving gate and the input capacitance of the load gate .when the
output of the driving gate is HIGH, the input capacitance of the load
gate is charging through the output resistance of the driving gate.
When the output of the driving gate is LOW, the capacitance is
discharging, as shown in figure (14).
Figure (14):- Capacitive loading of a CMOS gate

When more load gate inputs are added to the driving gate output, the
total capacitance increases because the input capacitances effectively
appear in parallel. This increase in capacitance will increase the
charging and discharging times, thus reducing the maximum
frequency at which the gate can be operated.Therefore, the fan-out
of a CMOS gate depends on the frequency of operation. The fewer
the load gate inputs, the greater the maximum frequency.
2- TTL Loading :- A TTL driving gate sources current to a load gate

input in the HIGH state ( IIH ) and sinks current from the load gate in
the LOW state (IIL) .Current sourcing and Current sinking are
illustrated in simplified form in figure(15),where the resistors
represent the internal input and output resistance of the gate for the
two conditions.
Figure (15):- Basic illustration of current sourcing and current sinking in logic
gates
As more load gates are connected to the driving gate, the loading on
the driving gate increases. The total source current increases with each
load input that is added, as illustrated in figure (16) .As this current
increase, the internal voltage drop of the driving gate increases,
causing the output VOH to decrease. If an excessive number of load

gate inputs are connected,VOH drops below VOH(min) , and the HIGH-
level noise margin is reduced, thus compromising the circuit operation.
Also, as the total source current increases, the power dissipation of the
driving gate increases.
Figure (16):- HIGH-state TTL loading
The fan-out is the maximum number of load gate inputs that

can be connected without adversely affecting the specified
operational characteristics of the gate. For example, low-power
Schottky (LS) TTL has a fan-out of 20 unit loads. One input of the
same logic family as the driving gate is called a unit load.
The total sink current also increases with each load gate input that is
added, as shown in figure (17), as this current increase, the internal
voltage drop of the driving gate increases, causing VOL to increase. If
an excessive number of loads are added, VOL exceeds VOL(max) ,and the
Low-level noise margin is reduced.
In TTL, the current-sinking capability (LOW output state) is the
limiting factor in determining the fan-out.

Figure (17):- LOW-stage TTL loading
IoH
The fan- out of the gate is calculated from the ratio IIH
or
IOL
IIL
, for example, the standard TTL gates have the following
values for the currents:

The TTL (Transistor Transistor Logic) Circuits:-
The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is the active switching element

used in all TTL circuits. The figure (18) below shows the symbol for
an npn BJT with its three terminals: base, emitter, and collector. A BJT
has two junctions, the base – emitter junction and the base- collector
junction.
Figure (18):- The symbol for a BJT
The basic switching operation is as follows:
1- When the base is approximately (0.7 V) more positive than the

emitter.
2- Sufficient current is provided into the base; the transistor turns
ON and goes into saturation.
3- In saturation, the transistor ideally acts like a closed switch
between the collector and the emitter, as shown in the figure
below (19- a).
4- When the base is less than (0.7V) more positive than the emitter.

5- The transistor turns OFF and becomes an open switch between

the collector and the emitter, as shown in the figure below (19-
b).
6- A HIGH on the base turns the transistor ON and makes it a
closed switch.
7- A LOW on the base turns the transistor OFF and makes it an
open switch.
Figure (19-a-b):- The ideal switching action of the BJT
Figure (20):- Typical npn Silicon Transistor Parameters

1-TTL Inverter:-
The logic function of an inverter or any type of gate is always the

same, regardless of the type of circuit technology that is used. The
figure (21) below shows a standard TTL circuits for an inverter, which
is working as shown below:-
Figure (21):- Standard Symbol of TTL Inverter
1- Q1 is the input coupling transistor, and D1 is the input clamp

diode.
2- The combination of Q3 and Q4 forms the output circuit often
referred to as (a totem- pole) arrangement.
3- The Q2 is called a phase splitter transistor.
What is totem pole?
a. Addition of an active pull up circuit in the output of a

gate is called totem pole. Using Q3 and Q4 to achieve
this purpose
Why totem pole?
b. To increase the switching speed of the gate.

