5 2019 09 30!11 13 56 PM PDF

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Course: Mechanics of Materials (Strength of Materials)

Two term course, number of hours: 4/week
Lecturer: Dr Ali Al-Ghalib
Academic year: 2014-2015, second year classes
Introduction
Mechanics of materials is the field of structural engineering, which studies the behavior of solid
material under loads. In other words, the field of structural engineering that investigates the
internal resistance and deformation of solid bodies subjected to loads.
P3 P1
S1
P1 P4
Solid body
S2
P2
S3
P2 sectional plane P5
P1, P2, P3 … are external loads
If the whole body is under equilibrium condition, any part of whole body will also be under
equilibrium. S1, S2, S3… are the internal forces that maintain the part of the body in equilibrium.
Mechanics of material subject deals with the forces S1, S2, S3… and their effects on the body.
Text Book
• Mechanics of Materials, second edition (SI version), by: E. Popov
• Introduction to Mechanics of Solids, by E. Popov
References
Al-Mustansiriya University Dr Ali Al-Ghalib Civil Engineering Department

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• Strength of Materials, fifth edition,(SI units), Schaum’s outlines, by: W. Nash and M.
Potter
• Mechanics of Materials, sixth edition (U.S. customary and SI units), by: F. Beer, E.
Johnston Jr, J. DeWolf and D. Mazurek
• Mechanics of Materials Volume 1 and 2, third edition, (SI units) by: E.J. Hearn
Syllabus (program)
Subject Chapter Page
Stress, Axial Loads 1 1
Strain, Hooke’s Law, Axial Load Problems 2 33
Axial Force, Shear and Bending moment 4 91
Torsion 3 57
Pure Bending of Beams 5 119
Shearing Stresses in Beams 6 163
Compound Stresses 7 199
Analysis of Plane Stress and Strain 8 235
Deflection of Beams 11 353
U.S. Customary Units and Their SI Equivalents
Quantity U.S. Customary SI Equivalent
Force lb. 4.448N

kip 4.448kN
Length in 25.4mm
ft 0.3048m
Area in2 645.2mm2

ft2 0.0929m2
Stress Ib/in2 (psi) 6.895kN/m2 (kPa)

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SI Prefixes
Multiplication factor Prefix Symbol

12
10 Tera T
9
10 Giga G
106 Mega M
3
10 Kilo k
2
10 Hecto h
-2
10 Centi c
-3
10 Milli m
-6
10 Micro µ
-9
10 Nano n
-12
10 Pico p

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Chapter One: Stress- Axial Loads
The concept of the stress

In the subject of mechanics of materials, we move from the explanation of forces to the term
‘stress’ because the effect of the force in the section suffers main disadvantage. In fact, any
system of forces in a section can be represented as a force in a point. However, this force affects
the whole section, or in other words this force influences all the points of the section not only the
point where it is applied. Therefore, in the subject of mechanics of materials we determine the
stress on the section instead of the force on the section.
Because of any force system on a section can be replaced by a general single force, this general
force could be inclined force, hence can be resolved into normal (perpendicular) force and
horizontal (parallel) force.
The intensity of the force normal to the surface of the section is called Normal stress σ.
While, the intensity of the force parallel to the surface of the section is called Shear stress τ.
P3 P1
P1 P4
Solid body
F
P2
V
P2 sectional plane P5
ΔA
∆
= lim
∆ ∆
Where:
F is the force acting normal to the section (normal component of the force S)
A is the corresponding area of the element.

5
∆
= lim
∆ ∆
Where:
V is the force acting parallel to the section (horizontal component of the force S)
A is the corresponding area of the element.
τthe intensity of the force parallel to the plane of section and called shear stress
Units of the stress (SI system)
N/m2 =Pa (Pascal), kN/m2 =kPa, MN/m2 =N/mm2 = MPa.
General stresses in a space element

In spatial infinitesimal element, there are 9 components of stress; 3 components are normal
stresses and 6 components are shear stresses, as in the figure below:
σz
σx, σy,σz are normal stresses

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, , , , , are shear stresses

In plane, there are 4 components of stresses; 2 normal stresses and 2 shear stresses, as in the plane
element below:
But, this infinitesimal element is in equilibrium, therefore:
∑Mo = 0
Τxy (dy .dx) – Τyx (dx .dy) = 0
Τxy = Τyx
Consequently, shear stresses occur on perpendicular planes are equal; and as a result there are
only 3 components of stresses on an infinitesimal element in plane; 2 normal stresses (σx, σy) and
one shear stress
Types of stresses
1) Normal stresses
a) Tensile stress
Where
P = axial (passes through the centroid) tensile force
A = cross-sectional area
When the applied force is axial and normal, a uniform (equal)

maximum normal stress can be achieved through the section.
b) Compressive stress

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c) Bearing stress
The bearing stress is a normal

compressive stress happens between two W2
surfaces. W1
In this example, we have two bearing

stresses. First, between the timber block
and the steel base, this equals:
=
120 ∗ 100
Second, between the steel base and the
soil, this equals:
=
∗
2) Shear stress
a) Direct shear stress
i. Single shear
The best example for this type of stress can be given in the riveted joint applications. In the
following example, the axial force is transferred from the plate A to plate B through the shear
stress in the bolt.
=
!

