Report Title

Aerial Triangulation

Student Name: riyaz salih qadir

Class: 3
Course Title: photogrametry
Department: geomatics (surveing)

College of Engineering
Salahaddin University-Erbil
Academic Year 2019-2020

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 Table of contents
Table of content 2

Abstract 3

Introduction 4

Method of aerial triangulation 5

Process of aerial triangulation 14

Conculusion 17

Refrence 18

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 ABSTRACT
Exterior Orientation Parameters (EOPs) of imaging sensors are demanded in
different mapping tasks such as orthophoto and DEM generation, 3D extraction and
object reconstruction. Bundle adjustment is one of the useful methods to determine
the EOPs of all the images in a block with relatively low number of control points.
As finding the corresponding points in is difficult especially in automatic matching
procedures, and depending on the ground topography, some points might be hidden
or be in occluded areas in images, in recent years, lots of investigations in the field of
using straight line segments and other feature primitives in aerial triangulation are
provided by different researchers. In this paper, the standard point-based collinearity
equations together with the modified line-based collinearity equations proposed by
Schenk are implemented and evaluated on a small block of six overlapped (60% side
overlap and 25% strip overlap) digital aerial images of DiMac sensor. In this method,
the optimal parametric representations of object straight lines are used to model the
relationship between image space and object space. Parametric representation of
features in object space allows the specification of any point on the feature. The main
advantage of block adjustment using linear features is its high reliability and its
capability to cope with the problem of occluded areas and is more reliability for
automation. The results of block adjustment using points and lines, confirm the
capabilities of the utilized method.

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INTRODUCTION

Aerial triangulation (AT) is a complex photogrammetric production line which starts

directly after the analogue (aerial) images are developed and ready for measurement
purposes. In a broader view AT includes also the photo flight planning, the photo
flight itself, and the use of GPS positioning. The main tasks to be carried out are the
identification of tie points and ground control points, the transfer of these points in
homologous image segments and the measurement of its image coordinates. Lastly,
the image-to-object space transform is performed by bundle block adjustment. With
the development of digital photogrammetric workstations - sometimes called
softcopy workstations - and high resolution image scanners, which both are offered at
a highly operational level, aerial triangulation should be automated. The analogue
images are scanned and stored on hard disks to start the photogrammetric production
line in this entirely digital environment. It seems today, that the robust tool of bundle
block adjustment can highly be integrated in new strategies with a high degree of
automation. First investigations to automate aerial triangulation has been started by
V. Tsingas (1991, 1992). The main bottleneck to be overcome is point transfer and
the measurement of image coordinates of tie points. These operations are carried out
in practice entirely by a human operator. Tsingas has shown, that digital image
matching methods can be applied to solve the automated identification of tie points
and to derive their image coordinates, if corresponding homologous image patches
are found by a graph theoretic approach. The application of his strategy on the
OEEPE FORSSA block has proven the high potential in accuracy and automation of
digital aerial triangulation (F. Ackermann/V. Tsingas, 1994).

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Method of Aerial Triangulation
Aerial Triangulation is classified three
categories.
 Analogue Aerial Triangulation
 Semi Analytical Aerial Triangulation
 Analytical Aerial Triangulation
 Radial Triangulation
 Strip Triangulation
 Block Triangulation
 Digital Aerial Triangulation
 Control Requirements for Photogrammetric Blocks
 GPS Assisted Aerial Triangulation

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1-Analogue aerial triangulation

Analogue aerial triangulation procedures for application on the precision

photogrammetric plotting machinery are dealt with in a simple way, and the
mathematical basis of the procedures is given. Various ways of reconstructing
individual spatial models formed by overlapping pairs of aerial photographs are
examined, and ways of improving scale transfer between adjoining models are
investigated. Consistency of fit at corresponding positions in the adjoining models
also is considered. Results of a theoretical investigation into the accuracies of strip
triangulations using some different orientation procedures indicate that some
improvement is still possible in the lateral tilt determination and scale transfer
between spatial models.

