The Birds and Animals of Mishana Nature Reserve in Peru.

PROVISIONAL LIST OF BIRDS IN
THE NANAY-MISHANA RETREAT AREA
Based on a field expedition by Zoologist Frank Lambert in January 2006
Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

Report created by: Michelle LeVar . Page 1 of 101
Information Source: Wikipedia (the free encyclopedia) and other free websites
www.shamanism.co.uk
Mishana Retreat Centre – Amazon Rainforest, Peru
We have 57 Hectares (140 acres) of land with a lodge in the Allpahuayo Mishana Nature reserve.
Our lodge is located directly on the river which is part of a 58,070 hectare nature reserve.
Due to a combination of geological factors and diverse soil types, the reserve supports a unique
community of plant and animal species. It is the ‘jewel’ in the crown for bird-watchers and contains
dozens of species which are unique to this area. The Reserve contains one of the highest
biodiversities known in the Amazon basin. The Lodge is located directly on the Rio Nanay which is a
tributary of the Amazon River.
Our lodge is situated in-between two bends of the river giving an amazing panoramic view. We have
our own boat so trips can be made to some interesting, and extraordinarily beautiful places along
the river. The lodge is a 2 hour river journey from Iquitos by power boat.
Our accommodation is in comfortable traditional cabins or tambos (dieting huts), a leaf roof
supported by poles and with open sides (the most intimate way to sleep in the jungle). The beds
benefit from a comfortable mattress and fly nets when necessary. The tambos are spread out to
assure privacy and minimum disturbance from others. Participants have a choice of using either the
cabins in the 'Casa Grande' annex or tambos for their retreat.
During the day when there are no activities, there will be hammocks to relax in, and you can read,
or wander into the forest, or swim in the river (there is a small sandy beach). Our ceremonies and
meeting will be held in either the Casa Grande with an open platform on stilts directly on the river
with a magnificent view of the rainforest and star filled sky. or our maloca (ceremonial temple), a
large circular tambo made of natural materials and shaped like a womb. We will eat our meals in
the lodge, the traditional meeting place, where food is cooked on a wood fire.
www.shamanism.co.uk

www.shamanism.co.uk
www.shamanism.co.uk
Contents
Tinamous Tinamidae 11
White-throated Tinamou Tinamus guttatus 11
Cinereous Tinamou Crypturellus Cinereus 12
Herons Ardeidae 12
White-necked Heron Ardea cocoi 13
Striated Heron Butorides striatus 13
American Vultures Cathartidae 14
Black Vulture Coragyps atratus 14
Turkey Vulture Cathartes aura 15
Greater Yellow-headed Vulture Cathartes melambrotus 16
Hawks and Eagles Accipitridae 16
Grey-headed Kite Leptodon cayanensis 17
Crane Hawk Geranospiza caerulescens 17
Roadside Hawk Buteo magnirostris 18
Falcons Falconidae 18
Black Caracara Daptrius ater 19
Red-throated Caracara Daptrius americanus 19
Yellow-headed Caracara Milvago chimachima 20
Buckley´s Forest-falcon Micrastur buckelyi 20
Black Hawk-eagle Spizaetus tyrannus 21
Guans, Curassows & Allies Cracidae 21
Speckled Chachalaca Ortalis guttata 22
Pigeons and Doves Columbidae 22
Pale-vented Pigeon Columba cayennensis 23
Plumbeous Pigeon Columba plumbea 23
Ruddy Pigeon Columba subvinacea 24
Ruddy Ground-Dove Columbina talpacoti 24
Gray-fronted Dove Leptotila rufaxilla 25
Parrots Psittacidae 26
Dusky-headed Parakeet Aratinga weddellii 27

www.shamanism.co.uk
Maroon-tailed Parakeet Pyrrhura melanura 27
Canary-winged Parakeet Brotogeris versicolurus 28
Cobalt-winged Parakeet Brotogeris cyanopter 28
Blue-headed Parrot Pionus menstruus 29
Cuckoos, Anis and Hoatzins Cuculidae 29
Squirrel Cuckoo Piaya cayana 30
Black-bellied Cuckoo Piaya melanogaster 30
Greater Ani Crotophaga major 30
Smooth-billed Ani Crotophaga ani 31
Typical Owls Strigidae 31
Ferruginous Pygmy-Owl Glaucidium brasilianum 32
Nighthawks and Nightjars Caprimulgidae 33
Lesser Nighthawk Chordeiles acutipennis 33
Pauraque Nyctidromus albicollis 34
Swifts Apodidae 34
Grey-rumped Swift Chaetura cinereiventris 35
Short-tailed Swift Chaetura brachyura 35
Fork-tailed Palm-Swift Tachornis squamata 36
Hummingbirds Trochilidae 36
Pale-tailed Barbthroat Threnetes leucurus 37
Black-throated Hermit Phaethornis atrimentalis 37
White-necked Jacobin Florisuga mellivora 37
Fork-tailed Woodnymph Thalurania furcata 38
Sapphire-spangled Emerald Polyerata lacteal 38
Trogons and Quetzals Trogonidae 38
Amazonian White-tailed Trogon Trogon viridis 39
Collared Trogon Trogon collaris 40
Amazonian Violaceous Trogon Trogon violaceus 40
Kingfishers Alecedinidae 41
Ringed Kingfisher Ceryle torquata 41
American Pygmy Kingfisher Chloroceryle aenea 42

www.shamanism.co.uk
Motmots Momotidae 42
Blue-crowned Motmot Momotus momota 43
Puffbirds and Nunbirds Bucconidae 43
Brown-banded Puffbird Notharchus ordii 44
Black-fronted Nunbird Monasa nigrifrons 44
White-fronted Nunbird Monasa morphoeus 45
Swallow-wing Chelidoptera tenebrosa 46
Barbets Capitonidae 46
Gilded Barbet Capito auratus 47
Toucans and Aracaris Ramphastidae 48
Many-banded Aracari Pteroglossus pluricinctus 48
Channel-billed Toucan Ramphastos vitellinus 49
White-throated Toucan Ramphastos tucanus 50
Woodpeckers and Piculets Picidae 51
Yellow-tufted Woodpecker Melanerpes cruentatus 52
Spot-breasted Woodpecker Colaptes punctigula 52
Scaly-breasted Woodpecker Celeus grammicus 53
Chestnut Woodpecker Celeus elegans 53
Cream-colored Woodpecker Celeus flavus 53
Lineated Woodpecker Dryocopus lineatus 54
Red-necked Woodpecker Campephilus rubricollis 54
Woodcreepers Dendrocolaptidae 55
Northern Barred Woodcreeper Dendrocolaptes sanctithomae 56
Plain-brown Woodcreeper Dendrocincla fuliginosa 56
Olivaceous Woodcreeper Sittasomus griseicapillus 57
Wedge-billed Woodcreeper Glyphorynchus spirurus 57
Long-billed Woodcreeper Nasica longirostris 58
Straight-billed Woodcreeper Xiphorhynchus picus 58
Striped Woodcreeper Xiphorhynchus obsoletus 58
Elegant Woodcreeper Xiphorhynchus elegans 59
Buff-throated Woodcreeper Xiphorhynchus guttatus 59

www.shamanism.co.uk
Furnarids or Ovenbirds Furnariidae 60
Buff-throated Foliage-Gleaner Automolus ochrolaemus 60
Grey-throated Leaftosser Sclerurus albigularis 60
Black-tailed Leaftosser Sclerurus caudacutus 60
Tawny-throated Leaftosser Sclerurus mexicanus 61
Short-billed Leaftosser Sclerurus rufigularis 61
Typical Antbirds Thamnophilidae 61
Black-crested Antshrike Sakesphorus Canadensis 62
Barred Antshrike Thamnophilus doliatus 62
Plain-winged Antshrike Thamnophilus schistaceus 63
Mouse-coloured Antshrike Thamnophilus murinus 63
Amazonian Antshrike Thamnophilus amazonicus 63
Spot-winged Antshrike Pygiptila stellaris 63
Cinereous Antshrike Thamnomanes caesius 64
Pygmy Antwren Myrmotherula brachyura 64
Moustached Antwren Myrmotherula ignota (Short-billed Antwren Myrmotherula obscura) 64
White-flanked Antwren Myrmotherula axillaris 65
Gray Antwren Myrmotherula menetriesii 65
Stipple-throated Antwren Myrmotherula haematonota 66
Grey Antbird Cercomacra cinerascens 66
Black Antbird Cercomacra craserva 66
Warbling Antbird Hypocnemis cantator 67
Black-chinned Antbird Hypocnemoides melanopogon 67
Northern Chestnut-tailed Antbird Myrmeciza castanea 68
White-shouldered Antbird Myrmeciza melanoceps 68
Bicolored Antbird Gymnopithys leucaspis 69
Spot-backed Antbird Hylophylax naevius 69
Contingas Cotingidae 70
Black-necked Red-Cotinga Phoenicircus nigricollis 70
Screaming Piha Lipaugus vociferans 70
Pompadour Cotinga Xipholina punicea 71

www.shamanism.co.uk
Purple-throated Fruitcrow Querula purpurata 71
Manakins Pipridae 72
White-bearded Manakin Manacus manacus 72
Wire-tailed Manakin Pipra filicauda 73
Blue-crowned Manakin Pipra coronata 73
Striped Manakin Machaeropterus regulus 73
Orange-crested Manakin Heterocercus aurantiivertex 74
Saffron-crested Tyrant-Manakin Neopelma chrysocephalum 74
Dwarf Tyrant-Manakin Tyranneutes stolzmanni 74
Wing-barred Piprites Piprites chloris 75
Tyrant Flycatchers Tyrannidae 75
Ochre-bellied Flycatcher Mionectes oleagineus 76
Ruddy-tailed Flycatcher Terenotriccus erythrurus 76
Double-banded Pygmy-tyrant Lophotriccus vitiosus 77
Spotted Tody-Flycatcher Todirostrum maculatum 77
Golden-winged Tody-flycatcher Poecilotriccus calopterus 77
Rusty-fronted Tody-flycatcher Poecilotriccus latirostris 78
Yellow-crowned Tyrannulet Tyrannulus elatus 78
Olive-faced Flatbill Tolmomyias viridiceps 79
Cinnamon Attila Attila cinnamomeus 79
Citron-bellied Attila Attila citriniventris 80
Grayish Mourner Rhytipterna simplex 80
Short-crested Flycatcher Myiarchus ferox 80
Tropical Kingbird Tyrannus melancholicus 81
Boat-billed Flycatcher Megarynchus pitangua 81
Social Flycatcher Myiozetetes similis 82
Grey-capped Flycatcher Myiozetetes granadensis 83
Great Kiskadee Pitangus sulphuratus 83
Varzea Schiffornis Schiffornis major 84
Thrush-like Schiffornis Schiffornis turdinus 84
White-winged Becard Pachyramphus polychopterus 85

www.shamanism.co.uk
Masked Tityra Tityra semifasciata 85
Vireos and Greenlets Vireonidae 85
Yellow-green Vireo Vireo flavoviridis 86
Wrens Troglodytidae 87
Coraya Wren Thryothorus coraya 87
Buff-breasted Wren Thryothorus leucotis 87
Gnatwrens and Allies Sylvidae 88
Long-billed Gnatwren Microbates Ramphocaenus melanurus 88
Swallows and Martins Hirundinidae 88
White-winged Swallow Tachycineta albiventer 89
White-banded Swallow Atticora fasciata 90
Southern Rough-winged Swallow Stelgidopteryx ruficollis 90
Tanagers Thraupinae 91
Magpie Tanager Cissopis leveriana 91
White-winged Shrike-Tanager Lanio versicolor 91
Masked Crimson Tanager Ramphocelus nigrogularis 91
Silver-beaked Tanager Ramphocelus carbo 92
Palm Tanager Thraupis palmarum 92
Orange-bellied Euphonia Euphonia xanthogaster 93
Green Honeycreeper Chlorophanes spiza 93
Purple Honeycreeper Cyanerpes caeruleus 94
Grosbeaks and Saltators Cardinalinae 94
Blue-backed Grosbeak Cyanocompsa cyanoides 95
Lesser Seed-Finch Oryzoborus angolensis 95
Buff-throated Saltator Saltator maximus 95
Greyish Saltator Saltator coerulescens 96
American Orioles Icteridae 96
Yellow-rumped Cacique Cacicus cela 97
Giant Cowbird Scaphidura oryzivora 97
Gnatcatcher Polioptila clementsi 98
MAMMALS 99

www.shamanism.co.uk
Giant Otter Pteronura brasiliensis 99
Tamarins Saguinus 100
Common Squirrel Monkey Saimiri sciureus 100
Titi Monkey Callicebus 101

www.shamanism.co.uk
Tinamous Tinamidae
The tinamous are one of the most ancient groups of bird,
members of a South American bird family of about 47 species
in 9 genera. Although they look similar to other ground-
dwelling birds like quail and grouse, they have no close
relatives and are classified as a single family Tinamidae within
their own order, the Tinamiformes.
Of Gondwanan origin, they are distantly related to the ratites
(order Struthioniformes), that includes the rheas, emu, and
kiwi. Although the fossil record in South America is generally
poor, the known tinamou fossil record goes back 10 million
years.
Together with the ratites, they make up the Paleognathae, or
“Old Jaws”, as distinct from the vast majority of modern birds
in the Neognathae, or “New Jaws”.
There are 47 species of tinamou in South America and north
to Mexico, occurring in a wide range of habitats.
They eat a variety of food including insects and berries. The smallest species, the Dwarf Nothura, is about 42 grams (1.4
oz) and 15 cm (6 inches) long. The largest tinamou, the Gray Tinamou, weighs 1.6 kg (3.6 lbs) and measures up to 50
cm (20 inches) long.
Tinamou are rarely seen. Most inhabit the tropical lowlands of South America, typically in dark, dense forest, but some
species range as far north as Mexico and occur in a wide range of habitats.
Although some species are quite common, they are shy and secretive. A small number of species live in more open,
grassy country, but even these are wary. Tinamous lay several eggs which are attractively coloured and have a hard
gloss like porcelain. The young are precocial, and can run almost as soon as they hatch.
White-throated Tinamou Tinamus guttatus

The White-throated Tinamou is a species of bird native to the
Amazon rainforest of Peru and Brazil. These birds measure
between 32 and 36 cm in length. They inhabit forests as well as
bush. They eat seeds, fruits and invertebrates. Along with other
species of tinamous, they are often caught for food during the
rainy season of the Amazon. Tinamous are easy to catch because
while flying they will often become fatigued or run into dense
foliage, causing them to fall next to the bank of the river. They
lay a clutch of 4 or 5 eggs of an intense blue green color. It is a
relatively abundant species in its habitat and the main threat to
it is deforestation.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Cinereous Tinamou Crypturellus Cinereus
The Cinereous Tinamou Crypturellus cinereus is a type of ground bird
found in lowland moist and swamp forest up to 700 m altitude. This
species is native to Eastern Colombia, southern Venezuela and the
Guianas south across amazonian Brazil to eastern Peru, northern Bolivia
and Ecuador.
The Cinereous Tinamou is a shy and secretive Tinamou. It is
approximately 30 cm in length. It is recognized by its smoky-grey with
reddish-brown crown and nape. Its dark phase is uniformly in sooty
brown color. This species has a loud distinctive whistle heard mainly at
dawn and dusk.
Herons Ardeidae
The herons are wading birds in the Ardeidae family. Some are
called egrets or bitterns instead of herons. Within the family, all
members of the genera Botaurus and Ixobrychus are referred to
as bitterns, and—including the Zigzag Heron or Zigzag Bittern—
are a monophyletic group within the Ardeidae. However, egrets
are not a biologically distinct group from the herons, and tend to
be named differently because they are mainly white or have
decorative plumes.
The classification of the individual heron/egret species is fraught

with difficulty, and there is still no clear consensus about the
correct placement of many species into either of the two major
genera, Ardea and Egretta. Similarly, the relationship of the
genera in the family is not completely resolved. For example, the
Boat-billed Heron is sometimes classed as a heron, and
sometimes given its own family Cochlearidae, but nowadays it is
usually retained in the Ardeidae.
Although herons resemble birds in some other families, such as

the storks, ibises and spoonbills, they differ from these in flying
with their necks retracted, not outstretched.
They are also one of the bird groups that have powder down.
The members of this family are mostly associated with wetlands, and prey on fish, frogs and other aquatic species.
Some, like the Cattle Egret and Black-headed Heron, also take large insects, and are less tied to watery environments.
Some members of this group nest colonially in trees, others, notably the bitterns, use reedbeds

www.shamanism.co.uk
White-necked Heron Ardea cocoi
The White-necked Heron, Ardea pacifica also known as the
Pacific Heron is found throughout New Guinea and
Australia, except for the most arid regions, and is a vagrant
to New Zealand.
It is a large, robust looking heron, with dark slaty wings and
body, and white head and neck. Its habitat mainly
comprises freshwater wetlands and wet grasslands. It feeds
on small terrestrial and aquatic animals. It nests in dead or
living trees associated with freshwater wetlands.
Widespread throughout its large range, the White-necked
Heron is evaluated as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species.
Striated Heron Butorides striatus

The Striated Heron (or Mangrove Heron or Little Heron), Butorides
striatus, is a small heron.
Adults have a blue-grey back and wings, white underparts, a black cap
and short yellow legs. Juveniles are browner above and streaked
below.
Their breeding habitat is small wetlands in the Old World tropics from
west Africa to Japan and in South America. They are mostly non-
migratory. They nest in a platform of sticks often in shrubs or trees,
sometimes on the ground, often near water, laying 3-5 eggs.
These birds stand still at the water's edge and wait to ambush prey,
but are easier to see than many small heron species. They mainly eat
small fish, frogs and aquatic insects.
They sometimes use bait, dropping a feather or leaf carefully on the
water surface and picking fish that visit it.

www.shamanism.co.uk
American Vultures Cathartidae
Vultures are scavenging birds, feeding mostly on the carcasses of
dead animals. Vultures are found in every continent except
Antarctica and Oceania.
A particular characteristic of many vultures is a bald head, devoid
of feathers. This is likely because a feathered head would become
spattered with blood and other fluids, and thus be difficult to keep
clean.
A group of vultures is occasionally called a venue in literature.
When circling in the air, a group of vultures is called a kettle. The
German word Geier does not have a precise meaning in
ornithology, and is sometimes used to refer to a vulture in English,
as in some poetry.
Black Vulture Coragyps atratus

A common New World vulture, the American Black Vulture, or
Black Vulture, Coragyps atratus, tends to have a more southerly
distribution than its compatriot, the Turkey Vulture, which breeds
well into Canada.
These are very large birds of prey at 65cm length and with a 1.5m
wingspan. Their plumage is mainly glossy black; they have broad
wings with white tips, a short tail and a featherless greyish head.
The female lays 2 or 3 eggs on the ground in a wooded area or in a

hollow log or other cavity. Both parents incubate and feed the
young, regurgitating food at the nest site.
They eat mainly carrion, but also eggs and decomposing plant
material. They may scavenge at garbage dumps and sometimes kill
young animals. These birds on occasion forage in groups. They
soar high when searching for food, holding their wings flat when
gliding. Though not having any natural predators, they have
become scarce in some areas due to lack of suitable nesting
habitat

www.shamanism.co.uk
Turkey Vulture Cathartes aura
The Turkey Vulture, Cathartes aura, is the most
common American vulture. It is an extremely graceful
bird in flight. It seldom needs to flap its long wings once
airborne, but soars high overhead looking for
carcasses.
Despite the similar name and appearance, this species

is unrelated to the Old World vultures in the family
Accipitridae, which includes eagles, hawks, kites and
harriers. The American species is a New World vulture
in the family Cathartidae.
Soaring adult holds its wings up in characteristic V-
shape.
These large birds of prey are mostly brownish black,
but the flight feathers are gray, creating a contrasting
pattern. The head is small in proportion to the body
and has no feathers on it; adults' heads are red and
immatures' are black. The birds have a wing span of
about 2 metres.
While soaring, they hold their wings in a V-shape and often tip "drunkenly" from side to side, sometimes causing the
gray flight feathers to look silvery as they catch the light. The flight style, small-headed and narrow-winged silhouette,
and underwing pattern make this bird easy to identify at great distances.
These birds soar over open areas, watching for dead animals or other scavengers at work. Unlike most other birds, they
also rely on smell to help locate their food. They also eat some vegetation.
The nesting site is in a protected location: on a cliff, inside a hollow tree or in a thicket. There is little or no construction
of a nest. Females lay two eggs, cream-colored with brown spots. Both parents incubate, and the young hatch at around
40 days. The adults regurgitate food for them and care for them for 10 to 11 weeks.
Often, small to large groups of these birds spend the night at communal roosts. Favoured locations may be reused for
many years.
This bird got its common name because the adult's bald red head was thought to resemble that of a male Wild Turkey.
This bird is said to be the most damaging bird to aircraft in birdstrikes as rated by the Smithsonian Institution's Feather
Identification Laboratory.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Greater Yellow-headed Vulture Cathartes melambrotus
The Greater Yellow-headed Vulture, Cathartes melambrotus, also
known as the Forest Vulture, is a species of bird in the New World
Vulture family Cathartidae. It was considered to be the same species as
the Lesser Yellow-headed Vulture until they were split in 1964. It is
found in southern Central America and South America in subtropical or
tropical moist lowland forests. It is a large bird, with a wingspan of 166-
178 centimeters (65-70 inches). The body plumage is black, and the
head and neck, which are featherless, range in color from deep yellow
to pale orange. It lacks a syrinx, and its vocalizations are therefore
limited to grunts or low hisses.
The Greater Yellow-headed Vulture feeds on carrion and locates

carcasses by sight and by smell, an ability which is rare in birds. It is
dependent on larger vultures, such as the King Vulture, to open the
hides of larger animal carcasses, as its bill is not strong enough to do
this.
Like other New World Vultures, the Greater Yellow-headed Vulture utilizes thermals to stay aloft with minimal effort. It
lays its eggs on flat surfaces, such as the floors of caves, or in the hollows of stumps. It feeds its young by regurgitation.
Hawks and Eagles Accipitridae

Eagles are large birds of prey which inhabit mainly the Old
World, with only two species (the Bald Eagle and Golden Eagle)
found in North America north of Mexico, a few in Middle and
South America, two (the White-bellied Sea Eagle and Wedge-
tailed Eagle) in Australia, and the Philippine Eagle in the
Philippines. They are members of the bird order Falconiformes
(or Accipitriformes, according to alternative classification
schemes), family Accipitridae, and belong to several genera
which are not necessarily closely related to each other in any
sort of way.
Eagles are differentiated from other broad-winged birds of prey
mainly by their larger size, more powerful build, and heavier
head and bill.
Even the smallest eagles, like the Booted Eagle (which is
comparable in size to a Common Buzzard or Red-tailed Hawk),
have relatively longer and more evenly broad wings, and more
direct, faster flight.
Most eagles are larger than any other raptors apart from the vultures.
Like all birds of prey, eagles have very large powerful hooked beaks for tearing flesh from their prey, strong legs, and
powerful talons. They also have extremely keen eyesight to enable them to spot potential prey from a very long
distance. This keen eyesight is primarily contributed by their extremely large pupils which cause minimal diffraction
(scattering) of the incoming light.
In Britain before 1678, Eagle referred specifically to the Golden Eagle, the other native species, the White-tailed Eagle,
being known as the Erne. The modern name "Golden Eagle" for Aquila chrysaetos was introduced by the naturalist
John Ray.
Eagles build their nests, which are sometimes called eyries (mostly in Australia) in tall trees or on high cliffs. Many

www.shamanism.co.uk
species lay two eggs, but the older, larger chick frequently kills its younger sibling once it has hatched.
Eagles are sometimes used in falconry. They appear prominently in myth and literature. In the Old World, such
references are commonly to the Golden Eagle (or possibly closely related species found in warm climates).
Grey-headed Kite Leptodon cayanensis

The Gray-headed Kite Leptodon cayanensis is a raptor
found in open woodland and swamp forests. It shares the
genus Leptodon with the extremely rare White-collared
Kite. It breeds from eastern Mexico and Trinidad south to
Peru, Bolivia and northern Argentina.
The nest is of sticks lined with grass and built high in a

tree. The clutch is a one or two white eggs, purplish at one
end and spotted brown.
The Gray-headed Kite is 46-53 cm in length and weighs

