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Q = IC t
Q = CVC
This expression has the form of an equation for a straight line that
begins at zero with a constant slope of ( IC/C) . Remember from algebra
that the general formula for a straight line is y =mx+ b.
Recall that the capacitor voltage in a simple RC circuit is not linear but
is exponential. This is because the charging current continuously
decreases as the capacitor charges and causes the rate of change of the
voltage to continuously decrease. The key thing about using an op-amp
with an RC circuit to form an integrator is that the capacitor’s charging
current is made constant, thus producing a straight-line (linear) voltage
rather than an exponential voltage. Now let’s see why this is true.
IC = Iin
Figure (3):- A linear ramp voltage is produced across the capacitor by the
constant charging current.
The Output Voltage Vout is the same as the voltage on the negative side
of the capacitor. When a constant positive input voltage in the form of a
step or pulse (a pulse has a constant amplitude when high) is applied, the
output ramp decreases negatively until the op-amp saturates at its
maximum negative level. This is indicated in Figure (4).
Rate of Change of the Output Voltage The rate at which the capacitor
charges, and therefore the slope of the output ramp, is set by the ratio
IC/C, as you have seen. Since IC= Vin/Ri, the rate of change or slope of the
integrator’s output voltage is ΔVout /Δt.
∆𝐕𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝑽𝒊𝒏
=─
∆𝐭 𝑹𝒊 𝑪
Example1:-
(a) Determine the rate of change of the output voltage in response to the
input square wave, as shown for the ideal integrator in Figure below. The
output voltage is initially zero. The pulse width is 200µs.
(b) Describe the output and draw the waveform.
Solution
(a) The rate of change of the output voltage during the time that the input
is at +2.5 V (capacitor charging) is:-
𝑉𝑐
IC = ( 𝑡 ) 𝐶
Since the current at the inverting input is negligible, IR =IC. Both currents
are constant because the slope of the capacitor voltage (VC/t) is constant.
The output voltage is also constant and equal to the voltage across Rf
because one side of the feedback resistor is always 0 V (virtual ground).
Notice in Equation above that the term VC/t is the slope of the input. If
the slope increases, Vout increases. If the slope decreases, Vout decreases.
The output voltage is proportional to the slope (rate of change) of the
input. The constant of proportionality is the time constant, Rf C.
Example:
Determine the output voltage of the ideal op-amp differentiator in
Figure for the triangular-wave input shown.
2 -Summing Amplifiers:-
A summing amplifier has two or more inputs, and its output voltage is
proportional to the negative of the algebraic sum of its input voltages. a
two-input summing amplifier is shown in figure ( 8 ) ,but any number of
inputs can be used .the operation of the circuit and derivation of the
output expression are as follows. Two voltages,VIN1 and VIN2 ,are applied
to the inputs and produce currents I1 and I2 , as shown.
Using the concepts of infinite input impedance and virtual ground, you
can see that the inverting (-) input of the Op-amp is approximately (0V),
and there is no current at the input. This means that both currents I1 and I2
combine at this summing point and form the total current (I T), which goes
through Rf, as indicated in figure (8).
IT = I1 + I2
The pervious equation shows that the output voltage has the same
magnitude as the sum of the two input voltage but with a negative sign
indicating inversion.
Example:-
As you can see, the output voltage has same magnitude as the sum of
all the input voltages multiplied by a constant determined by the ratio:
𝑅𝑓
(- )
𝑅
This equation Indicate that the output voltage is a weighted sum of the
inputs. For this reason, the circuit in (Fig.10) is called a summer. The
summer can have more than three inputs.
Scaling adder:-
Example:- Determine the weight of each input voltage for the scaling
adder, and find the output voltage.
Example:-
Use the same figure in the previous example to design an op-amp circuit
with inputs V1 ,V2 ,V3 whose output is ( Vo = - ( 2V1 + 4V2 + 8V3) )using
small resistors but no smaller than 10 KΩ .
Solution:-
R1, R2, R3 ≥ 10 KΩ
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
=2 , =4 , =8
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
R3 = 10 KΩ
Rf = 80 KΩ
R2 = 20 KΩ
R1 = 40 KΩ
When op amp circuits are cascaded, each circuit in the string is called a
stage; the original input signal is increased by the gain of the individual
stage.
Op- amp circuits have the advantage that they can be cascaded without
changing their input-output relationships. This is due to the fact that each
(ideal) op amp circuit has infinite input resistance and zero output
resistance. Figure (13) displays a block diagram representation of three
Op- amp circuits in cascade. Since the output of one stage is the input to
the next stage, the overall gain of the cascade connection is the product of
the gains of the individual op amp circuits, or
A = A1 A2 A3
Although the cascade connection does not affect the op amp input
output relationships, care must be exercised in the design of an actual op
amp circuit to ensure that the load due to the next stage in the cascade
does not saturate the op amp.