Operation of the inverter:-
 When the input is HIGH.

1- The base-emitter junction of Q1 is reversed biased. The base-
collector junction is forward biased.
2- This condition will permits current through R 1 and the base-
collector junction of Q1 into the base of Q2.
3- Thus driving Q2 into saturation.
4- As a result Q3 is turned ON by Q2, and its collector voltage,
which is the output, is near ground potential.
5- So there will be LOW output for a HIGH input.
6- The collector of Q2 is at a sufficiently low voltage level to keep
Q4 OFF.
 When the input is LOW:-
1- The base –emitter junction of Q1 is forward biased, and the
base-collector junction is reverse biased.
2- There is current through R1 and the base-emitter junction of Q1
to the LOW input.
3- A LOW provides a path to ground for the current.
4- There is no current into the base of Q2, so it is OFF.
5- The collector of Q2 is HIGH thus turning Q4 ON.
6- A saturated Q4 provides a low –resistance path from VCC to the
output.
7- So there will be a HIGH on the output for a LOW on the input.
8- The emitter of Q2 is at ground potential, this will keep Q3 OFF.
9- Diode D1 in the Totem-pole TTL circuit prevents negative
spikes of voltage on the input from damaging Q1.
10- Diode D2 ensures that Q4 will turn off when Q2 is on (HIGH
input).
The operation of the TTL inverter for the two input states is
shown below figure (22).

Figure (22):-Operation of a TTL inverter
2- TTL NAND Gate:-

In TTL some BJTs have multiple emitters. A 2-input TTL NAND

gate is shown in figure (23) below. Basically, it is the same as the
inverter circuit except for the additional input emitter of Q1.
Figure (23):- A TTL NAND gate circuit
In TTL technology multiple-emitter transistors are used for the input

devices. These multiple - emitter transistors can be compared to the
diode arrangement, as shown in figure (24) below:
Figure (24):-Diode equivalent of a TTL multiple-emitter transistor
Operation of TTL NAND gate:-

1- A LOW an either input A or input B forward-biases the

respective diode and reverse-biases D3 (Q1 base-collector
junction).
2- This action keeps Q2 OFF and results in a HIGH output in the
same way as described for the TTL inverter.
3- A LOW on both inputs will do the same thing.
4- A HIGH on both inputs reverse-biases both input diodes and
forward-biases D3 (Q1 base-collector junction).
5- This action turns Q2 ON and results in a LOW output in the
same way as described for the TTL inverter.
6- The output is LOW only if all inputs are HIGH.
3-Open – Collector Gates:
The TTL gates described in the previous section all had the totem-
pole output circuits. Another type of output available in TTL integrated
circuits is the Open – Collector output .a standard TTL inverter with
an open-collector is shown below (25-a-b) .the other types of gates are
also available with open-collector outputs.
Figure (25-a-b):- TTL inverter with open-collector output
1- Notice that the output is the collector of transistor Q 3 with

nothing connected to it. Hence the name open collector.
2- In order to get proper HIGH and LOW logic levels out of the
circuit.

3- An external pull-up resistor must be connected to VCC from the

collector of Q3, as shown in (b).
4- When Q3 is OFF, the output is pulled up to VCC through the
external resistor.
5- When Q3 is ON, the output is connected to near-ground through
the saturated transistor.
4-Tristate TTL Gates:-
The third type of TTL circuits is tristate TTL gate as shown in the
figure below:
Figure (26):-Basic Tristate inverter circuit
1- When the enable input is LOW.

2- So Q2 is OFF, and the output circuit operates as a normal
totem-pole configuration, in which the output state depends on
the input state.
3- When the enable input is HIGH, Q2 is ON.
4- There is thus a LOW on the second emitter of Q1, causing Q3
and Q5 to turn OFF.
5- Diode D1 is forward biased, casuing Q4 also to turn OFF.
6- When both totem-pole transistors are OFF, they are effectively
open.