410-605 g. The adult has a grey head, black upperparts,
white underparts, and a black tail with two or three white
bars.
The bill is blue and the legs grey. The flight is a deliberate flap-flap-glide. Immature birds have two colour morphs; the
light phase is similar to the adult, but has a white head and neck, with a black crown and eyestripe, black bill and
yellow legs. The dark phase has a blackish head, neck and upperparts, and dark-streaked buff underparts.
The Gray-headed Kite feeds mainly on reptiles, but also takes frogs and large insects. It usually sits on an open high
perch from which it swoops on its prey. The call is a mewling keow.
Crane Hawk Geranospiza caerulescens

The crane hawk (Geranospiza caerulescens) is an uncommon raptor species
found from Mexico to Argentina. It seems that its long legs are often used to
reach into crevices or hollow logs to seize prey. Adult crane hawks are dark
gray.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Roadside Hawk Buteo magnirostris
A common bird throughout its range, the Roadside Hawk can be
found in Mexico, Brazil, and the Northern parts of Argentina. With
the possible exception of dense forests, the Roadside Hawk is well
adapted to most ecosystems of its range.
Fairly small compared to other members of the Buteo genus, the

Roadside Hawk can be identified by its lengthy tail and
disproportionately short wings. The breast and underparts of the
bird are barred brown and white and the tail has four or five grey
bars. The eyes of the Roadside Hawk are usually yellow in color and
rufous patches on the bird's wings can be observed while the hawk is
in flight. The Roadside Hawk's diet consists mainly of small
mammals, insects, and reptiles.
Falcons Falconidae
A Falcon is any of several species of raptors in
the genus Falco. The word comes from Latin
falco, related to Latin falx ("sickle") because of
the shape of these birds' wings.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Black Caracara Daptrius ater
Easy to tell from the Red-throated Caracara by its lack of a white belly
although it does have white on the rump and at the base of the tail.
They are omnivorous eating carrion, fish, insects, frogs, fruit, etc... It is said
that they like to eat ticks off Tapirs and that, on hearing the cries of the
Black Caracara, a Tapir will let out a squeal to attract the Caracara and will
then lie belly-up to let the Caracara eat its ticks.
They are normally found in the Amazon forest near rivers.
Red-throated Caracara Daptrius americanus

It can look a bit like a guan from a distance but the Red-
throated Caracara is quite distinctive close up with its red bare
skin on the throat and its white belly. It is much clumsier than
its close relations, the falcons.
They usually move around in small groups and are capable of

making an ear-shattering noise when disturbed which leads to
them being used by other forest species as a sentinel.
A major item of their diet is eggs and larvae of wasps and bees.
However, it never seems to get stung despite its bare throat.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Yellow-headed Caracara Milvago chimachima
The Yellow-headed Caracara, Milvago chimachima, is a bird of prey in
the family Falconidae. Unlike the Falco falcons in the same family, the
caracaras are not fast-flying aerial hunters, but are rather sluggish and
often scavengers.
The Yellow-headed Caracara is a resident breeding bird from Panama,

Trinidad and Tobago south through South America to northern
Argentina.
This is a bird of savannah, swamps and forest edges, which lays one or
two brown-marked buff eggs in a stick nest in a tree.
The Yellow-headed Caracara is 41-46 cm long and weighs 325g. It is

broad-winged and long-tailed. The adult has a buff head, with a black
streak behind the eye, and buff underparts. The upperparts are brown
with distinctive pale patches on the flight feathers of the wings, and
the tail is barred cream and brown.
The sexes are similar, but immature birds are mottled with brown below. The voice of this species is a characteristic
screamed schreee.
The Yellow-headed Caracara is omnivorous, and will eat reptiles, amphibians and other small animals as well as carrion.
It will also take ticks from cattle, and is locally called “tickbird”.
The Yellow-headed Caracara has benefited from forest clearing for cattle ranching. Its status in Trinidad has changed
from rare to fairly common, and it was first seen on Tobago in 1987.
Buckley´s Forest-falcon Micrastur buckelyi

The Buckley's Forest-falcon, Carnifex De Buckley, Carnifex De Traylor, Gavilán De Traylor, or Halcón-montés De Buckley
(Micrastur buckleyi) is a species of bird of prey in the Falconidae family. It is found in Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and
Peru. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.
Forest falcons are members of the genus Micrastur, part of the family Falconidae. They are endemic to the Americas,
and are found in the tropical and subtropical forests of Mexico, Guatemala, Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil.
Although members of the falcon family, in many respects forest falcons resemble hawks or harriers more than other
falcons; indeed, they are often called harrier-hawks, a term which is descriptively apt but taxonomically inaccurate.
Forest falcons, like many Accipiters but unlike other falcons, are adapted for agility in thick forest rather than outright
speed in clear air. They have short wings, long tails, and extraordinarily acute hearing.
Diet is a mixture of birds, mammals and reptiles. Hunting is often performed in Goshawk fashion: the bird takes up a
perch in an inconspicuous position and waits for a prey species to pass, then strikes with a short, rapid pursuit. Forest-
falcons are inventive, flexible hunters, and are also capable of catching terrestrial prey on foot.
In 2002, a new species was described, found in southeastern Amazonia and the rain forests of Brazil. It has been
named Micrastur mentoni, the Cryptic Forest Falcon.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Black Hawk-eagle Spizaetus tyrannus
The Great Black Hawk, Buteogallus urubitinga, is a bird of
prey in the family Accipitridae, which also includes the
eagles, hawks and Old World vultures.
The Great Black Hawk is a resident breeding bird in the
tropical New World, from Mexico through Central America
to Peru, Trinidad and northern Argentina. It resembles the
Common Black Hawk, but is larger with a different call and
tail pattern.
This is a mainly coastal bird of forest and open woodland
near water. It builds a large stick nest in a tree, and usually
lays one dark-blotched whitish egg.
The adult Great Black Hawk is 56 to 64cm long and weighs
1.1 kg. It has very broad wings, and is mainly black. The
short tail is white with a broad black tip. The bill is black and
the legs and cere are yellow.
The sexes are similar, but immature birds are dark brown above with spotting and streaks. Their underparts are buff
with dark spots, and the tail has a number of black and dusky bars. The call of Great Black Hawk is a distinctive piping
ooo-wheeeeee.
The Great Black Hawk feeds mainly on reptiles, other small vertebrates and large insects, often hunted on foot. This
species is often seen soaring above woodlands.
Guans, Curassows & Allies Cracidae

The Cracidae are large birds, similar in general appearance to
turkeys. The guans and curassows live in trees, but the smaller
chachalacas are found in more open scrubby habitats. They are
generally dull-plumaged, but the curassows and some guans have
colourful facial ornaments. There are 50 species worldwide and 16
species which occur in Peru.
The chachalacas, guans and curassows are birds in the family
Cracidae.
These are species of tropical and subtropical Central and South
America.
One species, the Plain Chachalaca, just reaches southernmost Texas
in the USA. Two species, the Trinidad Piping Guan and the Rufous-
vented Chachalaca occur on the islands of Trinidad and Tobago
respectively.
These are large birds, similar in general appearance to turkeys. The guans and curassows live in trees, but the smaller
Chachalacas are found in more open scrubby habitats. They are generally dull-plumaged, but the curassows and some
guans have colourful facial ornaments.
These species feed on fruit, insects and worms. The nest is built in a tree, and two to three large white eggs are laid;
the female alone incubates.
The Cracidae are an ancient group related to the Australasian Mound-builders. They are sometimes united with these
in a distinct order, Craciformes, but this is not supported by more recent research which suggests that either is a well-
marked, basal lineage of Galliformes.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Speckled Chachalaca Ortalis guttata
The Speckled Chachalaca (Ortalis guttata) is a
species of bird in the Cracidae family. It is found
in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. Its
natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry
forests, subtropical or tropical moist lowland
forests, and heavily degraded former forest.
Pigeons and Doves Columbidae

Pigeons and Doves constitute the family
Columbidae within the order Columbiformes, which
include some 300 species of near passerine birds. In
general parlance the terms "dove" and "pigeon" are
used somewhat interchangeably. In ornithological
practice, there is a tendency for "dove" to be used
for smaller species and "pigeon" for larger ones, but
this is in no way consistently applied, and
historically the common names for these birds
involve a great deal of variation between the term
"dove" and "pigeon." This family occurs worldwide,
but the greatest variety is in the Indomalaya and
Australasia ecozones. The young doves and pigeons
are called "squabs."
Pigeons and doves are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills with a fleshy cere. The species
commonly referred to just as the "pigeon" is the feral Rock Pigeon, common in many cities.
Their usually flimsy nests are made of sticks, and the two white eggs are incubated by both sexes. Doves feed on seeds,
fruit and plants. Unlike most other birds (but see flamingo), the doves and pigeons produce "crop milk," which is
secreted by a sloughing of fluid-filled cells from the lining of the crop. Both sexes produce this highly nutritious
substance to feed to the young.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Pale-vented Pigeon Columba cayennensis
The Pale-vented Pigeon, Patagioenas cayennensis (see Johnson et al.
2001), is a large New World tropical dove. It is a resident breeder
from southern Mexico south to Bolivia and northern Argentina and on
Tobago and Trinidad, although it is very localised on the latter island.
It belongs to a clade of Patagioenas which generally lack iridescent
display plumage, although this species has some coppery gloss on the
nape (Johnson et al. 2001).
The Pale-vented Pigeon is common at forest edges, riverbanks, and
other partially open areas with some trees. It builds a small twig nest
in a small tree, and normally lays one white egg.
Its flight is high, fast and direct, with the regular beats and an occasional sharp flick of the wings which are
characteristic of pigeons in general. It also has a breeding display with a semi-circular glide down to its original perch.
The call is a row of soft kuk kuk croo-ooos; the initial short kuk is characteristic for this group of Patagioenas and
altogether, this species' song is intermediate between that of its close relatives the Plain and Red-billed Pigeons
(Mahler & Tubaro 2001).
The Pale-vented Pigeon is 30-32cm long and weighs normally 230-250 g. It somewhat resembles a Scaled Pigeon, which
has a similar display flight, but of course lacks that species’ scaly appearance. These two large species are the only
pigeons which are often seen flying in the open away from forests.
Adult males have a mainly dull purple head, breast and upperpart plumage, with copper glossing on the nape and a
whitish throat. The lower back and tail are dark grey and the lower underparts are pale grey. The bill is black and the
legs, iris and eyering are red. The female is similar, but duller than the male, and immatures are greyish-brown, very
dull, and mainly greyish brown.
The southern race P. c. andersoni has white lower underparts, rather than the pale grey of nominate P. c. cayennensis.
Pale-vented Pigeon feed mainly on small fruits, berries and seed. This is a fairly solitary bird, but may form small flocks
at drinking areas.
Plumbeous Pigeon Columba plumbea

The Plumbeous Pigeon (Patagioenas plumbea) is a species of
bird in the Columbidae family. It is found in Bolivia, Brazil,
Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Panama,
Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. Its natural
habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests
and subtropical or tropical moist montanes.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Ruddy Pigeon Columba subvinacea
The Ruddy Pigeon, Patagioenas subvinacea (see Johnson et al. 2001),
is a largish pigeon which breeds from Costa Rica south to western
Ecuador, Bolivia and central Brazil. It belongs to a clade of small and
rather plain species of Patagioenas with characteristic calls (Johnson
et al. 2001) that constitute the subgenus Oenoenas (Mahler &
Tubaro 2001).
It is found in highland forest canopy and semi-open woodland from
1500 m altitude to the timberline. It builds a rudimentary platform
nest out of twigs 5 m high in a small tree, and lays one white egg.
The Ruddy Pigeon is 28 cm long and weighs 170 g. It is unpatterned
and mainly wine-purple in colour, becoming more rufous on the
back.
The tail and primary flight feathers are dark brown, the bill is black, and the legs and eyes are purple-red. The female is
slightly duller and browner than the male, and the juvenile bird has a greyish brown head, neck and breast, with
cinnamon or rufous scaling on the head and upperparts.
Ruddy Pigeon has a loud and fairly high-pitched coo, ko'COO coo call, with considerable pauses between calls just as in
its relatives (Mahler & Tubaro 2001). It is normally seen in pairs as it forages in the tree tops for mistletoe, fruits and
berries, but may occasionally be seen on tracks and roadside seeking grit.
This species is replaced at lower altitudes by its close relative, the very similar Short-billed Pigeon, Patagioenas
nigrirostris. The two species are best separated by call, which is faster and less complex in this species (Mahler &
Tubaro 2001).
Ruddy Ground-Dove Columbina talpacoti

The Ruddy Ground Dove, (Columbina talpacoti), is a small New
World tropical dove. It is a resident breeder from Mexico south to
Peru, Brazil and Paraguay, and on Trinidad and Tobago. Individual
birds can sometimes be seen in southwestern USA, from southern
Texas to southernmost California, primarily during the winter
months.
The Ruddy Ground Dove is very common in scrub and other open
country, including cultivation.
It builds a solid cup-shaped stick nest in a tree and lays two white
eggs. Incubation is 12–13 days with another 12–14 days to
fledging. There may be a second or third brood.
Its flight is fast and direct, with the regular beats and an occasional sharp flick of the wings which are characteristic of
pigeons in general.
Ruddy Ground Doves are small short-tailed pigeons, 17cm long with a weight normally about 47g. Adult males have a
pale grey head and neck, and rich rufous upperparts, black-spotted on the wing coverts. The underparts are paler
brown, the tail is edged black, and the underwings are cinnamon and black. The female is grey-brown rather than
rufous, and has less contrast between head and body than the male.

www.shamanism.co.uk
The subspecies C. t. rufipennis of Central America, Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago shows much more
cinnamon on the underwing than the nominate C. t. talpacoti.
Ruddy Ground Doves feed mainly on seeds. The call is a soft cooing cur-WOO.
This species can be quite approachable. Males frequently threaten each other, and brief fights may ensue.
Blue Ground-Dove Claravis pretiosa

The Blue Ground Dove (Claravis pretiosa) is a small New World tropical
dove. It is a resident breeder from southeastern Mexico to northwestern
Peru and northern Argentina, and on Trinidad.
The Blue Ground Dove is common in open woodland, forest edges,
clearings and roadsides, especially in more humid areas. It is found from
sea level to about 1200 m altitude. It builds a flimsy dish nest of twigs 1-
11 m high in a tree and lays two white eggs.
Blue Ground Doves are small pigeons, 20 cm long with a weight of 65-72
g.
Adult males have blue-grey upperparts and paler grey underparts, becoming grey-white on the face. The flight feathers
and outer tail feathers are blackish, and the wings are boldly marked with black. The iris is red or yellow, the bare
eyering is green, and the legs are flesh-pink. The female has a grey-brown head neck and breast, becoming pale blue-
grey on the underwings and belly. The back is ruddy brown, contrasting with the chestnut rump and tail. Young birds
resemble the female, but have ruddy scaling on the back.
The male is unlikely to be confused with other species, but the female resembles the smaller, shorter-tailed Columbina
ground doves. The contrasting rump and woodland habitat are good identification points, and a blue grey and a brown
bird flying through the trees together is bound to be this species.
Blue Ground Doves occur singly or in pairs. They feed mainly on the ground on seeds and small insects, and take grit.
The male’s song, given from the treetops, is a loud boop.
Gray-fronted Dove Leptotila rufaxilla

The Grey-fronted Dove, (Leptotila rufaxilla) is a large New World tropical
dove. It is a resident breeder in South America from Colombia, Venezuela and
the Guyanas south to northeast Argentina and Uruguay. Several subspecies
exists, among them L. r. hellmayrii from Trinidad and the Paria Peninsula in
Venezuela.
The Grey-headed Dove, Leptotila plumbeiceps, of Central America and the
Grenada Dove, L. wellsi, of Grenada were formerly considered conspecific
with Grey-fronted Dove.
The Grey-fronted Dove inhabits humid forest and woodland. It builds a large
stick nest in a bush or on a stump and lays two white eggs.
The Grey-fronted Dove is very similar to the closely related White-tipped Dove, Leptotila verreauxi, which, in the area
of overlap, prefers more open, drier, woodland.
It has an approx. length of 28 cm (11 in) and a weight of 155 g (5½ oz). Adult have a blue-grey crown, a whitish
forehead and a grey neck showing purple iridescence. They have a whitish throat and the eye-ring is red. The
upperparts and wings are grey-brown, and the underparts are whitish shading to pinkish-buff on the chest. The
underwing coverts are rufous. The white tip to the tail is narrower than in the White-tipped Dove. The bill is black, the
legs red and the iris is yellow. L. r. hellmayrii has a paler forehead and darker, more rufous, breast.
It is best separted from the White-tipped Dove by the buffier lower face and the more contrasting, bluish-grey crown.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Another feature is the red (not blue) eye-ring of the Grey-fronted Dove, but this is not reliable in all parts of Brazil,
Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay, where it typically is red in both.
The Grey-fronted Dove is usually seen singly or in pairs, and is rather wary. Its flight is fast and direct, with the regular
beats and clattering of the wings which are characteristic of pigeons in general.
The food of this species is mainly seeds obtained by foraging on the ground, but it will also take insects. The call is a
deep hollow ooo-wooooo-ou.
Parrots Psittacidae
Parrots are birds of the roughly 350 species in the order Psittaciformes,
found in most warm and tropical regions. Also known as psittacines,
they are usually grouped into two families: the Psittacidae (true parrots)
and the Cacatuidae (cockatoos). Characteristic features of parrots
include a strong curved bill, an upright stance, strong legs, and clawed
zygodactyl feet. Most parrots are predominantly green, with other
bright colors, and some species are multi-colored. Cockatoo species
range from mostly white to mostly black, and have a mobile crest of
feathers on the top of their heads. Most parrots are monomorphic or
minimally sexually dimorphic.
Parrots, along with crows, jays and magpies, are some of the most
intelligent birds, and their ability to imitate human voices enhances
their popularity as pets. Trapping of wild parrots for the pet trade, as
well as other hunting, habitat loss and competition from invasive
species, have diminished wild populations, and more parrots are
threatened with extinction than any other group of birds.
The most important components of most parrots' diets are seeds, nuts, fruit, buds and other plant material, and a few
species also eat insects and small animals, and the lories and lorikeets are specialised to feed on nectar from flowers,
and soft fruits. Almost all parrots nest in tree holes (or nestboxes in captivity), and lay white eggs from which emerge
altricial (helpless) young.
Extant species range in size from the Buff-faced Pygmy-parrot, under 10 g (0.35 oz.) and 8 cm (3.2 inches), to the
Hyacinth Macaw, at 1 meter (3.3 feet) in length, and the Kakapo, at 4 kg (8.8 lbs). Some atypical parrots include the
dimorphic Eclectus (the male is green and the female is red), the flightless lek breeding Kakapo. The Kaka, Kea and the
Long-billed Corella have especially curved upper mandibles.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Dusky-headed Parakeet Aratinga weddellii
The Dusky-headed Parakeet or Dusky-headed Conure (Aratinga weddellii) is a
small bird in the parrot family. It is generally green in color with a gray-brown
head and blue-edged black remiges. The adult is about 28 centimeters (11
inches) in length and weighs about 100 grams.
The bird is found in the wild along the Amazon River and its tributaries in
Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Brazil. It inhabits rainforest, marshes, forest
remnants and regrowth in cleared areas, and sometimes coffee plantations. It is
a common avian species across its range.
The Dusky-headed Parakeet is social, and is usually found in pairs or small
groups.
When food is plentiful it forms flocks of up to 100 members. It is a moderately
noisy parakeet, feeding quietly and making sounds mostly during flight. Its call
is similar to that of the White-eyed Conure (Aratinga leucophthalmus).
The bird eats fruit, seeds, and flowers, and will search decaying wood for insect larvae. It also ingests mineral-rich soil
as a supplement. The birds pair to raise offspring together, nesting in woodpecker holes in trees or arboreal termite
nests.
The Dusky-headed Parakeet can be kept in captivity, most successfully in an aviary. It appreciates water for routine
bathing and likes a variety of fruit and vegetables. It is easy to breed if provided with a nest box, and will lay up to three
clutches per year.
Maroon-tailed Parakeet Pyrrhura melanura

The Maroon-tailed Parakeet (Pyrrhura melanura) is a species of parrot in the Psittacidae family. It is found in Brazil,
Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and
subtropical or tropical moist montanes.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Canary-winged Parakeet Brotogeris versicolurus
The Canary-winged Parakeet (Brotogeris versicolurus) is also
known as the White-winged Parakeet. The bird is native to the
Amazon River basin from southeast Colombia to the River’s
mouth in Brazil. Caged birds have been released in some areas
and the birds have established self sustaining populations in Lima,
Peru, the Los Angeles, San Francisco, California and Miami,
Florida areas of the United States, and in Puerto Rico. Although
feral birds are showing some recent declines as nesters in the
United States, they seem to be doing well in their native habitat.
The bird is 22 cm in length, and is mostly green in color. It has a
trailing yellow edge on its folded wings. It’s most distinguished
characteristic is the white wing patches most noticed when the
bird is in flight. It is closely related to the Yellow-chevroned
Parakeet. In fact, it was considered conspecific until 1997.
The bird feeds mostly on seeds and fruit in it’s native habitat, and
feral populations have adapted to take in blossoms and nectar.
Feral birds will also come to bird feeders. Wild birds primarily use
disturbed forest and forest clearings around settlements. It rarely
uses deep tropical forest.
Canary-winged Parakeets usually find holes in trees to nest in.
They will also form nesting tunnels in dead palm fronds. It lays 4-
5 eggs. After raising its young, all birds will form rather large
communal roosts until the next breeding season.
Cobalt-winged Parakeet Brotogeris cyanopter

The Cobalt-winged Parakeet (Brotogeris cyanoptera) is a
species of bird in the Psittacidae family, the true parrots. It is
found in the eastern Andean foothills, the far western
Amazonian regions in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru,
and Bolivia; in Brazil, the Amazon Basin states of Amazonas,
Acre, and Rondonia. Its natural habitats are subtropical or
tropical moist lowland forests and heavily degraded former
forest.
The range of the Cobalt-winged Parakeet is in the extreme
western Amazon Basin in Brazil's states's of Amazonas, Acre,
and Rondônia, part of the North Region; also from north to
south, southernmost Venezuela, eastern Colombia-Ecuador-
Peru, and northern and central Bolivia, and in Bolivia within
the tributary rivers to the Madeira River flowing northeast to
the Amazon River. One small disjunct, localized population
occurs in Bolivia's northeast border region near the Guapore
River headwaters.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Blue-headed Parrot Pionus menstruus
The Blue-headed Parrot also known as The Blue-headed
Pionus, Pionus menstruus, is a medium large parrot. It is a
resident breeding bird in tropical Central and South
America, from Costa Rica and Trinidad south to Bolivia and
Brazil.
Its habitat is forest and semi-open country, including
cultivated areas. The Blue-headed Parrot lays three to four
white eggs in a tree cavity.
The Blue-headed Parrot is about 27 cm long and weighs 245
g. It is mainly green with a blue head, neck and upper
breast, red undertail, and some yellow on the wing coverts.
Sexes are alike, but immatures have less blue on the head,
as well as red or pinkish feathers around the ceres.
They molt into their adult plumage at about 8 months of age, but it can take up to two years for the full blue hood to
emerge.
Blue-headed Parrots are noisy birds and make light, high-pitched squeaking sweenkcalls. They eat fruit and seeds, and
sometimes grain. They roost communally in palm and other trees, and large numbers can be seen at the roost sites at
dawn and dusk.
Blue Headed Pionus Parrots are increasingly popular as pets. Compared to other parrot species (Amazons for example)
they are very quiet. They are affectionate, but not known for their talking ability.
Some suggest that the Blue-headed Parrot was the inspiration for Monty Python's "Dead Parrot Sketch."
Cuckoos, Anis and Hoatzins Cuculidae