8
Failure of a bolt in single

shear
ii. Double shear
"
= #
$ #
&
%
b) Punching shear stress
c) Torsional shear stress

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Example 1-1 page 12: Determine the bearing stress between the beam and wall. Also, calculate
the normal stress in the bolts.
F.B.D for the beam:
' () = 0
10(3.5) = Rc (1) → Rc= 35kN
∑ =0
RB + 10 =35 → RB = 25kN
• Normal stress on the bolt

+,
.2∗ 34 5
= #
=$ = 39.79( < The stress in the threads zone of the bolt
-./0 6 37# 88#
%
+,
.2∗ 34 5
= #
=$ = 62.17( < The stress outside the threads zone of the bolt (critical
-./0 6 =7# 88#
%
stress)
• Bearing stress at point C between the beam and the wall:
@? 35 ∗ 10H I
? = = = 0.875( <
ABCDEF 200JJ ∗ 200JJ

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Example 1-2:
Investigate the state of stress at level of 1.0m above the base.
Solution: W=20kN/m2
Concrete block
γc=25kN/m3
1.0m
2.0m
0.5 0.5m 0.5 0.5
The normal stress at section a-a: R
Front view Side view
P = 20kN/m2 * 0.5m *0.5m = 5kN
W1 = [0.5+1.0]/2 m * 1.0m * 0.5m * 25kN/m3 = 9.4kN
Fa = P + W1 = 5 +9.4 = 14.4kN
σa = Fa/ Aa-a =14.4kN/ (1.0*0.5)m2 = 28.8kPa (compressive stress)

The bearing stress between the concrete block and the soil:
W = weight of the block = [0.5 + 1.5]/2 *2 *0.5 * 25 = 25kN
R = P + W = 5 + 25 = 30kN
σb = R/ Abase=30kN/ (1.5*0.5)m2 = 40kPa
Problem 1-14, page 29: find the maximum normal stress in the following rod.

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∑Fx = 0
Ax = 310 +180 – 90 = 400kN
Stress @ sec 1-1:

33M5
L = 3.33 28#
= 160000N < = 160( <
Stress @ sec 2-2:
90NI
L = = 75000N < = 75( <
0.0012J
Stress @ sec 3-3:
180NI
HLH = = 150000N < = 150( <
0.0012J
Class work:
The two solid cylindrical steel rods AB and BC are welded

together at B and loaded as shown in the figure. Knowing that the
normal stress must not exceed 175MPa in rod AB and 150MPa in
rod BC determine the smallest allowable values of d1 and d2.

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Riveted (Bolted) Joints

There are four types of stresses occur at riveted joints,
these are:
1) Shearing stress in rivets

2) Tension stress in plate
3) Bearing stress between plate and rivet
4) Shearing stress in plate
• Shearing stress in rivets
Assumption:
Shearing stress in rivets is equal and uniform. This assumption is approximately true because the
shearing stresses are actually distributed in a non-uniform way across the area of the cut.
Example:
Frivet = P/3
P/H
CDOA =
/ 6&7#
Example:
According to the assumption, the shear stress must be equal in the three rivets.
Therefore, the shear forces must be different.
CDOA =
R/46! ! !H 7
= CDOA ∗ !
R
= CDOA ∗ !
4
R
H = CDOA ∗ !H
4
Example:
Double shear

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d
Frivet = P/4
/4
=
P P
CDOA
R/46!7
Plan
• Tension stresses in plates section

Frivet
P
Frivet
7 L =
.T
7 L =
6 U 2!V 7. T
Where:
b
t = thickness of plate
dh = diameter of hole
dh = drivet + 3mm
7 L W 7 L
• Bearing stress between the plate and

rivet
CDOA
= =
!. T !. T

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Example:
For the lap joint shown in the figure,
Calculate the safe axial tensile force (P); if:
7B X = 136( <
7B X = 102( <
7B X = 330( <
Assume the diameter of hole =25mm.
Solution:
Shear force in rivet (Frivet) = P/4

P
CDOA
= = = 102
CDOA !
Psafe = π (22)2 *102* 10-3= 155kN
7B X = = 136
Y − 46!V A )ZT
Psafe = [300-4(25)]* 6*136*10-3 = 163.2kN
/4
)B X = = 330( <
!. T
Psafe 4*22*6* 330*10-3 = 174.2kN
The safe force which does not cause failure neither in shear nor in tensile nor in bearing is Psafe =
155kN.
Allowable stresses; Factor of Safety

In design, the area of the member or element is the unknown, while the force is known. However,
information on the parameter, stress, must be provided. In fact, information on the stress of
material can be gathered from tests.
6N\]^\)
6[\N\]^\) =
6_[àTb]\< c`)

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Practically, the stress reaches its maximum value and the corresponding stress (at point D) is
called ultimate stress. However, the stress value used in design is set significantly lower than the
ultimate stress and known as allowable stress by use of factors of safety.
hcTbJ<T` aTeàa
<dT]e ]f a<f`Tg =
cc]^< c` aTeàa
Of course, the factor of safety must be greater than 1.0 if failure is to be avoided. Depending upon
the circumstances, factors of safety from slightly above 1.0 to as much as 10 are used.

