What is Havighurst’s Developmental Tasks

Theory?
 PUBLISHED DATEJULY 21, 2017
 LAST MODIFIED DATEMAY 27, 2020
 AUTHOR PSYCHOLOGY NOTES HQ
Although many theorists are responsible for contributing to the Developmental Tasks Theory, it
was Robert Havighurst who elaborated on this development theory in the most systematic and
extensive manner.

The main assertion of Havighurst is that development is continuous throughout a person’s entire
lifespan, occurring in stages. A person moves from one stage to the next by means of successful
resolution of problems or performance of certain developmental tasks. These tasks are typically
encountered by most people in the culture where that person belongs.

According to Havighurst’s developmental tasks theory, when people successfully accomplish the
developmental tasks at a stage, they feel pride and satisfaction. They also earn the approval of
their community or society. This success provides a sound foundation that allows these people to
accomplish the developmental tasks that they will encounter at later Havighurst developmental
stages.
Conversely, when people fail to accomplish a developmental task, they’re often unhappy and are
not accorded the desired approval by society. This results in the subsequent experience of
difficulty when faced with succeeding developmental tasks at later Havighurst developmental
stages.

The Bio-Psychosocial Model of Development

Robert Havighurst proposed a bio-psychosocial model of development. According to
Havighurst’s Developmental Tasks Theory, the developmental tasks at each stage are influenced
by a person’s biology (physiological maturation and genetic makeup), his/her psychology
(personal values and goals), as well as his/her sociology (specific culture to which the individual
belongs).

Biological Influences
Some Havighurst developmental tasks are evolved out of the biological characteristics of humans
and are faced similarly by people of any culture.

An example of this is learning how to walk for infants. Being a skill that depends on maturation
and genetically determined factors, the mechanics involved in learning how to walk are virtually
the same and occur at generally the same time for children from all cultures.

Other developmental tasks that stem from biological mechanisms include learning to talk,
exercising control over bodily functions, learning skills typically utilized in children’s games, as
well as coping with physiological changes related to aging, to name a few.

Robert Havighurst pointed out the importance of sensitive periods which he considered to be the
ideal teachable moments. During these periods, individuals demonstrate maturation at a level that
is most conducive to learning and successfully performing the developmental tasks.
Psychological Influences
Psychological factors that emerge from someone’s maturing personality and psyche are
embodied in personal values and goals. These values and goals are another source of some
developmental tasks such as establishing one’s self-concept, developing relationships with peers
of both sexes and adjusting to retirement or to the loss of a spouse.
Social Influences
There are other developmental tasks that arise from the unique cultural standards of a given
society. These developmental tasks may be observed in different forms in varying societies or,
alternatively, may be observed is some cultures but not in others.
For example, someone who belongs to an agricultural community might make the preparations
for an occupation such as becoming a farmer at an early age. Members of an industrialized
society, on the other hand, require longer and more specialized preparation for an occupation.
Therefore, they tend to embark on this developmental task later in life.

Other culturally-based developmental tasks include achieving gender-appropriate roles and

becoming a responsible citizen.

Havighurst Developmental Stages

Robert Havighurst proposed a list of common critical developmental tasks, categorized into six
stages of development. The table below shows a partial list of Havighurst developmental tasks.

Conclusion
The applications of Havighurst’s Developmental Tasks Theory extend to the field of education
and have asserted influences over educators and psychologists worldwide. Although the theory
has its roots in the 1930s, it continues to stimulate the insights of contemporary developmental
psychologists, prompting the publication of new manuscripts and books based on the concepts of
the developmental task theory.

Over the years, the reception and interpretation of Havighurst’s developmental tasks have
evolved with the upsurge of new findings. Nevertheless, this theory has remained robust in its
testimony that development is continuous throughout the entire lifespan of an individual.

NEXT POST
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development

Periods of Development
Think about the life span and make a list of what you would consider the periods of
development. How many stages are on your list? Perhaps you have three: childhood,
adulthood, and old age. Or maybe four: infancy, childhood, adolescence, and
adulthood. Developmentalists break the life span into nine stages as follows:

 Prenatal Development
 Infancy and Toddlerhood
 Early Childhood
 Middle Childhood
 Adolescence
 Early Adulthood
 Middle Adulthood
 Late Adulthood
 Death and Dying

This list reflects unique aspects of the various stages of childhood and adulthood that
will be explored in this book. So while both an 8 month old and an 8 year old are
considered children, they have very different motor abilities, social relationships, and
cognitive skills. Their nutritional needs are different and their primary psychological
concerns are also distinctive. The same is true of an 18 year old and an 80 year old,
both considered adults. We will discover the distinctions between being 28 or 48 as
well. But first, here is a brief overview of the stages.