The cuckoos are a family, Cuculidae, of near passerine birds. The
order Cuculiformes, in addition to the cuckoos, also includes the
turacos (family Musophagidae, sometimes treated as a separate
order, Musophagiformes). Some zoologists have also included the
unique Hoatzin in the Cuculiformes, though it is now usually placed
in an order of its own, Opisthocomiformes. The taxonomy of this
enigmatic species, however, remains in some dispute.
The cuckoo family, in addition to those species named as such, also
includes the roadrunners, the coucals, and the anis. The latter two
are often separated as distinct families Centropodidae and
Crotophagidae, respectively.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Squirrel Cuckoo Piaya cayana
The Squirrel Cuckoo, Piaya cayana, is a near-passerine bird. This
cuckoo is a resident breeding bird from northwestern Mexico to
northern Argentina and Uruguay, and on Trinidad.
The Squirrel Cuckoo is found in woodland canopy and edges,
second growth, hedges and semi-open habitats from sea level to
as high as 2500 m altitude, although it is uncommon above 1200
m. The nest is a cup of leaves on a twig foundation, hidden in
dense vegetation 1-12 m high in a tree. The female lays two white
eggs. This large species is 43-46 cm long and weighs 95-105 g.
The adult has mainly chestnut upperparts and head, becoming paler on the throat. The lower breast is grey and the
belly is blackish. The tail is boldly banded in black and white. The bill and bare eyering are yellow and the iris is red.
Immature birds have a grey bill and eyering, brown iris, and less white in the tail.
There are a number of subspecies with minor plumage variations. For example, P. c. mehleri, a South American form,
has a brown-and-white banded tail.
This species’ English name derives from its habit of running along branches and leaping from branch to branch like a
squirrel. It normally flies only short distances, mainly gliding with an occasional flap.
The Squirrel Cuckoo makes explosive kip! and kip! weeuu calls, and the song is a whistled wheep wheep wheep wheep.
It feeds on large insects such as cicadas, wasps and caterpillars (including those with stinging hairs or spines), and
occasionally spiders and small lizards. Its static prey is typically taken off the foliage with a quick lunge, but wasps may
be picked out of the air.
Black-bellied Cuckoo Piaya melanogaster

The Black-bellied Cuckoo (Piaya melanogaster) is a species of cuckoo in the Cuculidae family. It is found in Bolivia,
Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. Its natural habitat is subtropical or
tropical moist lowland forests.
Greater Ani Crotophaga major

The Greater Ani, Crotophaga major, is a large near-
passerine bird in the cuckoo family. It is a breeding species
from Panama and Trinidad through tropical South America
to northern Argentina.
This ani is found in mangrove swamps, semi-open
woodland near water, and the edges of forests. It is a
seasonal smigrant in at least some parts of its range. The
nest, built communally by several pairs, is a deep cup lined
with leaves and placed usually 2-5 m high in a tree. A
number of females lay their chalky deep blue eggs in the
nest and then share incubation and feeding. Nests have
been found containing 3-10 eggs.
The Greater Ani is about 48 cm long and weighs 170g.
The adult is mainly blue-glossed black, with a long tail, massive ridged black bill, and a white iris. Immature birds have a

www.shamanism.co.uk
dark iris.
This is a very gregarious species, always found in noisy groups. The calls include croaking and turkey-like gobbling kro-
koro. The Greater Ani feeds on large insect and even lizards and frogs.
Smooth-billed Ani Crotophaga ani

The Smooth-billed Ani, Crotophaga ani, is a large near-passerine bird in
the cuckoo family. It is a resident breeding species from southern Florida,
the West Indies, Costa Rica, Trinidad and Tobago, south to western
Ecuador, Brazil and northern Argentina.
This ani is found in open and semi-open country and cultivation. The
nest, built communally by several pairs, is a deep cup lined with leaves
and placed usually 2-6 m high in a tree. A number of females lay their
chalky blue eggs in the nest and then share incubation and feeding.
Each female is capable of laying up to seven eggs, and nests have been
found containing up to 29 eggs, but it is rare for more than ten to hatch.
Incubation is 13-15 days, with another 10 days to fledging. Up to three
broods may be raised in a season, with the young of earlier broods
helping to feed more recent chicks.
The Smooth-billed Ani is about 33 cm long and weighs 95 g. The adult is mainly flat black, with a long tail, deep ridged
black bill and a brown iris.The flight is weak and wobbly, but this bird runs well, and usually feeds on the ground.
This is a very gregarious species, always found in noisy groups. The calls include a whining ooo-leeek. The Greater Ani
feeds on termites, large insects and even lizards and frogs; they will occasionally remove ticks and other parasites from
grazing animals.
This common and conspicuous species has greatly benefited from deforestation.
This species called "El pijul" in the Venzuelan folklore. It is mentioned in the popular Venezuelan song "Son Jarocho".
Typical Owls Strigidae

Typical owls (family Strigidae) are one of the two generally accepted
families of owls, the other being the barn owls (Tytonidae). The Sibley-
Ahlquist taxonomy unites the Caprimulgiformes with the owl order;
here, the typical owls are a subfamily Striginae. This is unsupported by
more recent research but the relationships of the owls in general are
still unresolved.
The nearly 200 species are assigned to a number of genera.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Ferruginous Pygmy-Owl Glaucidium brasilianum
The Ferruginous Pygmy Owl (Glaucidium brasilianum) is a small owl that
breeds in south-central Arizona in the USA, south through to Mexico, Central
America and South America to Bolivia and Argentina. Trinidad, as well as
other localities, have endemic subspecies of the owl. The Trinidad version is
more rufous above than the continental forms. Recent genetics work has
found substantial differences in Ferruginous Pygmy Owls from different
regions.
This species is a part of the larger grouping of owls known as typical owls,
Strigidae, the family that contains most species of owl. The other grouping is
the barn owls, Tytonidae.
In the southern portion of its range, the Ferruginous Pygmy Owl is a
somewhat common bird in open woodland. It is a cavity nesting bird (tree and
columnar cactus cavities), laying 3-5 white eggs. Incubation is 28 days, with
27-30 days to fledging.
The Ferruginous Pygmy Owl is small (15cm) and stocky with
disproportionately large talons.
The upperparts are brown, heavily spotted and/or streaked with white on the crown and wing coverts. The underparts
are white, streaked with brown. There are prominent white supercilia above the facial disc. There are two eyespots on
the nape. The tail is barred brown and black. Sexes are similar with females slightly larger and more reddish, especially
on the brown in the tail. The flight is low to the ground and rapid with long swoops.
This species is crepuscular (active at dawn and dusk), and often hunts by day. It can be readily located by the small
birds that mob it while it is perched in a tree (up to 40 birds of 11 species have been recorded mobbing one owl). It
hunts a variety of birds, lizards, mammals, and insects. The call is a whistled hoo-hoo-hoo-hoo, usually in E flat. It is
easily imitated, and is used by birdwatchers to attract small birds intent on mobbing and other pygmy owls.
This species was an endangered species in its range in the south-central portion of Arizona in the USA, where its range
extended over the border from Sonora, Mexico. It was delisted in 2006.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Nighthawks and Nightjars Caprimulgidae
Nighthawks are birds of the nightjar family in the New World subfamily
Chordeilinae.
They are medium-sized nocturnal birds with long wings, short legs and very
short bills that usually nest on the ground and catch flying insects. The Least
Nighthawk, at 16 cm (6.3 inches) and 23 grams, is the smallest of all
Caprimulgiformes. Nightjars are sometimes referred to as goatsuckers from
the mistaken belief that they suck milk from goats (the Latin for goatsucker is
Caprimulgus).
Nighthawks have small feet, of little use for walking, and long pointed wings.
Their soft plumage is crypically coloured to resemble bark or leaves. Some
species, unusual for birds, perch along a branch, rather than across it. This
helps to conceal them during the day. They lay two patterned eggs directly
onto bare ground.
They are mostly active in the late evening and early morning or at night, and
feed predominantly on moths and other large flying insects. Nighthawks are
similar in most respects to the nightjars of the Old World, but have shorter
bills and less soft plumage. Nighthawks are less strictly nocturnal than many
Old World nightjars, and may be seen hunting when there is still light in the
sky.
Lesser Nighthawk Chordeiles acutipennis

The Lesser Nighthawk, Chordeiles acutipennis, is a nightjar.
The adults are dark with brown, grey and white patterning on the
upperparts and breast; the long upperwings are black and show a white bar
in flight. The tail is dark with white barring; the underparts are buffy with
fine black horizontal streaking. The adult male has a white throat; the
female has a light brown throat. This bird looks similar to the Common
Nighthawk, but is slightly smaller, has a slightly less deeply forked tail, and
is more buffy in coloration. The calls are also completely different. The
Lesser Nighthawk has a rapid, low whistled melodious trill, lasting several
seconds. It is usually heard only near breeding areas.
Their breeding habitat is open country from southwest United States
through Central America to tropical South America. They usually nest on
bare ground, sometimes in raised locations including stumps and boulders
or flat house roofs The two eggs are laid directly on bare ground--there is
no nest.
Incubation is performed largely by the female and lasts for about 20 days. Young fledge at about 20 days of age. Adults
flushed from the nest may try to distract the intruder or defend the nest site by aerial attack. Young birds sometimes
perform a defense display by opening up their mouths and spreading their wings, looking to appear threatening and
looking larger than they actually are before they run off.
These birds are partial migrants. The Lesser Nighthawk retreats from the United States and northern Mexico during the
winter months. Occasionally single birds may be found overwintering. The nighthawk is also occasionally found as a
vagrant to the US Gulf Coast states to Florida.
They catch flying insects on the wing, mainly foraging near dawn and dusk (crepuscular), sometimes at night with a full

www.shamanism.co.uk
moon or near street lighting.
Pauraque Nyctidromus albicollis

The Pauraque, Nyctidromus albicollis, is a nightjar. It breeds in the
warmer parts of the New World from southern Texas to northern
Argentina. It is the only bird in the genus Nyctidromus.
It is found in woodland habitats, preferably forest, but also scrub and
cultivation. No nest is made; the two elongated and elliptical pinkish
eggs are placed upon the bare ground or leaf litter. Most populations
are resident, although the U.S. breeders (N. a. merrilli) may winter in
eastern Mexico.
This medium-sized (22–28cm long) nightjar has two colour morphs,
the plumage being variegated greyish-brown or rufous brown.
It is long-tailed and has broad rounded wings. The buff eyering and facial stripe contrast with the reddish sides of the
face.
The adult male Pauraque has a white band near the wing tips, and the outer tail feathers are mainly white. The
female's wing band is narrower and the white in the outer tail is more restricted. There are seven races of Pauraque,
differing in size and greyness.
The Pauraque is nocturnal, like other nightjars, and starts to fly at dusk. Like its relatives, it feeds on insects caught in
flight, usually by flycatching from a low perch, but also by foraging over open ground. This species has long legs with
bare tarsi, and is more terrestrial than most nightjars. If disturbed, it will sometimes run rather than fly, and frequently
rests on roads and tracks.
The male Pauraque's song is very variable, but includes a whistled weeeow wheeooo, soft puk puk and a whip given in
the courtship flight as he flutters around the female. Her call is a rapid succession of whip sounds.
Swifts Apodidae
The swifts are birds superficially similar to swallows but are actually not
closely related to those passerine species at all; swifts are in the separate
order Apodiformes, which they formerly shared with the hummingbirds. The
treeswifts are closely related to the true swifts, but form a separate family,
the Hemiprocnidae.
The resemblances between the swifts and swallows are due to convergent
evolution reflecting similar life styles based on catching insects in flight.
The family scientific name comes from the Ancient Greek απους, apous,
meaning "without feet", since swifts have very short legs and never settle
voluntarily on the ground, perching instead on vertical surfaces. The tradition
of depicting swifts without feet continued into the Middle Ages, as seen in the
heraldic martlet.
Swifts are the most aerial of birds and some, like the Common Swift, even
sleep and mate on the wing. Larger species, such as White-throated
Needletail, are amongst the fastest flyers in the animal kingdom.
One group, the Swiftlets or Cave Swiftlets have developed a form of echolocation for navigating through dark cave
systems where they roost. One species, Aerodramus papuensis has recently been discovered to use this navigation at

www.shamanism.co.uk
night outside its cave roost also.
Like swallows and martins, the swifts of temperate regions are strongly migratory and winter in the tropics.
Many swifts have a characteristic shape, with a short forked tail and very long swept-back wings that resemble a
crescent or a boomerang. The flight of some species is characterised by a distinctive "flicking" action quite different
from swallows. Swifts range in size from the Pygmy Swiftlet (Collocalia troglodytes), which weighs 5.4 g and measures 9
cm (3.7 inches) long, to the Purple Needletail (Hirundapus celebensis), which weighs 184 g (6.5 oz) and measures 25 cm
(10 inches) long.
The nest of many species is glued to a vertical surface with saliva, and the genus Aerodramus use only that substance,
which is the basis for bird's nest soup.
Grey-rumped Swift Chaetura cinereiventris

The Gray-rumped Swift, Chaetura cinereiventris is a small swift.
This species breeds in hill forests from Nicaragua south to Peru, Brazil and northern Argentina, and Grenada, Trinidad
and Tobago. The nest is a half saucer of twigs glued to the inside of a tree hole, chimney or similar shaded location with
saliva.
Gray-rumped Swift is 11.5 cm long and weighs 15 g. The upperparts are black with a grey triangular band across the
rump, and the underparts are slate grey. It has a long black-grey tail.
Gray-rumped Swift feeds in flight on flying insects. It is often low over roads or clearings in the morning or evening,
rising high above the forest, often with other swifts, in the middle of the day.
Gray-rumped Swift has a chittering call.
Short-tailed Swift Chaetura brachyura

The Short-tailed Swift, Chaetura brachyura, is a common resident
breeding bird on Trinidad, Tobago, Grenada and St Vincent, and in
tropical South America from Panama, Colombia and the Guianas
south to Ecuador, Peru and Brazil.
This small swift is found in a range of habitats including savanna,
open woodland, and cultivation. The nest is a 5 cm wide shallow half-
saucer of twigs and saliva attached to a vertical surface. This is often
a man-made structure like a chimney or manhole, as with its relative,
the Chimney Swift C. pelagica, but natural caves and tree cavities are
also used.
Up to seven white eggs (average 3.7) are incubated by both parents
for 17-18 days.
The young leave the nest in a further two weeks, but remain near it, clinging to the cavity wall without flying, for
another two weeks.
The Short-tailed Swift is about 10.5 cm long, and weighs 20 g. It has long narrow wings, a robust body and a short tail.
The sexes are similar. It is mainly black with a pale rump and tail. It can be distinguished from related species in its
range, such as the Band-rumped Swift, C. spinicauda or the Gray-rumped Swift, C. cinereiventris by the lack of contrast
between the rump and the tail, the latter being much darker in the other species. The flight call is a rapid chittering sti-
sti-stew-stew-stew.
The Short-tailed Swift feeds in flight on flying insects, including winged ants and termites. It is very gregarious and
forms communal roosts when not breeding. Predation by bats at the nest sites has been suspected.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Fork-tailed Palm-Swift Tachornis squamata
The Fork-tailed Palm Swift, Tachornis squamata, is a resident breeding
bird from Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas and Trinidad south to
northeastern Peru and Brazil.
This small swift is found locally in marshy habitats, or sometimes open
forest, usually near Moriche Palms. It builds a C-shaped nest of feathers,
saliva and plant material on the inside of the dead leaf of a Moriche
Palm. Three white eggs are laid in the depression of the C, and
incubated for 21 days to hatching.
Fork-tailed Palm Swift is a slender, narrow-winged species, 13.2 cm long,
with a long forked tail, and weighs 11 g. The call is a buzzed djjjjjj, like an
insect. The nominate western form T. s. squamata has black-brown
upperparts with a slight greenish gloss.
The underparts are a paler brown with a white throat and central underbody. The eastern race T. s. semota of Trinidad,
the Guianas and central and eastern Brazil is much darker, almost steel-black above and darker brown below. Juveniles
are very similar, but have buff fringes to the upperparts and head in fresh plumage.
Despite its shape and association with palms, it is in a different genus to the Asian and African Palm Swifts.
Fork-tailed Palm Swift feeds in low flight on flying insects. It normally stays at less than 10 m above the ground. It
normally occurs in small groups of up to 30 birds.
Hummingbirds Trochilidae
Hummingbirds are small birds in the family Trochilidae, native only to the
Americas. They are known for their ability to hover in mid-air by rapidly flapping
their wings, 15 to 80 times per second (depending on the species).The Giant
Hummingbird’s wings beat 8-10 beats per second, the wings of medium sized
hummingbirds beat about 20-25 beats per second and the smallest beat 70 beats
per second. Capable of sustained hovering, the hummingbird has the ability to fly
deliberately backwards- they are the only group of birds able to do this or
vertically, and to maintain position while drinking from flower blossoms. They
are named for the characteristic hum made by their wings.
Hummingbirds are attracted to many flowering plants—shrimp plants, Heliconia,
bromeliads, cannas, verbenas, fuchsias, many penstemons—especially those
with red flowers. They feed on the nectar of these plants and are important
pollinators, especially of deep-throated flowers. Most species of hummingbird
also take insects, especially when feeding young.
The Bee Hummingbird (Mellisuga helenae) is the smallest bird in the
world,weighing 1.8 grams (0.06 ounces) and measuring about 5 cm (2 inches). A more typical hummingbird, such as the
Rufous Hummingbird (Selasphorus rufus), weighs approximately 3 g (0.106 ounces) and has a length of 10-12 cm (3.5-4
inches). The largest hummingbird is the Giant Hummingbird (Patagona gigas), with some individuals weighing as much
as 24 grams (0.85 ounces) and measuring 21.5 cm (8.5 inches).
Most male hummingbirds take no part in nesting. Most species make a neatly woven cup in a tree branch. Two white
eggs are laid, which despite being the smallest of all bird eggs, are in fact large relative to the hummingbird's adult size.
Incubation is typically 14-19 days.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Pale-tailed Barbthroat Threnetes leucurus
The Pale-Tailed Barbthroat (Threnetes leucurus) is a species of hummingbird in the Trochilidae family. It is found in the
Amazon Basin proper and bordering countries, Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, French Guiana, Guyana,
Suriname, and Venezuela. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or
tropical swamps.
The taxonomy of the Threnetes leucurus/T. niger complex has caused much confusion in recent years: Schuchmann &
Hinkelmann (1999) considered the Sooty Barbthroat a melanistic variant of T. leucurus, but as it was described first, its
scientific name was adopted for the entire species; Pale-tailed Barbthroat (T. niger). This, however, has not been
accepted by all authorities, notably SACC, which consider both T. niger and T. leucurus as valid species.
Black-throated Hermit Phaethornis atrimentalis

The Hermits are tropical hummingbirds in the subfamily
Phaethornithinae, comprising about 34 species in six genera.
Their plumage typically involves greens, browns, rufous or grey. They
lack the iridescent plumage of many other hummingbird species, and
the male and female plumages of hermits are often very similar, only a
few species showing the strong sexual dimorphism usually associated
with hummingbirds.
Hermits in the main genus, Phaethornis, have a long decurved bill with
a red or yellow base to the lower mandible, and their two central tail
feathers are elongated and tipped with white. The crown of the head is
flat, and two pale facial stripes enclose a dusky mask.
Hermits usually form leks and congregate on traditional display grounds, where females visit to choose a mate.
However, male hermits are less aggressively territorial than other male hummingbirds.
Hermits are closely associated with heliconias. The flowers are an important food source accessible to the long
decurved bill typical of this group of forest hummingbirds. Many species, including the Rufous-breasted Hermit, also
use the plant for nesting, attaching their conical nest to the underside of one of the plant’s broad leaves.
White-necked Jacobin Florisuga mellivora

The White-necked Jacobin (Florisuga mellivora) is a large and
attractive hummingbird that ranges from Mexico south to Peru,
Bolivia and south Brazil. It is also found on Tobago and in Trinidad,
but breeding has not been proved on the latter island.
Other common names are Great Jacobin and Collared
Hummingbird.
The White-necked Jacobin is a widespread inhabitant of forest,
mostly at higher elevations, being seen usually at a high perch or
just above the canopy. It is less common at lower elevations.
The 12 cm long male White-necked Jacobin is unmistakable with
its white belly and tail, a white band on the nape and a dark blue
hood. Females and the similar immature males are bronze-green
above and are less obvious.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Their speckled green underparts and white tail tips are shared with the female Green-crowned Brilliant, but that
species has a white moustachial stripe and a straighter bill. Some young Andean Emerald have speckling extending
across their breast, but it is never as heavy as in the White-necked Jacobin. The black and white scaling on the vent of
the Jacobin is a good field mark.
These birds usually visit flowers of tall trees and epiphytes for nectar, and also hawk for insects.
Fork-tailed Woodnymph Thalurania furcata

The Fork-Tailed Woodnymph (Thalurania furcata) is a species of hummingbird in the
Trochilidae family. It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French
Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela. Its
natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, subtropical or
tropical moist montanes, and heavily degraded former forest.
Sapphire-spangled Emerald Polyerata lacteal

The Sapphire-spangled Emerald, Amazilia lactea, is a species of hummingbird that
occurs in Brazil from the Amazon south to Santa Catarina, Venezuela, Peru and
Bolivia. Both male and female have a bright "sapphire" blue chest and chin and
green-blue abdomen with a well-delineated white stripe. The bill is straight with a
black upper mandible and orange or pink lower mandible. The Emerald is found in
forest edges, mountainous regions and gardens in urban areas.
The species has an estimated range of 1,500,000 km², and while its population size is uncertain, it is believed to be
large since it has been described as "frequent" in at least some parts of its range. It is not considered to be in decline
and has been therefore evaluated as Least concern.
Trogons and Quetzals Trogonidae

The trogons and quetzals are birds in the order Trogoniformes
which contains only one family, the Trogonidae. Alternatively, they
might constitute a member of the basal radiation of the order
Coraciiformes (Johansson & Ericson, 2003). The word "trogon" is
Greek for "nibbling" and refers to the fact that these birds gnaw
holes in trees to make their nests.
Trogons are residents of tropical forests worldwide, with the
greatest diversity in Central and in South America. The genus
Apaloderma contains the few African species, and Harpactes the
Asian. The rest are neotropical.
They feed on insects and fruit, and their broad bills and weak legs
reflect their diet and arboreal habits.
Although their flight is fast, they are reluctant to fly any distance. Trogons do not migrate. Trogons have soft, often
colourful, feathers with distinctive male and female plumage. They nest in holes in trees or termite nests, laying white
or pastel coloured eggs.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Trogons in the genera Pharomachrus and Euptilotis are called "quetzals".
Quetzals are beautifully colored birds of the trogon family (Trogonidae) found in
tropical regions of the Americas.
The word "quetzal" was originally used for just the Resplendent Quetzal,
Pharomachrus mocinno, the famous long-tailed quetzal of Central America,
which is the national symbol of Guatemala. It still often refers to that bird
specifically but now also names all the species of the genera Pharomachrus and
Euptilotis.
Amazonian White-tailed Trogon Trogon viridis

The White-tailed Trogon, Trogon viridis, is a near passerine bird in the
trogon family. It occurs from Panama south to southern Brazil, and on
Trinidad.
It is a resident of moist tropical forests, where it nests in a termite nest
or a hole in a rotten tree, with a typical clutch of two or three white
eggs. These are incubated for 16-17 days, with a further two weeks to
fledging.
White-tailed Trogons feed on insects and small fruit, and their broad
bills and weak legs reflect their diet and arboreal habits. Although their
flight is fast, they are reluctant to fly any distance. They typically perch
upright and motionless.
Trogons have distinctive male and female plumage, with soft, often
colourful, feathers. This relatively large species is about 29 cm long and
weighs 82 g. The head and upper breast of the male are blue and the
back is green, becoming bluer on the rump. The lower underparts are
golden yellow. The undertail has a black centre, broadly edged with
white, and the wings are black, vermiculated with white. The female
White-tailed Trogon has a brown-grey back, head and breast.
This species superficially resembles the Violaceous Trogon, but the latter is smaller and has a barred tail.
White-tailed Trogon has a slow cow cow, cow call and a faster caaop, caaop, caaop, ca, ca, ca. The fast call resembles
that of Amazonian Violaceous Trogon, and is not given in the wetter forests where both forms occur.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Collared Trogon Trogon collaris
The Collared Trogon, Trogon collaris, is a near passerine bird in the trogon family,
Trogonidae. The nominate race breeds in Mexico, Central America and South
America south to Peru and the Amazon basin, and T. c. exoptatus occurs in eastern
Colombia, Venezuela and Trinidad and Tobago.
It is a resident of tropical forests, where it nests in a hole in a termite nest or tree,
with a typical clutch of two white eggs.
Collared Trogons feed on insects and fruit, and their broad bills and weak legs reflect
their diet and arboreal habits. Although their flight is fast, they are reluctant to fly
any distance. They typically perch upright and motionless.
Trogons have distinctive male and female plumages, with soft, often colourful,
feathers. This species is about 28cm long. The back, head and breast of the male are
green, and a white line separates the breast from the pink underparts. The tail is
white with black barring, and the wings are black, vermiculated with white.
The female is has a brown back, head and breast, and the underparts are pink rather
than the male's scarlet. The call is a plaintive caow, caow, caow.
Amazonian Violaceous Trogon Trogon violaceus

The Violaceous Trogon, Trogon violaceus, is a near passerine bird in the
trogon family, Trogonidae. The nominate race occurs in southeastern
Colombia, Bolivia, Venezuela, the Amazon basin, the Guianas and Trinidad.
The form T. v. caligatus breeds in Mexico, Central America and south to Peru.
The latter form is often split as a separate species, the Northern Violaceous
Trogon, Trogon caligatus (Ridgway, 1911), leaving the nominate form as the
Amazonian Violaceous Trogon. It is a resident of moist tropical forests, where
it nests in a wasp, ant or termite nest or a hole in a rotten tree, with a typical
clutch of two or three white eggs.
Violaceous Trogons feed on insects and small fruit, and their broad bills and weak legs reflect their diet and arboreal
habits. Although their flight is fast, they are reluctant to fly any distance. They typically perch upright and motionless.
Trogons have distinctive male and female plumages, with soft, often colourful, feathers. This relatively small species is
about 23cm long and weighs 56 g. The head and upper breast of the male are blue and the back is green, becoming
bluer on the rump. A white line separates the breast from the golden yellow underparts. The undertail is white with
black barring, and the wings are black, vermiculated with white. The female Violaceous Trogon has a dark grey back,
head and breast.
This species superficially resembles the White-tailed Trogon, but the latter is larger and has a whiter tail.
The shade of the blue of the head differs between the two forms, but the call is the main distinction between the
Northern and Amazonian Violaceous Trogons. The former has a slurred whistled cuh-cuh-cuh, and Amazonian has a soft
cow cow, cow.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Kingfishers Alecedinidae
Kingfishers are birds of the three families Alcedinidae (river kingfishers),
Halcyonidae (tree kingfishers), and Cerylidae (water kingfishers). There
are about 90 species of kingfisher. All have large heads, long, sharp,
pointed bills, short legs, and stubby tails. They are found throughout
the world.
The taxonomy of the three families is complex and rather controversial.
Although commonly assigned to the order Coraciiformes, from this level
down confusion sets in.
The kingfishers were traditionally treated as one family, Alcedinidae
with three subfamilies, but following the 1990s revolution in bird
taxonomy, the three former subfamilies are now usually elevated to
familial level. That move was supported by chromosome and DNA-DNA
hybridisation studies, but challenged on the grounds that all three
groups are monophyletic with respect to the other Coraciiformes.
This leads to them being grouped as the suborder Alcedines.