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Homework
1. The axial member shown in the figure is made of steel and has an
allowable axial compressive stress of 100MN/m2.
a) What is the allowable axial compressive force P1 if P2 = 200kN?
b) What is the allowable axial compressive force P1 if P2 = 80kN?
Answer: a) P1 = 60kN; b) P1 = 150kN.
2. For the lever mechanism shown in the figure below, find the necessary
diameter for the bolt of pin B such that the allowable shearing stress in this bolt does not
exceed 100MPa.
Answer: d=18mm (d=16.43mm)

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Chapter Two: Strain- Hooke’s Law- Axial Load Problems
The normal strain (ε) is the ratio of the total deformation (∆) to the total length (L) of the
member.
∆
i=
j
This type of strain is also known as axial strain or linear strain. As deformation and length are
given in the same units, the normal strain (ε) obtained by dividing ∆ by L is a dimensionless
quantity. Strains are very small values and could be read in micros (µ).
e.g.ε=0.00025 = 250x10-6 (or ε=250µ)
True Stress- strain diagram
Tensile testing machine
Stress-strain diagram for a typical structural steel in tension (not to scale)

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P
True stress = (ordinate scale)
∆
Strain i = (x-axis)
k
Ductile and Brittle Materials

Metallic engineering materials are commonly classified as either ductile or brittle materials. A
ductile material lis one having a relatively large tensile strain up to the point of rupture (for
example, structural steel or aluminum) whereas a brittle material has a relatively small strain up
to this same point. An arbitrary strain of 0.05 mm/mm is taken as the dividing line between these
two classes of materials. Cast iron and concrete are examples of brittle materials.
Stress-strain diagrams of two typical ductile materials
Stress-strain diagram of a typical brittle material

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Proportional Limit
The ordinate of the point A is known as the proportional limit, i.e., the maximum stress that may
be developed during a simple tension test such that the stress is a linear function of strain. For a
brittle material having the stress-strain curve shown in last Figure, there is no clear proportional
limit.
Yield Point
The ordinate of the point B in the Figure, denoted by σy, at which there is an increase in strain
with no increase in stress, is known as the yield point of the material.
Ultimate Strength or Tensile Strength
The ordinate of the point D in the Figure, the maximum ordinate to the curve, is known either as
the ultimate strength or the tensile strength of the material.
Hooke’s Law
For any material having a stress-strain curve of the form shown in the first three Figures, The
relation between stress and strain is linear for comparatively small values of the strain. This linear
relation between elongation and the axial force causing it is called Hooke’s law. To describe this
initial linear range of action of the material we may consequently write:
= li
Where: E denotes the slope of the straight-line portion OA of each of the curves in the three
Figures.
The quantity E, i.e., the ratio of the unit stress to the unit strain, is the modulus of elasticity of the
material in tension, or, as it is often called, Young’s modulus of elasticity.
Robert Hooke
Robert Hooke (1635–1703) was an

English scientist who performed
experiments with elastic bodies and
developed improvements in timepieces
(watches). He also formulated the laws of
gravitation independently of Newton, of
whom he was a contemporary. Upon the
founding of the Royal Society of London
in 1662, Hooke was appointed its first
curator.

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Deflection of Axially Loaded Rods (applied within elastic range only)
This general axially loaded rod has different axial loads and different cross-sectional areas. For
the infinitesimal element of original length dx, the new length is dx+∆dx.
For the whole rod:
) ∆&
∆= m ∆!n.But, i = &
or ∆!n = i!n
) ) op
∆= m i !n = m q
!n
)
!n
∆= r
l
This equation is used to calculate the deflection between points A and B, when the cross-sectional
area (Ax) and/or axial load (Px) and/or modulus of elasticity (Ex) are changing constantly between
points A and B.
Special cases:
1.
j
∆=
l
2.

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P- k- Ps ks Pt/ kt/ Pu ku
∆ B = or∆ B = ∑EDv
q- - qs s qt/ t/ qu u
Where: n= no. of segments where all parameters, the axial force, cross-sectional area and
modulus of elasticity, are constant within the segment length itself.
Example: For the rod of variable cross-sectional area and different materials shown below, find
the maximum safe force (P) such that the total deflection is 0.5mm (shortening).
Based upon the allowable stresses:
For bronze: 3P = σb)allow * Ab→ 3P = 120 N/mm2 * 500mm2 → P = 20kN
For steel: 2P = σs)allow * As→ 2P = 140 N/mm2 * 320mm2 → P = 22.4kN
For aluminum: 2P = σal)allow * Aal→ 2P = 75 N/mm2 * 640mm2 → P = 24kN
Based upon the total deflection:

P
H
D jD
∆ B ='
lD D
Dv steel
3 ∗ 400 2 ∗ 500 2 ∗ 600
50x50mm
−0.5 = − − + Es =200kN/mm2
85000 ∗ 500 70000 ∗ 640 210000 ∗ 320
-0.5 = -2.82*10-5P -2.23*10-5P +1.78*10-5P
-0.5 = -3.27*10-5P
P = 15.29kN Aluminum
100x100mm
Therefore, Psafe = 15.29kN Eal =70kN/mm2

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Example:
For the composite column shown:
1. Determine the maximum load P if the total deflection ∆=0.25mm.

