STANDARD

ABAQUS/Standard
Version 6.3
In the design of an engine cylinder head, one of the considerations is the stress distribution in the vicinity of the
valve inserts and spark plug when subjected to both thermal and mechanical loading. The global model of the
cylinder head, which was used for the complete engine assembly analysis, was too coarse in the area of interest.
The submodeling capability within ABAQUS/Standard was used to resolve the stresses in the desired local area
without requiring a complete remeshing of the cylinder head.
P R O D U C T O V E R V I E W

Introduction • Coupled problems:

ABAQUS/Standard is a general-purpose,
production-oriented finite element
program designed specifically for
advanced analysis applications. A wide
variety of problems can be addressed
with the available modeling tools.
ABAQUS/Standard is designed to run
effectively on computers ranging from
notebooks and desktop systems through
workstations and high-end multi-processor
servers, running various Windows, UNIX,
or LINUX operating systems.
Analyses
ABAQUS/Standard provides a variety
of time- and frequency-domain analysis
procedures. These procedures are
divided into two classes: “general
analyses,” in which the response may
be linear or nonlinear, and “linear
perturbation analyses,” in which
linear response is computed about a
general, possibly nonlinear, base state.
A single simulation can include multiple
analysis types.
– Thermo-mechanical
(sequentially or fully coupled)
– Thermo-electrical
– Piezoelectric
– Pore fluid flow-mechanical
– Stress-mass diffusion
(sequentially coupled)
– Shock and acoustic-structural
Linear Perturbation Analyses
• Static stress/displacement analysis:
– Linear static
stress/displacement analysis
– Eigenvalue buckling
load prediction
• Dynamic stress/displacement analysis:
– Determination of natural modes
and frequencies
– Transient response via
modal superposition
– Steady-state response resulting
from harmonic loading
– Response spectrum analysis
– Dynamic response resulting from
random loading

General Analyses
• Static stress/displacement analysis

• Viscoelastic/viscoplastic response

• Transient dynamic
stress/displacement analysis
• Steady-state transport analysis

