733
APPLIED MECHANICS GROUP
FATIGUE STRENGTH OF AN ALLOY STEEL: EFFECT OF
TEMPERING TEMPERATURE AND DIRECTIONAL PROPERTIES
By R. K. Boyd*
INTRODUCTION
ALTHOUGHIT IS GENERALLY ACCEPTED that no precise
relation exists between the fatigue and static properties of
materials, the ultimate tensile strength is often used to
make a rough estimate of the fatigue limit. Many years
ago Gough (I)tconcluded that ‘Over the whole range of
sound wrought ferrous metals a general relation appears
to exist between the limiting stress for reversed bending
stresscs and the ultimate tensile strength‘, and Moore and
Kommers (2) illustrated the relation by giving the results
of fatigue tests in rotating bending by some nine workers on
about 49 different steels having tensile strengths ranging
from 20 to 110 ton/in2 (Fig. 1). Although more recent
work, e.g. (3)-(6), indicates that such a conclusion must
be regarded with suspicion, particularly in relation to
steels of very high tensile strength, the tradition that the
fatigue limit is closely associated with, and for a given
steel perhaps directly proportional to, the ultimate tensile
strength dies hard. This is shown by the fact that the
ratio between these two quantities is quoted as the ‘fatigue
ratio’.
The vast majority of specimens used in fatigue work
are ‘longitudinal‘, i.e. they are cut from wrought material
in such a fashion that their axes coincide with the direction
of the ‘grain’. The fatigue limit for a given ultimate tensile
strength is always lower for transverse than for longitudinal
specimens, but from the limited information available
one would expect the fatigue limits of both longitudinal
and transverse specimens to rise as the ultimate tensile
strength is increased. In recent years Frith (7) has
published numerous fatigue results on steels of various
tensile strengths; although the greater part of this work
too has been on longitudinal material, he has given the
The M S . of this paper was received at the Institution on 24th April
1964.
* University of Bristol, Mechanical Engineering Department,
Queen’s Building, University Walk, Bristol 8.
t References are given in the Appendix.
Proc Insrn Mcch Engrs 1964-65
results of tests in the transverse direction on five different
steels. Although in each individual case one tensile value
only was chosen, the range covered by the entire tests is
about 60-110 ton/in2, and Frith suggests that within this
range the transverse fatigue limit could remain practically
constant.
This paper is concerned with an investigation into the
fatigue properties in rotating bending of one material,
both in the longitudinal and transverse directions,
tempered at seven different temperatures to produce a
tensile strength ranging from 60 to 130 ton/in2.
MATERIALS A N D T E S T S P E C I M E N S
The material used was En 25, a nickel-chromium-
molybdenum steel of the following composition.
C ~ Si I M n / S ! P 1 Ni I Cr I M o
0.33
I - i.
027 072
I
0013 0 0 1
, I . 1
255
8 I .
062
i 0-55
Sulphur prints gave no indication of segregation.
All the specimens were cut from 25-in square bar which
had been rolled from an ingot about IS+ in square (thus
suffering a reduction in area of 97 per cent), oil-quenched
from 835”C, and tempered at 600°C by the manufacturers.
They were machined in the ‘as received’ condition, with
a u.t.s. of approximately 70 ton/in2. As the majority of
the tests were to be carried out at a u.t.s. higher than this
it was necessary to reharden and temper some of the
specimens. To ensure uniformity all were reheat-treated
as described below.
Seven batches of specimens were cut in the longitudinal
direction and seven in the transverse direction, each batch
consisting of at least eight rotating-bending fatigue
specimens, two small (0.20-in diameter) tension specimens
and one hardness slab. In addition two large (0.357411
Vo117Y Pt I No 23
734
ULTIMATE T E N S I L E S T R E N G T H
Fig. 1. Ultimate tensile strength plotted against fatigue limit
d
I of 300°C and above this was carried out in a vacuum
i;
a tension specimen tested in 10-ton machine.
b tension specimen tested in 3-ton machine.
c fatigue specimen.
Fig. 2. Specimens tested
diameter, 6$-in long) tension specimens were cut for each
longitudinal batch. The specimen designs are shown in
Fig. 2.
During preliminary work it was found that, by careful
quenching, the small specimens could be hardened with
no appreciable distortion; the large tension specimens
tended to bend slightly. Micro-hardness tests for de-
carburization showed that the affected depth was much
less than 0.001 in and this amount of material could easily
be removed by the first stage of polishing the specimen as
described below. The small specimens were therefore
machined to leave 0.002 in on the diameter of the gauge
length, and the large tension specimens to leave 0.010 in
on all diameters. All specimens were then hardened
(835°C for 30 min in neutral salts, oil-quenched) and
tempered at 100°C. The large tension specimens and the
Proe Instn Mech Engrs 1964-65
R. K. BOYD
- t o n /in2
hardness slabs were then ground and the small tension
specimens polished along the gauge lengths. The gauge
lengths of the rotating-bending fatigue specimens were
polished to a surface finish of 4 pin or better. Three
machines designed and made in the Department but now
commercially available were used for this process: one
polishes in the longitudinal direction, another in the
circumferential, and a third in the longitudinal direction
with successively finer grades of emery paper, the final
polishing in the longitudinal direction being carried out
with 000 paper,
The last operation before testing was to temper each
batch at the required temperature for 1 h. At temperatures
furnace at a pressure not greater than 5 x torr, the
temperature being measured by three thermocouples
attached to the specimens. At temperatures of 100 and
200°C the specimens were immersed in hard paraffin wax
and heated in an electric oven, the temperatures being
measured by thermometers immersed in the paraffin wax.
RESULTS
Fatigue, tension, and hardness tests have been carried
out on both longitudinal and transverse specmiens
tempered at 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, and 650°C.
Static tests
Four small tension specimens, two longitudinal and two
transverse for each tempcring temperature, have been
tested in a 3-ton machine (8) in which the eccentricity of
loading, though known to be small by normal standards,
was not measured. A true yield point (see below) is
evident in all tests othcr than those on specimens
tempered at 100 and 200°C. For these there is no drop in
stress or large increase in strain at the elastic limit. The
results of the tests are given in Table 1 and the ultimate
tensile strengths are shown plotted in Fig. 7.
Two large longitudinal tension specimens have been
tested for each tempering temperature in a 10-ton
machine (9). To find and correct for the very small
eccentricity of loading (10)the strain is measured with
three separate Martens-type extensometers fitted at 120”
Vo1179 Pr 1 No 23
 FATIGUE STRENGTH OF AN ALLOY STEEL 735

from each other on the 1-in gauge length. The results from
the individual tests in each pair are practically in-
distinguishable, and one of each is shown plotted as a
stress-strain curve in Fig. 3. The material tempered at
650°C produces quite a large drop in stress at yield
(4.5 ton/in2). This drop becomes progressively smaller
with specimens tempered at 600, 500, and 400°C. At
300°C no drop in stress at yield is apparent and at the
200 and 100°C tempering temperatures a smooth curve is
obtained with no true yield.
The six tension results at each tempering temperature
are in good agreement with each other. In the harder
material the tensile strength is higher than the figure
quoted by the manufacturers, but this may be due to the
difference in diameter of the material during the hardening
and tempering, the manufacturer’s material being of
15 in diameter during this process.
After the tension tests the diameter of each specimen
at the fracture is measured and the percentage reduction
of area obtained. The reduction of area decreases as the
material becomes harder only up to a tempering tempera-
ture of 400°C; after this the reduction of area increases
noticeably and finally at 100°C again falls. This is true of
both longitudinal and transverse specimens although the
results for the transverse specimens are less consistent.
The hardness tests are given in Table 1 and agree well
with those published by the steel manufacturers.