Prenatal Development
Conception occurs and development begins. All of the major structures of the body are
forming and the health of the mother is of primary concern. Understanding nutrition,
teratogens (or environmental factors that can lead to birth defects), and labor and
delivery are primary concerns.

Infancy and Toddlerhood

Newborn photo courtesy Fenja2

The first year and a half to two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and change. A
newborn, with a keen sense of hearing but very poor vision is transformed into a
walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of time. Caregivers are also
transformed from someone who manages feeding and sleep schedules to a constantly
moving guide and safety inspector for a mobile, energetic child.

Early Childhood
Photo Courtesy Walter de Maria

Early childhood is also referred to as the preschool years consisting of the years which
follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling. As a three to five-year-old, the child is
busy learning language, is gaining a sense of self and greater independence, and is
beginning to learn the workings of the physical world. This knowledge does not come
quickly, however, and preschoolers may have initially have interesting conceptions of
size, time, space and distance such as fearing that they may go down the drain if they
sit at the front of the bathtub or by demonstrating how long something will take by
holding out their two index fingers several inches apart. A toddler’s fierce determination
to do something may give way to a four-year-old’s sense of guilt for doing something
that brings the disapproval of others.

Middle Childhood

Photo Courtesy Pink Sip

The ages of six through eleven comprise middle childhood and much of what children
experience at this age is connected to their involvement in the early grades of
school. Now the world becomes one of learning and testing new academic skills and by
assessing one’s abilities and accomplishments by making comparisons between self
and others. Schools compare students and make these comparisons public through
team sports, test scores, and other forms of recognition. Growth rates slow down and
children are able to refine their motor skills at this point in life. And children begin to
learn about social relationships beyond the family through interaction with friends and
fellow students.

Adolescence

Photo Courtesy Overstreet

Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall physical

growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as puberty. It is also a time of cognitive
change as the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities and to consider abstract
concepts such as love, fear, and freedom. Ironically, adolescents have a sense of
invincibility that puts them at greater risk of dying from accidents or contracting sexually
transmitted infections that can have lifelong consequences.

Early Adulthood
Photo Courtesy Josh Gray

The twenties and thirties are often thought of as early adulthood. (Students who are in
their mid 30s tend to love to hear that they are a young adult!). It is a time when we are
at our physiological peak but are most at risk for involvement in violent crimes and
substance abuse. It is a time of focusing on the future and putting a lot of energy into
making choices that will help one earn the status of a full adult in the eyes of
others. Love and work are primary concerns at this stage of life.

Middle Adulthood

The late thirties through the mid-sixties is referred to as middle adulthood. This is a

period in which aging, that began earlier, becomes more noticeable and a period at
which many people are at their peak of productivity in love and work. It may be a period
of gaining expertise in certain fields and being able to understand problems and find
solutions with greater efficiency than before. It can also be a time of becoming more
realistic about possibilities in life previously considered; of recognizing the difference
between what is possible and what is likely. This is also the age group hardest hit by the
AIDS epidemic in Africa resulting in a substantial decrease in the number of workers in
those economies (Weitz, 2007).

Late Adulthood

Photo Courtesy Overstreet

This period of the life span has increased in the last 100 years, particularly in
industrialized countries. Late adulthood is sometimes subdivided into two or three
categories such as the “young old” and “old old” or the “young old”, “old old”, and “oldest
old”. We will follow the former categorization and make the distinction between the
“young old” who are people between 65 and 79 and the “old old” or those who are 80
and older. One of the primary differences between these groups is that the young old
are very similar to midlife adults; still working, still relatively healthy, and still interested
in being productive and active. The “old old” remain productive and active and the
majority continues to live independently, but risks of the diseases of old age such as
arteriosclerosis, cancer, and cerebral vascular disease increases substantially for this
age group. Issues of housing, healthcare, and extending active life expectancy are only
a few of the topics of concern for this age group.  A better way to appreciate the
diversity of people in late adulthood is to go beyond chronological age and examine
whether a person is experiencing optimal aging (like the gentleman pictured above who
is in very good health for his age and continues to have an active, stimulating
life), normal aging (in which the changes are similar to most of those of the same age),
or impaired aging (referring to someone who has more physical challenge and disease
than others of the same age).