• Transient or steady-state heat

transfer analysis
• Transient or steady-state mass
diffusion analysis
• Acoustic analysis
2 ABAQUS/Standard V E R S I O N 6 . 3
Materials
Models are provided for metals,
hydrostatic fluids, rubber, plastics,
composites, resilient and crushable
foams, concrete, sand, clay, and jointed
rock. The material response for each of
these models may be highly nonlinear.
General elastic, elastic-plastic, and elastic-
viscoplastic behaviors are provided. Both
isotropic and anisotropic behavior can be
modeled. User-defined materials can also
be created with a subroutine interface.
Geometry
Structures and continua can be modeled.
One-, two-, and three-dimensional
continuum elements are provided, as well
as shells, membranes, beams, and trusses.
The beam and shell elements are based on
modern discrete Kirchhoff or shear flexible
theories and are very cost-effective. Shell
elements are provided for heat transfer
and stress analysis, which makes it
straightforward to analyze shell structures
subjected to thermal loads. Several other
specialized elements are available to
accurately model different types of
components. ABAQUS/Standard is a
modular code: any combination of elements,
each with any appropriate material model,
can be used in the same analysis.
Kinematics
All elements in ABAQUS/Standard (except
for some special-purpose elements) are
formulated to provide accurate modeling
for arbitrary magnitudes of displacements,
rotations, and strains.
Prescribed Conditions
Boundary conditions can include prescribed
kinematic conditions (single- and multi-
point constraints) and prescribed
foundation conditions. Loading conditions
can include point loads, distributed loads,
and thermal loading. A special tool for
prescribing forces on assemblies allows
direct specification of bolt or other fastener
loads. Follower force effects such as
pressure, centrifugal, and Coriolis forces
are included where appropriate. Loads
and boundary conditions for pore fluid
pressure, electric potential, and other
scalar fields are also available. Initial
conditions for temperature, velocity,
stress, and numerous other fields can
be specified.
Interactions
ABAQUS/Standard has general capabilities
for modeling interactions between bodies,
including surface-to-surface contact, with or
without friction. Fully coupled thermal-
stress interfaces are provided, where heat
and traction may both be transmitted and
where the thermal resistance of the interface
may depend on the pressure between
contacting surfaces or the mechanical
separation of the surfaces. Surface-based
interactions are available to couple
structural and acoustic medium models for
dynamic and vibration analysis. Coupled
pore fluid flow-stress and coupled thermal-
electrical interactions are also available.
Add-on Products
The analysis capabilities of ABAQUS/Standard
can be enhanced by using the following add-
on products:
• ABAQUS/Design
Provides a design sensitivity
analysis capability as an extension
of ABAQUS/Standard
• ABAQUS/Aqua
Augments ABAQUS/Standard
analysis capabilities to model
offshore structures
Additional Analysis and
Modeling Techniques
• Continue simulations begun with
ABAQUS/Explicit
• Transfer results to ABAQUS/Explicit
to continue simulations
• Restart analyses from intermediate states
• Substructures
• Submodeling
• Material removal and addition
• Fracture mechanics design evaluation
• Symmetric model generation
and results transfer
• Cyclic symmetry models
• Inertia relief
• Automatic resolution of overconstraints
• Parameterization and parametric studies
• Automatic perturbation of geometry
• Reinforcement
• Embedded elements
• Multiple coordinate system import
• Local degrees of freedom
• Hydrostatic fluid cavities
• Annealing
• User subroutines
Interface Products
The interface products allow the
capabilities of ABAQUS/Standard to be
leveraged to perform analyses that would
otherwise be difficult. The interfaces can be
unidirectional or bidirectional. The
unidirectional interface allows the
continuation in ABAQUS/Standard
of an analysis that was begun in another
product. A bidirectional interface also
allows an ABAQUS/Standard analysis to be
continued in another product. The
following interfaces are available:
• ABAQUS/MOLDFLOW
• ABAQUS/C-MOLD
• ABAQUS/ADAMS
ABAQUS, Inc.
F E A T U R E S
ABAQUS/Standard uses a high-
performance, parallel, sparse, multifront
equation solver to solve both symmetric
and unsymmetric systems of equations and
automatically uses the unsymmetric
solution scheme when the physics of a
problem demands it. Parallel processing is
available on most supported platforms. For
eigenvalue problems ABAQUS/Standard
uses a parallel Lanczos eigensolver that is
designed for efficiency with large models
and large numbers of eigenmodes.
In nonlinear problems the challenge is
to provide a convergent solution at
minimum cost. This challenge is
addressed by automatic control of the
time incrementation, which is provided
for all relevant analysis procedures. The
user defines a “step,” which is a portion
of the analysis history, such as a thermal
transient, a stage in a manufacturing
process, or a dynamic event.
ABAQUS/Standard then automatically
selects the convergence tolerances and
the time increments required for the
step. This approach is highly effective
for nonlinear problems because the
model’s response may change drastically
during an analysis step. Automatic
control allows nonlinear problems to be
run with confidence without extensive
experience with the problem. This
capability is a good example of the
many features in ABAQUS/Standard
that make it a production-oriented
analysis tool and distinguish it from
other finite element programs.
3
Analyses
Analysis procedures in ABAQUS/Standard
can be mixed in any reasonable fashion.
For example, a single simulation may
include a nonlinear static analysis
followed by a nonlinear dynamic
analysis, in which case the final static
solution provides the initial conditions
for the dynamic response.
The user divides the loading histories into
steps solely on the basis of convenience.
For a purely linear analysis each step is
essentially a load case. In a nonlinear
analysis each step is typically one stage in
the overall loading history. A single
analysis type is specified within each step.
A linear analysis can be a linear
perturbation about a nonlinear base state.
For example, a rubber component can be
deformed and prestressed during a
nonlinear static analysis and can be
followed by a series of linear perturbation
studies to obtain the natural frequencies
and small vibration response of the
component using the stiffness and
geometry from the base state.
In a nonlinear analysis the initial condition
for each step is the state of the model at
the end of the previous step. This
dependency provides a convenient method
for following complex loading histories,
such as a manufacturing process. Each
step is subdivided into increments; in each
increment ABAQUS/Standard iterates for
equilibrium, using the full Newton
method in most cases. The convergence
criteria are determined automatically by
ABAQUS/Standard, although the user can
override these tolerances.
4 ABAQUS/Standard V E R S I O N 6 . 3
The state of an analysis can be transferred
between ABAQUS/Standard and
ABAQUS/Explicit. This results transfer
enables a simulation to be run using both
ABAQUS solvers, allowing the most
appropriate solver technology to be used
at each stage of the simulation. For
example, several components can be
assembled using ABAQUS/Standard to
model an initial static preloading, and
the simulation can then be continued
in ABAQUS/Explicit to model an impact
on the preloaded assembly. Alternatively,
a forming simulation can be performed
using ABAQUS/Explicit, and the
model can then be transferred to
ABAQUS/Standard to determine the
amount of springback when the tooling is
removed and the component is trimmed.
General, Nonlinear Analyses
These analyses can include the effects of
any nonlinearities present in the model.
• Static stress/displacement analysis
Two approaches for static stress
analysis are available. One is for cases
in which a prescribed loading history
(such as a temperature transient in a
thermal shock) must be followed. With
this approach there is an option for
ABAQUS to control localized unstable
behavior automatically. The alternative
is an arc-length (modified Riks)
method, which is provided for globally
unstable static problems such as
postcollapse or postbuckling cases.
• Viscoelastic/viscoplastic response
Both explicit and implicit time
integration methods are provided. The
program will switch automatically
between these methods to maximize
computational efficiency.
Under racing conditions, a high
performance snowmobile clutch exerts
significant centrifugal and mechanical
forces on an internal hub. Mechanical
failures of the hub became a problem
as the engine horsepower of these
vehicles exceeded the limits of the design.
ABAQUS/Standard was used to determine
the cause of the fatigue failures and then
to verify the integrity of a redesigned hub.
• Dynamic stress/displacement
analysis For fully nonlinear problems
ABAQUS/Standard includes direct,
implicit time integration, using the
Hilber-Hughes operator (the Newmark
method with controllable numerical
damping). The explicit integration
capability, based on the central
difference method, is available in
ABAQUS/Explicit. Automatic time
incrementation is used in both cases.
A projection method is provided
for mildly nonlinear cases in which the
response is developed using the
eigenmodes of the system as global
basis functions for the nonlinear
solution. The eigenmodes are based on
the initial configuration and can be
updated periodically during the
solution. This method is very effective
for some important applications
involving local nonlinear response,
such as piping systems with
nonlinear restraints.
ABAQUS, Inc.
• Steady-state transport analysis Material
passes through a fixed reference frame as
the material rotates about a fixed axis, using
a mixed Lagrangian/Eulerian material
description. The material motion is a
combination of rigid body rotation, which is
described in a spatial or Eulerian manner,
and deformation relative to the rotation,
which is described in a Lagrangian manner.
This approach is particularly effective for
modeling the steady-state rolling of tires.
• Heat transfer analysis (transient and steady-
state) Conduction, radiation, and forced
convection are addressed. A full cavity
radiation capability is included (see
“Interactions” for further information).
• Mass diffusion analysis (transient
and steady-state) Mass diffusion can
be driven both by concentration and
hydrostatic pressure stress gradients to
analyze the diffusion of one substance
through another (e.g., the diffusion of
hydrogen through metal).
• Acoustic analysis Acoustic analysis
capabilities are provided to model sound
propagation, emission, and radiation
problems in an acoustic medium.
• Coupled problems:
– Thermo-mechanical Sequential
thermal-stress analysis uses one simple
data option to incorporate temperature
results from a heat transfer analysis into
a stress analysis, with automatic
incrementation through the thermal
transient. This capability makes
thermal shock analysis extremely
simple. Alternatively, for problems
involving two-way coupling (e.g., friction
causing heat), fully coupled analysis
solves the temperature and
displacement fields simultaneously.
– Thermo-electrical The coupled
temperature and electric potential
fields are solved simultaneously.
– Piezoelectric The coupled displacement
and electric potential fields are
calculated simultaneously.
– Pore fluid flow-mechanical This
capability can be used to analyze
problems involving coupled effective
stress and pore fluid flow. Partially
saturated flow problems involving
phreatic surfaces and capillary effects
can be addressed.
– Thermo-mechanical mass diffusion
Mass diffusion simulations can be
driven by the results from a heat
transfer and a stress analysis.
– Shock and acoustic-structural Fully
or sequentially coupled acoustic-
structural vibration analysis
problems can be solved in either
the time or frequency domain.
Linear Perturbation Analyses
These analyses provide the linear
response due to perturbations about the
base state, which can be the initial state
of the structure or can be created by
prior general, nonlinear analysis steps.
Eigenvalue extraction for buckling
and natural frequency analysis can be
performed using either Lanczos or
subspace iteration techniques. The
Lanczos eigensolver handles large
models and large numbers of
eigenvalues efficiently.
• Static stress/displacement analysis:
– Linear static stress/displacement
analysis Linear static analysis
can be performed efficiently by
specifying multiple load cases (sets
of loads and boundary conditions)
in a single step. Alternatively, the
analysis can be performed in a