The tree kingfishers have been previously given the familial name Dacelonidae but Halcyonidae has priority. This group
derives from a very ancient divergence from the ancestral stock.
Kingfishers live in both woodland and wetland habitats. Kingfishers that live near water hunt small fish by diving. They
also eat crayfish, frogs, and insects. Wood kingfishers eat reptiles. Kingfishers of all three families beat their prey to
death, either by whipping it against a tree or by dropping it on a stone.
They are able to see well both in air and under water. To do this, their eyes have evolved an egg-shaped lens able to
focus in the two different environments.
The Old World tropics and Australasia are the core area for this group. Europe and North America north of Mexico are
very poorly represented with only one common kingfisher (Common Kingfisher and Belted Kingfishers respectively),
and a couple of uncommon or very local species each: (Ringed Kingfisher and Green Kingfisher in south Texas, Pied
Kingfisher and White-breasted Kingfisher in SE Europe).
Even tropical South America has only five species plus wintering Belted Kingfisher. In comparison, the tiny African
country of The Gambia has eight resident species in its 120 by 20 mile area.
The six species occurring in the Americas are four closely related green kingfishers in the genus Chloroceryle and two
large crested kingfishers in the genus Megaceryle, suggesting that the sparse representation in the western
hemisphere evolved from just one or two original colonising species.
The smallest species of kingfisher is the African Dwarf Kingfisher (Ispidina lecontei), which averages at 10.4 g and 10 cm
(4 inches). The largest overall is the Giant Kingfisher (Megaceryle maxima), at an average of 355 g (13.5 oz) and 45 cm
(18 inches). However, the familiar Australian kingfisher known as the Laughing Kookaburra (Dacelo novaeguineae) may
be the heaviest species, since large individuals exceeding 450 g (1 lb) are not rare.
Ringed Kingfisher Ceryle torquata

The Ringed Kingfisher (Megaceryle torquata) is a large, conspicuous and noisy
kingfisher, commonly found along the lower Rio Grande River valley in
southeasternmost Texas in the United States through Central America to Tierra
del Fuego in South America.
The breeding habitat is areas near large bodies of water, usually in heavily
wooded areas where it finds a perch to hunt from. It is mostly a sedentary
species, remaining in territories all year long.

www.shamanism.co.uk
It is 40-41 cm long, with deep blue or bluish-gray plumage with white markings, a shaggy crest and a broad white
collar around the neck. Its most distinguishing characteristic is the entire rufous belly, which also covers the entire
breast of the male. Females are more colorful than the male, having a bluish-gray breast, and a narrow white stripe
separating the breast from the belly.
These birds nest in a horizontal tunnel made in a river bank or sand bank. The female lays 3 to 6 eggs. Both parents
excavate the tunnel, incubate the eggs and feed the young.
It is often seen perched prominently on trees, posts, or other suitable watchpoints close to water before plunging in
head first after its fish prey. They also eat small crustaceans, frogs, aquatic insects, small mammals, lizards and
berries.
Their voice is a loud, penetrating rattle given on the wing and when perched.
The Megaceryle kingfishers were formerly placed in Ceryle with the Pied Kingfisher, but the latter is genetically closer
to the American green kingfishers.
American Pygmy Kingfisher Chloroceryle aenea

The American Pygmy Kingfisher, Chloroceryle aenea, is a resident breeding
bird which occurs in the American tropics from southern Mexico south
through Central America to western Ecuador, central Bolivia and central
Brazil. It also occurs on Trinidad.
This tiny kingfisher occurs in dense forests and mangroves along small
streams or rivers with heavily vegetated banks. The unlined nest is in a
horizontal tunnel up to 40 cm long made in a river bank, earth heap, or
occasionally an arboreal termite nest. The female lays three, sometimes
four, white eggs.
The American Pygmy Kingfisher is 13 cm long and weighs 18g. It has the typical kingfisher shape, with a short tail and
long bill. It is oily green above, with a yellow-orange collar around the neck, rufous underparts and a white belly. The
female has a narrow green breast band. Young birds resemble the adults, but have paler rufous underparts, no breast
band, and speckled wings and flanks. It gives a weak tik or stony cht cht call.
There are two recognised subspecies of American Pygmy Kingfisher. The nominate southern C. a. aenea has two lines
of white spots on the wings, and northern C. a. stictoptera has three or four lines of spots and a concealed white patch
of feathers on the undertail. The two forms intergrade in central Costa Rica.
American Pygmy Kingfishers perch quietly on a low branch close to water before plunging in head first after small fish
or tadpoles. They will also hawk for insects. They are quite tame, but easily overlooked as they sit silently amongst
riverside branches.
Motmots Momotidae
The motmots or Momotidae are a family of tropical birds in the near passerine order Coraciiformes, which also
includes the kingfishers, bee-eaters and rollers.
These are medium-sized species of dense forests. They are restricted to the tropical New World (though a fossil has
been found in Switzerland; see below). These birds have colorful plumage and long, graduated tails, which they move
back and forth in a wag-display. In all but the first two species listed below, the barbs near the ends of the two longest
(central) tail feathers are weak and fall off, leaving a length of bare shaft, thus creating the racket shape of the tail. It
was however wrongly believed in the past that the Motmot shaped its tail by plucking part of the feather web to leave
the racket. This was based on inaccurate reports made by Charles William Beebe. Motmots eat small prey such as
insects and lizards, and will also take fruit. Like most of the Coraciiformes, motmots nest in tunnels in banks, laying
about four white eggs. The Turquoise-browed Motmot is a national bird in Nicaragua (known as the guardabarranco,
"ravine-guard") and in El Salvador (known there as Torogoz).

www.shamanism.co.uk
Blue-crowned Motmot Momotus momota
The Blue-crowned Motmot, Momotus momota, is a near-passerine bird which
is a resident breeder in the rain forests of Mexico, Central and South America,
and Trinidad and Tobago.
This motmot is a large tropical bird related to other colourful families such as
the kingfishers, bee-eaters and rollers. Like most of the Coraciiformes, motmots
nest in tunnels in banks, laying about three or four white eggs.
The Blue-crowned Motmot is 41-46cm long, depending on race. Nominate M.
m. momota weighs 145g. The tail is very long with a bare-shafted racket tip.
The upperparts are green, shading to blue on the lower tail, and the underparts
are green or rufous depending on subspecies.
The head has a black crown, which is surrounded by a blue and purple band.
There is a black eyemask, and the nape of momota is chestnut. The call is a low
owl-like ooo-doot.
These birds often sit still, and in their dense forest habitat can be difficult to
see, despite their size. They eat small prey such as insects and lizards, and will
also regularly take fruit.
The upland subspecies was formerly split as the Highland Motmot, Momotus aequatorialis (Gould, 1858) a species
recognised, for example, by Sibley and Monroe, but this treatment is no longer adopted, following SACC (2005)
Puffbirds and Nunbirds Bucconidae

The puffbirds and their relatives in the near passerine bird family Bucconidae are
tropical near passerine birds breeding from South America up to Mexico.
They are related to the jacamars, but lack the iridescent colours of that family. They are
mainly brown, rufous or grey, with large heads and flattened bills with a hooked tip.
The loose abundant plumage and short tails makes them look stout and puffy, giving
rise to the English name of the family. They feed on insects and small vertebrates
caught by a watch and wait technique.
Like most of their relatives, this group are hole nesters, laying 2-3 glossy white eggs in a
hole in the ground or a termite mound.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Brown-banded Puffbird Notharchus ordii
It is found in Amazon Basin areas of Bolivia, Brazil, and Peru; also the Orinoco
River region of Venezuela. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist
lowland forests.
The Brown-banded Puffbird can be found in north-central Amazonas state Brazil,
a northwestern region of the Amazon Basin. A much smaller region of the bird's
range is 1500 km south in the southeast border area of Peru with western
Bolivia, and the border of extreme southeast Acre state, Brazil. The northern
Amazonas range is connected to south-central Venezuela, the upper reaches of
the Caribbean north-flowing Orinoco River; this 400 km wide range is split evenly
between Venezuela and Amazonas, about 1700 km long.
Other localized, small populations occur notably on four tributary rivers: the
central Tapajós River, lower Madeira River, lower Rio Negro, and lower Ucayali
River; also on the Amazon River, one region downstream of the Tapajós-Amazon
River confluence.
Black-fronted Nunbird Monasa nigrifrons

The Black-fronted Nunbird (Monasa nigrifrons) is a species of
puffbird in the Bucconidae family.
It is found in Amazonian Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and
Peru; also regions of eastern and southeastern Brazil. Its
natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland
forests, subtropical or tropical swamps, and heavily degraded
former forest.
The Black-fronted Nunbird is a striking bird, black body with
bright red-orange bill. It is found in small gregarious groups in
lower to mid-level forests. The Black-fronted Nunbird is mostly
found in the Amazon Basin south of the Amazon River;
however it does occur in two river regions noth, the first in the
east between the confluence with the
Xingu River westwards to the Tapajós River. The second region is at the confluence of the Rio Negro and upstream on
the Amazon.
The species range expands eastward and southward beyond the Tocantins, of the Araguaia-Tocantins River system
towards the region of the Cerrado of east-central Brazil.
The southwest and western regions of Black-fronted Nunbird's range occurs in Amazonian Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and
southern Colombia, with the Amazonian Colombian region being the southwest portion of the entire northwestern
Amazon region. The species' range is mostly contiguous; there are two localized populations in eastern coastal Brazil,
the northern population in Alagoas state, and the southern locale in Rio de Janeiro state.

www.shamanism.co.uk
White-fronted Nunbird Monasa morphoeus
The White-fronted Nunbird (Monasa morphoeus) is a species of puffbird
in the Bucconidae family. It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa
Rica, Ecuador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, and Venezuela. Its
natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and
subtropical or tropical moist montanes.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Swallow-wing Chelidoptera tenebrosa
The Swallow-wing (Chelidoptera tenebrosa) is a species of puffbird
in the Bucconidae family. It is also called the Swallow-winged
Puffbird. It is monotypic within the genus Chelidoptera. It is found
in Brazil and the entire Amazon Basin; also Bolivia, Colombia,
Ecuador, the Guianas, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Peru, and
Venezuela. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist
lowland forests, subtropical or tropical swamps, and heavily
degraded former forest.
The Swallow-winged Puffbird's range is throughout the Amazon
Basin to the foothills of the Andes in the west, in Colombia,
Ecuador, and Peru. To the east-southeast, the range encompasses
the Amazon's adjacent Tocantins-Araguaia River drainage as well as
about 900 km eastward. Southeastwards from the Amazon Basin
across the Caatinga, a disjunct population occurs on the southeast
coast of Brazil, in a 300-800 km wide strip that extends about 3000
km.
On the north Caribbean coast of South America, in the west nearly
all of Venezuela is in the bird's range. The coastal range is
continuous eastwards through the Atlantic coastal Guianas, and
ends east of the Tocantins-Araguaia drainage in the Brazilian states
of Maranhão and Piauí.
Barbets Capitonidae
American barbets, family Capitonidae, are near
passerine birds of the order Piciformes which inhabit
South America. They are closely related to the toucans.
The American barbets are plump birds, with short necks
and large heads. They get their name from the bristles
which fringe their heavy bills. Most species are brightly
coloured and live in tropical forest.
American barbets are mostly arboreal birds which nest
in tree holes dug by breeding pairs, laying 2-4 eggs. They
eat fruit and insects. These birds do not migrate.
While most South American barbet species inhabit
lowland forest, some range into montane and temperate
forests as well.
Most are restricted to habitats containing trees with dead wood, which are used for nesting.
The diet of barbets is mixed, with fruit being the dominant part of the diet. Small prey items are also taken, especially
when nesting. Barbets are capable of shifting their diet quickly in the face of changes in food availability: Numerous
species of fruiting tree and bush are visited; an individual barbet may feed on as many as 60 different species in its
range. They will also visit plantations and take cultivated fruit and vegetables. Fruit is eaten whole and indigestible
material such as seed pits regurgitated later (often before singing). Regurgitation does not usually happen in the nest

www.shamanism.co.uk
(as happens with toucans). Like their relatives, American barbets are thought to be important agents in seed dispersal
in tropical forests.
As well as taking fruit, they also take arthropod prey, gleaned from the branches and trunks of trees. A wide range of
insects are taken, including ants, beetles and moths. Scorpions and centipedes are also taken, and a few species will
take small vertebrates such as frogs.
American barbets have little impact on humans. The loss of forest can have a deleterious effect on barbet species
dependent on old growth, to the benefit of species that favour more disturbed or open habitat.
Two species of American barbet are listed as threatened by the IUCN: The White-mantled Barbet of Colombia is listed
as endangered; its limited range is threatened by deforestation for agriculture (including coca nad marijuana), livestock
rearing and mining. The quite recently discovered Scarlet-banded Barbet of Peru is considered vulnerable due to its
small population size (estimated at under a thousand birds) although its habitat is not immediately threatened.
Gilded Barbet Capito auratus

The Gilded Barbet (Capito auratus) is a species of bird in the
Capitonidae family, the barbets, and are close relatives of the
toucans. It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and
Venezuela, in the Orinoco River Basin and western Amazon Basin.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests,
subtropical or tropical swamps, and heavily degraded former forest.
The Gilded Barbet is a black-winged bird, with a streaked black and
bright-yellow body.
It has a bright-yellow cap, and a short, stout bill. The bird also has an orangish throat below a deep black eye mask
extending from the bill to the back, and a yellow upper breast, with the side of the breast black and yellow streaked.
The Gilded Barbet ranges in the eastern Andes drainages to the rivers of the western Amazon Basin from eastern
Colombia-Venezuela, eastern Ecuador, from north to southeastern Peru, and northern Bolivia; in Bolivia the Barbet
only ranges on the headwater tributaries to the northeasterly flowing Madeira River. The eastern limit in the
southwest Amazon Basin is the Purus River west of the Madeira.
In the northwest Amazon Basin, the eastern range limit is central Roraima state Brazil, the south flowing Branco River.
The contiguous range to the northwest into Venezuela is all of eastern Venezuela approaching the Guyana border. The
Gilded Barbet's range is on the eastern side of the Caribbean north-flowing Orinoco River drainage, but avoids the
lower-half riverine strip by 150 km; the range occurs on the upper-half of the Orinoco River extending south into the
eastern border area of Colombia.
A small range extension goes southeastwards into central Bolivia, also tributaries to the Madeira River.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Toucans and Aracaris Ramphastidae
Toucans are near passerine birds from the neotropics. They are
brightly marked and have large, colorful bills. The family
includes five genera and about forty different species.
Toucans range in size from the Lettered Aracari (Pteroglossus
inscriptus), at 130 g (4.6 oz) and 29 cm (11.5 inches), to the
Toco Toucan (Ramphastos toco), at 680 g (1.5 lb) and 63 cm
(25 inches). Their bodies are short (of comparable size to a
crow's) and thick. The tail is rounded, and varies in length from
half the length to the whole length of the body. The neck is
short and thick, and at the base of the head is a huge, brightly-
colored beak that measures, in some large species, more than
half the length of the body. A toucan's tongue is long, narrow,
grey, and singularly frayed on each side, adding to its
sensitivity as an organ of taste.
The legs of a toucan are strong and rather short. Their toes are
arranged in pairs with the first and fourth toes turned
backward. Males and females are the same color.
The feathers in the genus containing the largest toucans are generally black, with touches of white, yellow, and scarlet.
The underparts of the araçaris (smaller toucans) are yellow, crossed by one or more black or red bands, and the edges
of the beak are saw-toothed. The toucanets have mostly green plumage with blue markings.
Toucans are frugivorous (fruit-eating), but will take prey such as insects and small lizards. However, the function of the
beak in feeding is not known, since many other birds consume these foods without the giant bill to help them. One likely
use is to specialize on prey such as nestlings and bats in treeholes. In this view, the beak allows the bird to reach deep
into the treehole to access food unavailable to other birds.
They are arboreal and nest in tree holes laying 2–4 white eggs. The young hatch completely naked, without any down.
Toucans are resident breeders and do not migrate. Toucans are usually found in pairs or small flocks.
The name of this bird group is derived from Tupi tucana, via French.
Many-banded Aracari Pteroglossus pluricinctus

The Many-banded Aracari (Pteroglossus pluricinctus) is a
species of bird in the Ramphastidae family. It is found in
Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela. Its
natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland
forests.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Channel-billed Toucan Ramphastos vitellinus
The Channel-billed Toucan (Ramphastos vitellinus) is a
near-passerine bird which breeds in Trinidad and in
tropical South America as far south as southern Brazil
and central Bolivia.
Like other toucans, the Channel-billed is brightly
marked and has a huge bill. It is typically 48 cm (19 in)
long with a 9-14 cm (3½-5½ in) bill.
Nominate race (R. v. vitellinus): Its upperparts, belly,
tail and most of the bill are black, and the uppertail
and undertail coverts are red. The bare eye-patch and
bill base are blue, the throat is white, the central
breast has a large orange-yellow spot and the lower
breast a broad red band. The iris is dark brownish. It is
found in the north-eastern part of this species' range.
Race culminatus: It resemble the nominate, but has a yellow base of the upper mandible and ridge to its bill, orange-
yellow uppertail coverts and the throat and breast are white (occasionally tinged yellow), with just a narrow red band
separating the latter from the black belly. It occurs in the eastern and south-central part of this species' range. It is very
similar to, and easily confused with, Cuvier's Toucan (Ramphastos tucanus cuvieri).
Race ariel: It resemble the nominate, but the base of its bill is yellow, the skin around the pale blue eye is red and the
entire throat and chest are orange. It occurs in the south-east Amazon. The unnamed population from the coastal
regions of eastern Brazil is virtually identical.
Race citreolaemus. It resemble culminatus, but with a clear yellow tinge to the throat, a green tinge to the othewise
yellow culmen, a yellow-orange patch at the very base of the bill, and a pale bluish iris. It occurs in northern Colombia
and north-western Venezuela.
Wherever the distributions of the subspecies meet, individuals with features that are intermediate compared to above
described races are common due to hybridization. Some of these intermediate populations have sometimes been
awarded subspecies status, e.g. theresae for the population in north-eastern Brazil and pintoi for populations in south-
central Brazil (both are culminatus-ariel intergrades).
Found in forest and woodland. Prefers humid regions, but locally extends into drier regions (esp. along rivers). Mainly in
lowlands, but locally to an altitude of 1700 m (5600 ft).
This species is an arboreal fruit-eater, but will take insects and other small prey, e.g. insects, small reptiles and eggs and
nestlings of other birds. The call is a croaking cree-op cree-op cree-op.
The parents are both active in raising the young. The white eggs are laid in a high unlined tree cavity. There is have a
gestation period of 18 days, and the parents both incubate for 15 to 16 days. However, they can be impatient sitters,
often leaving their eggs uncovered for hours at a time. Newborn toucans remain in the nest after hatching. They are
blind and naked at birth, and their eyes open after about 3 weeks. They have short bills and specialized pads on their
heels to protect them from the rough floor of the nest. The feathers do not begin to expand until they are nearly 4
weeks old. They are helpless and unable to leave the nest for about 8 weeks, dependent upon both parents to feed
them. After this, the young can care for themselves. They begin to leave the nest after 40 to 50 days, depending on size