2. Draw the vertical deflection diagram.
jw jB
∆ B =
lw w lB B
6300JJ7 6500JJ7
0.25 =
200NI/JJ 650n507JJ 70NI/JJ 6100n1007JJ
0.25= 0.0006P + 0.00071P
P = 190.8kN
jB 190.8 65007
∆B = = = 0.136JJ
lB B 70 6100n1007
jw 190.8 63007
∆w = = = 0.114JJ
lw w 200 650n507
Example: A rigid bar ABC, shown in Figure, is suspended by a pin at B, and loaded by a vertical
force P. At A, a 10-mm-diameter steel tie rod AD connects the section to a firm ground support at
D. Use E = 200GPa.Determine the vertical deflection at C.
Solution: 30cm 40cm
∑MB = 0 A B C
TAD (30) = 200 (40) P=200kN

20cm
TAD = 266.67kN
D

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yz{∗ k ==.=|∗ 33
∆ x = q∗ = = 3.4JJ
33∗ / 6 37#
30cm 40cm
From the symmetry of triangles:
∆} ∆z{
=
3 H3 TAD P
∆C=40*∆AD/30;
∆C= 4.53mm.
Example: Determine the horizontal and vertical

displacements of joint B. Assume that the normal
stress in the members AB and BC are equal.
Solution: For joint B:
∑Fy = 0; )? = ⇒ )? = √2 6d]J€eàab]\)
√
= √2 • ‚ = 6T`\ab]\)
E
)
?,
∑Fx = 0;
√
=
BC
A
Given: σAB = σBC
√2
=
) )?
)? = √2 )
ƒz, kz, Pk
∆ )= = 6lc]\„<Tb]\)
qz, z, q
)? j)? √2 ∗ √2j
∆)? = =
BC
l)?
∆
)? l ∗ √2
√2 j
= 6…]\Te<dTb]\)
∆B)V
l∗
Displacement of joint B:
j
∆) )† = ∆ ) =
l

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1 1
∆) 7‡ = g g = ∆)? ∆)? ∆ )
√2 √2
1 √2 j 1 √2 j j
∆) 7‡ = ∗ ∗
√2 l √2 l l
3 j
∆) 7‡ =
l
Statically indeterminate members (axially loaded only)
Example: The suspended composite rod shown in the figure is subjected to

an axial force P=400kN. Determine the total deflection occurs in this rod
considering that the two materials, steel and aluminum, act as one unit.
Solution:
Equilibrium equation, ∑Fy=0
Pal+Ps = 400 …… (1)
We have two unknowns and one equilibrium equation

only!
We need to set another equation
∆al = ∆s……(Compatibility equation)
B jB w jw
=
lB B lw w
B ∗ 750 w ∗ 750
=
70 ∗ 300 210 ∗ 300
3 B = ˆ …… (2) Compatibility equation
Solve both equations (1) and (2) simultaneously:
Pal =100kN; Ps =300kN
Therefore, ∆total = ∆al = ∆s

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B jB 100NI ∗ 750JJ
∆B = = = 3.571JJ
lB B 70NI/JJ ∗ 300JJ
w jw 300NI ∗ 750JJ
∆w = = = 3.571JJ
lw w 210NI/JJ ∗ 300JJ
∆total = ∆al = ∆s =3.571mm
Check the stresses:
B 100 ∗ 10H I
B = = = 333.3( <
B 300JJ
w 300 ∗ 10H I
w = = = 1000( <
w 300JJ
Example: A square reinforced concrete column of (300x300)mm cross-section with 8 reinforcing

steel bars is subjected to a compressive force of 800kN. Find the compressive stress in both
materials, steel and concrete, if Es=210kN/mm2, Ec=14kN/mm2. Compare these stresses with the
allowable stresses, which are:
σc)allow= 0.25f’c (f’c=30MPa), σs)allow= 140MPa.
Solution:
Equilibrium equation, ∑Fy=0
Pc + Ps = 800
‰ ∗ ‰ w ∗ w = 800 ⋯ ⋯ 617
We have two unknowns, Pc and Ps, and one equilibrium equation only!
We need to set another equation
εc = εs……(Compatibility equation)
‰ w
=
l‰ lw
lw
w = ∗ ‰ ⇒ w =\ ‰
l‰
qs
Where: \ = J]![c<e e<Tb]\ =
q‹
n = 15; w = 15 ‰ ⋯ ⋯ 627
‰ ∗ ‰ 15 ‰ ∗ w = 800

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As = 8[π/4(16)2] = 1608mm2
Ac = (300)2 – 1608 = 88392mm2
800*103 = σc(88392) + 15σc(1608)
σc = 7.11MPa < 7.5MPa (0.25*30MPa) O.K.
σs = 15* 7.11= 106.65MPa < 140MPa O.K.
A
A=250mm2
Example: Determine the reactions at A and B for the steel bar and loading shown
in the Figure, assuming a close fit at both supports before the loads are applied.
C
300kN
Solution:
Equilibrium equation: ∑Fy = 0;
RA + RB =900kN …. (1) A=400mm2
Compatibility equation, the total deformation of the bar is zero.