series of steps with one load case
specified per step.
– Eigenvalue buckling estimates
Arbitrary preloads and live loads
can be specified. The boundary
conditions during the eigenvalue
extraction can be different from
the boundary conditions used
during the preloading.
• Dynamic stress/displacement analysis:
– Natural frequency extraction This
procedure can be invoked at any
stage in the analysis. Any effects
due to preloads can be included.
Coupled modes can be extracted if
acoustic-structural coupling is
present in the model.
– Transient response The eigenmodes
of the structure are superposed to
obtain the linearized, transient
response of the system.
5
– Steady-state response to
harmonic loading The eigenmodes
of the structure can be used to
obtain the steady-state response to
some periodic loading over a
frequency range. Alternatively, the
response can be computed directly
in terms of the physical degrees of
freedom of the structure. With this
approach it is possible to obtain
the solution to several load cases
simultaneously.
– Response spectrum analysis
The peak values of response
variables are estimated based on
user-supplied response spectra
and the eigenmodes of the system.
Several modal combination methods
are available.
– Random response analysis
The linearized response of a model
to random excitation is computed,
based on the natural modes of
the system.
Material Definitions
Numerous material models are provided.
Most material parameters can depend
on temperature and predefined field
variables, such as the density of a particular
phase in a multiphase material. An option
is provided so that local orientations can
be defined throughout the mesh for
material property input and stress/strain
component output. This option is useful
for modeling laminated composites and
other anisotropic materials.
Elasticity
• Linear elasticity Elastic moduli can be
isotropic, orthotropic, or anisotropic.
• Plane stress orthotropic failure Failure
theories are provided for use with
linear elasticity. They are typically used
in the analysis of composite shells.
• Porous elasticity A voided material
model is provided in which the elastic
part of the volume change depends on
the logarithm of the pressure stress.
This model is frequently used to define
the elastic behavior for soils and
crushable foams.
6 ABAQUS/Standard V E R S I O N 6 . 3
• Hypoelasticity Hypoelasticity allows
the moduli to be dependent on strain
and is valid for small elastic strains.
• Hyperelasticity These models are used
to study the large-strain elastic
response of rubberlike materials. Five
hyperelastic models are included: a
general polynomial strain energy
function (includes the Mooney-Rivlin
model), Ogden’s model, a reduced
polynomial model involving only the
first invariant (includes the neo-
Hookean and Yeoh models), the Arruda-
Boyce model, and the Van der Waals
model. These models can be used for
fully incompressible or nearly
incompressible response. Fully
incompressible behavior is allowed
through the use of hybrid (mixed
displacement and pressure) elements.
The Bergstrom-Boyce model can be
used in conjunction with any of the
hyperelastic models to include
hysteresis and other rate-dependent
effects. A model for use with highly
voided, resilient foams is also available.
Material constants for all large-strain
elasticity models can be specified
directly or are calculated from user-
supplied test data.
• Viscoelasticity Both time-domain and
frequency-domain viscoelastic models
are provided. The time-domain model,
which is available for small- and finite-
strain problems, uses a Prony series
representation. The Prony series
constants are calculated by
ABAQUS/Standard based on user-
specified test data that may be frequency
or time dependent. Viscoelastic materials
can be specified as thermo-rheologically
simple (TRS); the Williams-Landel-Ferry
relationship is provided, and other TRS
relationships can be specified through
a user subroutine. The material properties
of the frequency-domain model can
either be specified in terms of the
frequency-dependent storage and
loss moduli or be computed by
ABAQUS/Standard from Prony series
constants. Both viscoelastic models can
be combined with either the linear elastic
or hyperelastic models.
Plasticity and Creep
• Metal plasticity The models offered
include both isotropic plasticity with a
Mises yield criterion and anisotropic
plasticity with Hill’s yield criterion. The
flow rule is associated (normal) flow,
and the hardening rules are isotropic,
bilinear kinematic, and ORNL theory.
Linear kinematic hardening and
combined, nonlinear isotropic/kinematic
hardening are available for cyclic,
inelastic loading. In addition, Gurson’s
plasticity model for porous metals with
void nucleation and strain hardening of
the matrix material is available.
• Cast iron The yield criterion is Rankine
in tension and Mises in compression.
The flow potential allows inelastic
dilation in tension but not in
compression, and different hardening
curves can be specified for uniaxial
tension and uniaxial compression.
• Creep Isotropic or anisotropic creep
is offered with power (time or strain
hardening), Singh-Mitchell, and
hyperbolic-sine laws. Special creep
laws can be defined with a user
subroutine. ABAQUS/Standard
automatically switches from explicit
to implicit time stepping based on
either stability limits of the explicit
operator or if plasticity is active, thus
providing for efficient solution of long-
time creep problems. Consistently
integrated isotropic creep models are
provided for Mises, Drucker-Prager,
and cap plasticity.
• Volumetric swelling Isotropic or
anisotropic volume change with time
is provided as a function of field
variables. The volumetric swelling
rate can be specified in a table or with
a user subroutine.
• Two-layer viscoplasticity This model is
based on Mises or Hill yield criteria
together with any power law creep
model available in ABAQUS/Standard.
It differs from the standard plasticity
and creep models in the nature of the
coupling between the viscous and
plastic behaviors. The model is useful
for modeling response under
fluctuating loads and over a wide
range of temperatures.
• Extended Drucker-Prager This model
provides various pressure-dependent
yield surfaces and includes strain
hardening/softening; rate dependence;
and nonassociated flow for granular
materials, such as sand, and for materials
with different yield in tension and
compression, such as polymers.
• Capped Drucker-Prager The features
of the Cam-clay model and the extended
Drucker-Prager model are combined in this
model. It is suitable for many geotechnical
applications, such as tunnel excavation.
• Cam-clay Critical state plasticity is
provided for clay-like soils. This model
defines the inelastic behavior of a
material by a yield function that
depends on the three stress invariants,
an associated flow assumption to define
the plastic strain rate, and a strain
hardening theory that changes the
size of the yield surface according to
the inelastic volumetric strain.
• Mohr-Coulomb This model is provided for
granular materials such as sand. It uses
the Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion but has
a smooth Menétrey-Willam flow potential.
It is similar to the capped Drucker-Prager
model but has a faceted, rather than a
smooth, yield surface.
• Crushable foam This model is suitable for
highly crushable materials, such as those
used for packaging consumer products
and for vehicle safety. The material model
can be calibrated with simple uniaxial
compression test data.
• Jointed material This model can be used
to analyze jointed or faulted materials
such as sedimentary rock. The response
can include effects resulting from frictional
sliding along the joints, joint opening, and
bulk material failure.
• Strain-rate-dependent plasticity As strain
rate increases, many materials show an
increase in their yield strength. Hardening
in all metal plasticity models, as well as
the extended Drucker-Prager and
crushable foam models, can be rate
independent or rate dependent
(viscoplastic). Rate-dependent hardening
data derived from experiments can be
defined in a simple tabular fashion and
are interpolated automatically. The
Cowper-Symonds overstress model is
also available.
ABAQUS, Inc.
• Concrete Two constitutive models are
offered for the analysis of concrete at
low confining pressures: a smeared
crack model and a damaged plasticity
model. Both models are designed to
provide a general capability for
modeling plain and reinforced concrete
(as well as other similar quasi-brittle
materials) in all types of structures:
beams, trusses, shells, and solids.
Additional Material
Properties
• Density Density is required for any
dynamic or heat transfer problem.
• Thermal expansion Isotropic or
orthotropic thermal expansion coefficients
can be defined with temperature and
prescribed field variable dependence.
• Thermal and electrical conductivity
Temperature-dependent and field-variable-
dependent isotropic, orthotropic, or fully
anisotropic conductivity can be defined.
• Specific heat Temperature-dependent and
field-variable-dependent specific heat can
be defined.
• Latent heat An internal energy method is
used to ensure accurate prediction of
severe latent heat effects associated with
phase changes.
• Piezoelectric properties Isotropic,
orthotropic, or fully anisotropic dielectric
properties can be defined.
• Material damping Both mass and
stiffness proportional damping can be
specified for general analyses. For linear
perturbation analyses additional
damping options are available.
The concrete models available in
ABAQUS/Standard allow the design of
structures such as this reinforced concrete
outer shell of a nuclear reactor. The
concrete damaged plasticity model was
used to validate the reactor shell design
under large outward pressures by
measuring a tensile damage variable.
• Acoustic medium properties The bulk
modulus and volumetric drag properties
of an acoustic medium can be specified as
a function of temperature and other field
variables. The volumetric drag can also be
specified as a function of the frequency.
• Hydrostatic fluid properties Hydraulic
and pneumatic fluid properties such as
the density, bulk modulus, and thermal
expansion coefficient can be specified
as a function of temperature and other
field variables.
• Mass diffusion properties The solubility
and isotropic, orthotropic, or fully
anisotropic diffusivity can be defined
as a function of concentration,
temperature, and other field variables.
• Pore fluid flow properties The various
properties of a fluid-filled porous material
can be defined. Isotropic, orthotropic, or
fully anisotropic permeability is available
and can depend on the void ratio,
saturation, and temperature. The porous
bulk moduli can be defined as a function
of the temperature, and different types of
absorption/exsorption behavior can be
defined. In addition, the properties of
swelling gels and the saturation-driven
volumetric swelling of the solid skeleton
of a porous medium can be defined.
• No tension This model prevents tensile
principal stresses.
• No compression This model prevents
compressive principal stresses.
• User materials User subroutines
allow any material model to be
implemented. ABAQUS provides for
an arbitrary number of solution-
7
dependent state variables to be
stored at each material calculation
point, as well as for any number of
material constants to be read as data,
for use in these subroutines.
Element Library
The element library provides maximum
flexibility in modeling geometry.
Elements are divided into families
according to underlying theory
(continuum, shell, beam, truss, etc.),
dimensionality or stress representation
(one-dimensional, two-dimensional,
plane strain, plane stress, axisymmetric,
three-dimensional, etc.), primary
variable (displacement, temperature,
etc.), and formulation/integration
(reduced integration, hybrid
formulation, etc.). Stress elements are
formulated for finite strain and large
displacements, as well as for small-
displacement analysis.
Continuum Elements
• Order of interpolation First- and
second-order elements are available.
• Topology Links are available for one-
dimensional problems; triangles and
quadrilaterals for two-dimensional
and axisymmetric problems (including
axisymmetric models subjected to
asymmetric loads); and tetra-, penta-,
and hexahedra for three-dimensional
problems. Special elements with midface
nodes are available for three-dimensional
8 ABAQUS/Standard V E R S I O N 6 . 3
contact with second-order hexahedral
elements. Special second-order triangular
and tetrahedral elements are available for
contact problems. Cylindrical elements
are available for precise modeling of
regions in a structure with circular
geometry. Any hexahedral elements can
be defined as layered solid elements to
model composites.
• Numerical integration Full integration
is available for triangles and tetrahedra.