www.shamanism.co.uk
White-throated Toucan Ramphastos tucanus
The White-throated Toucan (Ramphastos tucanus) is a
near-passerine bird found throughout the Amazon in
south-eastern Colombia, eastern Ecuador, eastern
Peru, northern Bolivia, southern and eastern
Venezuela, northern and western Brazil, including the
Amazon Basin's adjacent Tocantins-Araguaia River
drainage, and the Guianas. It prefers tropical humid
forest, but also occurs in woodland and locally in
riverine forest within the Cerrado.
It was formerly considered to be two species, with the
southern and western nominate subspecies, R. t.
tucanus, named as the Red-billed Toucan, and the
northern and eastern subspecies, R. t. cuvieri, as the
Cuvier's Toucan (when considered a species; R. cuvieri,
Wagler, 1827). However, the two subspecies, which
differ principally in the bill colour, interbreed freely
wherever they meet and therefore merit only
subspecies status.
The subspecies R. t. inca from Bolivia is of questionable validity and may represent a stable hybrid population between
tucanus and culminatus.
Like other toucans, the White-throated Toucan is brightly marked and has a huge bill. It has a total length of 55-60 cm
(21-24 in) and weighs 600 g (22 oz). The bill is typically 14-18 cm (5½-7 in) long. The only species of toucan that surpass
it in size is the Toco Toucan.
It has a black plumaged with a white throat and breast bordered below with a narrow red line. The rump is bright yellow
and the crissum is red. The bare skin around the eye is blue. The bill has a yellow tip, upper ridge and base of the upper
mandible, and the base of the lower mandible is blue. The rest of the bill is mainly black in R. t. cuvieri and mainly
reddish-brown in R. t. tucanus, with intergrades showing a mixed coloration. Males are larger and longer-billed than
females, but otherwise the sexes are alike.
Juveniles are noticeably shorter-billed, more sooty-black, and have duller plumage.
The White-throated Toucan of the race cuvieri is virtually identical to the related Channel-billed Toucan of the race
culminatus, but the latter is smaller and has a proportionally shorter bill with a more strongly keeled culmen. The call is
often the best distinction between the species. White-throated has a yelping eeoo, hue hue, whereas Channel-billed has
a croaking song.
Small flocks or more commonly pairs of birds move through the forest with a heavy, rather weak, undulating flight,
rarely flying more than 100 m (330 ft) at a time. This species is primarily an arboreal fruit-eater, but will also take
insects, lizards, bird eggs, and other small vertebrate prey.
The 2-4 white eggs are laid in an unlined cavity high in a decayed section of a living tree, or in an old woodpecker nest in
a dead tree.
Both sexes incubate the eggs for at 14-15 days, and the toucan chicks remain in the nest after hatching. They are blind
and naked at birth, and have short bills and specialised pads on their heels to protect them from the rough floor of the
nest. They are fed by both parents, and fledge after about 6 weeks. The parents cotinue feeding the juveniles for several
weeks after they have left the nest.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Woodpeckers and Piculets Picidae
The avian family Picidae includes the woodpeckers, piculets and wrynecks.
Members of this family are found worldwide, except for Australia,
Madagascar, and the extreme polar regions. Most species live in forests or
woodland habitats, although a few species are known to live in desert
areas.
The Picidae is just one of the eight families in the order Piciformes.
Members of the order Piciformes, such as the jacamars, puffbirds, barbets,
toucans and honeyguides, have traditionally been thought to be very
closely related to the woodpeckers, piculets and wrynecks. Recent
molcular studies have strengthened this view.
There are about over 200 species and about 30 genera in this family (for
the full species list, see Woodpecker). Many species are threatened or
endangered due to loss of habitat or habitat fragmentation. Two species of
woodpeckers, the Ivory-billed Woodpecker and the Imperial Woodpecker,
have been considered extinct for about 30 years (there has been some
controversy recently whether these species still exist).
The smallest woodpecker is the Bar-breasted Piculet, at 7 g and 8 cm (3.2
inches). The largest woodpecker was the Imperial Woodpecker, at an
average of 58 cm (23 inches) and probably over 600 g (1.3 lbs). The Ivory-
billed Woodpecker is (or was) slightly smaller at 50 cm (20 inches) and a
weight of 500 g (1.1 lbs). If both the Ivory-billed and Imperial Woodpeckers
are indeed extinct, the largest extant woodpecker is the Great Slaty
Woodpecker of Southeast Asia, at about 50 cm (20 inches) and 450 g (1 lb).
Most species possess predominantly white, black and brown feathers, although many piculets show a certain amount of
gray and olive green. In woodpeckers, many species exhibit patches of red and yellow on their heads and bellies.
Although the genders of a species tend to look alike, male woodpeckers will have brighter reds and yellows than the
females.
Members of the family Picidae have strong bills for drilling and drumming on trees and long sticky tongues for extracting
food. Woodpecker bills are typically longer, sharper and stronger than the bills of piculets and wrynecks; however their
morphology is very similar. Due to their smaller bill size, many piculets and wrynecks will forage in decaying wood more
often than woodpeckers. The long sticky tongues, which possess bristles, aid these birds in grabbing and extracting
insects deep within a hole of a tree.
Woodpeckers, piculets and wrynecks all possess zygodactyl feet. Zygodacytl feet consist of four toes, two facing
frontward and two facing back. This type of foot arrangement is good for grasping the limbs and trunks of trees.
Members of this family can walk vertically up a tree trunk, which is beneficial for activities such as foraging for food or
nest excavation.
The diet of these birds consists mainly of insects, such as ants and beetles, nuts, seeds, berries, some fruit and sap.
Species may feed generally on all of these, or may specialize on one or two.
All members of the family Picidae nest in cavities. Woodpeckers and piculets will excavate their own nests, but wrynecks
will not. The excavated nest is usually only lined from the wood chips produced as the hole was made. Many species of
woodpeckers excavate one hole per breeding season, sometimes after multiple attempts. It takes around a month to
finish the job. Abandoned holes are used by many other birds and animals, such as flying squirrels.
Members of Picidae are typically monogamous. A pair will work together to help build the nest, incubate the eggs and
raise their altricial young. However, in most species the male does most of the nest excavation and takes the night shift
while incubating the eggs. A nest will usually consist of 2-5 round white eggs. Since these birds are cavity nesters their
eggs do not need to be camouflaged and the white color helps the parents to see them in dim light. The eggs are

www.shamanism.co.uk
incubated for about 11-14 days before the chicks are born. It takes about 18-30 days before the young are ready to
leave the nest.
Picidae species can either be sedentary or migratory. Many species are known to stay in the same area year around
while others, such as the Eurasian Wryneck and the Yellow-bellied Sapsucker, travel great distances from their breeding
grounds to their wintering ground.
Yellow-tufted Woodpecker Melanerpes cruentatus

The Tellow-tufted Woodpecker (Melanerpes cruentatus) is a
species of bird in the Picidae family. It is found in Bolivia,
Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru,
Suriname, and Venezuela. Its natural habitats are
subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and heavily
Spot-breasted Woodpecker Colaptes punctigula

The Spot-breasted Woodpecker (Colaptes punctigula) is a species of bird in the Picidae
family. It is found in South America in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana,
Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela; also eastern Panama of Central America. Its natural
habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, subtropical or tropical
mangrove forests, and heavily degraded former forest.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Scaly-breasted Woodpecker Celeus grammicus
The Scaly-breasted Woodpecker (Celeus grammicus) is a species of bird in the Picidae family.
It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Peru, and Venezuela.
Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.
Chestnut Woodpecker Celeus elegans

The Chestnut Woodpecker, Celeus elegans, is a resident breeding bird in South
America from Colombia, Venezuela and the Guianas south to Ecuador, Bolivia
and northern Brazil, and on Trinidad.
The habitat of this large woodpecker is forest and other closed woodland. The
nest hole is in a dead tree, with the chamber floor up to 30 cm below the
entrance. Three white eggs are laid.
The Chestnut Woodpecker is 28 cm long and weighs 127g. It is a rich unbarred
chestnut brown with a yellow rump and flanks and a yellowish crest. The wings
and tail are black and the bill yellow-white. The male has a red malar stripe, but
otherwise the sexes are similar.
C. e. leotaudi of Trinidad is smaller, paler, and much brighter than the mainland
forms. Other subspecies have differing crest colours.
The Chestnut Woodpecker mainly feeds in trees and bushes on insects, including
termites, and some fruit, and will come to table scraps. It is a noisy species with a
harsh parrot-like squawk whEEjer. Both sexes drum.
Cream-colored Woodpecker Celeus flavus

The Cream-colored Woodpecker, Celeus flavus, is a species of woodpecker native to
South America, from Colombia and the Guianas to Peru, Bolivia, and the eastern part
of Brazil. It is colored creamy yellow, except for the wingtips and tail, which are much
darker. Males also have dark rings around their eyes. It has a large crest that is always
raised. It eats mainly tree ants, although it does eat other insects and some fruits. It is
not known how the Cream-colored Woodpecker nests, although it is believed that
they nest in holes in trees. They do not migrate.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Lineated Woodpecker Dryocopus lineatus
The Lineated Woodpecker (Dryocopus lineatus) is a very
large woodpecker which is a resident breeding bird from
Mexico south to northern Argentina and on Trinidad.
The habitat of this species is forest borders and other open
woodland. Three white eggs are laid in a nest hole is in a
dead tree and incubated by both sexes. The young are fed by
regurgitation.
The Lineated Woodpecker is 34 cm long and weighs 200 g. It
resembles the closely-related Pileated Woodpecker of North
America, but within its range the confusion species is the
Crimson-crested Woodpecker.
Adults are mainly black above, with a red crest and white
lines down the sides of the throat and shoulders. The
underparts are white, heavily barred with black. They show
white on the wings in flight.
Adult males have a red line from the bill to the throat and
red on the front of the crown. In adult females, these
plumage features are black.
Crimson-crested Woodpecker is the only bird of similar
plumage and size. In that species, the white face line is
broader, and the white shoulder lines meet on the back.
Lineated Woodpeckers chip out holes, often quite large,
while searching out insects in trees. They mainly eat insects,
especially ants and beetle larvae, with some seeds, such as
Heliconia, and fruits, berries and nuts.
The call of this widespread but wary bird is a loud, ringing
wic-wic-wic. Both sexes drum.
Red-necked Woodpecker Campephilus rubricollis

The Red-necked Woodpecker (Campephilus rubricollis) is a species of bird in the
Picidae family. It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana,
Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. Its natural habitats are subtropical or
tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montanes.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Woodcreepers Dendrocolaptidae
Amazonian Barred- Woodcreeper The woodcreepers, Dendrocolaptinae, comprise a
subfamily of sub-oscine passerine birds endemic to the
neotropics. They were formerly considered a distinct
family, Dendrocolaptidae.
Generally brownish birds, the true woodcreepers
maintain an upright vertical posture, supported by their
stiff tail vanes, and feed mainly on insects taken from
tree trunks. However, woodcreepers often form part of
the core group at the center of flocks attending army
ant swarms. Though unrelated, they superficially
resemble the Old World treecreepers. Woodcreepers
are arboreal cavity-nesting birds; 2-3 white eggs are
laid and incubated for about 15 days.
These birds can be difficult to identify in that they
tend to have similar brown upperparts, and the more distinctive underparts are hard to see on a bird pressed against a
trunk in deep forest shade. The bill shape and call are useful aids to determining species.
The former family has been merged into the ovenbird family, Furnariidae. Analyses of mt and nDNA sequence data
showed Sclerus leaftossers and Geositta miners to be basal to the Furnariidae and the woodcreepers (Irestedt et al.
2002). Maintaining Dendrocolaptidae as a separate family between them and the other furnariids created a
paraphyletic Furnariidae, hence the merger.
Interestingly, the xenops, which were usually considered to be ovenbirds with a somewhat woodcreeper-like plumage,
are in fact closely related to the latter (Fjeldså et al., 2005). They are best considered to form a separate tribe and give
a good impression of how the ancestors of the woodcreepers must have looked like. The true woodcreepers are
characterized by a belly feather growth pattern not found in any other birds.
The systematics of the Dendrocolaptinae were reviewed by Raikow (1994, based on morphology) and Irestedt et al.
(2004, based on analysis of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequences). As the latter paper revealed, the commonplace
convergent evolution of bill morphology hampered Raikow's analysis. Color patterns, on the other hand, were more in
agreement with the molecular data, but the generally drab coloration of the woodcreepers renders this character less
informative than desirable. The work of Irested et al., on the other hand, was severely limited by unavailability of
samples of many phylogenetically interesting taxa.
For example, the Deconychura species apparently belong into separate genera, but only D. longicauda was available for
molecular analysis. Moving Lepidocolaptes fuscus to Xiphorhynchus restores monophyly of Lepidocolaptes, and
Xiphorhynchus was very much under-split (Aleixo, 2002a,b). Hylexetastes may contain anything from 1 to 4 species.
It remains unresolved whether the Scimitar-billed and Long-billed Woodcreepers' distinctiveness is due to strong
selective pressure (and therefore rapid morphological evolution) of forms related to Lepidocolaptes and
Dendrexetastes, respectively, or to long-time evolution of distinct lineages which separated early in the evolution of
the group, with genetic similarity due to long branch attraction. The data gained from the myoglobin intron II DNA
sequence disagrees strongly with mtDNA cytochrome b sequence data regarding the validity of Lepidocolaptes in
general Irestedt et al. (2004); as the latter agrees much better with morphological and biogeographical data it
therefore is used here.
More detailed studies are needed to resolve these questions, namely reevaluation of morphological data in the light of
the molecular findings, and new molecular studies which thoroughly sample the questionable genera.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Northern Barred Woodcreeper Dendrocolaptes sanctithomae
The Northern Barred-woodcreeper (Dendrocolaptes sanctithomae) is a
species of bird in the Dendrocolaptidae family. It was formerly
considered to be conspecific with the Amazonian Barred-woodcreeper
(D. certhia).
It is found from southern Mexico through Central America to Colombia,
Venezuela and Ecuador.
Plain-brown Woodcreeper Dendrocincla fuliginosa

The Plain-brown Woodcreeper (Dendrocincla fuliginosa), is a sub-
oscine passerine bird which breeds in the tropical New World from
Honduras through South America to northern Argentina, and in
Trinidad and Tobago.
This woodcreeper is typically 22cm long, and weighs 37g. It is drab
even by woodcreeper standards. As its name implies, it lacks the
streaking shown by most of its relatives, and is plain brown above and
below. The bill is longish and straight.
The normal call is a loud stick, but when following army ants, the
groups keep up a noisy chatter. The song is a descending te-te-te-tu-
tu-tu-tue-tue-tue-chu-chu-chu.
The Plain-brown Woodcreeper is an insectivore which feeds on ants
and other insects. It feeds low in trees, on the trunk or foliage, but
rarely on the ground. It will follow columns of army ants, often in
groups of up to a dozen birds. If specialist ant feeders like antbirds or
larger woodcreepers are present, it tends to keep higher than those
species. It also accompanies coatimundis (Nasua nasua) on their
foraging excursions, especially when they feed in trees during the dry
season. Though it may eat the occasional army ant and coatis might
benefit from the birds spotting predators before they do, in both
cases the Plain-brown Woodcreeper is typically a commensale,
snatching prey that flees before the more formidable predators.
This woodcreeper is a common and widespread forest bird which builds a leaf-lined nest in a palm tree stump; 2-3
white eggs are laid.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Olivaceous Woodcreeper Sittasomus griseicapillus
The Olivaceous Woodcreeper (Sittasomus griseicapillus) is a passerine bird
which breeds from southern Mexico through tropical Central and South
America to northern Argentina, and also on Tobago. The species is
throughout the Amazon Basin, but is absent from the lowest reaches of the
basin, including much of the adjacent Guyanas. It is the only member of the
genus Sittasomus, but the taxon includes several vocally and morphologically
distinct forms, so this species may be split in the future.
This small woodcreeper is a slender bird, typically 15cm long, and weighing
13g. The head, upper back and underparts are greyish olive, and the wings,
tail and lower back are light rufous. The bill is short and thin. The normal call
is a fast, high-pitched trill wu-wu-wu-we-we-we-we-ee-ee-ee-ee-we-we-we-
we.
The Olivaceous Woodcreeper is a common and widespread bird of forests
and other woodlands. The Olivaceous Woodcreeper feeds on insects and
spiders. It normally forages on tree trunks or large branches or on the
ground, usually alone.
However, birds associate with foraging groups of Golden Lion Tamarins (Leontopithecus rosalia) to snatch prey startled
by the monkeys.
It builds a nest lined with dead leaves in a tree hole, and lays three white eggs.
Wedge-billed Woodcreeper Glyphorynchus spirurus

The Wedge-billed Woodcreeper (Glyphorynchus spirurus), is a passerine bird which
breeds in the tropical New World from southern Mexico to northern Bolivia, central
Brazil and the Guianas; it is absent from the Pacific coastal areas except between
Costa Rica and Ecuador. It is the only member of the genus Glyphorynchus.
It is easily distinguished from its relatives by its small size and distinctive bill. The
Wedge-billed Woodcreeper is typically 14-15 cm long, and weighs 14-16.5 g.
It has brown upperparts, with fine streaking on the head sides, a buff supercilium, and a chestnut rump, wings and tail.
The throat is buff, and the rest of the underparts are brown spotted with buff chevrons, most heavily on the breast. A
buff wing bar is obvious from below in flight. The short wedge-shaped bill is quite different in shape from that of other
woodcreepers. Young birds are duller with less distinct breast streaking.
The call is a sneezy schip. The song varies geographically, perhaps refecting the different subspecies of this bird. In
Costa Rica it is a trilled keekekekiki, whilst in eastern Bolivia it is an ascending too-e too-e tu-tu-tu-tue-twu-twu-tweeet.
This common and widespread small woodcreeper is found in lowlands up to 1500 m altitude, although normally below
1100 m, in damp forests, adjacent semi-open woodland and old second growth. It feeds on small spiders and insects,
creeping up trunks and extracting its tiny prey from the bark. It has a strong preference for trees with fine flaky bark. It
is seen alone, in pairs, or sometimes as part of a mixed-species feeding flock. Birds are largely resident, but may
disperse locally. For example, a vagrant individual was observed on May 12 1998 at Cerro Campana, Ecuador, the first
record for that country.
It builds a cup nest in a narrow tree cavity such as a rotting stump or space between buttresses. It may occasionally
nest up to 6 m high in a tree, but is usually much lower, often at or below ground level. It lays two white eggs between
March and June.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Long-billed Woodcreeper Nasica longirostris
The Long-billed Woodcreeper (Nasica longirostris) is a species of bird in the
Dendrocolaptinae subfamily. It is in the monotypic genus Nasica. It is found in
Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Peru, and Venezuela. Its
natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical
or tropical swamps.
Straight-billed Woodcreeper Xiphorhynchus picus

The Straight-billed Woodcreeper (Dendroplex picus) is a species of
bird in the woodcreeper subfamily (Dendrocolaptinae). Its genus,
Dendroplex, was recently confirmed to be distinct from
Xiphorhynchus. It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador,
French Guiana, Guyana, Panama, Peru, Suriname, Trinidad and
Tobago, and Venezuela. Its natural habitats are subtropical or
tropical dry forests, subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests,
subtropical or tropical mangrove forests, and heavily degraded
former forest.
The Straight-billed Woodcreeper's range is in central and north
South America, east of the Andes cordillera, and encompasses the
entire Amazon Basin. The species is found in Panama of Central
America, and only the four countries of southern South America
are excluded from the south american range.
Striped Woodcreeper Xiphorhynchus obsoletus

The Striped Woodcreeper (Xiphorhynchus obsoletus) is a species of bird in the woodcreeper
subfamily (Dendrocolaptinae). It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana,
Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist
lowland forests, subtropical or tropical swamps, and subtropical or tropical dry shrubland.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Elegant Woodcreeper Xiphorhynchus elegans
The Elegant Woodcreeper (Xiphorhynchus elegans) is a species of bird in the woodcreeper subfamily
(Dendrocolaptinae). It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. Its natural habitat is subtropical or
Buff-throated Woodcreeper Xiphorhynchus guttatus

The Buff-throated Woodcreeper Xiphorhynchus guttatus is a passerine bird
which breeds in tropical South America from southeast Colombia to the
Guyanas, excluding most of the Guiana Shield, and also in the northern Mata
Atlântica. It was formerly believed to include the Cocoa Woodcreeper and
Lafresnaye's Woodcreeper as subspecies.
This woodcreeper is typically 27-28cm long, and weighs 64g. The head and
neck are buff-streaked dark brown, the upper back is lightly streaked dark
brown, and the rest of the upperparts, wings and tail are rufous. The
underparts are olive-brown with broad cinnamon streaks on the breast. The
bill is long, pale, slightly decurved, and hooked at the tip. The normal call is a
loud chev-re chev-re.
Buff-throated Woodcreepers are common and widespread birds of forests
and other woodland. They are insectivores which feed on ants and other
insects and spiders. It feeds low in trees, usually alone, but groups will follow
columns of army ants. The species builds a bark-lined nest in a tree hole or
hollow stump and lays two white eggs.
The smaller Cocoa Woodcreeper, X. susurrans, was formerly included in this
species, but is now normally considered being distinct (AOU, 1998); it is
found northwest of the Andes into Central America.
Some other former subspecies were recognized to be another distinct species, Lafesnaye's Woodcreeper (X.
guttatoides) (Aleixo, 2002a,b).
Biogeography and molecular data suggest that the relationship between the remaining subspecies and the taxa now
included in X. guttatoides and X. susurrans deserves further study (Aleixo, 2002a,b; Remsen, 2003). Depending of the
outcome of these studies, the species could be restricted to the southern coastal population, which is endangered by
habitat fragmentation, making a change in conservation status necessary.
The most likely evolutionary scenario is that from lower Amazonia, the ancestors of Lafresnaye's Woodcreeper spread
west- and southwestwards to the Andes, and those of the Buff-throated and Cocoa Woodcreeper downriver and then
along the coast of northern South America, where X. susurrans then branched off as the northern lineage. Indeed, it
may be that the trans-Andean forms of the latter may constitute yet another good species, Lawrence's Woodcreeper.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Furnarids or Ovenbirds Furnariidae
Ovenbirds or furnariids comprise a large family of small sub-oscine
passerine bird species found in Central and South America. They
form the family Furnariidae. They should not be confused with the
Ovenbird, Seiurus aurocapillus, which is a wood warbler in the
family Parulidae.
This is a diverse group of insectivores which gets its name from the
elaborate "oven-like" clay nests built by some species, although
others build stick nests or nest in tunnels or clefts in rock. The
Spanish word for "oven" gives the conspicuous horneros their
name. Furnariid nests are always constructed with a cover, and up
to six pale blue, greenish or white eggs are laid. Most species are
forest birds, but some are found in more open habitats.
Recently, the woodcreepers (formerly Dendrocolaptidae) were merged into this family; following analysis of mtDNA
cytochrome b and several nDNA sequences (Irestedt et al. 2002).
The systematics of the Dendrocolaptinae were reviewed by Rajkow (1994) based on morphology and by Irestedt et al.
(2004) based on analysis of more nuclear and mitochondrial DNA. Using the latter approach, the suspected major
lineages of the Furnariinae (foliage-gleaners, spinetails, and true ovenbirds) were confirmed, but some new lineages
were discovered and the relationships of several genera had to be revised (Fjeldså et al., 2005).
The taxonomic arrangement presented below is based on a synthesis of current data (e.g. Cheviron et al., 2005). Many
species or entire genera have not been sampled to analyze DNA sequences, and as the recent studies have discovered
that convergent evolution is commonplace in the family, it seems not advisable to place them in the taxonomic
sequence without further research. Several genera are in need of revision too.
Buff-throated Foliage-Gleaner Automolus ochrolaemus

The Buff-throated Foliage-gleaner (Automolus ochrolaemus) is a species of bird in the Furnariidae family. It is found in
Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico,
Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland
forests and subtropical or tropical swamps.
Grey-throated Leaftosser Sclerurus albigularis

The Grey-throated Leaftosser (Sclerurus albigularis) is a species of bird in the Furnariidae family. It is found in Bolivia,
Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela. Its natural habitats are
subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montanes.
Black-tailed Leaftosser Sclerurus caudacutus

The Black-tailed Leaftosser (Sclerurus caudacutus) is a species of bird in the Furnariidae family. It is found in Bolivia,

www.shamanism.co.uk
Tawny-throated Leaftosser Sclerurus mexicanus
The Tawny-throated Leaftosser (Sclerurus mexicanus) is a species of bird in the Furnariidae family. It is found in Belize,
Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador (unconfirmed but likely as a breeding species), French Guiana,
Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. Its natural habitats are
subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests
Short-billed Leaftosser Sclerurus rufigularis

The Short-billed Leaftosser (Sclerurus rufigularis) is a species of bird in the Furnariidae family. It is found in Bolivia,
Typical Antbirds Thamnophilidae