D
600kN
∆total = 0.
Œz ∗ 23 6Œz LH337∗ 23 6Œz LH337∗ 23 Œ ∗ 23
0= − , B
q∗ 23 q∗ 23 q∗ 33 q∗ 33
0.6@ 0.6@ − 180 0.375@ − 112.5 − 0.375@) = 0
1.575@ − 0.375@) = 292.5 ⋯(2) Compatibility equation
Substitute equation (1) into equation (2) gives:
1.575@ − 0.3756900 − @ 7 = 292.5
1.95RA = 630; RA = 323kN.
RB = 900-323 = 577kN.

27
Problems Involving Temperature Changes (Thermal changes)
Axial deflection due to the temperature change is:
∆= • ∗ j ∗ ∆Ž
Where:
α= coefficient of thermal expansion 1/◦C
L = original length
∆T= change in temperature (Tfinal-Tinitial) ◦C
Rising in temperature causes ∆=+ (extension), while dropping in temperature causes ∆=-
(contraction).
∆
i VAC8B = = • ∗ ∆Ž
j
VAC8B = • ∗ ∆Ž ∗ l
The effect of temperature changing is only important in statically indeterminate members. This
means, temperature change causes stresses and strains only in indeterminate elements, while
determinate elements elongate and shrink freely without any stress and strain.
Example: Find the thermal stress exists in fixed steel bar when the temperature rises 50◦C. Use
α=12*10-6/◦C
Solution:
i VAC8B = • ∗ ∆Ž
VAC8B = • ∗ ∆Ž ∗ l
σthermal = 12*10-6/◦C* 50◦C* 200*103N/mm2= 120MPa.
To clarify how the internal thermal

stresses develop, remove the right-hand
support to allow the steel bar elongates
freely, as in the figure. 1000mm
∆ V = • ∗ j ∗ ∆Ž=12*10-6*50 *1000
∆=0.6mm.
j ∗ 1000
∆ V= ⇒ 0.6 =
l 200 ∗ 100

28
P 3335
P=12kN; V = = = 120( <
3388#
Example: The rigid bar AC is pinned at A and attached to bars DB and CE as shown in the
Figure. The weight of AC is 50kNand the weights of the other two bars are negligible. Consider
the temperature of both bars DB and CE to be raised 35°C. Find the resulting normal stresses in
these two bars. DB is copper for which E = 90GPa, α = 18 ×10–6/°C, while CE is steel for which
E = 200GPa, α= 12 × 10–6/°C. Neglect any possibility of lateral buckling of the bars.
Solution:
Equilibrium equation:
∑MA = 0; Pc * 1 + 50 *1 = Ps * 2
2Ps = 50 + Pc…. (1)
Compatibility equation:
∆s ∆‹
= ⇒ ∆w = 2∆‰
∆w 7 V ∆w 7• = 2 ∗ •∆‰ 7 V − ∆‰ 7• ‘
Ps ∗ 333 P‹ ∗ 333
12 ∗ 10L= ∗ 1000 ∗ 35 = 2 ∗ Y18 ∗ 10L= ∗ 1000 ∗ 35 − ]
33∗233 ’3∗ 333
0.42+0.01Ps = 1.26 – 0.0222Pc
Ps + 2.222Pc =84 …. (2)
Substitute equation (1) into (2);
[25 + 0.5Pc] +2.22Pc = 84; Pc= 21.7kN compression
Ps= 35.8kN tension
21.7 ∗ 10H I
‰ = = 21.7( < 6d]J€eàab]\7
1000JJ
35.8 ∗ 10H I
w = = 71.7( < 6T`\ab]\7
500JJ

29
Poisson’s Ratio
When a bar is subjected to a simple tensile loading there is an increase in length of the bar in the
direction of the load, but a decrease in the lateral dimensions perpendicular to the load. The ratio
of the strain in the lateral direction to that in the axial direction is defined as Poisson’s ratio. It is
denoted by the Greek letter ν (Nu).
Initial shape
Final shape
c<Tè<c aTe<b\ i i
ν=“ “=− =−
<nb<c aTe<b\ i i
This property is constant for the material within elastic range, just
such as the modulus of elasticity (E).For most metals it lies in the
range 0.25 to 0.35. For cork, n is very nearly zero.
ν= 0.1-0.16 concrete
ν= 0.25steel
ν= 0.333aluminum
ν= 0.5rubber
Generalized Hooke’s Law
Consider an element of an isotropic material in the shape of a

cube subjected to a triaxial tensile stress, as shown in the
figure. By using the principal of superposition, the general
Hooke’s law can be written as:
i = −” −”
l l l
i = −” −”
l l l
i = −” −”
l l l