Fatigue tests
All the fatigue tests have been carried out at a speed of
4000 c/min on rotating bending machines producing a
constant bending moment on the specimen. The fatigue
limits have been determined on the basis of at least lo7
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 1809 reversals of stress for the material in the lower u.t.s. range
STRAIN x l o 4 where a definite ‘knee’ on the SIN curve has been estab-
Fig. 3. Static tension tests lished, and as an endurance limit of lo8 reversals for the

Table 1. Results of static and hardness tests

Temuering. ~ In 3-ton machine I In 10-ton machine 1 Average

tempc$l&,I
Uncorrected I U.T.S., 1 Reduction of area, Corrected I U.T.S., I Reduction

650 1
yield stress,
ton/in2
long.
55.4
1
1
trans.
54.8
long.
61.0
ton/in2

! 60.7 1
per cent

66.8
trans. I yield stress,I ton/in2
ton/in2
long. 1 long. ~
of area,
per cent
long. long. 1 trans.
___-____

500
500
I1 75.2
75.3
1
1
77.0
77.3
1 82.4
82.9
I
j
82.7
82.9
1, 54.3
55.0 I 28.9
33.9
78.6
805 ! 83.0
833 I 55.3
55.9
j
I
415 I
I
409
____- , _ ~ ~ 1
_ _ _
400
1 79.8
1 80.6
1 90.2
I 89.5 52.8
54.4
I
1
29.7
21.2 1 83.0
82.5 1 91.4
91.5 1 50.7 1
1
400 79.6 80.8 90.0 90.0

300 865
1 86.7
1 101.8
1 1014
I 58.4
1 23.8
1 83.5
I 103-4 I ;2: I 497 489
300
_ _ _ _ ~
200
200
86.2
-
- j--
865
____
-
- 1
101.7

111.7
113.7
101.0

112.5
112.6
59.1

60.3
593
I
1
33-1

32-3
30.3 I
83-5

84.5”
84.5“ 1
102.7

1155
117.0
1 %: 1
___-____
552 546

1
_____
1
____
1575576-
100
100
-
-
-
- II1263
129.7
129.3
130.5
56.9
54.1 I 26.2
9.4 i
I
73.5*
735*
I
~
126.3
126.7
1
I
52-6
52.7 1
736 R. K. BOYD

material in the higher range of u.t.s. where no definite times caused failures in the specimen shanks after as
knee has been established. many as 60 x lo6 c. Where these results are significant they
Scatter of results is one of the main concerns of most are shown as points for unbroken specimens on the SIN
workers engaged in fatigue testing. Gough (11) divided curves.
the results of his work into three categories: clearly The transverse material tempered at 650°C (Fig. 4a)
defined and reliable; less reliable but probably not far
from correct; those in whose accuracy little confidence
could be placed. This system cannot be applied with
precision since the boundaries between the three categories
can be fixed only subjectively, and where in the present
work the fatigue limit is not well defined the author has
preferred to plot in the diagrams not a point but a line 42
joining the values of the highest stress at which a specimen
40
is unbroken and the lowest stress at which a specimen is
broken. In the Tables the mean of these values has been 38
quoted. 36
Another unfortunate result of scatter in fatigue work is
that it is seldom possible to have a sufficient number of 48
points to define a mean curve or cover the limit of scatter
46
with certainty. Here, as elsewhere, criticism could be
levelled at the limited number of results, but it must be 44

remembered that every single point at lo8 c requires 42

over 400 h of testing. Fourteen separate conditions have *
+
40
been investigated and some degree of compromise is
inevitable. The author does not believe that the values
quoted are significantly in error.
Marked scatter was found in the fatigue tests for
specimens with a higher u.t.s. than 80 ton/in2 and in
some tests severe fretting occurred between the specimen
shanks and the grips of the fatigue machine. This some-
32

30

28

26
N
r
236
c
I 34
ffl
32
+
30
w
LL
$ 28

CYCLES TO FAILURE 1
.0-7
CYCLES T O FAILURE
a tempered at 650°C.
b 0 tempered at 200°C. a tempered at 300’C. a tempered at 650°C. b tempered at 600°C.
u tempered at 400°C. + tempered at 500°C. c tempered at 500°C. d tempered at 400°C.
o tempered at 600°C. e tempered at 300°C. f tempered at 200°C.
c tempered at 100°C. g tempered at 100°C.
F k . 4. Fatigue tests on transverse specimens Fig. 5. Fatigue tests on longitudinal specimens
Proc Instn Mech Engrs 196465 Vol 179 Pt 1 No 23
 FATIGUE STRENGTH OF AN ALLOY STEEL 737

T E Z S E E STRESS I

I I
I
2080
L 70
l
-
80 i 90 100 110
ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH -ton/inZ
120
i
130

Fig. 6. Fatigue limit plotted against ultimate tensile strength ~-

I
-{-
- -
FATIGUE LIM IT LONGITUDINAL
I
40-7
gave a u.t.s. of 60.6 ton/in2 and a fatigue limit of
f28.0 ton/in2. In the next batch tempered at 600°C the
I
u.t.s. increased to 72 tonjin2 and the fatigue limit to I I A h 1
f29.6 ton/in2, but in the following four batches tempered f l
TIGUE LIMIT TRANSVERSE
T
at 500,400,300, and 200°C with ultimate tensile strengths I I
of 83,90,102, and 114 ton/in2respectively, no appreciable
increase was obtained in the fatigue strength, which
remained almost constant at f 3 0 ton/in2 over the u.t.s.
range 72-114 ton/in2 (Fig. 4b). In the final batch
tempered at 1OO'C (Fig. 4c) with a u.t.s. of 128 ton/in2
the endurance limit fell to f25.0 ton/in2. TEMPERING TEMPERATURE- *C

The longitudinal specimens (Fig. 5) tempered at 650°C Fig. 7. Fatigue and static strengths plotted against
gave a fatigue limit of f32.8 ton/in2 and the batches tempering temperature
tempered at 600,500,400,300,200, and 100°Cproduced
progressively higher limits up to a maximum of f49.5 Table 2. Tensile strengths, fatigue strengths, and fatigue
ton/in2. The fatigue ratios (fatigue limit/u.t.s.) for the ratios
longitudinal specimens dropped from 0.54 to 0-39, where-
as with the transverse specimens the ratios fell from 0.46 Tempering U.T.S., Fatigue strength, 1 Fatigue ratios
temperature, ton/ina ton/in2
to 0.20. "C
The results are shown as S / N diagrams in Figs 4 and 5; 1
long. 1 trans. long. I trans.
the fatigue limits are plotted against u.t.s. in Fig. 6 and
against the tempering temperatures in Fig. 7. The tensile
and fatigue strengths and the fatigue ratios are given in
Table 2. 500 1 82.9 1 f41.0 I f29.7 1 0.49 I 0.36

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS .-
400 1 90.4 ! rt42.0 ~ *30.3 , 0.46
___
1 0.33

In the static tests the reductions of area are the only results 300 1 102.1 1 444.0 1 f30.0 , 0.43 I-GF
affected by the directional properties of the material. The 200 1 113.8 I 446.5 1 f29.0 I 0.41 1 0.25
yield points and the ultimate tensile strengths of the
transverse and longitudinal specimens are in good agree-
100
~

~
L

128.1
- -

'
. -

rt49.5
. .

