Chapter 11

ELECTROSTATIC ACTUATORS

Electrostatic actuators rely on the force between two conducting electrodes

when a voltage is applied between them. Depending on the arrangement of
the electrodes, various types of actuators are possible. However, whatever the
electrode arrangement, if there exists mutual capacitance, there will also be an
attractive force when a voltage is applied between the electrodes. This force
will nearly always be attractive 1 .
Electrostatic forces are a favourite for surface-micromachined structures.
This sterns in part from ease of implementation and in part from favourable
scaling laws for electrostatic forces (section 4.1) [1]. Electrostatic forces are
surface forces, hence their favourable scaling. Further, extremely large elec-
tric fields can be created with modest voltage because of the small distances
involved [1].
Electrostatic actuators are easy to implement in surface micromachining
since structural materials are often conducting. Paired with small manufac-
turable gaps between components, large electric fields are easily realizable.
One of the main disadvantages of electrostatic actuators is the large voltages
necessary. Voltages of several hundred volts are not uncommon. This requires
special high-voltage electronics for control, and is a barrier to integration with
standard electronics. Fortunately, miniature devices can handle these devices
without dielectric breakdown (section 4.5.3).
Electrostatic actuators can be roughly categorized as linear or rotary [1].
Many types of the linear actuators will be covered in this chapter. The theory
behind many of the rotary actuators is similar to their corresponding linear
forms.
The main classes of rotary electrostatic actuators are [1]: (1) top-drive, (2)
side-drive, and (3) wobble harmonic. These devices are often called micromo-
tors. Despite their historical significant, rotary actuators will not covered.
R. W. Johnstone et al., An Introduction to Surface-Micromachining
© Kluwer Academic Publishers 2004
136 AN INTRODUCTION TO SURFACE-MICROMACHINING

11.1 Parallel-Plate Actuators

ParaIlel-plate actuators 2 are very weIl described by their name. These ac-
tuators can also be thought of as paraIlel-plate capacitors whose dielectric is
a fluid. The simplest configuration consists of two plates, which are pulled
together when a voltage is applied. Parallel-plate actuators are also often used
in a differential configuration, which uses three plates. The analysis of differ-
ential paraIlel-plate systems is a simple extension of that presented here.
The main advantage of paraIlel-plate actuators in surface-micromachining
is that they are very easy to make. Surface-micromachining is ideal for fabri-
cating large flat plates separated by a thin region. Thus, relatively large capac-
itance, and so relatively large actuation forces, are readily available.
However, paraIlel-plate actuators suffer from a number of disadvan-
tages. The most important dis advantage is that they are only easily imple-
mented for actuation perpendicular to the substrate surface. Since a surface-
micromachined system is likely going to be laid out across the wafer surface,
this limits the amount of interaction these actuators can engage with their
neighbouring components. Parallel-plate actuators can be used for in-plane
actuation, but the implementation is more difficult.
The second disadvantage of parallel-plate actuators is the phenomenon of
snap-in. As will be seen shortly, the force between the two plates varies non-
linearly with the spacing between the plates. However, the restoring force
typically varies linearly with the displacement. This limits the range of most
parallel-plate actuators to about a third of the gap [2]. Larger deflections lead
to a regime where the voltage increases much faster than the restoring force,
and so the plates snap together. Without an insulating layer, this will lead to a
short.
Snap-in is an issue of voltage control of the device. More elaborate con-
trol mechanisms can obtain larger displacements. For example, the use of an
appropriately designed feedback capacitor circuit can extend actuator displace-
ment to the full electrode gap [3-5]. Full displacement is also possible under
current control of the device [5].
Despite the disadvantages with respect to surface-micromachined systems,
they are often a good choice for actuating devices off-chip, since their displace-
ment is perpendicular to the substrate surface. For example, large actuation
distances are not necessary for the tips of scanning tunnelling microscopes [6].
An ideal paraIlel-plate actuator is like a parallel-plate capacitor. Between
the plate, a uniform electric field exists [7, 8]. The capacitance between the
plates is:

c (11.1)