Death and Dying

Photo Courtesy Robert Paul Young

This topic is seldom given the amount of coverage it deserves. Of course, there is a
certain discomfort in thinking about death but there is also a certain confidence and
acceptance that can come from studying death and dying. We will be examining the
physical, psychological and social aspects of death, exploring grief or bereavement, and
addressing ways in which helping professionals work in death and dying. And we will
discuss cultural variations in mourning, burial, and grief.

Domains of Development
Human development is comprised of four major domains: physical development,
cognitive development, social-emotional development, and language development.
Each domain, while unique in it's own, has much overlap with all other domains. It is
important to understand these concepts, because everything related to human
development can be traced back to these four domains.
Physical/Biological Development
Physical development is defined as the biological changes that occur in the body and
brain, including changes in size and strength, integration of sensory and motor
activities, and development of fine and gross motor skills.

Physical development in children follows a directional pattern. Muscles in the body's

core, legs and arms develop before those in the fingers and hands. Children learn how
to perform gross (or large) motor skills such as walking before they learn to perform fine
(or small) motor skills such as drawing. Muscles located at the core of the body become
stronger and develop sooner than those in the feet and hands. Physical development
goes from the head to the toes. 

As kids enter the preschool years, their diets become much more similar to that of
adults. Eating a variety of foods is also important to ensure that kids get the nutrients
that they need for healthy physical development. Instead of allowing children to fill up on
juice and milk, experts recommend limiting the intake of such drinks. If a child is filling
up on juice and milk, then they are probably missing out on eating other foods.

Cognitive Development
Cognitive development is defined as the changes in the way we think, understand, and
reason about the world.
As mentioned under the Roles of the Theorists tab Jean Piaget developed great
theories regarding the cognitive development of children. Piaget's stages of cognitive
development illustrates a child's growth.

Stages of Cognitive Development

 The Sensorimotor Stage: A period of time between birth and age two during
which an infant's knowledge of the world is limited to his or her sensory
perceptions and motor activities. Behaviors are limited to simple motor responses
caused by sensory stimuli.

 The Preoperational Stage: A period between ages two and six during which a
child learns to use language. During this stage, children do not yet understand
concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate information and are unable to take
the point of view of other people.

 The Concrete Operational Stage: A period between ages seven and eleven
during which children gain a better understanding of mental operations. Children
 begin thinking logically about concrete events, but have difficulty understanding
abstract or hypothetical concepts.

 The Formal Operational Stage: A period between age twelve to adulthood

when people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts. Skills such as
logical thought, deductive reasoning and systematic planning also emerge during
this stage.

For even more information on Piaget's cognitive development theories go to the

"Roles of Theorists" tab above.

Social-emotional Development
Social-emotional development is defined as the changes in the ways we connect to
other individuals and express and understand emotions.

The core features of emotional development include the ability of a child to identify and
understand their own feelings, to accurately read and comprehend emotional states of
others, to manage strong emotions and their expression in a beneficial manner, to
regulate their own behavior, to develop empathy for others, and to establish and
maintain relationships. 

Healthy social-emotional development for infants and toddlers develops in an

interpersonal context, specifically that of positive ongoing relationships with familiar and
nurturing adults. Emotion and cognition work together, informing the child’s impressions
of situations and influencing behavior.

Children will experience a range of emotional and cognitive development related to

interactions and relationships with adults and peers, identity of self, recognition of
ability, emotional expression, emotional control, impulse control, and social
understanding.

Language Development
Infants understand words before they can say. In other words, comprehension precedes
production of language. Children differ enormously in the rate at which they develop
language. 

The four different aspects of language include all of the following; phonology - the
sounds that make up the language, syntax - the grammar of the language, semantics -
the meanings of words, and pragmatics - how we use language in social situations to
communicate. 
Two areas of the brain are particularly important for language development and
use: Broca's area is important for the production of speech, and Wernicke's area is
important for understanding and making sense out of speech.