1 ~ -

f25.0 1
~ -

I
-

0.39
- - . -

0.20
- ~

ment with each other throughout the entire range of

tempering temperature. In the fatigue tests, however, the
directional properties are of the utmost importance. With
the transverse material the fatigue limit is practically
constant throughout almost the entire range of u.t.s. at a
stress of f 3 0 ton/in2 whilst in the longitudinal material
Pruc Imtn Mech Engrs 196445
the fatigue limit rises as the u.t.s. increases, reaching a
maximum of f49.5 ton/in2 at a u.t.s. of 128 ton/in2.
Mr W. H. Dearden has kindly examined samples of this
steel and produced many photomicrographs of which four
have been selected for reproduction in Fig. 8. Inclusions
Vol179 Pi I No 23
738 R. K. BOYD

a longitudinal. b transverse.
unetched x 100.

c longitudinal. d transverse.
etched with Fry’s No. 1 reagent X 12.
Fig. 8. Photomicrographs

are visible but they are relatively small. Figs 8a and 8b
show typical examples as seen in longitudinal and trans-
verse sections. The elongated inclusions, typified in
Fig. 8a, would of course be parallel to the axes of
longitudinal specimens and perpendicular to the axes of
transverse specimens and it is possible thar their presence
may account for the low fatigue values obtained for the
transverse tests, but it seems doubtful if inclusions of
this type are sufficiently numerous to give results as
uniform as those which have been obtained. Another
factor which might have some bearing on the matter is
Proc Instn Mech Engrs 1964-65
the chemical anisotropy or non-homogeneity of the steel.
This is associated with micro-segregation effects during
solidification and ultimately results in the banded or fibre
structure which can be demonstrated in rolled and forged
steels by suitable etching. For example, Figs 8c and 8d
show the results of etching longitudinal and transverse
sections with a solution of cupric chloride (Fry’s No. 1
reagent). This type of solution is sensitive to variations in
the phosphorus content of the steel and, in the photo-
graphs, the dark areas are lower in phosphorus than the
light areas, and their banded arrangement in the
Val 179 Pt I No 23
 FATIGUE STRENGTH OF AN ALLOY STEEL
longitudinal direction is striking. It is this kind of non-
homogeneity which may well give rise to differences
between longitudinal and transverse fatigue tests.
In the designing of components it is often possible to
ensure that the maximum stress is parallel to the grain
flow of the material and where this is so the fatigue limits
obtained for the longitudinal specimens may be used.
However, there are many cases in which it may be difficult,
or indeed impossible, to avoid applying large stresses
perpendicular to the grain flow. Examples which come to
mind include components subjected to repeated high
pressure, such as cylinders, intensifiers, and tubing,
crankshafts machined from the solid, rails in which spalling
can occur, and gears cut from bar or only moderately
forged stock. In such cases the results obtained for the
transverse specimens are relevant and no increase in the
fatigue strength of these components can be obtained by
increasing the u.t.s. above 70 ton/inz.
CONCLUSIONS
The directional properties of the nickel-chromium-
molybdenum steel tested, although causing no significant
differences in the static strength, greatly influence the
fatigue limits as determined in rotating bending tests.
As the ultimate tensile strength is increased (by varying
the tempering temperature) from 60 to 128 ton/in2 the
fatigue strength of longitudinal specimens rises from
A32.8 to A49.5 ton/in2; that of transverse specimens is
constant at k30 ton/in2 throughout most of the range and
falls at each end to 28 ton/in2 for the softest material and
to 25 ton/in2 for the hardest material.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank Professor J. L. M. Morrison
C.B.E., D.Sc. (Member of Council), and Dr J. S. C . Parry,
Proc Instn Mech Engrs 1964-65
139
B.Sc. (Graduate), for their encouragement and guidance
given during the course of this work. Advice on, and help
with, metallurgical problems has been most gratefully
received from Mr W. H. Dearden, M.Sc. This work was
carried out in the Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Bristol, and the assistance given by the
workshop staff is gratefully acknowledged.
APPENDIX
REFERENCES
GOUGH,H. J. The fatigue of metals 1926 (Ernest Benn and
Co.,London).
MOORE,H. F. and KOMMERS, J. B. The fatigue of metals
1927 (McGraw-Hill Book Go., New York and London).
POMEY, J. and ANCELLE,A. ‘Introduction B l’itude de la
fatigue-corrosion’, Minzoires des travaux de la commission
d‘e‘tude de la corrosion des produits me’tallurgiques de
l’aviation 1935-1936.
VON ROSSING,G. ‘Die Biegewechselfestigkeitvon Schmiede-
stiicken aus legiertcm Stahl in Quer- und Langsfaser’,
Arch. Eisenhuttenw. 1941-42 15, 407.
PERRIN,F. ‘Considtrations sur la limite de fatigue des
aciers’, Bull. Cerc. Mitaux, St-Etienne 1945 4, 125.
LIORET, M. ‘Le travers de l’acier’, Bull. Cerc. Mitaux,
St-Etienne 1945 4 (No. 8).
FRITH, I?. H. ‘Fatigue of wrought high-tensile alloy steel’,
R o c . Int. Conf. Fatigue of Metals 1956 462 (Institution
of Mechanical Engineers, London).
MORRISON, J. L. M. ‘A three-ton testing machine’, Engineer,
Lond. 1934 157,626.
ROBERTSON, A. and NEWPORT,A. J. Report on the drop of
stress at yield in Awnco iron 1927 Aeronautical Research
Council R. and M. No. 1161.
MORRISON, J. L. M. ‘The yield of mild steel with particular
reference to the effect of size of specimen’, Proc. Instn
mech. Engrs, Lond. 1939 142, 193.
GOUGH,H. J. and POLLARD, H. V. Some experiments on the
resistance of metals t o fatigue under combined stresses 1951
Aeronautical Research Council R. and M. No. 2522.
Vol179 Pt I No 23
740
Communications
Mr J. 0. Almen (Sierra Madre, California)-The first
two words of Mr Boyd’s title ‘Fatigue strength‘ suggest
that his measured fatigue strength is a property of the
material. Actually, fatigue strength is a function of the
material plus processing, The latter, which includes
heat-treatment and subsequent mechanical operations,
often being the greater factor.
Fatigue strength is also a function of the method of
testing. Repeated unidirectional loading yields a greater
amount of fatigue strength than reversed loading. Inter-
mediate results are obtained for intermediate stress ranges.
Work hardening is an illusion; the apparent increased
hardness is a result of the residual compression stress that
is induced by cold working.
Mr F. J. Ash (Associate Member)-It is natural today
for designers to try to take advantage of the higher yield
steels that are becoming available. The paper indicates
that advances of this nature should be tempered with
caution and that careful consideration must be given to
particular designs. It is clear from the paper that there is
relatively little change of transverse fatigue with increase
in tensile strength and that this fact can be of considerable
importance in many cases. It would be of interest to know
the impact figures for each specimen at room and low
temperature to see if there is any correlation with such
test figures and fatigue life.
Another point to be mentioned is that the slope of the
initial part of the SjN curve varies with the tempering