Elements without displacement
degrees of freedom have only full
integration schemes available, whereas
elements with displacement degrees of
freedom have full, selectively reduced,
or reduced integration with hourglass
control for quadrilaterals and
hexahedra. “Incompatible mode”
and hybrid versions of these elements
are available for problems with
significant bending response and
incompressible cases, respectively.
• Applications:
– Stress analysis Elements are
available for the following types of
stress analyses: three-dimensional,
plane stress, plane strain,
generalized plane strain (including
initial curvature), axisymmetric,
generalized axisymmetric (which
allow finite torsional rotation), and
asymmetric-axisymmetric (which
allow nonlinear deformation of
axisymmetric structures).
– Heat transfer and mass diffusion
analysis Elements can model one-
dimensional, two-dimensional, and
three-dimensional applications.
Heat transfer elements are available
for pure conduction and conduction
with forced convection.
– Acoustic medium modeling
Elements are available for one-
dimensional, two-dimensional,
axisymmetric, and three-
dimensional applications.
– Coupled problems
Temperature-displacement,
pore fluid-displacement,
piezoelectric, thermo-electric,
and acoustic-structural response
can be modeled.
Shells
• Order of interpolation First- and
second-order shells are available.
• Topology For three-dimensional
applications 3- and 6-node triangular
and 4-, 8-, and 9-node quadrilateral
shells are available. In addition, 2- and
3-node axisymmetric shells (including
axisymmetric geometries subjected to
asymmetric loading) are available. All
shell elements can model layered
composites. The reference surface of the
element, defined by the position of the
nodes, can be placed at any location
through the thickness of the shell.
• Numerical integration Full-integration
triangular shells and full- or reduced-
integration quadrilateral shells are
available. The shell section stiffness can
be recalculated throughout an analysis
to capture nonlinear material behavior,
or it can be integrated once for
economic solutions involving linear
material response. In either case
nonlinear geometric effects can be
included. The shell elements in
ABAQUS are true doubly curved shells.
Both shear flexible (“thick”) and “thin”
shell elements are provided. The initial
thickness can be specified on an
element or nodal basis, and the final
thickness distribution can be recovered.
• Applications:
– Stress analysis
– Three-dimensional heat
transfer analysis
– Fully coupled temperature-
displacement analysis
Membranes
• Order of interpolation First- and
second-order membranes are available.
• Topology For three-dimensional
applications 3- and 6-node triangular
and 4-, 8-, and 9-node quadrilateral
membranes are available. In addition,
2- and 3-node axisymmetric and
generalized axisymmetric membranes
(which allow finite torsional rotation)
are available. Special cylindrical
elements are available for precise
modeling of regions in a structure
with circular geometry.
• Numerical integration Full-integration
triangular membranes and full- or
reduced-integration quadrilateral
membranes are available. The initial
thickness can be specified on an
element or nodal basis, and the final
thickness distribution can be recovered.
• Applications Membrane elements are
available only for stress analysis.
Beams, Pipes, and Elbows
• Order of interpolation First- and
second-order elements are available.
The beam library also includes a
2-node cubic element for framed
structures in which the user wants to
model only one element between
supports or connections.
• Topology For two-dimensional and three-
dimensional problems 2- and 3-node
beams and pipes are available, while
2- and 3-node elbows are provided for
three-dimensional cases only.
• Numerical integration and section
behavior Both Timoshenko and Euler-
Bernouli bending theories are available.
Open-section beams allow warping;
pipes allow uniform expansion of the
cross-section, thus modeling internal
pressure effects and, in particular, the
influence of hoop stress on the elastic-
plastic bending response; elbows
model ovalization and warping effects
in nonlinear problems. A library of
sections is available for beam elements,
including rectangular, trapezoidal, pipe,
circular, “I,” “L,” hexagonal, or arbitrary
cross-sections. The user can choose
numerical integration of the cross-section
(to model material nonlinearities) or can
specify a general linear or nonlinear
cross-section response matrix.
• Applications These elements are
used in a variety of stress analysis
applications. Beams are compatible
with corresponding order shell and
solid elements and are frequently used
in stiffened shell cases. Hybrid (mixed)
versions of the beam and pipe elements
are available for use in very slender or
very stiff cases (almost inextensible
beams). Examples include flexible
offshore piping and riser systems or stiff
components in elasto-kinematic analysis
ABAQUS, Inc.
An automotive valve cover gasket
performs two vital functions. The most
obvious is to provide a seal under all
engine operating environments over the
life of the vehicle. The stiffness or “rate”
of the gasket must also be designed
accordingly to avoid unwanted vibration
and noise. The specialized gasket
elements in ABAQUS/Standard capture
both the local “thickness” response of
the gasket as well as the full three-
dimensional distribution of gasket
closure and pressure.
(such as vehicle suspension system
components). Elbows are useful for
those piping problems where section
ovalization and warping significantly
influence the overall system stiffness.
Frame Elements
• Topology Two-node elements are
available for two- and three-dimensional
problems.
• Frame behavior The elastic response
follows Euler-Bernoulli beam theory
with fourth-order interpolation for the
transverse displacements. The plastic
response is concentrated at the
element ends (plastic hinges) and is
governed by a plasticity model that
includes nonlinear kinematic
hardening. Frame elements can
represent plastic buckling using the
Marshall strut envelope for load
reversals of a pipe cross-section.
• Applications Frame elements are
intended for small-strain elastic or elastic-
plastic analysis of frame-like structures
composed of slender, initially straight
beams. Typically, a single frame element
will represent the entire structural
member connecting two joints.
Trusses
• Order of interpolation First- and
second-order elements are available.
• Topology Two- and three-node trusses
are available for two- and three-
dimensional problems.
• Applications:
– Stress analysis
– Fully coupled temperature-
displacement analysis
– Piezoelectric analysis
Gasket Elements
• Applications These elements are
• Order of interpolation First- and
second-order elements are available.
• Topology For two-dimensional
applications triangular and quadrilateral
elements are available. In three
dimensions penta- and hexahedral
elements are provided. In addition,
2-node elements are available in two
and three dimensions to model
behavior local to a node. Line elements
are also available in three dimensions
to model beads, O-rings, etc.
• Gasket behavior Elements are provided
with degrees of freedom in the
thickness and in-plane directions and
with degrees of freedom only in the
9
thickness direction. For both types of
elements the gasket behavior in the
through-thickness direction can be elastic-
plastic or nonlinear elastic, including
damage effects. The behavior is defined as
a series of pressure-closure curves
determined from tests, using a built-in
material option, or using a user-defined
small-strain material model. The elements
with in-plane degrees of freedom include
elastic membrane and transverse shear
behavior and can be used to investigate
frictional effects on the gaskets. Thermal
expansion and creep of the gaskets can
be included.
provided to model gaskets and other
components that have complicated
nonlinear behavior through their
thickness. They allow the behavior of
the gasket to be defined directly from
test results without having to fit the
results using a material model. When
used with the contact capabilities in
ABAQUS, the mesh in the gasket does
not have to match the meshes in the
adjacent components. The gasket
elements with degrees of freedom only
in the thickness direction allow for the
efficient analysis of assemblies such as
engines where the block and the head
are modeled using substructures.
10
Inertial, Rigid, and
Capacitance Elements
• Point masses and rotary inertias
Diagonal or off-diagonal mass and
rotary inertia terms can be specified.
• Rigid elements Two-dimensional and
three-dimensional elements to model
rigid bodies for contact interactions are
available. Rigid elements can also be
attached to deformable bodies.
• Capacitance element A point heat
capacitance element allows the
introduction of concentrated heat
capacitance at a point.
Rigid and Isothermal Bodies
• Rigid bodies A rigid body is often used
in situations where its deformation may
be considered negligible relative to other
components in the model, such as a stiff
structure that compresses a pliant rubber
seal. A rigid body can be defined in
several ways: by specifying its geometry;
by using rigid elements; or by
designating any collection of beam,
continuum, gasket, membrane, shell, and
truss elements as rigid. Node sets can
also be included as part of a rigid body,
providing a convenient method of
defining certain constraints. The center of
gravity, mass, and inertia of a rigid body
can be specified directly or calculated
automatically based on the material
density and discretized geometry.
• Display bodies A display body is similar
to a rigid body except that it is used for
display only. None of the nodes or
elements of the display body take part in
the analysis, but they are still available
during postprocessing. The motion of
the associated reference nodes governs
the motion of the display body.
Display bodies are especially useful in
mechanism or multibody dynamics
problems where rigid parts interact with
each other via connectors. In such cases
a part can be represented by a very
simple rigid body or a more complex
display body.
• Isothermal bodies An isothermal body is
the thermal equivalent of a rigid body. It
can be used in heat transfer and coupled
temperature-displacement analysis to
model a body whose temperature is
uniform but may vary through time.
Connector Elements
• Connector elements Connector
elements model discrete, physical
connections between nodes and can be
used in any application with flexible or
rigid parts; examples include kinematic
constraints (such as a slot or revolute
constraint), single-component nonlinear
material response, and unidirectional
contact constraints. In addition, connector
elements with available components of
relative motion (relative degrees of
freedom that are not kinematically
ABAQUS/Standard V E R S I O N 6 . 3
ABAQUS online documentation permits
the user to search electronically through
manuals for relevant topics.
constrained) allow actuation. In actuated
connections, such as gear-driven
deployment arms or hydraulic pistons,
the relative motion components are
given a known displacement or force
history. Connector elements can be
used both in general analysis steps
(which can include nonlinear response)
and in linear perturbation steps such as
frequency extraction and modal-based
transient dynamics (which can include
a nonlinear base state).
• Linear and nonlinear springs, dashpots,
and joints Springs and dashpots can be
associated with fixed directions or can be
placed between nodes.
Flexible, corotational joints combine
springs and dashpots in parallel, for use
with nearly coincident nodes representing
a joint with internal stiffness and damping.
Elastic-plastic joint elements incorporate
lumped elastic-plastic response to model
a joint between structural members or
between a structural member and a
fixed support.
• Tube support elements Tube support
elements model the interaction of a tube
with an adjacent tube support when
intermittent contact between the tube and
support may occur.
• Distributing coupling elements
Distributing coupling elements distribute
mass and loads from an element
reference node to a node set according
to user-specified weighting factors.
ABAQUS, Inc.
Special-Purpose Elements
• Line springs Line spring elements model
part-through cracks in shells, with elastic
or elastic-plastic material behavior.
• Infinite elements First- and second-order
plane stress, plane strain, axisymmetric,
and three-dimensional solid continuum
infinite elements are available. They are
used in conjunction with regular planar,
axisymmetric, and three-dimensional
finite elements in problems involving
semi-infinite or very large domains. In
static analyses they model the elastic
response of the domain, while in