Children move through stages of language development, but there is a good deal of
variability from child to child in the age at which each stage appears. Before they are
able to use words, infants communicate by crying, cooing, babbling, and gesturing.
Infants and toddlers begin verbalizing by using one word at a time and then create
primitive sentences when they put two words together. When children make sentences
that contain only the essential words this is called telegraphic speech. Fast mapping
allows children to add words to rapidly to their vocabulary. 

When used in relation to human development, the word "domain" refers to specific aspects of
growth and change. The major domains of development are physical, cognitive, language, and
social-emotional.

Children often experience a significant and obvious change in one domain at a time.

It might seem like a particular domain is the only one experiencing developmental change during
a particular period of a child's life, but change typically occurs in the other domains as well—just
more gradually and less prominently.

Domains of Development
By 
Rebecca Fraser-Thill 

Medically reviewed by 

Joel Forman, MD 

Updated on November 12, 2019

The physical domain covers the development of physical changes, which includes growing in
size and strength, as well as the development of both gross motor skills and fine motor skills.1

The physical domain also includes the development of the senses and using them.

Physical development can be influenced by nutrition and illness. A healthy diet and regular
wellness check-ups are key for proper child development.

Cognitive 
The cognitive domain includes intellectual development and creativity.1 Kids gain the ability to
process thoughts, pay attention, develop memories, understand their surroundings, express
creativity, as well as to make, implement, and accomplish plans.

Jean Piaget outlined four stages of cognitive development:

 The sensorimotor stage (from birth to age two)

 The preoperational stage (from age two to seven)
 The concrete operational stage (from age seven to 12)
 The formal operational stage (from age 12 to adulthood)

Social-Emotional 
The social-emotional domain includes a child's growing understanding and control of their
emotions.They also begin to identify what others are feeling, develop the ability to cooperate,
show empathy, and use moral reasoning.

The child also begins to develop attachments to others and learns how to interact with them.
Children and adolescents develop many relationships, from parents and siblings to peers,
teachers, coaches, and others in the community.

Children develop self-knowledge during the social-emotional stage. They learn how they identify
with different groups and their innate temperament will also come into play in their relationships.

Language 
Language development is dependent on other developmental domains. The ability to
communicate with others grows from infancy. Children develop these abilities at different rates.

Aspects of language include:

 Phonology (creating the sounds of speech)

 Pragmatics (communicating verbally and non-verbally in social situations)
 Semantics (what words mean)
 Syntax (grammar, how sentences are put together)

Domain Development in the Tween Years

Tweens demonstrate significant developments in the social-emotional domain as peers become
more central to their lives and they learn how to carry out long-term friendships. Parents will
typically notice major increases in social skills during this time.3
 Language development is less central during the tween years, as the major and obvious increases
in language development occurred earlier in life.

Still, language development continues during this period. For example, tweens are acquiring new
vocabulary and enhancing their speed and comprehension when reading.

A Word From Verywell

A child's development is a multi-faceted process comprised of growth, regression, and change in
different domains. Development in certain domains may seem more prominent during specific
stages of life, yet kids virtually always experience some degree of change in all domains.

SOURCES:

https://www.verywellfamily.com/definition-of-domain-3288323#:~:text=The%20major%20domains
%20of%20development,one%20domain%20at%20a%20time.

1. Child Development and Early Learning. In: Allen LR, Kelly BB, eds. Transforming the Workforce for
Children Birth Through Age 8: A Unifying Foundation.  Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US);
2015.
2. Gavin ML. Communication and Your Newborn. KidsHealth. 2019.
3. Noeder M. Connecting with your preteen. KidsHealth. 2018.
Additional Reading
 Berger, Kathleen. The Developing Person through the Lifespan. 2008. 7th Edition. New York: Worth.

The Domains of Development and

Learning
The Maryland Early Learning Standards cover seven domains of development and
learning. These domains are also used as the basis for the Kindergarten Readiness
Assessment, and they can provide you with a roadmap for the work you do with
children each and every day.