temperature. What is the relation between tensile strength
and the limited fatigue life properties at, say, lo3 cycles ?
Mr A. E. Bingham (Associate Member)-The rotating
test piece gives comparative results in a reasonable time,
but these results must be applied with care in circumstances
not strictly comparable with the test. On p. 734, the effect
of size is mentioned and this again shows the need for
care in applying results.
The speed used, i.e. 4000 c/min, is rather high for
anything other than engine work, and, within limits, the
higher the speed the better the result.
Scatter of results is mentioned on p. 736. When fatigue-
testing expensive complicated aircraft structures it is
usual to include a scatter factor of 6 when only one unit
is tested. This makes the process long, tedious and ex-
pensive especially when deflections are considerable, as
Proc Insdn Mech Engrs 7964-65
in aircraft, and if the factors chosen by the design staff
have been below those actually required, the test ends
prematurely, modifications must be made and the test
repeated or a definite ‘life’for the part must be established.
During fatigue testing of compound parts, fretting is
sometimes encountered and this can reduce the fatigue
life very markedly.
Low-temperature tempering must be applied with
great caution in supersonic aircraft because aerodynamic
heating and other heat sources may raise the part to above
the tempering temperature. Incidentally, were the tem-
peratures of the specimens measured during test ?
Summarizing, any addition to our knowledge of the
connection between ultimate stress, yield or 0.1 per cent
proof stress, reduction in area with fatigue limits would be
extremely valuable.
Further references are shown below.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(I) MURRAY, W. M. (Ed.) Purigue atid jructtlre of metals 1950
(John Wiley, New York).
( 2 ) CAZAUD,R. Fatisue of metah 1953 (Chapman and Hall,
London).
(3) POPE, J. A. Metal fatigue 1953 (Chapman and Hall,
London).
Mr A. Coles (Associate Member)-The value of the
work reported by the author is that it clearly shows there
is no enhancement of transverse fatigue strength with
increased tensile properties-a feature generally un-
recognized by designers. The scatter obtained in the fatigue
tests is somewhat disturbing (> 100: 1 in some cases),
which, when coupled with the number of fretting failures
of dubious value, makes one regret that a few more tests
were not carried out to fully establish the end points.
The care taken in material heat-treatment, surface
finish and the general inclusion level indicated, suggest
the cause of scatter is other than these-possibly the
testing equipment. Have statistical reproducibility tests
indicated the various machine reliabilities? If not, an
elegant way to do this, and to distinguish between material
and machine scatter, is that outlined by Weibull*; using
a limited number of single and double notched specimens.
The subject of notched specimens raises a further
comment: a valuable extension to the work reported
* WEIBULL,W. (Ed.) Fatigue testing und a;zalysis of results 1961
(Pergamon Press, Oxford).
Vol 179 Pt 1 No 23
 FATIGUE STRENGTH OF AN ALLOY STEEL
would be a similar programme on notched specimens.
Material used in service invariably contains stress con-
centrations in some form, and the general tendency to
obtain higher fatigue strength from increased tensile
strength would be shown to be a suspect principle in both
transverse and longitudinal directions as increased notch
sensitivity takes effect.
Professor T.J. Dolan (Urbana, Illinois)-The con-
clusion that when one considers the properties in the
transverse direction no increase in the fatigue strength of
these components can be obtained by increasing the
ultimate tensile strength of 70 ton/in2 should be of
great importance to designers of a wide variety of com-
ponents.
There is always the tendency among designers to feel
intuitively that if strength is an important factor a
change to a material of higher tensile strength will solve
the design problem. The author’s data show that this is
wishful thinking particularly in those instances where the
fatigue properties in a direction transverse to the direc-
tion of rolling may be the controlling factor in a design.
This result is not entirely unexpected. Engineers have
known for about 30 years that for severely notched speci-
mens (or for those with corroding surfaces or decarburized
surfaces) the endurance limits are not markedly different
for steels having a wide range in tensile strength values
(say 50-130 ton/in2 tensile strength). If inclusions and
micro-segregations develop banding in the longitudinal
direction the transverse fatigue tests might appear to be
somewhat similar to tests with severe notches transverse
to the direction of stressing. Thus the data would be
consistent with previous observations on the lack of corre-
lation between fatigue properties of severely notched
specimens and tensile strength of the material.
It is unfortunate that the inherent scatter in fatigue
data makes the curves of Figs 4 and 5 somewhat arbitrary;
the conclusions would be somewhat more satisfying
if larger numbers of specimens had been employed to
determine more precisely the endurance limits plotted in
Fig. 6 . However, the trends are unmistakable and the
results seem sufficiently consistent to justify the author’s
method of interpretation and his ultimate conclusions.
It is not clear whether the conclusions drawn by the
author could be generalized to apply to other steels or to
non-ferrous metals. For example, Templin (12)has in-
dicated that for a variety of aluminium alloys the fatigue
properties bear no consistent relation to static properties
or to the direction of grain flow. The static properties can
be highly directional while the fatigue properties show
almost no directional effect. On the other hand, Boegehold
(13), in discussing tests of steel crank shafts, suggests ‘in
crank shaft tests the effect of grain was not prominent
though in general the fatigue properties are affected by
the relation of flow line direction to applied stresses’.
Boegehold shows differences between fatigue strengths of
test bars cut from crank shafts in longitudinal and trans-
verse directions with the longitudinal fatigue limits being
Proc Instn Mech Engrs 196445
741
higher by about 30 per cent. I n these instances a rather
wide scatter band was observed for specimens cut trans-
versely from bar stock and it is difficult to draw significant
conclusions. However, his data for fatigue tests on notched
test bars show no significant difference between the longi-
tudinal and transverse values; both fall within a rather
narrow scatter band. It would be helpful and perhaps
even more significant if the author could continue his
studies in tests of notched samples to determine whether
the same conclusions as those in his present paper would
apply to notched samples since a designer is always con-
fronted with such stress raisers in practical design.
In a study of the fatigue properties of leaded steels
Brock and Sinclair (14)found that the inclusions left by
the lead addition tended to lower the longitudinal fatigue
strengths of higher strength steels when tested in the un-