dynamic analyses they provide “quiet”
boundaries that do not reflect stress
waves back into the model.
First- and second-order two-
dimensional, axisymmetric, and three-
dimensional acoustic infinite elements
are available to accurately model
boundaries that do not reflect acoustic
pressure waves. This capability is useful
in acoustic exterior analysis.
• Surface elements General, axisymmetric,
and cylindrical surface elements are
available. They behave just like
membrane elements with zero thickness.
They are used to carry rebar layers and
can be embedded in solid elements.
• Pipe-soil interaction elements Pipe-soil
elements model the interaction between a
buried pipeline and the surrounding soil.
A wide range of connector elements,
in combination with rigid and/or
deformable elements and display bodies,
provide a powerful solution to quickly
and accurately model mechanisms,
such as this earth-moving assembly.
• User-defined elements Any number of
linear or nonlinear user-defined element
types can be introduced into a model.
Stiffness or mass matrices can be
specified directly for linear user elements.
Alternatively, a user subroutine can be
used to define linear or nonlinear
behavior for such elements.
Prescribed Conditions
• Amplitude curves Named amplitude
curves can be described in terms of
discretized data, Fourier series, or other
functions. These names can then be
referenced to prescribe the variation of
any load or boundary condition.
• Initial conditions Initial conditions can be
defined on a wide variety of fields. Data
can be entered in a table, imported from
other ABAQUS analyses, or defined in
various user subroutines.
• Boundary conditions Boundary
conditions can be specified on any active
degree of freedom in the model.
Variables can be prescribed directly or
fixed at their current value after some
loading.
• Loads Many loading types are available
depending on the analysis procedure.
Any load can refer to an arbitrary
amplitude curve, such as a ground
acceleration in a seismic analysis or a
complex pressure pulse history.
11
Distributed loads can be applied directly
to elements or to surfaces. Nonuniform
distributed loads can also be defined
through a user subroutine. Uniform and
nonuniform body forces, uniform and
nonuniform pressures, hydrostatic
pressures, rotary accelerations and
centrifugal loads, Coriolis forces, elastic
foundations, incident wave loading, and
follower force effects (including load
stiffness terms) are included where
appropriate.
The user can apply concentrated forces
and moments, including follower forces;
temperature; field variables; and nonzero
displacements, rotations, velocities, or
accelerations specified with arbitrary time
variations. For thermal, acoustic, and other
nonstructural models, corresponding
loadings such as heat flux, bubble loading,
and electric current are provided.
• Prescribed assembly loads Prescribed
assembly loads for components with
tightened bolts or connectors can be
applied.
• Predefined fields These fields are
additional fields beyond temperature
upon which material properties may
depend. Solution-dependent field
variables can also be defined through a
user subroutine.
12
The stresses in the different belts of
a tire can change significantly
depending on the angle between
the direction of travel and the plane
normal to the axle of the tire
(known as the slip angle).
ABAQUS/Standard has several
specialized features-such as
cylindrical elements, symmetric
results transfer, rebar definitions,
etc.-that allow the response of tires
under various conditions to be
modeled in an efficient manner.
Interactions
Regions of the model can interact with
each other in a variety of ways:
• By coming into contact
• By the presence of
kinematic constraints
• By the presence of hinged connections
• By exchanging radiated heat
• Surface interaction properties Contact
Contact Interactions
ABAQUS/Standard contains extensive
capabilities for modeling contact and
surface interaction problems. Two basic
approaches, surface-based and element-
based modeling, are available.
• Surface-based modeling Contact is
typically modeled by identifying
surfaces that may interact and by
pairing them by name. Interactions
between deforming bodies or between
a deforming body and a rigid body are
No slip
10º slip
allowed. Rigid bodies can be either
discretized with rigid elements or
defined analytically by revolving/extruding
two-dimensional profiles to create
three-dimensional surfaces. Both small
and finite sliding can be modeled in
either two dimensions or three
dimensions. In two dimensions a self-
contact algorithm allows a surface to
contact itself.
interactions can be modeled for a
variety of situations.
– Mechanical Shear interaction can
be modeled using a static or kinetic
Coulomb friction model. The
coefficient of friction can depend on
the tangential slip velocity, contact
pressure, average surface
temperature, and field variables. For
more complex response a user
subroutine can be used to define the
frictional behavior. Surfaces can be
bonded completely (“tied”) or
allowed to debond according to a
ABAQUS/Standard V E R S I O N 6 . 3
specified criterion. Various contact
pressure-clearance models are
available. The default model is “hard”
contact behavior, which
instantaneously introduces contact
pressure as points come into contact.
Alternatively, “softened” models
allow either an exponential or a
tabular relationship between
pressure and clearance. Finally, a
clearance-dependent viscous
damping relationship for contact
pressure allows highly unstable
contact conditions to be studied.
– Thermal Conductance and radiation
properties as a function of different
variables (normal pressure, contact
clearance, etc.) are available.
– Electrical Electrical conductance as
a function of one or more variables
is available.
– Pore pressure Pore pressure contact
can be used to ensure continuity of
the pore fluid pressure between two
contacting bodies.
ABAQUS, Inc.
– Pressure penetration Pressure
penetration loads model the
penetration of fluid along a surface
between contacting bodies.
• Element-based modeling In certain
cases contact elements, rather than
contact surfaces, are used to define the
interaction between bodies.
– Gap elements Define contact
between discrete points rather than
between surfaces.
– Tube-to-tube contact elements
Model the interaction between two
pipelines, where one tube lies
inside the other or where the tubes
cannot interpenetrate.
The contact algorithms used in
ABAQUS/Standard are robust and have
been tuned over many years, so they
work well on a wide range of problems.
Acoustic-Structural
Interactions
A surface-based interaction is provided to
couple an acoustic medium and a structure
modeled with shell or continuum elements.
There is no requirement to generate
matching meshes at the interface between
the acoustic medium and the structure. It is
possible to model the response of a coupled
structural-acoustic system subjected to
structural preloads, even when these loads
cause significant changes to the geometry
of the acoustic domain. In such cases
adaptive meshing is used to update the
acoustic mesh to conform to the new
geometry. One application of this
capability is the modeling of the interior
cavity of a tire subjected to inflation, rim
mounting, and footprint pressure loads.
Kinematic Constraints
Linear and nonlinear multi-point constraints
(MPCs) are provided, including rigid links,
rigid beams, a shell-solid junction, and
cyclically symmetric constraints. Linear
constraint equations can be defined by
providing coefficients on relevant degrees of
freedom. Nonlinear MPCs that are not
available in the constraint library can be
defined in a user subroutine.
Surface-based coupling constraints provide
convenient and flexible techniques to define
couplings between bodies. Kinematic and
distributing coupling options and a shell-to-
solid coupling option are available.
Hinge Connections
Hinge connections can be defined.
These connections selectively release the
transmission of moments and torsion
between beam and pipe elements.
Cavity Radiation Interactions
ABAQUS has a general cavity radiation
capability. Blocking, shadowing, and
automatic calculation of viewfactors are
included. Radiating surfaces are
identified in a manner similar to that for
the contact surface syntax. Temperature-
dependent emissivity can be specified in
addition to all the other nonlinearities
associated with radiation. Two-
dimensional, three-dimensional, and
axisymmetric geometries with numerous
symmetry options are available:
– Lines or planes of reflection
– Periodic symmetry
– Cyclic symmetry
It is possible to prescribe rigid body
displacements to bodies during a
transient heat transfer simulation with
radiation. The changing viewfactors will
be updated continuously, which is useful
for simulating heating and cooling
processes performed on moving objects.
Additional Analysis and
Modeling Techniques
• Import Results can be transferred
between ABAQUS/Explicit and
ABAQUS/Standard through binary
files. This capability allows the complete
functionality of ABAQUS/Explicit to be
accessed based on an initial state
provided by ABAQUS/Standard, as
well as allowing the capabilities of
ABAQUS/Standard to be used to continue
a simulation done with ABAQUS/Explicit.
13
It is also possible to transfer a component
and its corresponding state from one
ABAQUS/Standard analysis to another
ABAQUS/Standard analysis in which
additional components can be defined.
One import application is the prestressing
of an assembly using ABAQUS/Standard
prior to analyzing an impact with
ABAQUS/Explicit. Other applications
include determining the springback and
natural frequencies using ABAQUS/Standard
subsequent to a forming simulation in
ABAQUS/Explicit.
• Restart A restart capability allows the user
to save the entire state of the analysis at
periodic intervals and to restart with an
additional loading history from any of those
points in time.
• Substructuring ABAQUS/Standard offers
a general, multilevel substructuring
capability. Substructures are kept in user-
defined library files; once generated, they
can be introduced in any analysis model.
Any substructure can be used several
times in a model with repeated geometry,
including translation, rotation, and
reflection with respect to the master
version of the substructure.
Substructures can be used in static and
dynamic stress/displacement analyses.
These analyses can be linear or nonlinear.
This capability provides an especially
effective technique for problems involving
contact between elastic bodies, in which the
nonlinearity is confined to the resolution of
the contact problem itself. In geometrically
nonlinear analyses the substructures can
even undergo finite rotations and
translations. Substructures can also be
preloaded; that is, the stress state in a
domain after some history of loading can
be included when the stiffness of the
substructure is formed.
• Submodeling This technique allows the
user to study a localized part of a model
with a refined mesh based on the solution
from an initial, global model. The
submodel is analyzed as an independent
model. The only link between the
submodel and the global model is the
interpolation of the time-dependent values
of appropriate variables to the relevant
boundary nodes of the submodel.
Submodel boundaries need not match
element boundaries in the global model.
14
The submodeling capability in
ABAQUS/Standard is very general. The
element types and material used in the
submodel can be different from those
used in the corresponding region of the
global model. Both the global model and
the submodel can have nonlinear
response and can be analyzed for any
sequence of analysis procedures, which
can be different in the global model and
the submodel.
• Material removal and addition
ABAQUS/Standard allows elements and
contact pairs to be removed (and possibly
reintroduced at a later stage) throughout
an analysis. Applications of this feature
include geotechnical problems, such as
tunnel or dam construction; welding
simulations; and tool removal for
springback calculations.
• Fracture mechanics A contour integral
capability is provided for calculating
fracture mechanics parameters such as
Ct , J, stress intensity factors (KI, KII, KIII),
and T-stress. The domain integral method
is used to evaluate these quantities.
Multiple contours around the crack tip are
extracted automatically to verify path
independence of the relevant quantity.
The crack direction can be defined by
specifying the crack extension direction or
by specifying a normal to the crack plane.
If the normal is given, the crack direction
is determined automatically from the
normal and the tangent to the crack front.
The crack propagation direction can also
be calculated to predict the angle at which
a preexisting crack will propagate.
The second-order isoparametric elements
can all use coincident nodes and quarter-