The antbirds are a large family of smallish passerine bird species of
subtropical and tropical Central and South America. They are closely
related to the antthrushes and antpittas in the family Formicariidae, the
tapaculos, and especially the gnateaters (Irestedt et al. 2002, Rice, 2005).
These are forest birds, but tend to feed on insects at or near the ground.
A sizable minority of them specialize in following columns of army ants to
eat the small invertebrates that leave hiding to flee the ants.
Many species lack bright colour; brown, black and white being the
dominant tones in their appearance.
Some species of antbirds communicate warnings to each other by
exposing white patches on their back feathers, "like a sort of Morse
code".
They lay two or three eggs in a nest in a tree, both sexes incubating.
Slender Antbird
There are some 200 species, variously called as antwrens, antvireos, antbirds and antshrikes. These terms refer to the
relative sizes of the birds (increasing in the order given) rather than any particular morphological resemblance to the
true wrens, vireos or shrikes. The genus Phlegopsis is the bare-eyes, Pyriglena the fire-eyes and Neoctantes and
Clytoctantes are the bushbirds.
Although the taxonomical layout of the group is based on studies from the mid-19th century when less than half the
present species were known to science, comparison of the myoglobin intron 2, GAPDH intron 11 and the mtDNA
cytochrome b DNA sequences (Irestedt et al., 2004) has largely verified it. Two major clades - most antshrikes and other
larger, strong-billed species as well as Herpsilochmus versus the classical antwrens and other more slender, longer-billed
species - exist and the monophyly of most genera was confirmed.
The Thamnophilidae contain several large or very large genera, and a considerable number of small or monotypic ones.
Several of these, which have always been difficult to assign, seem to form a third, hitherto unrecognized clade
independently derived from ancestral antbirds. The results also confirmed suspicions of previous researchers that some
species, most notably in Myrmotherula and Myrmeciza, need to be assigned to different genera. Still, due to the
difficulties of sampling from such a large number of often poorly known species, the assignment of some genera is still
awaiting confirmation.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Black-crested Antshrike Sakesphorus Canadensis
The Black-crested Antshrike, Sakesphorus canadensis, is a passerine bird in
the antbird family. It is a resident breeder in tropical South America in
Trinidad, Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, northern Brazil and
northeastern Peru.
This is a bird of undergrowth in mangrove or other swampy forest and
thickets near water. It is usually found as territorial pairs. The female lays
two purple-lined white eggs in a deep cup nest suspended below a branch
or vine. They are incubated by both sexes for 14 days to hatching, the
female always brooding at night.
The chicks fledge in another 12 days. The Black-crested Antshrike is typically 15.7 cm long, and weighs 24 g. The adult
male has a black head, prominent crest, throat and breast, a rufous-brown back, black wings with white feather edges,
a short black tail and a white belly.
The female and immature males have a chestnut crest and head with black and white barring on the cheeks, dull
brown upperparts, black-streaked buff underparts, and browner wing and tail feathers than the male.
The Black-crested Antshrike feeds on insects and other arthropods gleaned from foliage. It will also take small lizards
and berries. It is an inconspicuous species, often first located by its song, an accelerating and ascending series of
musical notes cuew-cuew-cuew-cue-cue-cue-cu-cu-cu-cu, or the call, a snarled churrrr.
Barred Antshrike Thamnophilus doliatus

The Barred Antshrike, Thamnophilus doliatus, is a passerine bird in the
antbird family. It is a resident breeder in the tropical New World in Mexico,
Central America, Trinidad and Tobago, and also South America east of the
Andes down to northern Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay.
This is a common bird of thickets, mangroves and gardens, usually found as
territorial pairs. The female lays two purple-marked creamy white eggs in a
deep cup nest in a shrub, which are incubated by both sexes for 14 days to
hatching. The chicks fledge in another 12-13 days.
The Barred Antshrike is typically 16.5 cm long, and weighs 25 g. It has a
yellow iris. The male is barred all over with black and white, and has a white-
based black crest that is raised in display. The female is rufous above with a
chestnut crest. The sides of her head and neck are streaked with black, and
the underparts are rich buff.
The Tobagoian race T. d. tobagensis is distinctive; males are whiter below,
and females darker, than in the nominate subspecies.
Barred Antshrike is an insectivore which feeds on ants and other arthropods
at or near the ground; it sometimes follows columns of army ants, and will
take small lizards and berries. It is a skulking species, which may be located
by its chuckling hu-hu-hu-hu-hu-hu song, often performed as a duet by a pair
of birds, or a growled graaaaa.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Plain-winged Antshrike Thamnophilus schistaceus
The Plain-winged Antshrike (Thamnophilus schistaceus) is a
species of bird in the Thamnophilidae family. It is found in
Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. Its natural habitats
are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and
subtropical or tropical swamps.
Mouse-coloured Antshrike Thamnophilus murinus

The Mouse-coloured Antshrike (Thamnophilus murinus) is a species of bird in the
Thamnophilidae family. It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French
Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. Its natural habitat is subtropical
or tropical moist lowland forests.
Amazonian Antshrike Thamnophilus amazonicus

The Amazonian Antshrike (Thamnophilus amazonicus) is a species of bird in the
Thamnophilidae family. It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French
Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. Its natural habitats are
subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical swamps.
Spot-winged Antshrike Pygiptila stellaris

The Spot-winged Antshrike (Pygiptila stellaris) is a species of bird in the Thamnophilidae family. It is monotypic within
the genus Pygiptila. It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. Its
natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Cinereous Antshrike Thamnomanes caesius
The Cinereous Antshrike (Thamnomanes caesius) is a species of bird in
the Thamnophilidae family. It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia,
Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. Its
natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.
Pygmy Antwren Myrmotherula brachyura

The Pygmy Antwren (Myrmotherula brachyura) is a
species of bird in the Thamnophilidae family, the antbirds.
It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French
Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. Its
natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland
forests, subtropical or tropical swamps, and heavily
The Pygmy Antwren is a bird of the entire Amazon Basin,
the Guianan region, and the southeast Orinoco River Basin
in Venezuela; besides northern Brazil, it occurs in
Amazonian Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia.
Moustached Antwren Myrmotherula ignota (Short-billed Antwren Myrmotherula obscura)

The Moustached Antwren (Myrmotherula ignota) is a species of bird in the Thamnophilidae family. It is found in Brazil,
Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and Peru. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.

www.shamanism.co.uk
White-flanked Antwren Myrmotherula axillaris
The White-flanked Antwren, Myrmotherula axillaris,
is a passerine bird in the antbird family. It is a
resident breeder in tropical Central and South
America from El Salvador and Honduras south to
Amazonian Bolivia and southern Brazil, and on
Trinidad. The White-flanked Antwren is found
throughout the entire Amazon Basin as well as to the
southeast in the adjacent Tocantins-Araguaia River
drainage, and then in disjunct groups on the
southeast coast of Brazil; it also ranges through the
Guyanas on the northeast of South America to Pacific
and Caribbean coastal regions of Ecuador, Colombia,
and Venezuela; also, the entire eastern Venezuela
Orinoco River grouping is part of the northern
Amazon range.
The northern Andes cordillera bifurcates the Central American and coastal groups of the northwest from the
Amazonian range.
This is a common and confiding bird of primary and second growth forest, usually found in small groups. The female
lays two purple-marked white eggs, which are incubated by both sexes for 16 days to hatching, in a small plant fibre
and dead leaf cup nest low in a tree or shrub.
The White-flanked Antwren is typically 10.7 cm long, and weighs 8.1 g. The adult male has dark grey upperparts, black
underparts, and black wings with bars of white spots. The flanks and underwings are white. The female and immature
male have brown upperparts, yellowish-buff underparts and weakly barred rufous wings. Her flanks and underwings
are white, much like the male.
Males of the distinctive western race M. a. melaena have black upperparts and underparts, and the female is darker
than nominate M. a. axillaris.
The White-flanked Antwren feeds on small insects and other arthropods taken from twigs and foliage in the lower
branches of trees. It has a queep whistle followed by a trilled trrrrrr. M. a. melaena has a two note call, naa-who and a
whistled descending pee pee pee-pee-pee-pee-pee-puu-puu call. Given the differences in plumage and vocalisations,
the two forms may possibly be different species.
Gray Antwren Myrmotherula menetriesii

The Grey Antwren (Myrmotherula menetriesii) is a species of bird in the Thamnophilidae family. It is found in Bolivia,
Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela.
Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Stipple-throated Antwren Myrmotherula haematonota
The Stipple-throated Antwren (Epinecrophylla haematonota) is a species of bird
in the Thamnophilidae family. It was formerly placed in the genus Myrmotherula.
It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela. Its natural
habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.
Grey Antbird Cercomacra cinerascens

The Grey Antbird (Cercomacra cinerascens) is a species of bird in the Thamnophilidae family. It is found in Bolivia,
Black Antbird Cercomacra craserva

The Black Antbird (Cercomacra serva) is a species of bird in the Thamnophilidae family. It is found in Bolivia, Brazil,
Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Warbling Antbird Hypocnemis cantator
The Warbling Antbird (Hypocnemis
cantator) is a species of bird in the
Thamnophilidae family. It is found in
Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador,
French Guiana, Guyana, Peru,
Suriname, and Venezuela. Its natural
habitats are subtropical or tropical
moist lowland forests, subtropical or
tropical swamps, and heavily
Recent work has documented
distinctive vocal differences within
this group, suggesting it would be
appropriate to split it into six species:
• Guianan Warbling-Antbird (Hypocnemis cantator, with subspecies notaeae).

• Imeri Warbling-Antbird (Hypocnemis flavescens, with subspecies perflava).
• Peruvian Warbling-Antbird (Hypocnemis peruviana, with subspecies saturata).
• Yellow-breasted Warbling-Antbird (Hypocnemis subflava, with subspecies collinsi).
• Rondonia Warbling-Antbird (Hypocnemis ochrogyna).
• Spix's Warbling-Antbird (Hypocnemis striata, with subspecies implicata and affinis).
These are almost entirely allopatric (separated by major rivers), although H. cantator and H. flavescens are locally
parapatric and limited sympatry has been documented between H. peruviana and H. subflava.
Black-chinned Antbird Hypocnemoides melanopogon

The Black-chinned Antbird (Hypocnemoides melanopogon) is a species of
bird in the Thamnophilidae family. It is found in Brazil, Colombia,
Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. Its
natural habitat is subtropical or tropical swamps.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Northern Chestnut-tailed Antbird Myrmeciza castanea
The Chestnut-tailed Antbird (Myrmeciza hemimelaena) is a species of bird in the
Thamnophilidae family. It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, and Peru. It is sometimes split into
two species, the Southern Chestnut-tailed Antbird, Myrmeciza hemimelaena and the
Northern Chestnut-tailed Antbird, Myrmeciza castanea.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or
tropical moist montanes.
White-shouldered Antbird Myrmeciza melanoceps

The White-shouldered Antbird (Myrmeciza melanoceps) is a species
of bird in the Thamnophilidae family. It is found in Brazil, Colombia,
Ecuador, and Peru. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical
swamps.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Bicolored Antbird Gymnopithys leucaspis
The Bicoloured Antbird (Gymnopithys
leucaspis) is a species of bird in the
Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador,
Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, and
Peru. Its natural habitat is subtropical or
Spot-backed Antbird Hylophylax naevius

The Spot-backed Antbird (Hylophylax
naevius) is a species of bird in the
Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French
Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and
Venezuela. Its natural habitats are
subtropical or tropical moist lowland
forests and subtropical or tropical
swamps.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Contingas Cotingidae
The cotingas are a large family of passerine bird species found in
tropical South America.
They are birds of forests or forest edges, which mostly eat fruit or
insects and fruit. Comparatively little is known about this diverse
group, although all have broad bills with hooked tips, rounded
wings, and strong legs.
The males of many species, such as the cock-of-the-rocks, are
brightly coloured, or decorated with plumes or wattles, like the
umbrellabirds, with their umbrella-like crest and long throat
wattles. Some, like the bellbirds, have distinctive and far-carrying
calls.
The females of most species are duller than the males. The cock-of-the-rocks are more terrestrial than other species,
and have an elaborate group mating display.
Black-necked Red-Cotinga Phoenicircus nigricollis

The Black-necked Red-cotinga (Phoenicircus nigricollis) is a species of
bird in the Cotingidae family. It is found in Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador,
Peru, and Venezuela. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist
lowland forests.
This is a very impressive lekking cotinga, robed in bright crimson and
black, that was virtually unknown until ~20 years ago. In the 1980s, a
lek was discovered quite close to Exploronapo Camp (an outlying
venture of Explorama Lodge headquartered in Iquitos, Peru) that does
allow birders to observe this great bird (which I have done). Its cousin,
the Guianan Red-Cotinga P. carnifex, could also easily be picked on any
"top 50" list. The displays of both species have only recently been
studied; and both are almost impossible to find away from leks.
Screaming Piha Lipaugus vociferans

The Screaming Piha (Lipaugus vociferans) is a species of bird in the
Cotingidae family. It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French
Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. Its natural habitat is
subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests. It is known as the Pwe-pwe
Yoh by the Cofan people of Ecuador because of the males distinctive cry
while during mating season. Males of the species, like male hermit
hummingbirds, are known engage in lekking behavior during mating
season.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Pompadour Cotinga Xipholina punicea
The Pompadour Cotinga (Xipholena punicea) is a species of
bird in the Cotingidae family. It is found in Bolivia, Brazil,
Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname,
and Venezuela. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical
moist lowland forests.
Purple-throated Fruitcrow Querula purpurata

The Purple-throated Fruitcrow (Querula purpurata) is a species of bird in the
Cotingidae family. It is monotypic within the genus Querula. It is found in
Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana,
Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. Its natural habitat is
subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Manakins Pipridae
The manakins are a family of some sixty small passerine bird species of
subtropical and tropical mainland Central and South America, and Trinidad
and Tobago.
These are compact forest birds, the males typically being brightly coloured,
although the females of most species are duller and usually green-plumaged.
Manakins feed on small fruits, berries and insects.
Many manakin species have spectacular lekking courtship rituals, which are
especially elaborate in the genus Pipra. Manakins make buzzing, snapping,
and other sounds with their wings, which are heavily modified in two species
(the White-collared and Orange-collared Manakins). Nest-building,
incubation for 18-21 days, and care of the young are undertaken by the
female alone, since manakins do not form stable pairs. The normal clutch is
two eggs.
White-bearded Manakin Manacus manacus

The White-bearded Manakin, Manacus manacus, is a small passerine bird which
breeds in tropical South America. It is found from Colombia, Venezuela and Trinidad
south to Bolivia and northern Argentina.
This manakin is a fairly common bird of forests, second growth and plantations. The
female builds a shallow cup nest low in a tree; two brown-mottled white eggs are
laid, and incubated entirely by the female for about 18-19 days, with a further 13-15
days to fledging. The young are fed mainly on regurgitated fruit with some insects.
Like other manakins, White-bearded Manakin is a compact, brightly coloured forest
bird, typically 10.7 cm long and weighing 16.5 g. The adult male has a black crown,
upper back wings and tail, and the plumage is otherwise white. He has orange legs.
The female and young males are olive-green and resemble female Golden-headed
Manakins, but they have orange legs. The race endemic to Trinidad, M. m. trinitatis
is larger than mainland birds, and the female has yellower underparts.
The male White-bearded Manakin has a fascinating breeding display at a communal lek. Each male clears a patch of
forest floor to bare earth, and perches on a bare stick. The display consists of rapid leaps between sticks and the
ground, accompanied by a loud wing snap, the whirring of the wings, and a chee-poo call. Groups of up to 70 birds may
perform together, the largest leks being in Trinidad.
Apart from the buzzing display song, White-bearded Manakin has a number of other calls, including a trilled musical
peeerr.
These manakins eat fruit and some insects.
In South America, two thirds of White-bearded Manakin's range is in the combined Amazon Basin, the Guianas, and
the Orinoco River drainage of Venezuela; also eastern Colombia. Three disjunct populations occur: Pacific coastal
Ecuador, with southwestern Colombia; coastal and inland western Venezuela with northwestern Colombia; and the
largest, southeastern Brazil, with inland regions bordering Paraguay in the south, and from Paraná state to coastal
Pernambuco in the northeast.
Only one area of the Amazon Basin does not have the species, the 2200km Purus River region in southwestern
Amazonas state.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Wire-tailed Manakin Pipra filicauda
The Wire-tailed Manakin (Pipra filicauda) is a species of bird in the
Pipridae family. It is found upriver in the western Amazon Basin and
the neighboring countries of northern Peru, eastern Ecuador and
Colombia, and southern and western portions of Venezuela. In
Venezuela it occurs upriver in the Orinoco River basin, but not the final
1300kms; its range in Venezuela continues around the Andes cordillera
to the northwestern coast. In northwest Brazil, the species ranges from
Roraima and Amazonas west to Venezuela and Colombia, and
southwest from Rondônia and Acre to Peru and Ecuador.
Wire-tailed Manakin's natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist
lowland forests and subtropical or tropical swamps.
Blue-crowned Manakin Pipra coronata

The Golden-crowned Manakin (Lepidothrix vilasboasi) is a species
of bird in the Pipridae family. It is endemic to Brazil. Its natural
habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests. It is
threatened by habitat loss.
Striped Manakin Machaeropterus regulus

The Striped Manakin (Machaeropterus regulus) is a species of
bird in the Pipridae family. It is found in Brazil, Colombia,
Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, and Venezuela. Its natural habitats are
subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or
tropical moist montanes.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Orange-crested Manakin Heterocercus aurantiivertex
The Orange-crested Manakin (Heterocercus aurantiivertex) is
a species of bird in the Pipridae family. It is found in Ecuador
and Peru. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical
swamps and subtropical or tropical dry shrubland.
Saffron-crested Tyrant-Manakin Neopelma chrysocephalum

The Saffron-crested Tyrant-manakin (Neopelma
chrysocephalum) is a species of bird in the Pipridae
family. It is found in Brazil, Colombia, French
Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. Its
natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist
lowland forests and subtropical or tropical dry
shrubland.
Dwarf Tyrant-Manakin Tyranneutes stolzmanni

The Dwarf Tyrant-manakin (Tyranneutes stolzmanni) is a
species of bird in the Pipridae family. It is found in Bolivia,
Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela. Its natural
habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Wing-barred Piprites Piprites chloris
The Wing-barred Piprites (Piprites chloris) is a species of bird in the
Pipridae family. It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia,
Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, and
lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montanes.
Tyrant Flycatchers Tyrannidae

The tyrant flycatchers are a family of passerine
birds which occur throughout North and South
America, but are mainly tropical in distribution.
They are now considered the largest family of
birds on earth, with over 400 species. Tyrant
flycatchers superficially resemble the Old World
flycatchers, but have a tendency to be more
robust with stronger bills. They are members of
suborder Tyranni (suboscines) that do not have
the sophisticated vocal capabilities of the
songbirds.
Most, but not all, are rather plain, and many have
erectile crests. As the name implies, most are
insectivorous, but some will eat fruit.
The smallest family member is the Short-tailed Pygmy-tyrant, which is, at a length of a mere 6.8 cm (2.7 inches) and a
weight of 4 grams, among the smallest passerines on earth. The largest tyrant flycatcher is the Great Shrike-Tyrant at 29
cm (11.5 inches) and 88 grams (3.1 oz).
The becards and tityras were formerly considered to be cotingas, but are now usually included in the Tyrannidae. They
are also sometimes given their own family, the Tityridae.
Species richness of Tyrannidae, when compared to habitat, is highly variable. The habitats of tropical lowland evergreen
forest and montane evergreen forest have the highest single site species diversity while many habitats including rivers,
palm forest, possible white sand forest, tropical deciduous forest edge, southern temperate forest, southern temperate
forest edge, semihumid/humid montane scrub, and northern temperate grassland have the lowest single species
diversity. The variation between the highest and the lowest is extreme; ninety species can be found in the tropical
lowland evergreen forests while only one species can be found at the habitats listed above. This may be due in part to
the fewer niches found in certain areas and therefore fewer places for the species to occupy.
Tyrannidae specialization among habitat is very strong in tropical lowland evergreen forests and montane evergreen
forests. These habitat types therefore display the greatest specialization. The counts differ by three species (tropical

www.shamanism.co.uk
lowland evergreen forests have 49 endemic species and montane evergreen forests have 46 endemic species). It can be
assumed that they both have similar levels of specialization.
Regionally, the South Atlantic Coast has a significantly higher species richness with the Manabí-Tumbes region following
closely behind.
The Northern Beardless Tyrannulet (Camptostoma imberbe) and the Rose-throated Becard (Pachyramphus aglaiae) are
protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918.
Ochre-bellied Flycatcher Mionectes oleagineus

The Ochre-bellied Flycatcher, Mionectes oleagineus, is a small bird of the
tyrant flycatcher family. It breeds from southern Mexico through Central
America, and South America east of the Andes as far as southern Brazil,
and on Trinidad and Tobago.
This is a common bird in humid forests, usually in undergrowth near
water. It makes a moss-covered ball nest with a side entrance, which is
suspended from a root or branch, often over water. The female incubates
the typical clutch of two or three white eggs for 18-20 days, with about
the same period for the young, initially covered with grey down, to fledge.
Adult Ochre-bellied Flycatchers are 12.7cm long and weigh 11g. They have olive-green upperparts, and the head and
upper breast are also green. The rest of the underparts are ochre-coloured, there are two buff wing bars, and the
feathers of the closed wing are edged with buff. The male is slightly larger than the female, but otherwise similar.
There are a number of subspecies, which differ in the distinctness of the wing bars or the shade of the upperparts. This
species was previously placed in the genus Pipromorpha.
Ochre-bellied Flycatcher is an inconspicuous bird which, unusually for a tyrant flycatcher, feeds mainly on seeds and
berries, and some insects and spiders.
The calls of the male include a high-pitched chip, and a loud choo. His display includes jumping, flutter-flight and
hovering. He takes no part in rearing the young.
Ruddy-tailed Flycatcher Terenotriccus erythrurus

The Ruddy-tailed Flycatcher, Terenotriccus erythrurus, is a
small passerine bird in the tyrant flycatcher family. It breeds in
lowlands from southeastern Mexico to northern Bolivia,
north-central Brazil and the Guianas. This flycatcher ranges
east of the Andes cordillera into the entire Amazon Basin of
norhern Brazil and the Guianas; to the west of the Andes in
Colombia and Ecuador into Central America. It is the only
member of the genus Terenotriccus, but some authorities
place it in genus Myobius. However, it differs in voice,
behaviour, and structure from members of that group.
This tiny flycatcher breeds from sea level to 1000 m altitude,
locally to 1200 m, in wet mountain forests and in adjacent tall
second growth.
The nest is a pear-shaped pouch of plant fibres and leaves with a visored side entrance, built by the female 2-6 m high
in the undergrowth and suspended from a twig or vine. The two chocolate-blotched white eggs are incubated by the
female for 15-16 days to hatching, the male playing no part in the care of the eggs or young.

www.shamanism.co.uk
The Ruddy-tailed Flycatcher is 9-10.2 cm long and weighs 7 g. The upperparts are grey-olive, with a rufous rump, tail,
wings and eye ring. The throat is buff and the breast is cinnamon, becoming pale buff on the belly. Sexes are similar,
but young birds are brighter above and have a browner tail and breast.
The Ruddy-tailed Flycatcher is mainly solitary, and only occasionally joins mixed-species feeding flocks. It feeds on
insects, especially leafhoppers, picked from foliage or taken in acrobatic aerial pursuit.
This species has a see-oo see call, and a repetitive eek eek eek eek eek song. It sometimes flicks both wings up to make
a faint whirring sound.
Double-banded Pygmy-tyrant Lophotriccus vitiosus

The Double-banded Pygmy-tyrant (Lophotriccus vitiosus) is a species of bird in the Tyrannidae family. It is found in
Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, and Suriname. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical
moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical swamps.
Spotted Tody-Flycatcher Todirostrum maculatum

The Spotted Tody-flycatcher (Todirostrum maculatum) is a
species of bird in the Tyrannidae family, the tyrant flycatchers. It
is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana,
Guyana, Peru, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela,
and is mostly a species of the Amazon Basin countries and
Guianan countries.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland
forests, subtropical or tropical mangrove forests, subtropical or
tropical moist shrubland, and heavily degraded former forest.
The Spotted Tody-flycatcher is a bird of the Amazon Basin and in
the east the neighboring Araguaia River of the Araguaia-Tocantins
River drainage. It ranges on the Caribbean coast into eastern
Venezuela and the Guianas. Its range is mostly absent in the
northeast Amazon Basin, the Guiana Shield region, where its
sister species, the Painted Tody-flycatcher has the center of it's
range.
Golden-winged Tody-flycatcher Poecilotriccus calopterus

The Golden-winged Tody-flycatcher (Poecilotriccus calopterus) is a species of bird in the Tyrannidae family. It is found
in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Rusty-fronted Tody-flycatcher Poecilotriccus latirostris
The Rusty-fronted Tody-flycatcher (Poecilotriccus
latirostris) is a species of bird in the Tyrannidae
family. It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia,
Ecuador, and Peru. Its natural habitats are
subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and
heavily degraded former forest.
Yellow-crowned Tyrannulet Tyrannulus elatus