notched condition. However, when notched samples were
tested there was no significant difference between the
endurance limits of the same steel with or without the
lead addition. It would be interesting to know in the
author’s steel whether the presence of a severe notch
would minimize the difference between longitudinal and
transverse endurance limits reported in the paper.
REFERENCES
(12) TEMPLIN, R. L., HARTMANN, E. C . and HOWELL, F. M.
‘Grainflow’, A S M E Metals Engineering Design Handbook
1953, 112.
(13) BOEGEHOLD, A. L. ‘Test bar results compared with tests
on components’, Metal Progress 1950 (March), 349.
(14: BROCK,G . W. and SINCLAIR, G. M. ‘How good are leaded
sheets in fatigue’, Iron Age 1958 (January 9), 59.
Mr E. R. Ellis (Associate Member)-It would be
interesting to see plots on Fig. 6 for specimens cut from
En 25 as cast and from a block of En 25 that had been
forged equally in all directions.
Mr P. G. Forrest, B.Sc. (Eng.), Ph.D. (Associate
Member)-The paper is valuable in providing a wide
range of fatigue test results under carefully controlled
conditions for a single material. The demonstration that
the transverse fatigue strength is substantially independent
of the tensile strength for this steel is particularly interest-
ing. The author has suggested that the marked effect of
directionality on the fatigue strength might be attributed
partly to the segregation of phosphorus but this seems
unlikely as the fatigue strength of steel is relatively in-
sensitive to the alloy content. On the other hand, there is
now a wealth of evidence that the fatigue strength of high
tensile steels can be substantially increased by reducing
the inclusion content, for example, by vacuum melting.
There seems little doubt, therefore, that the marked effect
of directionality on the fatigue strength observed by the
author can be attributed predominantly to the presence
of inclusions which are elongated in the longitudinal
direction. The author could check this by examining the
fractured surfaces of the broken fatigue specimens. I
Vol I79 Pt I No 23
742 COMMUNICATIONS
think he would find that the failures in the transverse
specimens each originated at an inclusion.
There is an interesting similarity between the results
of the transverse fatigue tests quoted by the author and
the results of fatigue tests on specimens containing edge
fatigue cracks quoted by Frost (15) who has shown that
for a number of materials the fatigue limit, m, is related to
the crack length, 1, by the simple empirical relation:
u31 = constant
Frost found that the constant in this relation had the
same value, 5.5 ton in units, for steels of widely different
strengths. In other words, the cyclic stress required to
propagate a fatigue crack is independent of the strength
of the steel. If the failures in the transverse fatigue
specimens are found to originate from inclusions, then
the results quoted by the author show that the cyclic
stress required to propagate a fatigue crack from the end
of an inclusion is also independent of the strength of the
steel.
This indicates that inclusions in steel may behave like
cracks under fatigue conditions but a comparison with
Frost’s results shows that they arc not so damaging. Sub-
stituting the transverse fatigue strength, 30 ton/in2, into
Frost’s relation, 0 3 Z = 5.5, gives a value of 1 of about
0.005 mm. That is to say, an edge crack 0.005 mm long
(or an interior crack 0-01 mm long) would reduce the
fatigue strength of a high tensile steel to 30 ton/in2.
However, the inclusion shown in Fig. 8(u) is about 10
times as long as this.
Other evidence that inclusions can behave like cracks
has been provided by Duckworth and Ineson (16) by
means of fatigue tests on an En 24 steel (treated to 120
ton/in2 tensile strength) to which alumina particles of
varying size had been deliberately introduced into the
melt. The fatigue failures in their specimens generally
propagated from an inclusion and the size of the inclusion
at the origin of each failure was measured on each broken
specimen. They were able to show that the relation
between fatigue strength and inclusion size in the steel
they tested was similar to the relation between fatigue
strength and crack length quoted by Frost.
The significance of this interpretation, of course, is
that a very great improvement in the transverse fatigue
strength can be expected by using clean steel. There is
evidence that by vacuum melting the transverse fatigue
strength can be increased almost to the value of the
longitudinal fatigue strength (17).
REFERENCES
(15) FROST, N. E. ‘A relation between the critical alternating
propagation stress and crack length for mild steel’,
Proc. Instn mech. Engrs, Lond. 1959 173, 811.
(16) DUCKWORTH, W. E. and INESON,E. ‘The effects of ex-
ternally introduced alumina particles on the fatigue life
of En 24 steel’, Iron and Steel Znst. Special Report 77,
1962, 87.
(17) RANSOM, J. T. and MEHL,R. F. ‘Anisotropy of the fatigue
properties of SAE 4340 steel forgings’, Proc. Amer. SOC.
Test. Mater. 1952 52, 779.
Proc Instn Mech Engrs 1964-65
Mr P. H. Frith (Associate Member)-As stated in the
paper all the specimens were cut from 23 in square bar,
and therefore the 23 in long fatigue specimens in both the
longitudinal and transverse directions could have been
machined from different positions of the bar. That is to
say some specimens could have the critical section near
the surface of the bar, while others could be machined
from the centre of the bar. This no doubt could affect
the scatter of the fatigue test results, depending on the
macro structure of the bar, which was not given, neither
was the exact method of sectioning stated in the paper.
Another surprising omission was the tensile elongation
values in Table 1, and also the tensile 0.1 per cent proof
stress values, although these latter values are given on Fig. 7.
However, it is very interesting to note the excellent
agreement between the fatigue results obtained by the
author and myself. Both sets of tests showed that as the
ultimate tensile stress was increased above 60.0 ton/in2
the longitudinal fatigue limit was increased, although in
Special Report Number 50*, it was shown that for standard
basic electric arc steel the maximum longitudinal fatigue
limit obtainable was f38-0 ton/in2. This has been con-
firmed a number of times during this last few years.
However, with modified basic electric arc steels and with
open hearth steels longitudinal fatigue limits as high as
f50.0 ton/in2 have been obtained.
The transverse tests given in Special Report number 50
and also reported by the author showed that as the ultimate
tensile stress was increased above 60.0 ton/in2, the trans-
verse fatigue limit was not appreciably affected up to an
ultimate tensile stress of approximately 110.0 ton/in2, the
value in both reports being approximately f29.0 ton/in2.
Therefore, the attainment of a longitudinal grain flow for
components at the points of highest stress becomes more
important as the ultimate tensile stress is raised above
60.0 ton/in2.
Mr S. M. Jorgensen (Carteret, New Jersey)-It is
true that a precise relation between fatigue limit and ulti-
mate tensile stress cannot be proven, but it is equally true
that the non-existence of such a relation cannot be proven