point techniques to model crack-tip
singularities.
Several crack growth criteria are available
to model material debonding.
• Result transfer Results from an
axisymmetric model can be transferred
automatically to a three-dimensional
model for a subsequent general three-
dimensional analysis. Similarly, results
from a partial three-dimensional analysis
using symmetry planes can be transferred
to a full three-dimensional analysis.
• Cyclic symmetry models Problems that
exhibit cyclic symmetry can be analyzed by
modeling only the smallest repetitive
sector of a 360° structure. The cyclic
symmetry capability provides for general
nonlinear analysis of cyclic symmetric
structures subjected to cyclic symmetric
loads. In an eigenvalue extraction analysis
both the symmetrical and nonsymmetrical
eigenmodes can be calculated. This
modeling feature is also available for
ABAQUS/Standard V E R S I O N 6 . 3
steady-state dynamic simulations and
analyses involving heat transfer. The
material response can be elastic-plastic
and can also include time-dependent
behavior such as creep. There is no
requirement that matched meshes be used
on the symmetry surfaces of the sector.
• Inertia relief An automatic inertia relief
capability is available to calculate the
quasi-static response of a free or
partially constrained body subjected to
loads. Inertia relief can be performed in
geometrically linear or nonlinear, static
or transient dynamic analyses. An
application of inertia relief is to
determine the stress state in a rocket
accelerating under a constant thrust.
• Automatic resolution of overconstraints
ABAQUS/Standard incorporates an
algorithm that automatically resolves
many common overconstraint situations
that may arise in complex models.
• Data parameterization and parametric
study A parametric study capability is
provided that allows the user to
generate, execute, and gather the results
from multiple analyses that differ only in
the values of some of the parameters
used in place of input quantities.
One of the significant advantages of the
R
TORX PLUS drive system is its ability to
transfer significant torque loads to the
fastener without stripping the fastener or
caming-out of the drive bit. In this extreme
example a torque of 50 N m has been
applied to the drive bit without failure of the
fastener, though significant permanent
deformation is quite evident in the drive bit.
The results of the ABAQUS/Standard
analysis were verified with laboratory tests.
ABAQUS, Inc.
• Automatic perturbation of geometry
Superpose contributions of modes
from an eigenvalue buckling analysis to
provide initial, imperfect geometry for
postbuckling calculations. Similarly,
displacement results from any analysis
can be used to define the initial
geometry for a separate analysis.
• Reinforcement General rebar (reinforcing
bar) definitions can be included in
continuum, beam, shell, and membrane
elements to model composite materials,
such as reinforced concrete, or reinforced
rubber components, such as tires.
• Embedded elements Elements that lie
embedded in a group of host elements
can be specified. For example, truss
elements, rebar reinforced membrane
elements, or rebar reinforced surface
elements can be embedded within three-
dimensional solid elements; or a set of
solid elements can be embedded in
another set of solid elements. The nodes
of the embedded elements and those of
the host element need not be coincident.
• Multiple coordinate system input
Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical
coordinate systems are available with any
point of origin.
• Local degrees of freedom The degrees of
freedom at any node can be transformed
to a Cartesian, cylindrical, or spherical
coordinate system.
• Hydrostatic fluid cavities Fluid-filled
cavities can be modeled in two and
three dimensions. With the hydrostatic
formulation the pressure throughout the
cavity is constant at any instant. Fluid can
be introduced and removed during the
analysis, and a one-dimensional link
element is available to model the fluid
flow between cavities. Applications
include hydraulic engine mounts, air
shock absorbers, and hydraulic actuators.
• Annealing The effects of melting and
resolidification of metals subjected to
high-temperature deformation
processes can be modeled. Relevant
hardening measures are reset if the
temperature exceeds the annealing
temperature. If the temperature of the
material subsequently falls below the
annealing temperature, the material
can work harden again.
15
• User subroutines ABAQUS/Standard
allows the user to extend the capabilities
in the program through user subroutines.
The user can define material models,
elements, MPCs, friction models, and
very general loading.
Solution Techniques
• Sparse solution ABAQUS/Standard uses
a multifrontal, block elimination technique,
available for both symmetric and
unsymmetric matrices. This solver is
highly optimized to minimize the CPU
time and disk space required for sparse
problems. It takes full advantage of
parallel processing capabilities on
high performance computers.
• Lanczos eigenvalue solution By default,
ABAQUS/Standard uses a Lanczos
eigensolver for eigenvalue problems.
It is designed to handle large numbers
of eigenmodes efficiently in large
models. It takes full advantage of
parallel processing capabilities on
high performance computers.
• Geometric nonlinearities ABAQUS/Standard
uses complete, consistent kinematics for
finite-strain calculations. Lagrangian and
updated Lagrangian formulations are used
for finite-strain elastic and elastic-plastic
problems, respectively.
ABAQUS/Standard generally uses the
full Newton method for the solution of
nonlinear equations. This approach is
especially effective for the highly nonlinear
cases that are commonly modeled with
the program. Modified Newton methods
are also available.
• Constitutive integration For material
models that are written in rate form
(such as elastic-plastic models),
ABAQUS/Standard uses fully implicit
integration to ensure solution stability
for the largest possible strain increments.
This approach, together with the
development of consistent Jacobian
contributions, ensures efficiency for
large-strain problems involving complex
material behavior.
16
A D D - O N P R O D U C T S
ABAQUS/Design
ABAQUS/Design is an optional set of features
that augment ABAQUS/Standard for use in
design sensitivity analysis (DSA). Design
sensitivities, the gradients of design responses
with respect to design parameters, are useful
for understanding the behavior of a design
and for predicting the effect of design
changes. The design sensitivities can be used
to provide the foundation for “instant re-
analysis” or “what-if” design studies and for
gradient-based, optimal design.
ABAQUS/Design can compute sensitivities
with respect to both shape and material
parameters for frequency extraction and
static analysis. The sensitivity analysis is
performed using a “semi-analytic” method
that requires no additional factorizations of
the global stiffness matrix. Numerical
differentiation is performed at the element
level, with the required small perturbations
selected automatically by default to achieve
good accuracy.
Design sensitivities can be calculated for
design responses such as displacement, stress
and strain (including principal values and
invariants), reaction force, element volume,
contact pressure, and eigenfrequencies.
Design parameters can explicitly affect solid,
shell, membrane, beam, and truss elements
ABAQUS/Standard V E R S I O N 6 . 3
through elastic or hyperelastic material
properties, orientation, nodal coordinates,
section properties, and transverse shear
stiffness. Nonlinear geometric effects are
taken into account in the sensitivity
calculation of a large-displacement
analysis. The model may include small-
or finite-sliding contact, in which the
friction coefficient can depend on the
design parameter. A sensitivity analysis
can be restarted.
The default algorithm used for computing
sensitivities calculates accurate sensitivities
without requiring the user to specify any
control data. The user can control the cost
versus accuracy trade-off inherent in the
numerical differentiation of the semi-
analytic DSA method by directly specifying
the numerical differentiation method
(forward or central differences) and the
size of the parameter perturbations that
are to be used.
Both total and incremental DSA
formulations are provided. The
incremental formulation is intended for
analyses with path-dependent solutions.
Design sensitivities can be visualized in
ABAQUS/Viewer. For example, contours
of displacement or stress sensitivity can
be plotted. The sensitivities can also
be accessed programmatically.
ABAQUS, Inc.
ABAQUS/Aqua
ABAQUS/Aqua is an optional set of
features that augment ABAQUS/Standard
for use in offshore engineering
applications. It includes features for
jacket and riser analysis, J-tube pull
simulations, bottom bending
calculations, and floating structure
studies. Structures can be subjected to
drag, buoyancy, and fluid inertia
loading because of steady current and
wave effects. Wind loading is available
for structures that rise above the free
surface of the water.
ABAQUS/Aqua options are
compatible with the other features
in ABAQUS/Standard and account
for linear and nonlinear effects in
static, dynamic, or frequency analyses,
as appropriate.
Surrounding Medium
• Fluid profileThe fluid density and
gravitational constant are provided
by the user, along with the steady current
velocity as a function of location and
elevation relative to the seabed.
• Wave profile Gravity waves can be
defined, from which the fluid particle
velocities, accelerations, and dynamic
pressures are calculated during the
analysis. Airy (linear) wave theory or
Stokes fifth-order theory are available.
Airy theory allows any number of wave
trains traveling in different directions to
be used. One wave train is used with
ABAQUS/Design was used to
analyze the sensitivity of the stress
distribution in the rubber isolator of an
engine mount with respect to the shape
of its lower arm. The effect of changing
the material properties and shapes of
different regions of the isolator on the
stress distribution was also investigated.
Stokes nonlinear theory, which is usually
preferred for deep-water or large-wave
applications. Alternatively, wave
velocities, accelerations, and dynamic
pressures can be specified directly on a
fixed grid and are interpolated linearly or
quadratically to the points of interest, as
needed. A user subroutine also allows
other types of wave loading to be added
to the program.
• Wind profile Since ABAQUS/Aqua records
the free surface elevation and allows for
partial submersion of the structure, wind
loading is available for regions of the
structure that are exposed to air. The user
can specify a wind velocity profile that
will be used to compute wind loadings on
beams, pipes, and one-dimensional rigid
members. The wind profile is assumed to
vary with height above the free surface of
the water according to a power-law
function. The wind has no variation in
the horizontal plane.
Loading
In addition to the loads provided by
ABAQUS/Standard (gravity load,
hydrostatic pressure, etc.), ABAQUS/Aqua
provides a loading library for partially
or fully submerged structures. The user
specifies which elements are to be
subjected to what types of loading, such
as buoyancy or drag. Based on element
geometry, fluid properties, steady currents,
wave specification, and wind velocity
profiles, the program automatically
determines the magnitude and direction
of the loads to be applied.
17
• Drag loading Morison’s equations are
used to account for drag loading. Both
the fluid and the wind may cause drag
loading on the structure. Fluid drag can
be the result of steady current and
wave loadings on those portions below
the current surface of the fluid and
has both tangential and transverse
contributions; wind drag is applied to
portions of the structure that are above
the current surface level and has only a
transverse component. The tangential
and transverse components are related
to the square of the relative velocity
between the fluid and the structure.
• Buoyancy loading Buoyancy forces are
calculated based on the orientation of
the exposed surface with respect to the
vertical direction. Closed-end conditions
are provided by default. Buoyancy can
be applied to beam, pipe, and elbow
elements, as well as to surfaces of rigid
bodies for studies of floating structures
such as tension leg platforms and ships.
Drag, buoyancy, and point loads can
be applied to rigid beams. The
instantaneous total vertical load,
shear, and overturning moment are
provided at the rigid body reference
node. When buoyancy loading is
applied together with a wave profile,
the dynamic pressure resulting from the
disturbance of the still surface
is added to the hydrostatic pressure to
obtain the total buoyancy load.
18 ABAQUS/Standard V E R S I O N 6 . 3