7- The output is completely disconnected from the internal

circuitry, as shown in figure (27) below.
Figure (27):-An equivalent circuit for tristate in the output in the high -2 state
5-Schottky TTL:-
Most TTL logic used today is some form of Schottky TTL, which
provides a faster switching time by incorporating Schottky diodes to
prevent the transistors from going into saturation, thereby decreasing
the time for a transistor to turn on or off. Figure (28) shows the
Schottky TTL NAND gate.
Figure (28):- Schottky TTL NAND gate

CMOS Logic Family
It does not use bipolar transistors but just Enhancement- only

MOSFETs .there are two kinds of digital MOS circuits.
a) One which uses MOSFETs of one polarity either all of N-type

called NMOS or all of P-type called PMOS but not both on the
same chip.
b) The other which employs both N-type and P-type MOSFETs on
the same chip .it is called complementary MOS (CMOS).
The MOS family may be subdivided as under:-
Since FET requires small area, it is possible to fabricate a large

number of MOS circuits on a single small chip. Gating arrays with
thousands of gates and flip-flops are manufactured in standard
containers and are often used in IC memories and microprocessors.
Following are some of the advantages of MOS ICs over the bipolar
ICs (i.e. TTL).
1. The MOS IC is relatively simple and inexpensive to fabricate.

2. The MOS device size is small and it consumers less power.
Because of the small size, the MOS ICs can accommodate a
much large number of circuit elements on a single chip than
bipolar IC in the area of large scale integration. This makes
them especially well-suited for complex ICs such as
microprocessor, memory chips etc.

3. MOS digital ICs normally do not use the IC resistor elements

that take up so much of the chip area or bipolar ICs.
4. The continuous improvement in MOS IC technology has led to
the devices that are faster than TTL device.
5. Consequently MOS devices (especially CMOS) have become
dominant in the SSI (small –scale integration) and MSI
(medium-scale integration) market.
6. The major disadvantage of MOS device is that they are
susceptible to static-electricity damage. Although we can
minimize it by adopting proper handling procedures, yet TTL is
still more durable for laboratory experimentation.
7. Field –effect transistor amplifiers provide an excellent voltage
gain with the added feature of high input impedance.
8. They are also considered low-power consumption
configurations with good frequency range and minimal size and
weight.
9. Both JFET and depletion MOSFET devices can be used to
design amplifiers having similar voltage gains.
10.The BJT is a current-controlled device and the FET is a
voltage –controlled device.
11.While the BJT had an amplification factor β (beta), the FET has
a transconductance factor, gm.
12.The FET can be used as a linear amplifier or as a digital device
in logic circuits.
13.The enhancement MOSFET is quite popular in digital
circuitry, especially in CMOS circuits that require very low
power consumption.
The field-effect transistor (FET) is a unipolar transistor, since its

operation depends on the flow of only one type of carrier. There are
two types of FETs: the junction field-effect transistor (JFET) and the
metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS). The former is used in linear

circuits and the latter in digital circuits. MOS transistors can be

fabricated in less area than bipolar transistors.
The basic structure of the MOS transistor is shown in figure (29).

The p-channel MOS consists of a lightly doped substrate of n-type
silicon material. Two regions are heavily doped by diffusion with p-
type impurities to form the source and drain .The region between the
two p-type sections serves as the channel .The gate is a metal plate
separated from the channel by an insulated dielectric of silicon
dioxide. A negative voltage (with respect to the substrate) at the gate
terminal causes an induced electric field in the channel that attracts p-
type carriers (holes) from the substrate. As the magnitude of the
negative voltage on the gate increases, the region below the gate
accumulates more positive carriers, the conductivity increases, and
current can flow from source to drain, provided that a voltage
difference is maintained between these two terminals.
Figure (29) :- The basic structure of the MOS transistor

Figure (30-a-b-c):- Basic symbols and switching action of MOSFETs

Figure (31):- MOSFET structure
Complementary MOS:-
Complementary MOS (CMOS) circuits take advantage of the fact

that both n-channel and p-channel devices can be fabricated on the
same substrate. CMOS circuits consist of both types of MOS devices,
interconnected to form logic functions.
The basic circuit is the inverter, which consists of one p-channel

transistor and one n-channel transistor.
CMOS Inverter:-
Complementary MOS (CMOS) logic uses the MOSFET in

complementary pairs as its basic element .A complementary pairs
uses both p-channel and n-channel enhancement MOSFETs, as
shown in figure (32) which is the inverter circuit.

