Question 2 :

Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is one of the most widely used protocols that use distance vector or
Bellman-Ford routing algo’s for routing. RIP used the concept of Active and Passive routers, active
routers are those that transmit the distance vector to the next routers while the passive routers are
considered as the silent routers that does not transmit anything they just receive the transmitted
information. Usually in RIP routers run in Active mode while hosts are Passive as they just needs to
receive information does not need to transmit any thing. While Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is the
protocol that uses the shortest path first (SPF) or Link state protocol. OSPF performs much better in the
environment where we have many routers and complex networks in the simpler networks it have
overhead. OSPF is the protocol that shares the information with the other routers in one go i.e
autonomous system. In Linkstate each router maintains a complete database considering the complete
AS topology that is maintained once routers publishes the information. If the information is new and
changed in comparison to the old saved AS records then it is updated else the old one is maintained.

Question 4:

Network Address Translator is used to help preserving scarce Internet IP addressing ,as the iPv4
addresses are used up really fast and we cannot afford to waste IP addresses any more as it would
further take many years to implement iPv6 addresses, so overcome that potential IP address shortage
we have devised a method NAT to somewhat overcome that shortage unless we practically implement
iPv6 addresses.

Question 4 b :

Network Address Translation causes well-known difficulties for peer-to-peer network, since the nodes in
the peer to peer communication are not involved and may not be reachable at any globally valid IP
address. We know several NAT techeniches but there documentation is very thin so we cannot do much
with them as we know very little about them. One NAT method we know is hole punching ,after
gathering data on the reliability of this technique, NAT vendors are paying more attention to the more
peer to peer applications such as Voice over IP support for hole punching .

Question 3 a :

Border Gateway protocol uses Next-hop attribute as it is the next IP address that is going to be used to
reach a certain destination. Next-Hop is always the IP address of the neighbor specified in the neighbor
command, basically Next-Hop is the attribute is the IP address of the next active router. While AS-Path is
when a router has more than one route to the same IP, the best path is the one with the shortest path
is known as AS-Path attribute.

Question 3 b :
  In case of IBGP peers are not directly connected.
 IBGP is between neighbors within the same AS whereas EBGP is formed between neighbors in
different AS.
 Local preference are sent to the IBGP peers but as EBGP are external so no local preferences are
sent to external BGP peers
 Routes received from an IBGP peer cannot be advertised to another IBGP peer but can be
advertised to an EBGP peer while routes received from an EBGP peer can be advertised to EBGP
and IBGP peers.

Question 1 :

There is a lot of difference between ipv4 and ipv6 header fields, ipv4 header fields are really extensive
while the ipv6 fields are comparatively brief, n yes there are many fields in common like version
number, source address and destination address.

Question 5 :

IP address assigned to the organization is 14.24.74.0/24

So now after making subnets :

First subnet of 64 address :

Starting address : 14.24.74.0/26

Ending address : 14.24.74.63/26

Second subnet 64 address :

Starting address : 14.24.74.64/26

Ending address : 14.24.74.127/26

Third subnet 32 address :

Starting address : 14.24.74.128/27

Ending address : 14.24.74.159/27

Fourth subnet 32 address :

Starting address : 14.24.74.160/27

Ending address : 14.24.74.191/27

Fifth subnet 16 address :

Starting address : 14.24.74.192/28

Ending address : 14.24.74.207/28

Sixth subnet 16 address :

Starting address : 14.24.74.208/28

Ending address : 14.24.74.223/28

Seventh subnet 16 address :

Starting address : 14.24.74.224/28

Ending address : 14.24.74.239/28

Eight subnet 4 address :

Starting address : 14.24.74.240/30

Ending address : 14.24.74.243/30

Ninth subnet 4 address :

Starting address : 14.24.74.244/30

Ending address : 14.24.74.247/30

Tenth subnet 4 address :

Starting address : 14.24.74.248/30

Closing address : 14.24.74.251/30

Eleventh subnet 4 address :

Starting address : 14.24.74.252/30

Starting address : 14.24.74.255/30