30
Example: A piece of a steel plate of (250 x 50 x 10)mm dimensions is subjected to a biaxial force
system in x and y directions, as shown in the figure. Knowing that E=200000MPa and ν =0.25:
a) What is the change in the thickness

b) To cause the same change in thickness as in (a) by Px alone, what must be its magnitude?
Solution:
Pp
a) = =
p
33∗ 34 5
= 200( <
23∗ 3 88#
200 ∗ 10H I
= = = 80( <
250 ∗ 10 JJ
=0
−” −0.25
i = −” −” = • –= 6200 807
l l l l 200 ∗ 10H
i = −0.00035
∆ = i ∗ TℎbdN\àa = −0.00035 ∗ 10JJ = −0.0035 6d]\Te<dTb]\7
b) ∆ = −0.0035JJ
ε = −0.00035
σ = σ = 0; σ =? 6[\N\]^\7
i = −” −”
l l l
−0.00035 = −0.25 ∗ ⇒ = 280( <

200 ∗ 10H
I
= ∗ = 280 ∗ 650 ∗ 107JJ
JJ
Px = 140kN.

31
Example: Knowing that Poisson’s ratio ν=0.25, Determine the magnitude of a single system of
force acting only in the y-direction that would cause the same deformation in the y-direction as
the initial forces.
Solution:
180 ∗ 10H I
= = 24( <
100 ∗ 75 JJ
200 ∗ 10H I
= = 40( <
50 ∗ 100 JJ
−240 ∗ 10H I
= = −64( <
50 ∗ 75 JJ
i = −” −”
l l l
1
i = • 40 − 0.25624) − 0.256−64)–
l
50
i =+
l
= = 0 ; =? [\N\]^\
i =+
l
50
= ⇒ = 50( <
l l
Py = 50*103N/mm2*(50*100)mm2 = 250kN
Example:
What material should be used in order to produce a cube has no change in its volume when it is
subjected to a uniform pressure?
σ
Solution: σx =σy=σz =σ
o o o
i =0=− q
+” q
+” q
o o
0 = − 61 − 2”); ≠0 σ
q q
σ
1
1 − 2” = 0 ⇒ ” =
2

32
Shear Strain
Shear stresses acting on an element of material (Figure -a) are accompanied by shear strains. The
shear stresses have no tendency to elongate or shorten the element in the x, y, and z
directions. In other words, the lengths of the sides of the element do not change. Instead, the shear
stresses produce a change in the shape of the element (Figure- b). The original element, which is
a rectangular parallelepiped, is deformed into an oblique parallelepiped, and the front and rear
faces become rhomboids.
Because of this deformation, the angles between the side faces change. For instance, the
angles at the points q and s, which were π/2 before deformation, are reduced by a small angle γ to
π/2-g (Figure- b). At the same time, the angles at points p and rare increased to π /2+ γ. The angle
γ is a measure of the distortion, or change in shape, of the element and is called the shear strain.
Because shear strain is an angle, it is usually measured in degrees or radians.
Hooke’s Law in Shear
For many materials, the initial part of the shear stress-strain diagram is a straight line through
the origin, just as it is in tension. For this linearly elastic region, the shear stress and shear
strain are proportional, and therefore we have the following equation for Hooke’s law in shear:
= ›œ
In which, G is the shear modulus (also called the modulus of rigidity).The moduli of elasticity
in tension and shear are related by the following equation:
l
›=
261 ” 7

33
QUIZ № 1 (2nd December 2013)
Determine the axial stresses developed in the steel and aluminum rods when the temperature of
the system drops 40◦C. Take αs=11.7x10-6/◦C and αAl=23x10-6/◦C.
Solution:
|∆s| = |∆Al|
∆s)p - ∆s)T = ∆Al)T – ∆Al)p
w jw j
− •w ∆Ž jw = • ∆Ž j −
lw w l
w 610007
− 11.7 ∗ 10L= ∗ 40 ∗ 1000
21061007
61000)
= 23 ∗ 10L= ∗ 40 ∗ 1000 −
706300)
w
− 0.468 = 0.92 −
21 21
Ps + PAl = 29.15 ….. (1)
Ps = PAl ….. (2)

Substitute equation (1) into (2):
2Ps = 29.15 => Ps = PAl = 14.57kN
σs = 145.7MPa
σAl = 48.57MPa

34
QUIZ № 1(2nd December 2013)
The horizontal rigid beam AD is supported by hinge at D and vertical bars BE and CF, as shown
in the figure below. The bars BE and CF are made of steel (E=200GPa) and have cross-sectional
areas ABE=11100mm2 and ACF=9280mm2. Determine the vertical displacement of point A.
P=600kN
Solution:
Equilibrium equation: A B C D
∑MD=0
FBE(3.5) +FCF(1.5)=600 (5.5)
FCF+ 2.33FBE = 2200…. .(1)
∆)q ∆?ƒ
F
=
3.5 1.5 E
2.0m 2.0m 1.5m
∗ 3000
)q ?ƒ ∗ 2400
∆)q = 2.33∆?ƒ => =
200 ∗ 11100 200 ∗ 9280
FBE = 2.235FCF…. (2)
Substitute equation (2) into (1):
FCF+ 2.33[2.235FCF] =2200; FCF =354.5kN and FBE =792.1kN.
792.1 ∗ 3000
P
∆)q = = 1.07JJ
200 ∗ 11100
∆ ∆)q 5.5 Rigid plate
= => ∆ = ∗ 1.07 = 1.68JJ
5.5 3.5 3.5 1mm
Solution of Q2 of midyear examination, year 2014: A compressive

L=1m
load P is transmitted through a rigid plate to three magnesium-alloy

A=3000mm2
A=3000mm2
A=3000mm2
E=45GPa
E=45GPa
bars that are identical except that initially the middle bar is slightly
E=45GPa
shorter than the other bars, as shown in Figure 2. All the

dimensions and properties of the assembly are shown in Figure 2.