Figure (32):- A CMOS inverter circuit
The operation of inverter:-
1- When a HIGH is applied to the input, as shown in figure (33-a),

the p-channel MOSFET Q1 is OFF and the n-channel MOSFET
Q2 is ON.
2- This condition connects the output to ground through the ON
resistance of Q2, resulting in a LOW output.
3- When a LOW is applied to the input, as shown in (33-b).
4- Q1 is ON and Q2 is OFF.
5- This condition connects the output to ( +VDD ) ( dc supply
voltage ) through the ON resistance of Q1 , which resulting in a
HIGH output

-:Operation of a CMOS inverter Figure (33-a-b)
CMOS NAND Gate:-

Figure (34) shows a CMOS NAND gate with two inputs. And the
operation of it is as follow:-
The operation of CMOS NAND:-
1- When both inputs are LOW Q1 and Q2 are ON, and Q3 and Q4
are OFF. The output is pulled HIGH through the on resistance
of Q1 and Q2 in parallel.
2- When input A is LOW and input B is HIGH Q1 and Q4 are ON,
and Q2 and Q3 are OFF. The output is pulled HIGH through the
low on resistance of Q1.
3- When input A is HIGH and input B is LOW, Q1 and Q4 are
OFF, and Q2 and Q3 are ON. The output is pulled HIGH
through the low on resistance of Q2.
4- Finally, when both inputs are HIGH, Q1 and Q2 are OFF, and
Q4 are ON. In this case, the output is pulled LOW through the
on resistance of Q3 and Q4 in series to ground.

Figure (34):- A CMOS NAND gate circuit
CMOS NOR Gate:-

Figure (35) illustrated a CMOS NOR gate with two inputs .the
operation of it is as follow:-
1- When both inputs are LOW, Q1 and Q2 are ON, and Q3 and
Q4 are OFF, as a result, the output is pulled HIGH through
the on resistance of Q1 and Q2 in series.
2- When input A is LOW and input B is HIGH, Q1 and Q4 are
ON, and Q2 and Q3 are OFF. The output is pulled LOW
through the low on resistance of Q4 to ground.
3- When input A is HIGH and input B is LOW, Q1 and Q4 are
OFF, and Q2 and Q3 are ON. The output is pulled LOW
through the on resistance of Q3 to ground.
4- When both inputs are HIGH, Q1 and Q2 are OFF, and Q3 and
Q4 are ON. The output is pulled LOW through the on
resistance of Q3 and Q4 in parallel to ground
Figure (35):- A CMOS NOR gate circuit
Open –Drain Gates:-

1- The term open –drain means that the drain terminal of the output
transistor is unconnected and must be connected externally to
VDD through a load.

2- An open –drain output circuit is a single n-channel MOSFET as

shown in figure (36).
3- An external pull-up resistor must be used. As shown in (b).In
order to produce a HIGH output state.
Figure (36):- Open –drain CMOS gates
Tristate CMOS Gates:-

Tristate output is available in both CMOS and TTL logic .The tristate
output combines the advantages of the totem-pole and open-collector
circuits. Its operation is as follow:-
1- The three output states are HIGH, LOW, and high-impedance

(high-Z).
2- When selected for normal logic level operation, as determined
by the state of the enable input, a tristate circuit operates in the
same way as a regular gate.
3- When a tristate circuit is selected for high-Z operation, the
output is effectively disconnected from the rest of the circuit by
internal circuitry .figure (37) illustrates the operation of a tristate
circuit.
4- The circuitry in tristate CMOS gate , shown in figure (38) ,
allow each of the output transistors Q 1 and Q2 to be turned OFF
at the same time ,thus disconnecting the output from the rest of
the circuit.

5- When the enable input is LOW, the device is enabled for

normal logic operation.
6- When the enable input is HIGH, both Q1 and Q2 are OFF and
the circuit is in the high-Z state.
Figure (37):- The three states of a tristate circuit
Figure (38):- Atristate CMOS inverter
TTL Sub-families
The standard TTL family has the following advantages:-
1. Greater speed then DTL, and RTL.