either. Considering the scatter of data in fatigue testing,
one might, with considerable justification, say that the
author’s Fig. 1 shows that the fatigue limit for the steels
tested is around one-half the ultimate tensile strength.
However, I readily grant that it is not more than a ‘rule of
thumb’. Unfortunately, the rules that have been proposed
after years of intensive research do not seem to be much
more accurate. It is now more than 100 years ago since
fatigue phenomena began to attract the attention of en-
gineers, and probably no other single engineering problem
has been subjected to such a mass of research and tech-
nical discussions and yet managed to remain a partially
unsolved problem.
Although not specifically stated, it is assumed that the
stress-strain curves and the ultimate tensile stresses are
* Special Report No. 50 of the Iron and Steel Institute, October
1954.
Vo’02179Pt I No 23
 FATIGUE STRENGTH OF AN ALLOY STEEL
the ordinary engineering data based on the original areas
of the tensile test specimens. This is an approved and
acceptable method of great service in many areas, par-
ticularly when comparing the merits of different materials.
However, where strength is to be compared or used in
connection with other properties of one particular material,
the use of other strength criteria might have given a
quite different relationship between static and fatigue
strength ratios for longitudinal and transverse specimens.
At the end of the paper, the author himself mentions,
among other examples, cases where the main stresses per-
pendicular to the grain flow would lower the life limit in
case of fatigue conditions, such as cylinders and intensi-
fiers. It has been amply proved that the strength of
cylinders is a function of the true stress-strain curve, and
the author’s figures for transverse specimens show that a
cylinder with the main stresses perpendicular to the grain
flow for this particular material would also have a lower
bursting strength in addition to the shorter fatigue life, a
fact which is not immediately obvious from the author’s
fatigue data plotted against ultimate strength.
However, this was not the author’s objective. The prob-
lem, as stated by the author, has been investigated and
brought to a proper conclusion.
This leads one to ask ‘how can the design engineer
benefit from this and the multitude of similar data brought
forth every year?’ There are undoubtedly pieces of
machinery, for which the material is selected with the
utmost care, the machining done with precision tools, and
the surfaces finely polished. If the geometry is simple and
the stress distribution is comparable to that of a known
fatigue test specimen, then it might be possible to predict
the fatigue life with some accuracy, but in most cases, this
is not possible.
The new Nuclear Vessel Code, Section I11 of the
A.S.M.E. Pressure Vessel Code contains a fatigue design
curve, plotting allowable stresses against numbers of
cycles. The curve is the lower limit of a number of care-
fully conducted tests on large scale vessels of materials
covering a wide range of strengths. From our present
knowledge of fatigue it should really have been a family
of curves, but the test data points were so scattered that
there could be justification for showing but one single
curve, the lower limit for all points.
It has been known for years that the fatigue lives of
apparently identical fatigue specimens may vary by factors
of 10 to 1 or more. The first step toward an understanding
of the problem is the realization that fatigue failure is a
multiphase phenomenon : the formation of slip planes,
formation of microscopic cracks, crack propagation and
final failure. Although the mechanisms of the separate
phases is very little understood, there is now so much work
being done in this field that one might hope that fatigue
data at some future date might be a more precise design
tool than it is at present.
Mr D. A. Kelly, B.Sc. (Graduate)-The divergence of
the fatigue limit/u.t.s. curves, presented in Fig. 6, for
Proc Instn Mech Engrs 1964-65
743
longitudinal and transverse specimens respectively is
indeed noteworthy-the more so since it does not correlate
with any variations in static tensile properties. Tentatively
the effect is ascribed to chemical anisotropy, illustrated
by segregated phosphorus, rather than that hard-worked
scapegoat, the elongated inclusion. However, while
phosphorus has been connected with inter-crystalline
weakness in iron by Tipler and Forrest (IS) they point
out that this condition is rare in commercial steels. Inclu-
sions in steel, on the other hand, were located by Stulen,
Cummings and Schulte (19) at fatigue crack nuclei at or
just below the surface of rotating bending specimens. In a
related field, increases in ball race endurance were
attributed (20) specifically to reductions in inclusion
content by vacuum remelting. The curves presented in
Fig. 6 diverge more markedly as the steel becomes harder
and, presumably, more notch sensitive.
Inclusions, especially stringers, can be supposed to
exacerbate fatigue both by a notch effect concentrating
stress to initiate a crack nucleus, and by providing a path
for rapid crack propagation. In bending fatigue, cracks
are known to nucleate at and propagate from the specimen
surface. Now the density of intersections of transverse
stringers with the surface of a circular specimen will be
greatest at the ends of the diameter aligned with the
stringers. This disposition of stringers, due to their shape
and isolation in a complex matrix, is different from that
of the bands of segregated phosphorus which must cut
the specimen surface all around the circumference.
It seems pertinent to ask whether a significant number
of the fractured transverse specimens exhibit discernible
crack nuclei? If so, are these nuclei in general located
near the ends of the diameter aligned with the elongated
inclusions ? A random distribution of crack nuclei around
the circumference would support the contention that
inclusions are not sufficiently numerous in the material
investigated to cause the relative weakness of transverse
fatigue specimens.
REFERENCES
(18) TIPLER, H. R. and FORREST, P. G. ‘The fatigue behaviour
of iron with intergranular weakness’, Proc. Int. Conf.
Fatigue of Metals 1956 (Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, London).
(19)STULEN,F. B., CUMMINGS, H. N. and SCHULTE, W. C.
‘Relation of inclusions to the fatigue properties of high-
strength steels’, Proc. Int. Conf. Fatigue of Metals 1956
(Institution of Mechanical Engineers, London).
(20) L M ~T. W., ~ TALLIAN,
~ ~ T., ~ WALP,
~ ~H. 0. , and BAILE,
G. M. ‘The effect of trace element content and multiple
vacuum melting on the fatigue life of ball bearings made
from AISI 52 100 steel’, Proc. Syvnp. Fatigue in Rolliw
Contact 1963 (Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
London).
Dr G. Z. Libertiny (Miami, Florida)-I have worked
on similar problems using exactly the same steel that the
author used for his experiments. In my work the strain
versus number of cycles to failure curve was established
in the range of 1/4to lo’ cycle life. (Fig. 9.) It is shown
from this diagram that the endurance limit depends upon
vo1179 Pt I No 23
744 COMMUNICATIONS