35
a) Calculate the load P1 required to close the gap.

b) Calculate the downward displacement of the rigid plate when P= 400kN.
Figure 2
Solution: Due to the symmetry of the system, the rigid plate moves vertically in a straight
horizontal way.
a) In order to find the axial force (F) that causes 1mm shortening in the bar:
j ∗ 1000JJ
∆= => 1JJ =
l 2M5
∗ 3000JJ
P1
88#
F=135kN
Rigid plate
Equilibrium equation: ΣFy=0; P1=2F=2*135=270kN F F
b) Now, the rigid plate is supported by three symmetrical bars, as shown in the
figure: 1mm
Pr = 400-270 = 130kN
L=1m
Equilibrium equation: ΣMo=0; Fleft_bar=Fright_bar=F1
Equilibrium equation: ΣFy=0; Pr =2F1+F2=130kN…….1
Compatibility equation: ∆ = ∆
ƒ k ƒ k
= => 1 = 2……….2
Pr=400-P1
q q
Substitute equation 1 into 2: Rigid plate

o x
F1=130/3= 43.33kN F1 F2 F1
ƒ ∗k H.HHM5∗ 33388
∆= = %•žŸ = 0.321JJ
q∗ #
# ∗H33388
L=1m
A=3000mm2
A=3000mm2
A=3000mm2
E=45GPa
E=45GPa
E=45GPa
Therefore, the total displacement of the rigid plate =1mm+0.321mm=

1.321mm

36
Solution of Q1 of midyear examination, year 2015: A rigid beam AB of 2m length is

hinged at A and supported by two wires attached at B (Figure 1). Both wires have same diameter
(d=25mm), and are made of steel (Es=200GPa).
c) Determine the tensile stress in the wires due to the load P=100kN acting at point B.
d) Find the downward displacement at the end of the rigid beam ∆B.
' ( = 0;
1 1
Ž ∗ ∗2 Ž ∗ ∗ 2 − 100 ∗ 2 = 0
√2 √2
From the symmetry of steel wires; one can write down a compatibility equation (∆wire1= ∆wire2).
Hence, T1=T2=T.
T=70.7kN
a)
Ž 70.7 ∗ 10H I
XDCA = = = 144( <
6257 JJ
b)
Žj 70.7 ∗ 10H I ∗ 1414JJ

∆XDCA = = = 1.02JJ
l 200 ∗ 10H ( < ∗ 625) JJ
∆XDCA 1.02JJ
∆) = = = 1.414JJ
d]a45
√

37
20% Q2: The rigid bar AC supports a uniformly distributed load of 90kN/m, as shown in Fig.2.
Determine the force in each cable when these cables are made of steel (E=200GPa), and have a
cross-sectional area of A=300mm2.
Solution:
∆ BD
D
∆C
∑MA = 0;
2 2
?x ∗ ∗3 )x ∗ ∗ 1 = 90 ∗ 3 ∗ 1.5
√5 √5
6 2
?x ∗ )x ∗ = 405 ⋯ 61)
√5 √5

38
∆‰ ∆)
= => ∆? = 3∆)
3 1
√5 √5
∆?x ∗ = 3 ∗ ∆)x ∗
2 2
∆?x = 3 ∗ ∆)x
?x∗ √5 )x∗ √5
=3∗
l l
?x =3∗ )x ⋯ 627
Substitute Eq.2 into Eq.1:

=
3∗ )x ∗ )x ∗ = 405
√2 √2
FBD=45.3kN
FCD=3 *FBD=3*45.3=135.8kN
20% Q2: The three steel bars shown in the figure support the horizontal rigid member. If a
vertical load of 15kN is applied in the position shown, determine the axial force developed in
each bar. Bars AB and EF each has a cross-sectional area of 50mm2, and bar CD has a cross-
sectional area of 30mm2. Neglect the weight of the rigid beam. Use E=210GPa.