The Yellow-crowned Tyrannulet (Tyrannulus elatus) is a
species of bird in the Tyrannidae family. It is monotypic
within the genus Tyrannulus. It is found in Bolivia, Brazil,
Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana,
Panama, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. Its natural
habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests,
subtropical or tropical swamps, and heavily degraded
former forest.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Olive-faced Flatbill Tolmomyias viridiceps
The Yellow-breasted Flycatcher, or Ochre-lored
Flatbill, Tolmomyias flaviventris, is a small
passerine bird in the tyrant flycatcher family. It
breeds in South America from Colombia and
Venezuela south to Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil, and
on both Trinidad and Tobago. Birds from the far
south of the range are smaller and sometimes
split as the Olive-faced Flatbill, T. viridiceps.
This species is found in the upper levels of
forests, secondary growth and the edges of
mangrove swamps. The bottle nest is made of
plant fibre and suspended from a branch,
usually near a wasp nest, which presumably
provides some protection from predators. The
typical clutch is two or three creamy white eggs,
which are marked with violet, mostly at the
larger end. Incubation by the female is 17 days
to hatching.
The Yellow-breasted Flycatcher is 12.7 cm long and weighs 11.3g. The head and upperparts are olive-green with darker,
yellow-edged, wing and tail feathers. There are two yellowish wing bars. The throat, breast and eye-ring are golden
yellow, the lores are ochreous, and the abdomen is dull yellow. The bill is flattened laterally, and is black above and
white below. Sexes are similar. There are other races, differing in the tone of the upperpart or underpart colour.
Yellow-breasted Flycatcher are inconspicuous birds, tending to keep to high perches from which they sally forth to catch
insects. The call is a loud whistled peeee-it.
Cinnamon Attila Attila cinnamomeus

The Cinnamon Attila (Attila cinnamomeus) is a species of bird
in the Tyrannidae family, the tyrant flycatchers. It is found in
northern South America in the Amazon Basin of Brazil and the
Guianas. It is found in Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, French
Guiana, Guyana, and Suriname; also Amazonian Ecuador,
Peru, and regions of Bolivia. Its natural habitat is subtropical
or tropical swamps.
The Cinnamon Attila is found in one contiguous range
centered on the Amazon Basin. In the southwest it is at the
Basin's headwaters in Ecuador and Peru; in northwest Bolivia
it is centered on headwater tributaries of the Amazon's
Madeira River; in Bolivia's northeast it is only on the
headwater's of the Guapore, (on the Brazil-Bolivia border), but
not on downstream sections, that flow into the Madeira.
Northwest of the Amazon Basin the continuous range extends
into central and northeastern Colombia.
In southeastern Venezuela, the Cinnamon Attila range occurs on the upper Orinoco River drainage; it continues into

www.shamanism.co.uk
eastern and northeastern Venezuela and the Guianas, avoiding only the central Orinoco. Its range stays contiguous
along the Caribbean coast through the Guianas and only ends south and southeast of the Amazon River outlet, and the
outlet of the downstream Tocantins River, in the northeastern Brazilian state of Maranhão on the Atlantic coast.
Citron-bellied Attila Attila citriniventris

The Citron-bellied Attila (Attila citriniventris) is a species of bird in the Tyrannidae family. It is found in Brazil, Colombia,
Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.
Grayish Mourner Rhytipterna simplex

The Greyish Mourner (Rhytipterna simplex) is a species of bird in the Tyrannidae
family. It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana,
Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist
lowland forests.
Short-crested Flycatcher Myiarchus ferox

The Short-crested Flycatcher (Myiarchus ferox) is a species of bird in the Tyrannidae
family. It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana,
Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, and Venezuela. Its natural habitats are
subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and heavily degraded former forest.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Tropical Kingbird Tyrannus melancholicus
The Tropical Kingbird (Tyrannus melancholicus) is a large
tyrant flycatcher. This bird breeds from southern Arizona and
the lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas in the USA through
Central America, South America as far as south as central
Argentina and western Peru, and on Trinidad and Tobago.
Their breeding habitat is semi-open areas with trees and
shrubs, including gardens and roadsides. They make a flimsy
cup nest in a tree. The female incubates the typical clutch of
two or three cream eggs, which are marked with reddish-
brown, for 16 days, with about 18-19 further days to
fledging.
These birds aggressively defend their territory against intruders, even much larger birds such as Magnificent
Frigatebirds, toucans, caracaras or hawks.
The adult Tropical Kingbird is 22cm long and weighs 39g. The head is pale grey, with a darker eye mask, an orange
crown stripe, and a heavy grey bill. The back is greyish-green, and the wing and forked tail are brown. The throat is pale
grey, becoming olive on the breast, with the rest of the underparts being yellow. The sexes are similar, but young birds
have pale buff edges on the wing coverts,
Birds from the northernmost and southern breeding areas migrate to warmer parts of the range after breeding.
Tropical Kingbirds wait on a prominent open perch and sally out to catch insects in flight, sometimes hovering to pick
food off vegetation. They also eat some berries.
The call is a high-pitched twittering trill, tree-e-e-e-e-e-e, with a more complex version sung by the male at dawn.
Boat-billed Flycatcher Megarynchus pitangua

The Boat-billed Flycatcher, Megarynchus pitangua, is a passerine bird.
It is a large tyrant flycatcher, the only member of the genus
Megarynchus.
It breeds in open woodland with some tall trees from Mexico south to
Bolivia and Argentina, and on Trinidad.
The nest, built by the female, is an open saucer of sticks. The typical
clutch is two or three whitish eggs heavily blotched with brown. These
are incubated mostly by the female for 17-18 days with a further 24
days to fledging.
Adult Boat-billed Flycatchers are 23cm long. The head is black with a
strong white eyestripe and a concealed yellow crown stripe.
The upperparts are olive-brown, and the wings and tail are brown with only faint rufous fringes. The underparts are
yellow and the throat is white.
The massive black bill, which gives this species its English and generic names, is the best distinction from the similar
Great Kiskadee, which also has more rufous tail and wings, and lacks the olive tone to the upperparts. The call is a
strident trilled nya, nya, nya.
Boat-billed Flycatchers wait on a concealed perch high in a tree and sally out to catch insects in flight. They will also
take invertebrates off the foliage and eat some berries.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Social Flycatcher Myiozetetes similis
The Social Flycatcher or Vermilion-crowned Flycatcher, Myiozetetes similis, is a
passerine bird from the Americas, a member of the large tyrant flycatcher family
(Tyrannidae).
It is sometimes split into two species, with the Social Flycatcher, Myiozetetes
texensis, from Costa Rica northwards to Mexico, and the Vermillion-crowned
Flycatcher, M. similis proper, from southwest Costa Rica across South America.
In appearance the Social Flycatcher resembles a smaller Boat-billed Flycatcher or
Great Kiskadee. The adult is 16-18 cm long and weighs 24-27 g. The head is dark grey
with a strong white eyestripe and a usually concealed orange to vermillion crown
stripe. The upperparts are olive-brown, and the wings and tail are brown with only
faint rufous fringes. The underparts are yellow and the throat is white. Young birds
have a paler eye mask, reduced crown stripe, and have chestnut fringes to the wing
and tail feathers. The call is a sharp peeurrr and the dawn song is a chips-k’-cheery.
This species is most similar to its closest living relative, the Rusty-margined
Flycatcher, and also to the White-bearded Flycatcher and Lesser Kiskadee. In fact,
except at close range these are all but indistinguishable from appearance alone.
They and the two larger similar species mentioned above share much of their range.
Though they all are apparently fairly close relatives, the group to which they seem to belong also includes species with
rather different head-pattern, like the Grey-capped Flycatcher which also belongs to Myiozetetes. It is enigmatic why
such a "kiskadee pattern" of coloration would evolve, and it is unlikely to be purely a coincidence due to the number of
different genera and species involved. One of three reasons usually applies in such cases: the coloration could of
course be an underlying plesiomorphy with no special significance that was already present in the last common
ancestor of all these genera, and partly or in whole lost in a few of the group's species. More intriguing is the possibility
that these birds are a case of mimicry. This could either be Batesian mimicry, with the smaller species gaining some
protection by being similar at first sight to the larger and decidedly pugnacious ones. Perhaps the most interesting
possibility is that it is Batesian or even Müllerian mimicry in response to some, maybe all of these birds being
unpalatable or even slightly poisonous.
While such a situation almost certainly exists in the entirely unrelated genus Pitohui from the New Guinea region, the
possible presence of nauseous toxins in these bird, while theoretically possible, has not yet been studied. What can be
said at present is that the "kiskadee pattern" consists largely of typical aposematic colors like prominent black-and-
white stripes and vivid yellow, and that some tyrant flycatchers indeed are less than palatable to many predators. In
any case, individuals of the smaller "kiskadee-patterned" species seem to recognize their own kind maybe by details of
the song structure, and almost certainly by the color of the crown stripe which gets raised in social display.
Social Flycatchers breed in plantations, pasture with some trees, and open woodland from northwestern Mexico south
to northeastern Peru, southern Brazil and northwestern Argentina.
Social Flycatchers sally out from an open perch in a tree to catch insects in flight. They also regularly hover to take
small berries, and will enter shallow waters to predate tadpoles.
The nest, built by the female in a bush, tree or on a building, is a large roofed structure of stems and straw, which for
protection is often built near a wasp, bee or ant nest, or the nest of another tyrant flycatcher. The nest site is often
near or over water. The typical clutch is two to four brown- or lilac-blotched cream or white eggs, laid between
February and June.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Grey-capped Flycatcher Myiozetetes granadensis
The Grey-capped Flycatcher, Myiozetetes granadensis, is a passerine bird, a member of the large tyrant flycatcher
family.
It breeds in cultivation, pasture, and open woodland with some trees from eastern Honduras south to northwestern
Peru, northern Bolivia and western Brazil
The nest, built by the female in a bush, tree or on a building, is a large roofed structure of stems and straw, which for
protection is often built near a wasp, bee or ant nest, or the nest of another tyrant flycatcher, such as the similar Social
Flycatcher, Myiozetetes similis. The nest site is often near or over water. The typical clutch is two to four brown or lilac-
blotched dull white eggs, laid between February and June.
In appearance the Grey-capped Flycatcher resembles the Social Flycatcher, which shares much of its range. The adult
Grey-capped Flycatcher is 16.5-18 cm long and weighs 26-30 g. The head is grey with a short weak eyestripe and, in the
male, a concealed vermilion crown stripe. The upperparts are olive-brown, and the wings and tail are brown with only
faint rufous fringes. The underparts are yellow and the throat is white. Young birds have no crown stripe, and have
chestnut fringes to the wing and tail feathers. The best distinction from the Social Flycatcher is the latter’s strong black-
and white head pattern.
The call is a sharp nasal kip and the dawn song is a kip, kip, kip, k’beer.
Grey-capped Flycatchers sally out from an open perch in a tree to catch insects in flight. They sometimes hover to take
small berries.
Great Kiskadee Pitangus sulphuratus

The Great Kiskadee, Pitangus sulphuratus, is a passerine bird. It is a
large tyrant flycatcher; sometimes its genus Pitangus is considered
monotypic as the Lesser Kiskadee may be sparated in Philohydor.
It breeds in open woodland with some tall trees, including
cultivation and around human habitation, from southern Texas
and Mexico south to central Argentina, and on Trinidad. It was
introduced to Bermuda in 1957 and to Tobago in about 1970.
Adult Great Kiskadees are 22cm long and weigh 63g. The head is
black with a strong white eyestripe and a concealed yellow crown
stripe. The upperparts are brown, and the wings and tail are
brown with usually strong rufous fringes.
The black bill is short and thick. The similar Boat-billed Flycatcher
has a massive black bill, an olive-brown back and very little rufous
in the tail and wings.
The call is an exuberant BEE-tee-WEE, and gives the bird its name
in different languages and countries: In Brazilian Portuguese the
birds name is bem-te-vi, that is, "I've spotted you. In Spanish-
speaking countries it is often "bien-te-veo", with a similar
meaning, as in a Mexican name, luis bienteveo.
In El Salvador it is know as "Cristofue"; in French it is tyran quiquivi, and in Paraguay it's known as "pitogüé".

www.shamanism.co.uk
Varzea Schiffornis Schiffornis major
The Greater Schiffornis (Schiffornis major), also called Varzea
Mourner, is a species of bird in the Cotingidae family, the
cotingas. It is found in most western regions of the Amazon
Basin, and Amazonian Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador,
Peru; also regions of Venezuela. Its natural habitat is
subtropical or tropical swamps.
Thrush-like Schiffornis Schiffornis turdinus

The Thrush-like Schiffornis (Schiffornis turdina), also called Thrush-like Mourner, is
a species of bird in the Cotingidae family, the cotingas. It is found in Belize, Bolivia,
Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana,
Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. Its natural
habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical
moist montane forests.

www.shamanism.co.uk
White-winged Becard Pachyramphus polychopterus
The White-winged Becard (Pachyramphus polychopterus) is a species of
bird of the pachyramphus genus, the becards, in the Cotingidae family,
the cotingas. It is found in Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia,
Costa Rica, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras,
Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Trinidad and
Tobago, Uruguay, and Venezuela. Its natural habitats are subtropical or
tropical moist lowland forests and heavily degraded former forest.
Chile is the only country of South America without the White-winged
Becard's rangings. The White-winged Becard ranges east of the Andes
cordillera, except in the north in Colombia.
Masked Tityra Tityra semifasciata

The Masked Tityra (Tityra semifasciata) is a species of bird in
the Cotingidae family. It is found in Belize, Bolivia, Brazil,
Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana,
Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay,
Peru, Trinidad and Tobago, the United States, and Venezuela.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland
forests, subtropical or tropical moist montane forests, and
Vireos and Greenlets Vireonidae

The vireos are a group of small to medium sized passerine birds
restricted to the New World. They are typically greenish in color and
resemble wood warblers apart from their heavier bills.
The four genera of these insectivorous birds make up the family
Vireonidae, and are believed to be related to the crow-like birds in
family Corvidae and the shrikes in family Laniidae.
The four genera can be conveniently categorised as the true vireos,
the greenlets, the shrike-vireos and the peppershrikes.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Yellow-green Vireo Vireo flavoviridis
The Yellow-green Vireo, Vireo flavoviridis, is a small
passerine bird. It breeds from the mountain ranges of
western and eastern, north Mexico, (the Sierra Madre
Occidentals and Sierra Madre Orientals), and southern
Texas in the United States south to central Panama. It is
migratory, wintering in the western Amazon basin, (at the
eastern Andes).
The adult Yellow-green Vireo is 14-14.7 cm in length and
weighs 18.5 g. It has olive-green upperparts and a dusky-
edged grey crown. There is a dark line from the bill to the
red-brown eyes, and a white supercilium. The underparts
are white with yellow breast sides and flanks. Young birds
are duller with brown eyes, a brown tint to the back, and
less yellow on the underparts.
Adult Yellow-green Vireo differs from Red-eyed Vireo in its much yellower underparts, lack of a black border to the
duller grey crown, yellower upperparts and different eye colour.
Some individuals are difficult to separate from the similar Red-eyed Vireo, with which it is sometimes considered
conspecific, even in the hand. Its exact status as a passage bird in countries such as Venezuela is therefore uncertain.
The Yellow-green Vireo has a nasal nyaaah call and the song is a repetitive veree veer viree, fee’er vireo viree, shorter
and faster than that of Red-eyed Vireo. This species rarely sings on its wintering grounds.
This vireo occurs in the canopy and middle levels of light woodland, the edges of forest, and gardens at altitudes from
sea level to 1500 m. The 6.5 cm wide cup nest is built by the female from a wide range of plant materials, and attached
to a stout twig normally 1.5 - 3.5 m above the ground in a tree, but occasionally up to 12 m high. The normal clutch is
two or three brown-marked white eggs laid from March to June and incubated by the female alone, although the male
helps to feed the chicks. The breeding birds return to Central America from early February to March, and most depart
southwards by mid-October
Yellow-green Vireos feed on insects gleaned from tree foliage, favouring caterpillars and beetles. They also eat small
fruits, including mistletoe berries, and, in winter quarters, those of Cymbopetalum mayanum (Annonaceae) and
Gumbo-limbo (Bursera simaruba).

www.shamanism.co.uk
Wrens Troglodytidae
The wrens are passerine birds in the mainly New World family Troglodytidae.
There are about 80 species of true wrens in about 20 genera, though the
name is also ascribed to other unrelated birds throughout the world.
Troglodyte means "cave-dweller," and the wrens get their scientific name
from the tendency of some species to forage in dark crevices. They are mainly
small and inconspicuous except for their loud songs. These birds have short
wings and a thin down-turned bill. Several species often hold their tails
upright. All are insectivorous.
They range in size from the White-bellied Wren (Uropsila leucogastra), which
averages under 10 cm (4 inches) and 9 grams, to the Giant Wren
(Campylorhynchus chiapensis), which averages at about 22 cm (8.7 inches)
and 50 grams (1.8 oz).
Only one species occurs in the Old World, where it is commonly known simply as the "Wren"; it is called Winter Wren in
North America.
The 27 Australasian "wren" species in the family Maluridae are unrelated, as are the New Zealand wrens in the family
Acanthisittidae.
Coraya Wren Thryothorus coraya

The Coraya Wren (Thryothorus coraya) is a species of bird in
the Troglodytidae family. It is found in Brazil, Colombia,
Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and
lowland forests, subtropical or tropical swamps, and heavily
Buff-breasted Wren Thryothorus leucotis

The Buff-breasted Wren (Thryothorus leucotis) is a species of bird in the
Troglodytidae family. It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French
Guiana, Guyana, Panama, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. Its natural
habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, subtropical or
tropical mangrove forests, subtropical or tropical swamps, and heavily

www.shamanism.co.uk
Gnatwrens and Allies Sylvidae
Long-billed Gnatwren Microbates Ramphocaenus melanurus

The Long-billed Gnatwren, Ramphocaenus melanurus, is a very small bird in the
gnatcatcher family. It is the only member of the genus Ramphocaenus (Vieillot,
1819).
It is found in the undergrowth and vines of dry forest and secondary woodland
from Mexico south to Peru and Brazil, and on Trinidad.
Long-billed Gnatwrens build a deep cup nest very low in a small plant or
sapling. The two white eggs are incuated by both parents for 16-17 days to
hatching, with a further 11-12 days to fledging.
Adult Long-billed Gnatwrens are 10.9cm long and weigh 10.3g. They have a long thin bill and a short cocked tail. The
upperparts are grey-brown, with rufous on the sides of the head. The throat is white, shading to buff on the rest of the
underparts. The tail is black with white tips to all but the central feathers, and is frequently wagged.
R. m. trinitatis, of eastern Colombia, Venezuela and Trinidad has paler underparts, and buff flanks and head sides.
Long-billed Gnatwrens forage actively in vegetation, eating mainly insects, insect eggs and spiders. The call is a trilled
drdrdrdrdrdrdrdrdrdr. This unmistakable bird usually occurs in pairs or family groups.
Swallows and Martins Hirundinidae

The swallows and martins are a group of passerine birds in the family
Hirundinidae which are characterised by their adaptation to aerial feeding.
Swallow is also used in Europe as a synonym for the Barn Swallow.
This family comprises two subfamilies: Pseudochelidoninae (the river martins
of the genus Pseudochelidon) and Hirundininae (all other swallows and
martins). Within the Hirundiniae, the name "martin" tends to be used for the
squarer-tailed species and the name "swallow" for the more fork-tailed
species; however, there is no scientific distinction between these two
groups.
It is believed that this family originated in Africa as hole-nesters; Africa still
has the greatest diversity of species.
Swallows have adapted to hunting insects on the wing by developing a
slender streamlined body, and long pointed wings, which allows great
manoeuvrability and endurance.
Like the unrelated swifts and nightjars, which hunt in a similar way, they
have short bills, but strong jaws and a wide gape. Their body length ranges
from about 10–24 cm (3.9–9.4 in) and their weight from about 10–60 g (0.4–
2.1 oz). The wings are long, pointed, and have nine primary feathers. The tail
has 12 feathers and may be deeply forked, somewhat indented, or square-
ended. A long tail increases manoeuvrability and may also function as a
sexual adornment, since the tail is frequently longer in males. Female Barn
Swallows will select mates on the basis of tail length.
The legs are short, and their feet are designed for perching rather than
walking, as the front toes are partially joined at the base, causing the bird to
display a waddling gait.

www.shamanism.co.uk
The most common hirundine plumage is glossy dark blue or green above and
plain or streaked underparts, often white or rufous. Species which burrow or
live in dry or mountainous areas are often unglossed brown above (eg Sand
Martin and Crag Martin). The sexes show no, or only limited, sexual
dimorphism, with longer outer tail feathers in the adult male probably being
the commonest distinction where one exists.
The chicks hatch naked and with closed eyes. Fledged juveniles usually
appear as duller versions of the adult.
Swallows typically build mud nests close to overhead shelter in locations that are protected from both the weather and
predators. Many cave and cliff dwelling species of swallow nest in large colonies. In historical times, the introduction of
man-made stone structures such as barns and bridges, together with forest clearance, has led to an abundance of
colony sites around the globe, significantly increasing the breeding ranges of some species. Birds living in large colonies
typically have to contend with both ectoparasites and conspecific nest parasitism. Old males benefit most from
coloniality, since they are able to maintain their own nests and benefit from frequent extra-pair copulations.
Swallows are excellent fliers, and use these skills to attract a mate and to defend territory. In general, the males select
a nest site, and then attract a female using song and flight, and guard their territory. The size of the territory varies
depending on the species of swallow; in colonial-nesting species it tends to be small, but it may be much larger for
solitary nesters. The air speed of a fairly typical unladen European swallow is estimated to be roughly 24 miles per
hour.
Pairs of mated swallows are monogamous, and pairs of non-migratory species often stay near their breeding area all
year, though the nest site is defended most vigorously during the breeding season. Migratory species often return to
the same breeding area each year, and may select same nest site if they were previously successful in that location.
First-year breeders generally select a nesting site close to where they were born and raised.
Most species hunt over open country or near water.
Swallows are able to produce many different calls or songs, which are used to express excitement, to communicate
with others of the same species, during courtship, or as an alarm when a predator is in the area. Begging calls are used
by the young when soliciting food from their parents. The typical song of swallows is a simple, sometimes musical
twittering.
White-winged Swallow Tachycineta albiventer

The White-winged Swallow, Tachycineta albiventer, is a
resident breeding bird in tropical South America from
Colombia, Venezuela and Trinidad south to northern
Argentina. Being non-migratory, stray birds are not often
encountered; one was seen on July 6, 1996, on the Tuira
River downstream of Unión Chocó, Panama, and another one
at Schoelcher, Martinique, on August 10, 1993.
The adult White-winged Swallow is 13.2 cm long and weighs
17 g. It has iridiscent blue-green upperparts, white
underparts and rump, and white edgings to the secondary
flight feathers. The sexes are similar, but juvenile plumage is
grey brown above apart from the white rump.
The call is a harsh chirrup. White-winged Swallows are easily distinguished from the related Tree Swallow, which has
occurred within its range, by the white in the wings; this is lacking in the otherwise quite similar Tree Swallows.

www.shamanism.co.uk
The White-winged Swallow is usually found near water, and feeds primarily on flying insects. It normally occurs in pairs
or small flocks.
This swallow builds a cup nest lined with other birds' feathers and some seed down in a tree hole, between boulders or
in man-made structures. The clutch is 3-6 white eggs. A nest in Cuyabeno Faunistic Reserve (Ecuador) was found to
contain recently-hatched young on August 30, 2003.
White-banded Swallow Atticora fasciata

The White-banded Swallow (Atticora fasciata) is a species of bird in the Hirundinidae
family. It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru,
Suriname, and Venezuela. Its natural habitat is rivers.
Southern Rough-winged Swallow Stelgidopteryx ruficollis