SOCIAL FOUNDATIONS INCLUDE THE SKILLS NECESSARY TO:

 Regulate one’s own behavior and emotions
 Develop healthy relationships with adults and other children
 Create a positive personal identity
  Develop executive function skills, including inhibitory control, working memory, cognitive
flexibility, curiosity, and persistence
 Participate and engage in learning
PHYSICAL WELL-BEING AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT INCLUDES SKILLS RELATED TO:
 Muscle control, balance, and coordination
 Body awareness
 Wellness, rest, exercise, health, and nutrition
 Self-help skills, such as dressing, brushing teeth, washing hands, and feeding
LANGUAGE AND LITERACY INCLUDES READING, WRITING, SPEAKING AND LISTENING,
AND LANGUAGE:
 Reading includes the foundational concepts of print, phonemic awareness, phonics, and fluency;
and reading and comprehension skills for informational and literary texts.
 Writing includes developmentally appropriate drawing, dictating, and writing to explain, express
an opinion, or to tell a story.
 Speaking and listening includes participating in conversations, asking and answering questions,
describing information, speaking audibly, with a command of the English language as appropriate.
 Language includes using the conventions of English grammar when writing or speaking, as well
as and capitalization, punctuation, and spelling as appropriate when writing.  It also includes
learning vocabulary words and phrases. 
MATHEMATICS INCLUDES SKILLS RELATED TO:
 Counting and cardinality
 Operations and algebraic thinking
 Numbers and operations in base ten
 Measurement and data
 Geometry
Children learn about numbers, precision and value, and number relationships. They
also learn about spatial awareness through geometry and measurement.

SCIENCE IS ABOUT CHILDREN DEVELOPING SCIENTIFIC THINKING SKILLS WHILE

EXPLORING THE NATURAL AND PHYSICAL WORLD AROUND THEM.
They learn how to:

 Ask questions
 Experiment
 Apply evidence
 Reason
 Draw conclusions
 Communicate their findings.
Children use their curiosity to explore, question, and investigate earth and physical, and
life science at an appropriate level.
SOCIAL STUDIES GIVES CHILDREN AN UNDERSTANDING OF THEIR SENSE OF SELF-
IDENTITY AND HOW PEOPLE RELATE TO EACH OTHER IN A SOCIETY.
This includes:

 Social structures (rules and the process of rulemaking)

 Social relationships (family, friends, and community)
 Economic relationships (the transfer of goods and services)
In early childhood, children begin to develop an understanding of the different
relationships between people and the roles they play in society. 

THE ARTS FOCUS ON THE USE OF MUSIC, DANCE, VISUAL ARTS, AND THEATER TO
EXPRESS IDEAS AND EMOTIONS.
The skills in this domain help to foster  learning and development in all other areas of
Maryland Early Learning Standards and the Maryland College and Career-Ready
Standards. The arts give children opportunities to apply skills and knowledge in unique,
individual, and creative expressions.

Finally, it’s normal that all children do not develop on exactly the same clock. There are,
however, predictable periods of progress and developmental milestones. As someone
who works with children, it’s important for you to understand development across all the
domains – this helps you support children in their current state of readiness and as they
grow.

Brain Science and Early Development

Neuroscience helps us understand how children’s brains typically develop. Infancy is a
time of tremendous growth in all areas of development, as described in Healthy
Beginnings. Children’s brains are built through their early experiences. In fact, their
brains develop more rapidly during the first five years of life than at any other period.
The early years of a child’s life represent a great opportunity for you as an educator.

Research Methods
How do we know what we know?

An important part of learning any science is having a basic knowledge of the techniques
used in gathering information. The hallmark of scientific investigation is that of following
a set of procedures designed to keep questioning or skepticism alive while describing,
explaining, or testing any phenomenon. Not long ago a friend said to me that he did not
trust academicians or researchers because they always seem to change their
story. That, however, is exactly what science is all about; it involves continuously
renewing our understanding of the subjects in question and an ongoing investigation of
how and why events occur. Science is a vehicle for going on a never-ending journey. In
the area of development, we have seen changes in recommendations for nutrition, in
explanations of psychological states as people age, and in parenting advice. So think of
learning about human development as a lifelong endeavor.