Threaded connectors are commonly

used components in the offshore
industry. They must withstand a variety
of loading conditions: thread
engagement, axial pullout, internal
pressure under operating and overload
conditions, bending of the threaded
assembly, and potential fluid leakage
through the threaded connection.

• Inertia loading The inertia force is an friction model allows this effect to be
“added-mass” contribution based on the analyzed. The soft nature of the seabed
relative acceleration between a pipe and is easily modeled by means of a rigid
the surrounding fluid. Extensions to the surface that uses the softened contact
Morison drag equation allow the user to surface behavior.
isolate the part of the drag loading
• “Spud can” joint elements “Spud can”
resulting from steady current and the
joint elements incorporate a lumped
part of the drag loading resulting from
elastic-plastic response to approximate
waves and to apply these loads
soil-structure interaction for certain
independently in a single analysis.
offshore structures.
Frequency analyses can include these
added-mass effects. • Tube-in-tube slide lines Elements
are available to analyze J-tube pulls,
where a pipe is raised from the seabed
Additional Features
to the surface by pulling it through
• Drag chains Drag chains are used in another pipe.
some techniques of seabed pipeline
• Jack-up foundation analysis Special
installation. Their weight balances
elements are provided for elastic-
buoyancy devices attached to the
plastic interaction between spud cans
pipeline. In ABAQUS/Aqua drag chains
and the sea floor.
are idealized as an anchor block
connected to the pipeline by a catenary • Cable elements In bottom bending
and are suitable for pipeline motions analyses, pipes are pulled around on the
many times larger than the length of sea floor using cables.
the chains.
• Anisotropic seabed friction When
analyzing the response of a pipeline
lying directly on the ground or seabed,
frictional effects are important. The
resistance to motion is normally greater
for transverse motion than for motion
parallel to the pipe. An anisotropic
ABAQUS, Inc.
I N T E R F A C E P R O D U C T S
ABAQUS/MOLDFLOW and
ABAQUS/C-MOLD
ABAQUS/MOLDFLOW and
ABAQUS/C-MOLD are interfaces
between ABAQUS and the MOLDFLOW
PLASTICS INSIGHT (MOLDFLOW)
and C-MOLD products, respectively, and
have been developed by ABAQUS.
The MOLDFLOW or C-MOLD
simulations provide information on the
thermo-mechanical properties (including
the effects of oriented fibers, if present)
and residual stresses of the part resulting
from the manufacturing process.
MOLDFLOW and C-MOLD write this
information, together with the finite
element mesh, to interface files for
subsequent finite element stress analysis.
ABAQUS/MOLDFLOW and
ABAQUS/C-MOLD translate the
information in the MOLDFLOW or
C-MOLD interface files into files that
can be submitted for analysis with
ABAQUS/Standard. The data provided by
the MOLDFLOW or C-MOLD analysis
allow ABAQUS/Standard to perform
shrinkage and warpage analyses based on
residual stresses from the earlier analyses.
In addition, ABAQUS/Standard can
perform service analyses on components
with or without residual stresses.
19
ABAQUS/ADAMS
ABAQUS/ADAMS is an interface between
ABAQUS and MSC.ADAMS that has been
developed by ABAQUS in cooperation with
MSC.Software, the developer of MSC.ADAMS.
The ADAMS/Flex product can be used to
account for flexibility in a component when
performing a dynamic analysis in ADAMS.
However, ADAMS/Flex relies on a finite
element analysis code such as ABAQUS to
provide the component’s flexibility information
in a form that is usable by ADAMS.
The first step in accounting for a component’s
flexibility in ADAMS is to model that
component as an ABAQUS substructure.
Each substructure includes the retained
degrees of freedom at the attachment nodes
and a number of fixed-interface normal
modes; i.e., the normal modes with all
retained degrees of freedom constrained.
These degrees of freedom are a convenient
reduced basis for modeling the response of
the part while retaining the ability to model
arbitrary boundary conditions at the
attachment nodes. As the number of fixed-
interface normal modes is increased, the
reduced basis converges to the full accuracy
of the original finite element representation
of the part.
Selected results from an ABAQUS analysis
(including substructure mass and stiffness
matrices, normal and interface mode shapes,
and element mass matrices) are written to
the results file. Once the analysis is complete,
you use ABAQUS/ADAMS to read the
ABAQUS results file and to create the modal
neutral (.mnf) file, the format required by
ADAMS/Flex.
20
I N P U T A N D O U T P U T
Input
The input to ABAQUS/Standard is a text
file that is usually generated interactively by
ABAQUS/CAE or another preprocessor. A
seat of ABAQUS/CAE is included with
every ABAQUS/Standard license. Extensive
input data checking is performed on the
input prior to carrying out the analysis.
• Keywords The input is organized around
intuitive keywords and their associated
data. The keywords identify the option
selected; the data input is in free format.
• Set concept Nodes and elements can be
gathered into “sets,” each of which is given
a name by the user. Sets can be nested.
This set concept provides a simple, easily
understood reference for material, load,
and restraint definition; output editing; etc.
The concept is especially valuable in large,
complex models, where it simplifies the
data handling during the development of
the analysis model.
• Multiple coordinate systems
Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical
coordinate systems are available.
Independent coordinate systems can
be specified for the node position, the
directions of the degrees of freedom,
and the material orientation.
• Parts and assemblies ABAQUS provides
the option to define a finite element
model in terms of distinct parts, which
subsequently comprise an assembly.
This scheme allows part definitions to
be used multiple times to create large
models and allows the reuse of node
and element labels in separate parts of
the model.
• NASTRAN bulk data ABAQUS includes a
translator that can read in NASTRAN bulk
data and convert it to an ABAQUS input file
that can be directly submitted for analysis
or can be imported into ABAQUS/CAE for
inclusion of additional modeling features.
ABAQUS/Standard V E R S I O N 6 . 3
F I L E S
Output
• Interactive graphical postprocessing
ABAQUS/CAE provides mesh plots,
contour plots of results, deformed
mesh plots, animation, time-history
plots, vector plots, and X–Y plots.
“Point and click” query of results is
also available.
• Printed output Tabular printed output
of a wide range of variables—including
stress, strain, displacements, and
reactions—is available. The user can
define which variable appears in each
column of each table, thus designing
the output for specific needs.
• External file output Analysis results
can be written selectively to the
output database and the results file.
Data stored in the output database
can be accessed by ABAQUS/CAE
for postprocessing.
• Restart output Restart output allows
the solution of problems to be split
into convenient parts and protects
against unexpected aborts. It is
versatile and extremely easy and
convenient to use.
• Error messages ABAQUS/Standard
gives descriptive error messages that
include explanations and suggestions.
A special diagnostic file with details of
the time integration and equation
solution is provided.
ABAQUS, Inc. 21

H A R D W A R E & P E R F O R M A N C E

Hardware Compatibility Problem Size &

Performance
ABAQUS/Standard is written in FORTRAN,
C, and C++; and versions are maintained and ABAQUS/Standard has no built-in limits
supported on most standard engineering on problem size. Smaller problems run
computers. ABAQUS/Standard and the entirely in main memory. Buffering to
interface products are available on the secondary storage occurs automatically
following platforms: as the problem size increases.
• Compaq Alpha ABAQUS/Standard performs efficiently
• HP on a wide range of computers and is
• IBM particularly effective for large problems
• SGI running on advanced computer
• Intel Pentium architectures. Timing data are available
on the ABAQUS web site for a set of
– Windows NT/2000/XP
benchmark analyses done on various
– LINUX computer systems as a basic comparison
• Intel Itanium of code performance on those systems.
– HP-UX
– LINUX
• Sun

For a complete list of supported platforms

and more details on hardware support, please
visit our web site www.abaqus.com.