Data used to plot Fig. 10.

Tempering Cyclic stress amplitude at 2 x lo6 cycle

temperature, life, tonfir?
"C - _ _ .- ____-- - -
Longitudinal
.
I-- Transverse
-
'
Boyd's ex- Calculated Boyd's ex- Calculated
perimental results 1 perimental results
results 1
results
I
I 1 ENDURANCE
LIMIT
I 315 3
650
600
500
33.0
39.9
44.4
34.75
39.85
42.48
' 26 (28)
30L32
30-32
35.89
37.87
400 42.3 43.44 ' 30.32 37~48
Fig. 9. Graph of strain versus number of cycles to failure 300 49.6 45.47 ~ 30-32 39.28
200 52.0 53.51 1 30-32 46-75
kl;kz; N , ; er; cy, where N = number of cycles to failure, 100 52.5 48.14 I 28.3 38.67
E = cyclic strain range, C1 and C, = constants, K, and
k, = slope of the curves. Equations used for calculation are:
The author's results provided an opportunity to investi- N I s ~ "=~C1 . . .
gate which of these parameters are influenced by heat N+,"a = C, . . ,
treatment or by the directional properties of the steel.
(Are the fatigue properties affected by heat treatment
because heat treatment changes the ductility and the similar indicating that the heat-treatment really affects
yield strength of the steel or is there also an effect on the only the yield strength of the material and the fracture
other parameters ? Is the fatigue life of the specimen cut strain (reduction of area-ductility) and affects fatigue
in the transverse and longitudinal direction different be- only indirectly. This finding supports the idea that fatigue
cause the ductility and yield strength of the steel is dif- depends primarily upon ductility and yield strength; and
ferent in these directions or are there other reasons 2 ) is independent of the ultimate tensile strength of the
In the following text an attempt is made to discuss material, i.e. the so-called 'fatigue ratio' is meaningless.
these questions using Mr Boyd's results and my previous The experimental and calculated results concerning the
transverse specimens are qualitatively somewhat similar
findings.
It is a fairly well established fact that k, is constant for but quantitatively are very different. At first it was thought
most of the steels. I n the case of the steel Mr Boyd used it that it might be due to a difference in the values of the
was found to be 0.577. Similarly it was found that K2 = 0.1 modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio in the transverse
if the steel is tempered to 650°C and the specimen is cut and longitudinal directions. A large number of combina-
longitudinally. (This value might vary.) The influence and tions of various E and v values were substituted into the
extent of the value of N , has not yet been established. equations using an IBM 7040 computer and the results
The yield strain of the material was obtained by Mr Boyd indicated that these parameters do not contribute suffi-
and similarly the fracture strain can be calculated from the ciently to the difference. This leaves only one possibility,
reduction of the area determined in his work. i.e. k, is different in the longitudinal and transverse
From these data it is possible to predict the stress direction, (k, in the longitudinal direction can be con-
amplitude corresponding, let us say, to 2 x lo6 cycle life sidered constant on the basis of Mr Boyd's results, within
and compare it to the experimental results of Mr Boyd the accuracy of his results).
(Fig. 10). It is demonstrated again, that the long life fatigue
As shown in Fig. 10 in the case of longitudinal speci- property of a steel depends upon the ductility (reduction
mens, the experimental and calculated results are very of area) and the yield strain of the metal. Heat treatment
influences these values and thus indirectly influences the
N
60 fatigue property of the steel. Fatigue is not dependent
--.
._
c
C
BOYD'S RESULT:
LONGITUDINAL
upon the ultimate tensile stress and thus the so-called
'fatigue ratio' has very limited value. The directional
c
0 TRANSVERSE 0
I 40 properties of the steel tested influence not only the reduc-
C AL CU L ATED:
W
a LONGITUDINAL tion of area (ductility) but also the slope of the long life
3 TRANSVERSE C
k fatigue curve.
4
n. E = 2 9 x 1 0 6 Ib/in2
2 20
d 9~0.270 Professor H. Majors, Jr. (Seattle, Washington)-The
author is to be commended for presenting the relation of
the wrought directional effects to the mechanical proper-
ties for one material for a range of tempering temperatures.
This effect has been recognized in the past but very little
Fig. 10. Comparison of calculated and experimental results experimental work ha.s been reported. If one is interested
Proc Imtn Mech Engrs 1964-65 Vol179 Pt I No 23
 FATIGUE STRENGTH OF AN ALLOY STEEL
in fatigue under multi-axial stresses, then the directional
endurance limits under uni-axial stresses are needed.
There are a number of engineering structures where the
maximum alternating stresses occur in the transverse
direction, perpendicular to the wrought grain direction,
such as tubes under certain stress ratios. It is not certain
if the cross-rolling of plates eliminates the directional
effect on the endurance limit. One seldom determines the
directional effect on endurance limit through the plate
thickness.
Although it is customary to test solid specimens, would
the author comment on the use of hollow specimens?
Hollow specimens with thin wall section would reduce
the stress-gradient as a variable. The author does not
mention grain size, but this must be considered in regard
to wall thickness and stress gradient.
Mr D. J. White, B.Sc., Ph.D. (Associate Mewhe?)-
All too frequently, the design of a component subject to
fluctuating stresses is based on the minimum ultimate
tensile strength of the material multiplied by a factor
known as the fatigue ratio. This is quite commonly done
at the design stage and often it is not possible to justify
this subsequently by testing either the material or the
component. The method is firmly established and it is
probably true to say that every designer has his factor.
The value used for the fatigue ratio will depend on one’s
particular knowledge and appreciation of fatigue; if well
versed in the subject one will modify the ratio for effects
of surface finish, mean stress, and stress systems other
than uniaxial. However, it is not uncommon to find ratios
of 0.4 to 0.5 in use, in conjunction with a factor of safety
of about 2, with little or no allowance made for the above
modifying effects. Nor is it unusual to hear it asserted
that a higher strength material will make a deficient design
into a sound one. The argument depends, of course, on
the constancy of the fatigue ratio.
The author’s paper, confirming as it does the earlier
supposition of Frith (21), provides timely warning against
the indiscriminate or uninformed use of such practices.
In particular, the almost constant value of the transverse
fatigue limit at about f 3 0 ton/in2 over a wide range of
tensile strengths shows that there is nothing to gain from
the high tensile state if significant stresses exist perpen-
dicular to the grain. Indeed, things may be far worse
because the higher tensile state may be more susceptible
to those defects of surface finish from which practical
parts suffer as compared with polished specimens carefully
prepared in the laboratory. It is noted that the tentative
suggestion is made in the paper that the unfavourable
orientation of the inclusions may account for the lower
fatigue strengths in the transverse direction.
It is, of course, appreciated that if one is looking for an
effect in an experiment one tries to eliminate all others
and this demands, for example, uniformity of surface
finish and preparation. Nevertheless, fatigue failures are
more usually associated with rough finishes and to suggest
that an improvement is made by grinding or polishing may
Proc Instn Mech Engrs 1964-65
745
often be an economically unacceptable solution. It would,
then, be of the utmost value to repeat this work on, say,
specimens with a rough turned finish. There may be some
difficulty in achieving uniformity throughout the batch
and in consequence more variability would be expected
in the results.
One is always worried about size effects in bending
fatigue and it would be most valuable to do this work in
direct stress (push-pull). This test gives the lowest
results of any and that is the kind of information the
designer prefers.
An intriguing feature of the results is that at tempering
temperatures below about 500°C the ‘scatter’ increases
Considerably and there is no apparent ‘knee’ in the SjN
curves. It could be that this is due, in part, to the effect
of residual stresses introduced by quenching during
hardening. Rapid cooling of the surface may cause tensile
yield there followed by a residual compressive stress when
the specimen has finally cooled. The polishing operation
would not remove sufficient material to eliminate the com-
pressive surface layers and at 500°C and below no sub-
stantial stress relief would occur during the tempering
treatment. However, the residual stresses might vary
considerably from specimen to specimen because of
differing amounts of surface removed. This might then
partially account for the scatter and for the absence of a
‘knee’ because compressive residual stresses may be
beneficial in retarding crack initiation. However, under the
influence of alternating stresses, the residual stresses will
gradually fade away as shown by Pattinson and Dugdale
(22) and then a delayed failure will occur.
To see if there is any substance in this suggestion it
would be sufficient to test a batch of specimens which had
been polished and tempered at one low temperature after
removing about 0.020 in from the diameter by grinding
following the hardening treatment. This should eliminate
most of the residual surface stresses before the test begins
without affecting the hardness of the material. It would
also simulate closely the treatment received by a through
hardened component which must have some grinding
allowance to allow for distortion during quenching.
REFERENCES
(21) FRITH,
P. H. ‘Fatigue of wrought high tensile alloy steel’,
Proc. Znt. Conf. Fatigue of Metals 1956, 462 (Institution
of Mechanical Engineers, London).
(22) PATTINSON, E. J. and DUGDALE, D. S . ‘Fading of residual
stresses due to repeated loading’, Metallurgiu 1962 66
(No. 397), 228.
Mr R. B. Winn, B.A. (Associate Mernber)-The com-
mon belief that the fatigue limit is proportional to the
u.t.s. of a steel is upset by the author’s careful experi-
ments. He saw the danger of drawing conclusions from
statistical presentations such as Fig. 1 and confined
himself to testing one particular steel in fatigue. He found
that hardening the particular steel did not improve its
Vo1179 Pt I No 23
746 COMMUNICATIONS
transverse fatigue strength at all, and that the longitudinal
strength was increased by only a modest amount. In
round figures the fatigue limit of the transverse material
is almost constant at f 3 0 ton/in2 up to 100 ton/in2 u.t.s.
when it begins to fall away; and the fatigue limit of the
longitudinal material rises from 32 to only 50 ton/in2 as
the u.t.s. is increased over its whole practical range of
hardening from 60 to 130 ton/in2.
The paper warns users of cylinders, intensifiers and
Proc Instn Mech Engrs 1964-65
tubing, where the hoop stress is often perpendicular to the
grain flow, to avoid the temptation of hardening the steel
beyond a u.t.s. of 70 ton/ina.
Referring to Fig. 7, can the author please suggest an
explanation for the limit of proportionality rising as the
u.t.s. falls from 130 to 100 ton/in2 ? Does the low limit of
proportionality for the hardest steel partly account for its
disappointing performance in fatigue at low tempering
temperatures ?
Voi 179 Pt I No 23