Personal Knowledge

How do we know what we know? Take a moment to write down two things that you
know about childhood…Okay. Now, how do you know? Chances are you know these
things based on your own history (experiential reality) or based on what others have told
you or cultural ideas (agreement reality) (Seccombe and Warner, 2004). There are
several problems with personal inquiry. Read the following sentence aloud:

Paris in the
the spring

Are you sure that is what it said? Read it again:

Paris in the
the spring

If you read it differently the second time (adding the second “the”) you just experienced
one of the problems with personal inquiry; that is, the tendency to see what we
believe. Our assumptions very often guide our perceptions, consequently, when we
believe something, we tend to see it even if it is not there. This problem may just be a
result of cognitive ‘blinders’ or it may be part of a more conscious attempt to support our
own views. Confirmation bias is the tendency to look for evidence that we are right and
in so doing, we ignore contradictory evidence. Popper suggests that the distinction
between that which is scientific and that which is unscientific is that science is falsifiable;
scientific inquiry involves attempts to reject or refute a theory or set of assumptions
(Thornton, 2005). Theory that cannot be falsified is not scientific. And much of what we
do in personal inquiry involves drawing conclusions based on what we have personally
experienced or validating our own experience by discussing what we think is true with
others who share the same views.
Science offers a more systematic way to make comparisons guard against bias. One
technique used to avoid sampling bias is to select participants for a study in a random
way. This means using a technique to insure that all members have an equal chance of
being selected. Simple random sampling may involve using a set of random numbers as
a guide in determining who is to be selected. For example, if we have a list of 400
people and wish to randomly select a smaller group or sample to be studied, we use a
list of random numbers and select the case that corresponds with that number (Case
39, 3, 217 etc.). This is preferable to asking only those individuals with whom we are
familiar to participate in a study; if we conveniently chose only people we know, we
know nothing about those who had no opportunity to be selected. There are many more
elaborate techniques that can be used to obtain samples that represent the composition
of the population we are studying. But even though a randomly selected representative
sample is preferable, it is not always used because of costs and other limitations. (As a
consumer of research, however, you should know how the sample was obtained and
keep this in mind when interpreting results.)

Scientific Methods

One method of scientific investigation involves the following steps:

 Determining a research question

 Reviewing previous studies addressing the topic in question (known as a
literature review)
 Determining a method of gathering information
 Conducting the study
 Interpreting results
 Drawing conclusions; stating limitations of the study and suggestions for future
research
 Making your findings available to others (both to share information and to have
your work scrutinized by others)

Your findings can then be used by others as they explore the area of interest and
through this process a literature or knowledge base is established. This model of
scientific investigation presents research as a linear process guided by a specific
research question. And it typically involves quantifying or using statistics to understand
and report what has been studied. Many academic journals publish reports on studies
conducted in this manner and a good way to become more familiar with these steps is
to look at journal articles which will be written in sections that follow these steps. For
example, after a section entitled “Statement of the Problem”, you might find a second
section entitled, “Literature Review”. Other headings will reflect the stages of research
mentioned above.
Another model of research referred to as qualitative research may involve steps such as
these:

 Begin with a broad area of interest

 Gain entrance into a group to be researched
 Gather field notes about the setting, the people, the structure, the activities or
other areas of interest
 Ask open ended, broad “grand tour” types of questions when interviewing
subjects
 Modify research questions as study continues
 Note patterns or consistencies
 Explore new areas deemed important by the people being observed
 Report findings

In this type of research, theoretical ideas are “grounded” in the experiences of the
participants. The researcher is the student and the people in the setting are the
teachers as they inform the researcher of their world (Glazer & Strauss,
1967). Researchers are to be aware of their own biases and assumptions, acknowledge
them and bracket them in efforts to keep them from limiting accuracy in reporting.
Sometimes qualitative studies are used initially to explore a topic and more quantitative
studies are used to test or explain what was first described.

Types of Studies

Not all studies are designed to reach the same goal. Descriptive studies focus on
describing an occurrence. Some examples of descriptive questions include:

 “How much time do parents spend with children?”

 “How many times per week do couples have intercourse?”
 “When is marital satisfaction greatest?”

Explanatory studies are efforts to answer the question “why” such as:

 “Why have rates of divorce leveled off?”

 “Why are teen pregnancy rates down?”

Evaluation research is designed to assess the effectiveness of policies or

programs. For instance, a research might be designed to study the effectiveness of
safety programs implemented in schools for installing car seats or fitting bicycle
helmets. Do children wear their helmets? Do parents use car seats properly? If not, why
not?