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2-Analytical Aerial Triangulation

Analytical Aerial Triangulation has been performed at the Institute of Geodesy and
Cartography (IGIK) in W arsaw for over 12 years. Digital photogrammetric
methods have been introduced in IGIК since 1996. The results of Aerial
Triangulation performed on Planicomp Р-1 Zeiss Ьу the analytical method and on
ImageStation 6487 INТRGRAPH with the use of semi-automatic digital method
are presented in the article. Two software packages from Inpho, namely РАТ-МR
and РАТ-В, were used for spatial Ьlock adjustment. The accuracy achieved with
the use of digital aerial triangulation (sigma naught 4.9-5.5 f.UD) is about 20%
better than that achieved with the use of the analytical method (sigma naught 5.8-
8.1 !lffi). Digital aerial triangulation of а Ьlock of already scanned aerial
photographs is achieved in the one-third of the time needed to perform the job with
the use of the analytical method.

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3- Semi Analytical Aerial Triangulation

Relative orientation of each individual model is performed using a precision

plotter (e.g., Wild A10). The resulting model coordinates are introduced in a
rigorous simultaneous independent model block adjustment. Independent models
can also be linked together analytically to form strips which are then used for strip
adjustment or block adjustment with strips.

4- Radial triangulation

Radial triangulation is a graphical approach and based on the fact that angles
measured in a photograph at the iso-centre, located in the middle of line connecting
the principal point and photo-nadir, are true horizontal angles and can be used for
planimetric triangulation. For a vertical photography, the principal point and the
photo-nadir coincide, therefore, the fiducial centre is a suitable approximation of
iso-centre for this method. In this approach, the principal points of the neighboring
photographs are transferred and the horizontal rays can then be drawn for each
photo. These planimetric bundles can be put together along a strip or in a block
using two ground control points. The other points can be defined by multiple
intersections.

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5- Strip triangulation

Strip triangulation was developed in the 1920s, where a Multiplex instrument was
used to recreate the aerial photography mission. It is based on dependent pair
relative orientation and scale transfer to ensure uniform scale along the strip. The
sequential dependent pair relative orientation plus scale transfer starting from a
controlled model is known as cantilever extension which is equivalent to an open
traverse in surveying. If ground control points are used at the end or in between,
the method is called "bridging" which is similar to a controlled traverse in
surveying. Mechanical or graphical interpolation technique were then used to fit
the measured strip coordinates to the ground control. Numerical strip adjustments
started in the 1960s when electronic digital computers became available. A number
of polynomial interpolation adjustment formulations were developed for this
purpose(Schut, 1968). The transition from analog aerial triangulation to analytical
procedure was realized with the advent of computers (e.g., analytical relative
orientation, absolute orientation, etc). The input for fully analytical aerial
triangulation is photo coordinates measured in mono or stereo mode using
comparators.

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6- Block triangulation

Block triangulation (bundles or independent models) provides the best internal

strength compared to strip triangulation (Ackermann, 1975). The available tie
points in consecutive strips assists in the roll angle recovery which is one of the
weaknesses inherent in strip triangulation. In terms of the computational aspect,
aerial triangulation methods are categorized as: analog, semi-analytical, analytical,
and digital triangulation.

7- Digital Aerial Triangulation

This method uses a photogrammetric workstation which can display digital images.
Selection and transfer of tie points and measurement tasks that are performed
manually in analytical triangulation are automated using image matching
techniques. The procedure is fully automatic, but allows interactive guidance and
interference.

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8- Control Requirements for Photogrammetric Blocks

Any block consisting of two or more overlapping photographs requires that it be

absolutely oriented to the ground coordinate system. The 3D spatial similarity
transformation with 7 parameters (3 rotations, 3 translations, 1 scale) is usually
employed for absolute orientation and requires at least 2 horizontal and 3 vertical
control points. Due to some influences caused by transfer errors (e.g., image
coordinate measurements of conjugate points), and extrapolation beyond the
mapping area, the theoretical minimum control requirement is unrealistic.
Theoretical and practical studies (Ackermann, 1966, 1974 and Brown, 1979)
showed that only planimetric points along the perimeter of the block and relatively
dense chains of vertical points across the block are necessary to relate the image
coordinate system to the object coordinate system. These measures also ensure the
geometric stability of the block as well as control the error propagation.