The Southern Rough-winged Swallow , Stelgidopteryx ruficollis, is a small
swallow. It occurs in Central and South America from Honduras south to
northern Argentina and Uruguay. It also occurs on Trinidad.
Southern birds of the nominate race S. r. ruficollis, are migratory, moving north
in winter, but the northern S. r. aequalis is sedentary.
The adult is 13.5 cm in length and weighs 15 g. It is brown above, with blackish
wings and tail and a pale grey rump. The throat and upper breast are rufous with
the lower underparts yellowish-white. The tail is slightly forked. It is similar in
appearance to its northern counterpart, the Northern Rough-winged Swallow
but is more uniform in colour, particularly on the rump.
It is found in open areas and forest clearings. It nests in grass-lined cavities of
various types, including holes in banks or walls, or disused kingfisher and jacamar
nests. It does not form colonies. The clutch is 3-6 white eggs, incubated by the
female for 16-18 days and with another 13 days to fledging. Southern Rough-
winged Swallow forages for insects in flight, usually flying low with a slow
deliberate flight. The call is an unmusical chirrup.
"Rough-winged" refers to the serrated edge of the outer primary feathers on the wing of this bird; this feature would
only be apparent when holding this bird.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Tanagers Thraupinae
There were traditionally about 240 species of tanagers in the bird
family Thraupidae. They belong to the order Passeriformes.
The taxonomic treatment of this family's members is currently in a
state of flux. As more of these birds are studied using modern
molecular techniques it is expected that some genera may be relocated
elsewhere. Already the Euphonias and chlorophonias, which were once
considered part of the tanager family, are now treated as members of
Fringillidae, in their own subfamily (Euphoniinae). Likewise the genera
Piranga, Chlorothraupis, and Habia appear to be related to members of
the Cardinal family, and may soon be reassigned by the AOU.
Magpie Tanager Cissopis leveriana

The Magpie Tanager (Cissopis leveriana) is a tanager. It is the only member of the
genus Cissopis.
Length 26-29 cm. Weight 69-76 g. lives in the Andes in Venezuela, and in
Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. Also in Brazil Argentina, and Bolivia. Elevation
1200-2000 m. Seen in river floodplains and forest edges among grass and shrubs.
Also occurs in plantations near human settlements. Occurs in groups of 3-10
individuals. Very loud. Seem to jump far from branch to branch.
Moves tail up and down, seems to enjoy displaying tail feathers when takes flight. Eats seed and fruits and insects. Cup
nest lined with grass, leaves or other plant materials. Located near ground on short trees or in shrubs in dense
vegetation. Clutch size 2 eggs red/brown with brown spots. Captive bird incubated egg for 12-13 days.
The binomial commemorates the English collector Sir Ashton Lever.
White-winged Shrike-Tanager Lanio versicolor

The White-winged Shrike-tanager (Lanio versicolor) is a species of bird in the Thraupidae family. It is found in Bolivia,
Brazil, and Peru. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.
Masked Crimson Tanager Ramphocelus nigrogularis

The Masked Crimson Tanager (Ramphocelus nigrogularis) is a species of bird in
the Thraupidae family. It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical swamps and subtropical or tropical
moist shrubland.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Silver-beaked Tanager Ramphocelus carbo
The Silver-beaked Tanager, Ramphocelus carbo, is a medium-sized passerine
bird. This tanager is a resident breeder in South America from eastern
Colombia and Venezuela south to Paraguay and central Brazil, and on
Trinidad. It is common and conspicuous in some areas—it may be the bird
most often heard and seen in Suriname.
It occurs in light woodland and cultivation. The bulky cup nest is usually built
in a bush, and the normal clutch is two green-blue eggs blotched with black-
brown. The female incubates the eggs for 11-12 days to hatching, with about
the same time again before the chicks fledge.
Silver-beaked Tanagers are 18 cm long and weigh 25 g. Adult males are
velvety crimson black with a deep crimson throat and breast. The upper
mandible of the bill is black, but the enlarged lower mandible is bright silver
in appearance. The bill is pointed upwards in display. The female is much
duller, with brownish upperparts, reddish brown underparts and a black bill.
There is considerable plumage variation between the various subspecies,
differing mainly in the degree of contrast between the upperparts and the
throat and breast.
These are social birds which eat mainly fruit, but insects are also taken. The
Silver-beaked Tanager is often seen in groups of six to ten, frequently giving
a call described as cheeng. Its song is a slow thin kick-wic
Palm Tanager Thraupis palmarum

The Palm Tanager Thraupis palmarum is a medium-sized passerine bird. This
tanager is a resident breeder from Nicaragua south to Bolivia, Paraguay and
southern Brazil. It also breeds on Trinidad and, since 1962, on Tobago. In
Trinidad and Tobago, it is known by colloquial names such as the 'Palmiste'
and the 'Green Jean'.
It occurs in semi-open areas including cultivation and gardens. The bulky cup
nest is built in a tree, usually a palm, or under the eaves of a house, and the
female incubates three, sometimes two, brown-blotched cream eggs for 14
days, with another 17 days to fledging.
Adult Palm Tanagers are 19 cm long and weigh 36g.
They are dull olive-green with a paler crown. The flight feathers are black, and the long tail is black edged with green. A
yellow wingbar shows in flight. Sexes are similar, although females may be somewhat paler.
Palm Tanagers are social, restless but unwary birds which eat a wide variety of small fruit. They also regularly take
some nectar and insects, including caterpillars. The song is fast and squeaky.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Orange-bellied Euphonia Euphonia xanthogaster
The Orange-bellied Euphonia (Euphonia xanthogaster) is a species of
bird in the Fringillidae (finch) family. They were formerly considered
tanagers (Thraupidae). It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador,
Guyana, Panama, Peru, and Venezuela. Its natural habitats are
subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or
tropical moist montane forests.
Green Honeycreeper Chlorophanes spiza

The Green Honeycreeper Chlorophanes spiza is a small bird in the tanager
Green Honeycreeper – Male family. It is found in the tropical New World from southern Mexico south to
Brazil, and on Trinidad. It is the only member of the genus Chlorophanes
(Reichenbach, 1853).
This is a forest canopy species. The female Green Honeycreeper builds a small
cup nest in a tree, and incubates the clutch of two brown-blotched white eggs
for 13 days.
The Green Honeycreeper is 14 cm long, weighs 17 g, and has a long decurved
bill. The male is mainly blue-tinged green with a black head and a mostly bright
yellow bill. Females and immatures are plumaged grass green, paler on the
Green Honeycreeper – Female throat, and lack the black head. The call is a sharp chip.
The Green Honeycreeper is less heavily dependent on nectar than the other
honeycreepers, fruit being its main food (60%), with nectar (20%) and insects
(15%) as less important components of its diet.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Purple Honeycreeper Cyanerpes caeruleus
The Purple Honeycreeper Cyanerpes
caeruleus is a small bird in the tanager
family. It is found in the tropical New World
from Colombia and Venezuela south to
Brazil, and on Trinidad. A few, possibly
introduced birds have been recorded on
Tobago. The species is a bird of northern
South America and besides the Amazon
Basin and the Guianas, a coastal range
occurs west of the Andes cordillera,
including parts of southern Panama.
This is a forest canopy species, but also
occurs in cocoa and citrus plantations. The
female Purple Honeycreeper builds a small
cup nest in a tree, and incubates the clutch
of two brown-blotched white eggs.
The Purple Honeycreeper is 11.5cm long, weighs 12g and has a long black decurved bill. The male is purple with black
wings, tail and belly, and bright yellow legs. Females and immatures have green upperparts, and green-streaked
yellowish-buff underparts. The throat is cinnamon, and there is a blue moustachial stripe.
The Trinidadian race C. c. longirostris has a longer bill than the mainland forms. The call of Purple Honeycreeper is a thin
high-pitched zree.
The Purple Honeycreeper is often found in small groups. It feeds on nectar, berries and insects, mainly in the canopy. It
responds readily to the call of the Ferruginous Pygmy Owl.
Grosbeaks and Saltators Cardinalinae

Grosbeak is the name given to several species of seed-eating passerine bird
with large bills, in the finch and cardinal families.
The following is a list of grosbeak species - note that the groups of species are
not each other's closest relatives - they share the name grosbeak purely
because of morphological similarity.
The finch family, Fringillidae contains the following 11 extant species (plus two
species of Grosbeak Canary)

www.shamanism.co.uk
Blue-backed Grosbeak Cyanocompsa cyanoides
The Blue-Black Grosbeak (Cyanocompsa cyanoides) is
a species of cardinal (bird) in the Cardinalidae family.
It is found in Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa
Rica, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana,
Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru,
Suriname, and Venezuela. Its natural habitats are
subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and
Lesser Seed-Finch Oryzoborus angolensis

The Lesser Seed-finch (Oryzoborus angolensis) is a species of bird in the
Emberizidae family. It is found in Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia,
Costa Rica, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico,
Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, and
Venezuela. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests
and heavily degraded former forest.
Buff-throated Saltator Saltator maximus

The Buff-throated Saltator, Saltator maximus, is a seedeating bird. Traditionally
placed in the cardinal family (Cardinalidae), it actually seems to be closer to the
tanagers (Thraupidae). It breeds from southeastern Mexico to western Ecuador
and northeastern Brazil.
This is the type species of Saltator. Consequently, it and its closest allies would
retain the genus name when this apparently polyphyletic group is eventually
split up.
The Buff-throated Saltator is on average 20 cm long and weighs 42-52 g.
The adult has a slate-grey head with a white supercilium and a greenish crown. The upperparts are olive green, the
underparts are grey becoming buff on the lower belly, and the throat is buff, edged with black. The thick convex bill
and legs are black. Young birds are duller, and have a white-mottled blackish throat and breast, and brown markings on

www.shamanism.co.uk
the lower underparts.
The common call is a high seeeer. Males duet melodiously with a warbled cheery cheery answered by cheery to you.
This is a species of dense vegetation. The Buff-throated Saltator feeds on fruit, buds, nectar and slow-moving insects. It
forages at low and mi levels, sometimes with mixed species flocks.
The two pale blue eggs per clutch measure some 22-32 mm long by about 16.5-21.5 mm wide and weigh about 4.8-6.1
grams each. They are laid in a bulky cup nest up to 2 m high in a tree or bush.
Greyish Saltator Saltator coerulescens

The Greyish Saltator, Saltator coerulescens, is a seedeating bird. Traditionally
placed in the cardinal family (Cardinalidae), it actually seems to be closer to
the tanagers (Thraupidae). In El Salvador, it is well-known as dichoso fui after
the "elaborate" version of its call, which sounds like a drawn-out ¡dichoso
fui!, Spanish for "I was happy!"
American Orioles Icteridae

Orioles are colourful Old World passerine birds in the family
Oriolidae and genus Oriolus. They are not related to the New
World orioles, which are Icterids, family Icteridae.
The orioles are a mainly tropical Old World group, although
one species breeds in more temperate regions.
The Icterids are a group of small to medium, often colourful
passerine birds restricted to the New World. Most species
have black as a predominant plumage colour, often enlivened
by yellow, orange or red. The name, meaning "jaundiced
ones" (from the prominent yellow feathers of many species)
comes from the Ancient Greek ikteros, through the Latin
ictericus.
This group includes such popular forms as the New World blackbirds, New World orioles, the Bobolink, meadowlarks,
grackles, cowbirds, oropendolas and caciques.
Despite the similar names, the first groups are not related to the Old World Blackbird (a thrush, Turdidae), or the Old
World orioles (Oriolidae).

www.shamanism.co.uk
Yellow-rumped Cacique Cacicus cela
The Yellow-rumped Cacique, Cacicus cela, is a passerine bird in the New
World family Icteridae. It breeds in much of northern South America from
Panama and Trinidad south to Peru, Bolivia and central Brazil.
The Yellow-rumped Cacique is a bird associated with open woodland or
cultivation with large trees. It is a colonial breeder, with up to 100 bag-
shaped nests in a tree, which usually also contains an active wasp nest. The
females build the nests, incubate, and care for the young. Each nest is 30–45
cm long and widens at the base, and is suspended from the end of a branch.
Females compete for the best sites near the protection of the wasp nest.
The normal clutch is two dark-blotched pale blue or white eggs. Females
begin incubating after laying the second egg; hatching occurs after 13 or 4
Yellow-rumped Cacique nest days. The young fledge in 34 to 40 days, usually only one per nest.
This is a slim bird, with a long tail, blue eyes, and a pale yellow pointed bill. It
has mainly black plumage, apart from a bright yellow rump, tail base, and
lower belly and wing epaulets. The female is smaller and duller black than
the male and the juvenile bird resembles the female, but has dark eyes and a
brown bill base.
The male is 28 cm long and weighs 104 g, and the female is 23 cm long and
weighs 60 g. This gregarious bird eats large insects and fruit.
The song of the male Yellow-rumped Cacique is a brilliant mixture of fluting
notes with cackles, wheezes and sometimes mimicry. There are also many
varied calls, and an active colony can be heard from a considerable distance.
The Yellow-rumped Cacique has benefited from the more open habitat
created by forest clearance and ranching.
Giant Cowbird Scaphidura oryzivora

The Giant Cowbird, Molothrus oryzivorus, is a large passerine bird in
the New World family Icteridae. It breeds from southern Mexico south
to northern Argentina, and on Trinidad and Tobago. It may have
relatively recently colonised the latter island.
It is associated with open woodland and cultivation with large trees,
but is also the only cowbird that is found in deep forest. It is a quiet
bird, particularly for an icterid, but the male has an unpleasant
screeched whistle, shweeaa-tpic-tpic. The call is a sharp chek-chik.
They are also very adept mimics.
Like other cowbirds, it is a brood parasite, laying its eggs in the nests of
oropendolas and caciques. The eggs are of two types, either whitish
and unspotted, or pale blue or green with dark spots and blotches.
The host’s eggs and chicks are not destroyed, but there is considerable doubt about the theory that the young Giant
Cowbirds benefit the host’s chick by removing and eating parasitic flies.
Their icterid hosts breed colonially, and defend their nests vigorously, so even a large, bold and aggressive species like
the Giant Cowbird has to cover an extensive territory to find sufficient egg-laying opportunities. Several Giant Cowbird

www.shamanism.co.uk
eggs may be laid in one host nest.
The male Giant Cowbird is 36 cm long, weighs 180 g and is iridescent black, with a long tail, long bill, small head, and a
neck ruff which is expanded in display. The female is 28 cm long and weighs 135 g. She is less iridescent than the male,
and the absence of the neck ruff makes her look less small-headed. Juvenile males are similar to the adult male, but
browner, and with a pale, not black, bill.
This gregarious bird feeds mainly on insects and some seeds, including rice, and forages on the ground or in trees. It
rarely perches on cattle, unlike some of its relatives, but in Brazil it will ride on Capybaras as it removes horse flies.
Gnatcatcher Polioptila clementsi

The 15-20 species of small passerine birds in the gnatcatcher family
occur in North and South America (except far south and high Andean
regions). Most species of this mainly tropical and subtropical group are
resident, but the Blue-gray Gnatcatcher of the USA and southern
Canada migrates south in winter.
These dainty birds resemble Old World warblers in their structure and
habits, moving restlessly through the foliage seeking insects. The
gnatcatchers are mainly soft bluish grey in colour, and have the typical
insectivore's long sharp bill. Many species have distinctive black head
patterns (esp. males) and long, regularly cocked, black-and-white tails.
The skulking gnatwrens are browner, more thickset, and with
proportionally shorter tails and longer bills.
The gnatwrens typically occur in the undergrowth of dense, often
humid, forest, while gnatcatchers, depending on the species involved,
occur in anything from dry scrubby habitats (e.g. the California
Gnatcatcher) to the canopy of humid Amazonian forest (e.g. the
Guianan Gnatcatcher).
The North American species nest in bushes or trees, but the breeding behavior of several of the Neotropical species is
essentially unknown.
A species new to science, the critically endangered Iquitos Gnatcatcher (Polioptila clementsi), was first described in
2005. This species is a member of the P. guianensis complex, which recently has been proposed split into three species
(four w. the Iquitos Gnatcatcher), but not all authorities have accepted this (e.g. SACC). Furthermore, other groups
should possibly be split, notably the P. plumbea and P. dumicola complexes, but at present scientific papers on these
matters are lacking.

www.shamanism.co.uk
MAMMALS
Giant Otter Pteronura brasiliensis

The Giant Otter (Pteronura brasiliensis) inhabits South America,
especially the Amazon river basin, but is becoming increasingly rare
due to poaching, habitat loss, and the use of mercury and other toxins
in illegal alluvial gold mining. This gregarious animal grows to a length
of up to 1.8 metres (6 feet), and is more aquatic than most other
otters.
The Giant Otter, Pteronura brasiliensis, (also known as the river wolf) is
the longest of the world's otters, as well as the largest mustelid. It is
native to South America but is endangered and is also very rare in
captivity. A group of giant otters is called a romp, a bevy, a family, or a
raft.
The Giant Otter can reach up to 6 ft (1.8 m) in length, and weigh up to
76 lb (34 kg). The females are smaller and weigh only 57–60 lb (26–27
kg). It has a lifespan of 12 years in their natural habitat, and 21 years in
captivity. Its fur is dense, thick and velvety, and is highly sought after by
fur traders. The guard hairs are short, 5/16 in (8 mm) long, twice as
long as the under-fur.
The fur is water repellent and is a deep chocolate brown in color. A unique white mark is located on the throat that can
be used to distinguish between individuals. The head is round and the ears are small. The nose is completely covered in
fur, with only the two slit-like nostrils visible. The eyes are large and they have acute vision, an adaptation for hunting
underwater. The legs are short and stubby and end in large webbed feet tipped with sharp claws. The Giant Otter is well
suited for an aquatic life, and can close its ears while underwater. Giant Otters can also close their nostrils when they
swim under water.
The Giant Otter is one of the largest predators of its region, and so can choose from a wide variety of animals to feed
on. It feeds mainly on fish, such as catfish, piranha, and perch, but will also feed on crabs, small caimans, and snakes,
including small anacondas. It can hunt both in groups and alone, tending to head towards the deeper waters while in
groups. It consumes up to 10 lb (4.5 kg) of food each day, using mostly its eyesight to locate its prey. The giant otter has
very few natural predators. Caimans and large anacondas prey upon both young and adult otters by ambush. On land
jaguars are also a threat to otters when they are in search of more suitable water reserves in the dry season.
The Giant Otter is a highly social animal and lives in extended family groups of between 4-8 members. Group members
share roles within the group, structured around the dominant breeding pair. The females have a gestation period of 65-
70 days, giving birth to 1-5 young. Mothers give birth in an underground den near the river shore. Otter pups are taught
to swim after two months and left to fend for themselves after two to three years. The Giant Otter is very sensitive to
human activity, and tourists boating too close to a nursing mother can cause her so much stress that she stops
producing milk, causing her young to starve. The Giant Otter gives birth annually. The Giant Otter is the only species of
mustelid that is monogamous.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Tamarins Saguinus
The tamarins are any of the squirrel-sized New World monkeys from
the family Cebidae, classified as the genus Saguinus. The closely
related lion tamarins are in genus Leontopithecus.
Tamarin habitats range from southern Central America (Costa Rica)
through middle South America (Amazon basin and north Bolivia,
however not in the mountainous parts).
The various species of tamarins differ considerably according to their
appearance, ranging from nearly all black through mixtures of black,
brown and white. Many species typically have mustache-like facial
hairs. Their body size ranges from 18 to 30 cm (plus a 25 to 44 cm
long tail) and they weigh from 220 to 900 grams. Tamarins differ from
marmosets primarily in the fact that the lower canine teeth are
clearly longer than the incisors.
Tamarins are inhabitants of tropical rain forests and open forest
areas.
They are diurnal and arboreal, and run and jump quickly through the trees. Tamarins live together in groups of up to 40
members consisting of one or more families. More frequently, though, groups are composed of just three to nine
members.
Tamarins are omnivores, eating fruits and other plant parts as well as spiders, insects, small vertebrates and bird eggs.
Gestation is typically 140 days, and births are normally twins. The father primarily cares for the young, bringing them to
their mother to nurse. After approximately one month the young begin to eat solid food, although they aren't fully
weaned for another two to three months. They reach full maturity in their second year.
In captivity, tamarins live to be 18 years old.
Common Squirrel Monkey Saimiri sciureus

The Common Squirrel Monkey (Saimiri sciureus) is a small New World
primate from the Cebidae family, and native to ten different countries
of South America: Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana,
Peru, Suriname, Venezuela and Puerto Rico.
It lives in very large groups, up to 300 individuals, on moist tropical
forests, and usually forages in the medium and lower levels of the
forest and sleeps close to the canopy. The females are the dominant
members of the group.
It is a very agile monkey, with a high metabolic rate, and although an
omnivorous animal, it feeds primarily on insects and other
invertebrates.
It also feeds on fruits, seeds and other plant parts.

It is common to see these squirrel monkeys in mixed groups, moving along with other primate species and birds.

www.shamanism.co.uk
Titi Monkey Callicebus
The titis, or titi monkeys, are the New World monkeys of the genus
Callicebus. They are the only extant members of the Callicebinae
subfamily, which also contains the extinct genera Xenothrix, Antillothrix,
Paralouatta, Carlocebus, Homunculus, Lagonimico and possibly also
Tremacebus.
Titis live in South America, from Colombia to Brazil, Peru and north
Paraguay.
The different titi species vary substantially in size and coloring, but
resemble each other in most other physical ways. The fur is long and soft,
and it is usually reddish, brownish or black and with a lighter underside.
Some species have a bright collar or black stripes at the head. The tail is
always furry and is not prehensile.
Diurnal and arboreal, titis predominantly prefer dense forests near water.
They easily jump from branch to branch, earning them their German name,
"jumping monkey". They sleep at night, but also take a midday nap.
Titis are territorial. They live in family groups that consist of parents and
their offspring, about three to seven animals. They defend their territory
by shouting and chasing off intruders. Their grooming and communication
is important for the co-operation of the group. They can typically be seen
in pairs sitting or sleeping with tails entwined.
The diet of the titis consists mainly of fruits, although they also eat leaves, flowers, insects, bird eggs and small
vertebrates.
Titis are monogamous, mating for life. The female bears a single young animal after about a five-month gestation. Twins
occur rarely. The more "laid-back" adult cares for the young. Often it is the father who cares for the young, carrying it
and bringing it to the mother only for nursing. The young are weaned after 5 months and are fully grown after two
years. After three or more years, they leave their family group in order to find a mate. Their life expectancy is up to 12
years in the wild.

www.shamanism.co.uk

The Birds and Animals of Mishana Nature Reserve in Peru.

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

The Birds and Animals of Mishana Nature Reserve in Peru.

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

PROVISIONAL LIST OF BIRDS IN

THE NANAY-MISHANA RETREAT AREA

Based on a field expedition by Zoologist Frank Lambert in January 2006

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

White-throated Tinamou Tinamus guttatus

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

The classification of the individual heron/egret species is fraught

Although herons resemble birds in some other families, such as

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

Striated Heron Butorides striatus

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

Black Vulture Coragyps atratus

The female lays 2 or 3 eggs on the ground in a wooded area or in a

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

Despite the similar name and appearance, this species

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

The Greater Yellow-headed Vulture feeds on carrion and locates

Hawks and Eagles Accipitridae

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

Grey-headed Kite Leptodon cayanensis

The nest is of sticks lined with grass and built high in a

The Gray-headed Kite is 46-53 cm in length and weighs

Crane Hawk Geranospiza caerulescens

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

Fairly small compared to other members of the Buteo genus, the

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

They are normally found in the Amazon forest near rivers.

Red-throated Caracara Daptrius americanus

They usually move around in small groups and are capable of

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

The Yellow-headed Caracara is a resident breeding bird from Panama,

The Yellow-headed Caracara is 41-46 cm long and weighs 325g. It is

Buckley´s Forest-falcon Micrastur buckelyi

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

Guans, Curassows & Allies Cracidae

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

Pigeons and Doves Columbidae

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

Plumbeous Pigeon Columba plumbea

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

Ruddy Ground-Dove Columbina talpacoti

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

Blue Ground-Dove Claravis pretiosa

Gray-fronted Dove Leptotila rufaxilla

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

Maroon-tailed Parakeet Pyrrhura melanura

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

Cobalt-winged Parakeet Brotogeris cyanopter

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

Cuckoos, Anis and Hoatzins Cuculidae

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area

Black-bellied Cuckoo Piaya melanogaster

Greater Ani Crotophaga major

Birds and Animals in the Nanay -Mishana Retreat Area