2. Less noise immunity (0.4 V).
3. Average propagation delay per gate of 9ns.
4. Average power dissipation of 10mw.
5. A fan-out of 10 meaning one output can drive 10 other TTL inputs.

Sub-families TTL have several sub-families having different speed

and lower dissipation characteristics as detailed below:
1. 74L00 series - the letter L standing for low power consumption. It

has an average power dissipation of 1 mW per gate but an average
propagation delay of 33 ns.
2. 74H00 series - the letter H standing for higher speed. It has a

propagation delay of 6 ns but average power dissipation of +23
mW/gate.
3. 74S00 - the letter S representing Schottky. It has the highest speed

because its average propagation delay is just 3 ns per gate. However,
its average power dissipation is 23 mW/ gate.
4. 74LS00 - It is called low-power Schottky TTL. It has an average

propagation delay of 9.5 ns and an average power dissipation of 2 mW.
5. 74AS00 series - the letter A representing advanced and S standing

for schottky. It is called advanced schottky TTL series. It is the fastest
TTL series.
6. 74ALS00 series - It is called Advanced Low-power Schottky TTL

series. The 74ALS series has the lower speed-power product and the
lowest gate power dissipation of all the TTL series.
7. 74F00 series - the letter F standing for Fast. This logic family uses
a new IC fabrication technique to reduce inter device capacitances to
achieve reduced propagation delays. It has a propagation delay of 3 ns
and a power consumption of 6 mW.

.The table summarizes the important characteristics of the each of the TTL sub-families

University of Technology Computer Engineering Department: Second Class 2018 / 2019 Ass. Lecturer Suhad Haddad

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Second Class / 2018-2019 (First Subject) / Digital Electronics

Integrated Circuit Technologies

Unipolar digital ICs are fabricated from parts comparable to

A bipolar junction transistor (BIT) can be either an npn or a pnp

© Ass. Lecturer // Suhad Haddad Page 2

of two types of carriers: electrons and holes. The operation of a

Main Logic Families

1. Resistance-transistor logic (RTL): it was the first family group of

2. Diode-transistor logic (DLT): It followed RTL in late 1960s;

3. Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) OR (T2L): was introduced in the

4. Schottky TTL: was introduced to improve the speed of TTL;

5. Emitter-coupled logic (ECL): It is fastest logic line currently

6. Integrated-injection logic (I2L): It is one of the latest of the bipolar

7. Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS): It has the

The various logic families discussed above posses different

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Figure (1):- Example of Vcc and ground connection and distribution in an IC

1. SSI (small-scale integration ):

2. MSI (medium-scale integration):

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Typical digital devices: adders, counters, decoders, encoders,

4. VLSI ( very -1arge-scale integration ):

5. ULSI (ultra-large-scale integration):

The basic circuit in each IC digital logic family is a NAND or NOR

Figure (2):- positive –logic NAND gate

Figure (3):- positive –logic NOR gate

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The voltage used to represent a 1 and a 0 called logic levels. One

Figure (4):- logic level ranges of voltage for digital circuit

 The variable VH (max) represents the maximum HIGH voltage value,

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 For example, if a voltage of 2.5 V is applied, the circuit will accept

Figure (5):- Input and output logic levels for CMOS

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Figure (6):- Input and output logic levels for TTL

Basic Operational Characteristics and Parameters:-

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Figure (7-a-b):- illustration of the effects of input noise on gate operation

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1-2 Noise Margin: -

VNH = VOH (min) – VIH (min)

Sometimes you will see the noise margin expressed as a percentage of

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As an example, if ICCH is specified as 1.5 mA when VCC is 5V and if the

PD = VCC ICCH = (5V) (1.5mA) =7.5 mW

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The average power dissipation is

Power dissipation in a TTL circuit is essentially constant over its

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3- Propagation Delay Time:-

Figure (11):- A basic illustration of propagation delay time

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Figure (12):- Propagation delay times

The propagation delay time of a gate limits the frequency at which it

5- Loading and Fan-Out:-

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Figure (13):- Loading a gate output with gate inputs

1- CMOS loading: - Loading in CMOS differs from that in TTL,

Figure (14):- Capacitive loading of a CMOS gate

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2- TTL Loading :- A TTL driving gate sources current to a load gate

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