ABAQUS/Standard analysis results can be

postprocessed interactively using
ABAQUS/Viewer.
22
D O C U M E N T A T I O N
ABAQUS/Standard includes a thorough
and complete set of documentation,
updated with each release. The following
manuals are available:
User’s Manual
This volume is the basic reference
document for using ABAQUS/Standard.
It is available in print and online. It
contains a complete description of the
elements, material models, procedures,
input specifications, etc.
Keywords Manual
This volume contains a complete
description of all the input options
available in ABAQUS. It is available in
print and online.
Tutorial Manual
Designed as a self-paced tutorial, this book
will help readers become familiar with using
ABAQUS/Standard for static and dynamic
stress analysis simulations. It is available in
two forms: an interactive version (in which
the models are created using ABAQUS/CAE)
and a keywords version (in which the input
files are created manually). Both manuals
discuss postprocessing with ABAQUS/CAE.
The interactive version is available in print
and online; the keywords version is available
online only.
Example Problems Manual
This volume contains about 100 detailed
examples that are designed to illustrate the
approaches and decisions needed to perform
ABAQUS/Standard V E R S I O N 6 . 3
meaningful linear and nonlinear analyses.
It is available in print and online. Typical
cases are large motion of an elastic-plastic
pipe hitting a rigid wall; inelastic buckling
collapse of a thin-walled elbow; explosive
loading of an elastic, viscoplastic thin ring;
consolidation under a footing; buckling of
a composite shell with a hole; and deep
drawing of a metal sheet.
Benchmarks Manual
This online-only volume contains over
200 benchmark problems and standard
analyses used to evaluate the performance
of ABAQUS; the tests are multiple-element
tests of simple geometries or simplified
versions of real problems.
Verification Manual
This online-only volume contains over
5000 basic test cases, providing
verification of each individual program
feature against exact calculations and
other published results.
Theory Manual
This online-only volume contains a
detailed, precise discussion of all
theoretical aspects of the program.
It is written to be understood by users
with an engineering background.
Interface User’s Manuals
Individual manuals are provided with all
interface products; e.g., ABAQUS/ADAMS.
These manuals are available in print and
online.
ABAQUS, Inc.
P R O D U C T S U P P O R T
Maintenance & Support
Commercial customers of ABAQUS/Standard
typically choose full maintenance and
support services. Those customers then
receive each version as it is released. Status
reports listing known deficiencies and their
resolution are available online.
ABAQUS offers a wide network of offices
and representatives that provide extensive, in-
depth support for commercial customers who
have annual licenses or choose ongoing
support for paid-up licenses. This support
includes advice on the appropriate choice of
element, material, or procedure, as well as
providing general information on ABAQUS
and guidance on using it for specific
simulations. Academic customers can
purchase support for a small additional fee.
Quality Monitoring Service
ABAQUS meets rigorous quality assurance
standards that satisfy ISO 9001 and
ANSI/ASME NQA-1 requirements. For
those customers that need to monitor their
suppliers’ QA activities, we offer a “Quality
Monitoring Service.”
Installation
The program is typically self-installed by
the customer. Upon request, an ABAQUS
engineer or a local representative will
perform the initial installation at a
customer’s site. Installation service includes
check-out and verification of the software
and the presentation of a training seminar.
Training & User Meetings
Local ABAQUS offices and representatives
offer regularly scheduled public training
23
classes as well as seminars at customer sites.
Introductory seminars focus on basic usage
of ABAQUS/CAE, ABAQUS/Standard, and
ABAQUS/Explicit. The seminar titled
“Introduction to ABAQUS” provides a
unified and comprehensive introduction to
the modeling and analysis capabilities of
ABAQUS. It teaches you how to solve linear
and nonlinear structural and heat transfer
problems, submit and monitor analysis jobs,
and view simulation results. Alternatively,
introductory seminars are available that focus
separately on preprocessing ABAQUS models
using ABAQUS/CAE (“Introduction to
ABAQUS/CAE”) and analysis fundamentals
(“Introduction to ABAQUS/Standard and
ABAQUS/Explicit”). Workshops that provide
substantial “hands-on” ABAQUS experience
are integral to the introductory seminars.
Advanced seminars covering particular topics
are also available. Those taught on-site focus
on topics specified by the customer. The
advanced seminars offered in the local
offices cover such topics as inelastic
constitutive modeling, large-strain elasticity,
buckling, metal forming, linear and nonlinear
dynamics, and fracture mechanics.
Training materials for all seminars are
available for sale by contacting a local
ABAQUS office or representative. A
tutorial manual, Getting Started with
ABAQUS/Standard, is also available
for new users.
ABAQUS sponsors an annual, worldwide
users’ conference. In addition, ABAQUS
user groups around the world organize
annual regional user meetings. These
gatherings provide forums for users to meet
and share experiences and to discuss
ABAQUS capabilities, enhancements, and
related services offered by local ABAQUS
offices and representatives.
24
B E N E F I T S O F A B A Q U S / S TA N D A R D
Provides a robust, production-oriented,
general-purpose program that allows
access to a wide variety of both linear
and nonlinear analysis capabilities.
Complements ABAQUS/Explicit.
Analyses started with one product can
be continued with the other, greatly
expanding the range of simulation
possibilities. Similarities between
ABAQUS/Standard and ABAQUS/Explicit
minimize training costs associated with
learning more than one analysis program.
Includes full support and maintenance
services, assuring the user of effective
software utilization and the availability of
expertise in cases of advanced analysis.
Meets ISO 9001 and ANSI/ASME
NQA-1 quality assurance requirements.
Works effectively with the ABAQUS
suite of programs, which includes
ABAQUS/Explicit for highly nonlinear,
transient response analysis and
ABAQUS/CAE for CAD import, finite
element modeling and meshing, analysis
management, and results evaluation. In
addition, ABAQUS/Standard is well
supported by many industry-standard
preprocessors and postprocessors.
Includes a proven, modern element
library for efficiency and stress accuracy.
All elements are suitable for linear or
nonlinear analyses.
ABAQUS/Standard V E R S I O N 6 . 3
Incorporates independent material and
element libraries, including the industry’s
widest range of material models. Any
material model can be used with any
element. There is no limit to the number of
different materials or elements in a model.
Works reliably for even the most difficult
nonlinear applications through efficient,
automatic time incrementation and
automatic selection of convergence criteria.
Uses highly optimized equation solution
schemes that are tuned to maximize
performance on a wide range of computers.
Allows multi-disciplinary analyses to be
included in a single simulation.
Provides protection against unexpected
analysis stoppages through a versatile
restart and recovery capability.
Permits the user flexibility in advanced
applications through the use of user
subroutines.
Demonstrates effectiveness daily across
a large, worldwide customer base.
ABAQUS/Standard is routinely and
heavily used in a broad range of
applications. The high volume of use has
proven the effectiveness of the program
and helps ensure reliability.
Makes complex, linear and nonlinear
analysis as simple and reliable as existing
numerical methods allow.
A stent is a small metal structure used to help support an artery as part of treatment for arteriosclerosis. In its
unexpanded state the stent must be flexible enough to maneuver through the tortuous arteries of the heart. When the
balloon is inflated, the stent must exhibit sufficient strength to support the artery wall under live loading. In addition,
the stent must be designed to endure repeated bending loads in excess of 400,000,000 cycles. ABAQUS/Standard has
been used successfully to analyze this class of device and has been instrumental in obtaining FDA approval.
 ABAQUS, Inc.
1080 Main Street
Pawtucket, RI 02860-4847 USA
+1 401 727 4200
e-mail info@abaqus.com

Europe
+31 43 356 6906
e-mail info.europe@abaqus.com

Japan
+81 3 5474 5817
e-mail info.japan@abaqus.com

WWW.ABAQUS.COM
ABAQUS is a registered trademark of ABAQUS, Inc.

Copyright 2002 ABAQUS, Inc. MAR_DES_V63_STD