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9- GPS Assisted Aerial Triangulation

The Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS) has become generally available and
has been considered fully operational on a world wide basis since 1993. It can be
used for direct positioning practically anywhere on earth and at any time. GPS has
already had a revolutionary impact in various disciplines which are involved with
navigation and geodetic positioning. A real time capability is required if GPS is
used for navigation purposes. However, it was soon realized that GPS offers a very
high accuracy for positioning in combination with post-processing methods. Since
the launch of GPS satellites in early 1980s, photogrammetrists realized the
usefulness of GPS for their particular interests (e.g., aerotriangulation). There are
four main areas in photogrammetry where GPS can be used (Ackermann, 1994): 1-
Establishment of ground control points using terrestrial GPS, 2- GPS controlled
survey flight navigation, 3- High precision camera positioning for aerial
triangulation, 4- Positioning of other airborne sensors (e.g., laser scanners). The
main purpose of aerial triangulation (AT) is the determination of ground
coordinates for a large number of terrain points and the exterior orientation
parameters of aerial photographs using as few control points as possible. The best
scenario in mapping projects is to determine the exterior orientation parameters
accurate enough so that the AT can be neglected. The accuracy for attitude
parameters derived from multiple-antenna GPS observations is about 15 arc
minutes (Lachapelle et al., 1993) which is still far from what could be obtained
from conventional block adjustment. Therefore, aerial triangulation is still one of
the important steps in mapping and can not be avoided. 8 The integration of GPS
measurements into photogrammetric blocks allows the accurate determination of
coordinates of the exposure stations resulting in a reduction of the number of
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ground control points to a minimum. Therefore, the goal is to improve the
efficiency of aerotriangulation by avoiding ground control points almost
completely. The combined adjustment of photogrammetric data and GPS
observations can be carried out by introducing GPS observation equations to the
conventional block adjustment.

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Process of aerial triangulation
Aerial Triangulation is the process of contiguous densifying and extending ground
control through computational means. This operation includes establishing ground
control points; performing interior orientation; measuring and transferring all tie,
check, and control points appearing on all photographs manually; and performing a
least squares block adjustment. This process ultimately provides exterior
orientation parameters for photographs and three-dimensional co-ordinates for
measured object points. The purpose of Aerial Triangulation is to refine the
Exterior Orientation parameters (ΔX, ΔY, ΔZ, Ω, Φ, κ) computed through direct
geo-referencing for each imagery, which will help to achieve the desired accuracy
while generating DEM. In general the ground control points provided by the client
will be used for Aerial Triangulation. We follow highly automated aero
triangulation approach that minimizes the manual intervention and increases
accuracy towards higher side. This is the combination of point selection, point
measurement, point transfer and block adjustment in a single process.

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 Aerial Triangulation Usin Gps

 Aerial Triangulation represents the mathematical process of establishing precise

and accurate relationships between the individual image coordinate systems and a
defined datum and projection (ground).

   The main objective of aerial triangulation is to produce from ground control,

sufficient points in the photogrammetric models to ensure that each model can be
oriented accurately as required for stereo compilation, in either DTM generation
and enhancement ( fot orthophoto production) or 3D feature extraction.

   The Aerial Triangulation process can be accomplished easily for all kind of aerial
sensors (both analog and digital) and also for satellite imagery. Using GPS/INS
acurate data, the the number of GCPs during the Survey Missions can be
considerably reduced by using the latest state of the art software and this technic is
known as Integrated Sensor Orientation  ( that involve a data bundle adjustement
for an aerial triangulation block).

   For eack block, the flight is done taking into account the terrain elevation and
roughness (for obtaining the correct GSD) and the GCPs repartition is done ( as
possible),  by considering a ballanced distribution across the block. The cross flight
strips are a plus and can strengthen the accuracy of the final bundle adjustement.

   The Check GCPs  are a must and their number should be around 20% to 50% ,
from the total number of GCPs.

The quality control of aerial triangulation is done by assuring the  working steps
completeness and the final results consistency  :

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o the relative orientation is satisfactory for all images in a block
o the residuals of AT compensation are smaller than 1.2 * pixel image size
o RMS values are les tha 0.8 * pixel image size
o the Sigma0 value (assesment index) is situated in the interval of 1/3 and 3/4
* pixel image size
o RMSxy and RMSz for GCPs (also check GCPs) are smaller than the final
GSD of the block

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Conclusion

IGiK has fшalized transition from analytical to digital photogrammetry starting

from scanning through digital aerial triangulation, DEM generation Ьу correlation,
orthophoto generation up to digital printing.

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Refrence

1- https://www.isprs.org/proceedings/XXXVII/congress/1_pdf/116.pdf
2- https://cedb.asce.org/CEDBsearch/record.jsp?dockey=0013369
3- https://wp.kntu.ac.ir/ebadi/AAT.pdf
4- http://www.gisbox.ro/photogrammetry/aerial-triangulation/
5- https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/13921541.1999.10552848
6- https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/13921541.2000.10552886

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