The Space Transportation System

The Space Transportation System (STS), more commonly know as the space shuttle, is the
first reusable spacecraft able to take and retrieve large payloads and crew from Low Earth Orbit
(LEO). The origin of this vehicle is the desire for a more economic access to space, that has the
capability for launching satellites and space probes, performing complex manoeuvres and
experiments in LEO, and aiding in the servicing and construction of space structures such as the
international space station (ISS).
The STS is composed of two reusable Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs), an External fuel Tank
(ET) and the orbiter vehicle (OV). All of these components are reusable, except the ET that burns
up in the earth atmosphere after every flight.
The shuttle launches from a mobile launch platform as a conventional rocket, and has a two
stage ascent, in the first stage the three main engines and the SRBs burn together for about two
minuets, the latter provides about 80% of the thrust required for take-off. After this period the SRBs
are jettisoned, but continue until a peak altitude of 67 km where they descend to 5800m before
deploying pilot chutes, drogue chutes and then main chutes. Upon landing in the ocean the chutes
separate, and the SRBs are recovered for refurbishment and reuse. The OV and ET continue until
they reach 7.8 km/s. At this point the main engines shut down and the ET is released to burn up in
the atmosphere. Once finished its mission the orbiter, with aid of the orbital manoeuvring system
(OMS), drops out of orbit and initiates its decent throw the different layer of the atmosphere
decelerating from hypersonic speed mostly by aerobreaking. It finally lands as a spaceplane.
In order to achieve the above stated functions the STS had to comply with certain
requirements.
Firstly, the low cost re-usability of the SRBs. Upon the recovery from the sea, they undergo
a fresh water wash-down and an initial bare metal preservation. After being transported to Utah,
they are evaluated, refurbished, inspected, assembled with any new hardware replacements,
insulated, cased and cured. and then further inspected. This is the general procedures to reuse the
SRBs, but most parts have to be replaced, like the parachutes and the rubber~steel shim flexible
bearing that are refurbished or changed after 10 flights. For electrical and electronic components,
and motor parts this number doubles, and most structures can withstand about 40 launches.
Another of the requirements for the STS's re-usability is its effective capacity for re-entering
the earth's atmosphere. This mainly comes down to the Thermal Protection System (TPS), the wing
leading edges and the nose are covered in a high temperature reinforced carbon~carbon structures
due to there need to support temperatures higher than 1500K. The bottom of the orbiter and some
leading edges, where temperatures are below 1500K, are protected by coated 15 cm square silica
tiles. And the top of the OV, where temperatures are under 900K, is covered by 20 cm tiles and
coated nomax felt. This TPS is an efficient protection for the OV as it allows for re-entry and once
inspected and properly maintenance it is ready for another flight.
The other key and unique feature in the OV is its payload bay. Its 18.3 meters and 4.6 meters
in diameter can take various payloads and can have different function, depending on whether it is
required for cargo space or a space lab. The cargo bay opens nearly the length of the craft and an
take a payload, depending on the configuration of the OV and its destination, of about 23000 kg.
The shuttle as any first vehicle of its kind has had continues upgrades in response to
problems and anomalies encountered on its initial flights and all aim to improve. The first upgrades
where a change in the external tank insulation, modifications to the auxiliary power units and the
landing brakes, and replacing insulation tiles for blankets. After the Challenger accident there were
more than 200 modifications made to the STS, the cost of these changes was over a billion dollars.
Other upgrades have been planned but due to technical or financing problems they were not
implemented. The cancelled upgrades such as the Advanced Solid Rocket Motors reduced the STS
payload capacity by 5000kg, and together with the reorientation of the ISS reducing that capacity
again by more than 5000kg, forced NASA to upgrade the STS to meet the ISS program
requirements by incorporating a super light weight tank, amongst other changes, at a cost of 200
million dollars. While other upgrades were taking place at a cost of approximately 1.5 billion
dollars, some in research and development (R&D) , the STS program was cut more then half a
billion dollars. The total cost of the program has been over 150 billion dollars, and roughly works
out at 1.3 billion per flight.
This continuous need for upgrading and maintenance the shuttle makes its main objective of
providing a low cost access to space hard to achieve, where conventional disposable rockets can
prove to be a more cheaper alternative to the STS. On the other hand, the program has effectively
succeeded in developing a vehicle that can launch payloads to LEO and return them back to earth.

REFERENCES

National Research Council Staff; U. S. Staff. Upgrading the Space Shuttle.

Washington, DC, USA: National Academies Press, 1999. p 9 p 10 p 11.p 12. p 13.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/soton/Doc?id=10041050&ppg=23
Copyright © 1999. National Academies Press. All rights reserved.

Space Transportation Systems 1980-2000

AIAA Aerospace Assessment Series
volume 1
ISBN-0-915928-27-2

Space Systems Technology SP-593

SAE
ISBN-0-89883-8142
pages 127-140

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle

http://www.nasa.gov