Author’s Reply
Mr R. K. Boyd-I wish to thank all the contributors for
their interesting and helpful communications.
The two main topics raised in the discussion are size
effect and notched specimens. A great deal of work has
been published on size effect, and although much dissen-
sion still exists, recent work in this department (not yet
published) shows that with carefully prepared and stress-
relieved specimens of two different steels, there is no
measurable size effect with specimens ranging from
0.05 in to 1.6 in diameter. On the other hand, we have
carried out very little work with notched specimens. A
programme of tests on specimens, with a stress concentra-
tion, tempered at various temperatures, could undoubtedly
prove to be a most useful and interesting piece of work,
but it competes with other programmes of even greater
interest to us.
h4r Bingham suggests that the speed of testing (4000
cjmin) is rather high and that this could enhance the
results. It is generally agreed that the speed effect is not
significant until the rate exceeds 10000 cjmin. The
temperature of the specimens was not measured during
the test, but immediately after failure the specimens are
not even warm to the touch.
The scatter in the fatigue tests is obviously distressing-
though it is by no meam worse than that commonly
experienced with such materials. Dr White’s suggestion
for reducing it is most interesting, and we shall certainly
follow it up, but it is quite certain that scatter will remain.
On the other hand, although work on rough-turned speci-
mens might be of practical value, with the inevitable
variation in surface finish, scatter would certainly be
increased.
Mr Winn raises the question of the limit of propor-
tionality falling as the u.t.s. increases (specimens tem-
pered at 200 and 100cC).This is probably due to residual
stresses introduced during the hardening which are not
removed by the subsequent tempering operation; the
temperatures of 200 and 100°C are too low to remove
these stresses completely. No correlation appears to exist
between either the yield stress or the limit of propor-
tionality and the fatigue limit, so it seems unlikely that
the low limit of proportionality of the harder material
accounts for the low fatigue limit.
The comments by Mr Ellis have been uppermost in our
minds for some time and a further programme is already
under way which includes both material with different
rolling reductions and vacuum-melted steel.
PTOC
Instn Mech Engrs 1964-65
747
Professor Majors suggests the use of hollow specimens
as a means of reducing the stress gradient as a variable.
Some work has been carried out using such specimens,
particularly by Chodorowski(23)and Burns and Parry (zq),
although this work was concerned with torsional fatigue.
The stress gradient is unaltered, however, and as the fatigue
crack starts from the surface, it seems unlikely that any
benefit would be obtained.
Professor Dolan asks whether similar results can be
expected from other materials. From tests carried out in
these laboratories, it is certain that several materials show
the same characteristics and it seems likely that they are
shared by all wrought materials. Many materials have
been tested in the lower u.t.s. range including stainless
steel (En 58B), 3 per cent chromium molydenum steel
(En 4OB), titanium, mild steel and 12-14 per cent
chromium steel (En 56C) and all show a lower transverse
fatigue limit. En 31, tempered at 200°C (a very brittle
material), with a u.t.s. of 120 ton/in2 gave a longitudinal
endurance limit (at lo8 cycles) of f43.0 ton/in2 and a
transverse endurance limit: of f28.5 ton/in2.
Reproducibility tests have been carried out on the fatigue
machines, although not in the manner suggested by Mr
Coles. A large number of identical specimens have been
tested in each machine normally used for this size of
specimen and, by using special adaptors, in the machine
used for testing a larger size of specimen. In this way
checks have been carried out, not only on identical
machines, but on machines of various sizes and these
tests have proved very convincingly that the scatter cannot
be attributed to the fatigue machines.
Mr Frith suggests that the positioning of the specimens
within the bar may have had some effect upon the results.
The position of each specimen was carefully recorded
and this information was omitted only for the sake of
brevity; but it is available if required. There is no indica-
tion whatsoever that there is any variation due to the
position of the specimens within the bar. The tensile
elongation values were not measured, but the reductions
of area are given in Table 1. The 0.1 per cent proof
stresses are given for the material tempered at 100 and
200°C only because this material gave no true yield. At
all other tempering temperatures the drop in stress or
large increase in strain shows a definite yield point
which makes the 0.1 per cent proof stress wholly inappro-
priate.
The stress-strain curves and the u.t.s. values given, are,
Val 179 Pt 1 No 23
748 AUTHOR’S REPLY
as Mr Jorgensen assumes, derived from the approved
and accepted method based on the original area of the
specimen.
Dr Libertiny’s contribution is interesting, but there is
no correlation whatsoever between the yield strength and
the fatigue limit of the material tested. Moreover, the
yield strengths of the transverse and longitudinal speci-
mens are identical throughout the entire range of
tempering temperatures.
Mr Forrest raises the question of vacuum melting, and,
as previously stated, a programme to include this is already
under way. However, vacuum-melted material is also
rolled or forged after vacuum melting, and although the
fatigue strength may be increased, the directional effect
may well still exist. Commercially pure titanium (which is
vacuum melted during manufacture) has been tested in
this department and the transverse fatigue limit is again
lower than the longitudinal fatigue limit (f18 and f21
ton/in2 respectively), a reduction of 14.3 per cent, whereas
En 25 tempered at 650°C gives a reduction of 14.6per cent.
Mr AImen says that the fatigue strength is a function of
the material and processing, the processing often being
the greater factor. The first part of this statement is
irrefutable. He goes on to say that repeated unidirectional
loading yields a greater amount of fatigue strength than
Proc Inrtn Mech Engrs 1964-65
reversed loading. If by this he means that the safe repeated
unidirectional stress exceeds the semi-range in reversed
stress, one can only agree with him-but WGhler demon-
strated this roughly a century ago, and it has ever since
been accepted as true: indeed, it has often been demon-
strated that mean stress has only a secondary effect on the
safe range. The statement that work hardening is an
illusion is heterodox, but might provide a subject for an
interesting discussion.
In reply to Mr Ash, no impact results were obtained
during the course of this work, and although it would
have been interesting and more satisfying to have deter-
mined the mortal curve back to say lo3 cycles, our efforts
were concerned mainly with finding the fatigue limits.
Both Mr Forrest and Mr Kelly have referred to the
initiation of fatigue cracks; investigations are in hand to
try to determine whether the cracks started at an inclusion.
REFERENCES
(23) CHODOROWSKI, W. T. ‘Fatigue strength in shear of an alloy
steel with particular reference to the effect of mean stress
and directional properties’, Proc. Int. Conf. on Fatigue of
Metals 1956, 122 (Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
London).
(24) BURNS,D. J. and PARRY, J. S . C . J . mech. Engng Sci. 1964 6
(No. 3), 293.