39
Solution:
Equilibrium equation: ΣFy=0; FAB + FCD + FEF = 15 … … 1
Equilibrium equation: ΣME=0; [FAB (0.8)+ FCD (0.4) = 15(0.6)]/0.4
2FAB + FCD = 22.5…….2
∆ ) − ∆qƒ ∆?x − ∆qƒ

=
0.8 0.4
∆ ) − ∆?x = 26∆?x − ∆qƒ )
∆ ) = 2∆?x − ∆qƒ
)j ) ?x j?x qƒ jqƒ
=2 −
l ) ) l?x ?x lqƒ qƒ
) 2 ?x qƒ
¡ = − ¢ ∗ 50
50 30 50
FAB= 3.33FCD - FEF … … 3
Solve Equation 1 and Equation 3 simultaneously:
FAB + FCD + FEF = 15 … … 1
FAB - 3.33FCD + FEF = 0 … … 3
4.33FCD =15
FCD = 3.46kN
From Equation 2:
2FAB + FCD = 22.5…….2
FAB = 9.52kN
From Equation 1
FAB + FCD + FEF = 15 … … 1
9.52 + 3.46 + FEF = 15
FEF = 2.02kN

40
Homework
1. A tubular post of outer diameter d2 is guyed by two

cables fitted with turnbuckles (see figure). The
cables are tightened by rotating the turnbuckles,
thus producing tension in the cables and
compression in the post. Both cables are tightened
to a tensile force of 110kN. The allowable
compressive stress in the post is σc=35MPa. If the
wall thickness of the post is 15mm, what is the
minimum permissible value of the outer diameter
d2?
Answer: (d2)min=131mm.
2. A circle of diameter 225mm is engraved on the

unstressed aluminum plate of thickness t=18mm. Forces
acting in the plane of the plate later cause normal
375mm
stresses σx=80MPa and σy=140MPa. For E=70GPa and
ν=0.333, determine the change in (a) the length of
diameter AB, (b) the length of diameter CD, (c) the
thickness of the plate.
3. Two cylindrical rods, one of steel and the other of brass, are joined at C and restrained by
rigid supports at A and E. For the loading shown and knowing that Es =200GPa and Eb
=105GPa, determine (a) the reactions at A and E, (b) the deflection of point C.
4. A specimen of a methacrylate plastic is tested in tension at room temperature (see figure),

producing the stress-strain data listed in the accompanying table. Plot the stress-strain
curve and determine the proportional limit, modulus of elasticity and yield stress at 0.2%
offset. Is the material ductile or brittle? Answer: σpl≈47MPa, slope≈2.4GPa; σy≈53MPa;
Brittle.

41
Stress-Strain Data for Problem 4
Stress (MPa) Strain

0.0 0.0
8.0 0.0032
17.5 0.0073
25.6 0.0111
31.1 0.0129
39.8 0.0163
44.0 0.0184
48.2 0.0209
53.9 0.0260
58.1 0.0331
62.0 0.0429
62.1 Fracture
5. The data shown in the accompanying table were obtained from a tensile test of high-
strength steel. The test specimen had a diameter of 12.87mm and a gage length of 51mm.
At fracture, the elongation between the gage marks was 3.058mm and the minimum
diameter was 10.7mm. Plot the conventional stress-strain curve for the steel and
determine the proportional limit, modulus of elasticity, yield stress at 0.1% offset,
ultimate stress, percent elongation in 51mm, and percent reduction in area.
Answer: σpl≈448MPa; slope≈207GPa; σy≈475MPa; σu≈780MPa; Elongation=6%;
Reduction=31%.

42
Load N Elongation mm
0 0.0
4450 0.0051
8900 0.0153
26700 0.0484
44500 0.0841
53400 0.1
57400 0.1096
59622 0.1198
60512 0.1376
61402 0.1605
62291 0.2293
64071 0.2599
67631 0.3312
74750 0.586
81869 0.8561
88988 1.292
99666 2.823
100556 Fracture
6. For the axial steel rod shown below, determine the required force (P) to just close a gap
of 0.5mm. (Take E=200kN/mm2), Answer: P=66.667kN.
7. The three bars shown in the figure support the vertical load of 20kN. The bars are joined
by the pin at A. Calculate the stress in each bar. The outer bars are each of brass and of
cross-sectional area 2.5cm2. The central bar is steel and of area 2cm2. For brass,
E=85GPa and for steel, E=200GPa. Answer: σb=16.8MPa, σs=79MPa.
2m

43
8. The rigid bar AD is pinned at A and attached to the bars BC and ED, as shown below.
The entire system is initially stress-free and the weights of all bars are negligible. The
temperature of bar BC is lowered 25°C and that of bar ED is raised 25°C. Find the
normal stresses in bars BC and ED. For BC, which is brass, assume E = 90GPa, α = 20 ×
10–6 /°C, and for ED, which is steel, take E= 200GPa and α = 12 × 10–6/°C. The cross-
sectional area of BC is 500mm2 and of ED is 250mm2.Answer: σs=43.9MPa,
σb=52.6MPa.
9. The three-bar truss ABC shown in the figure has a span L=3m and is constructed of steel
pipes having cross-sectional area A=3900 mm2and modulus of elasticity E=200GPa.
Identical loads P act both vertically and horizontally at joint C, as shown below. (a) If P =
650kN, what is the horizontal displacement of joint B?
(b) What is the maximum permissible load value Pmax if the displacement of joint B is
limited to 1.5mm? Answer: (a) ∆B=2.5mm; (b) Pmax=390kN.

44
10. A rigid bar of weight W= 800N hangs from three equally spaced vertical wires (length
L=150mm, spacing a=50mm): two of steel and one of aluminum. The wires also support
a load P acting on the bar. The diameter of the steel wires is ds= 2 mm, and the
diameter of the aluminum wire is da=4 mm. Assume Es=210GPa and Eal=70GPa.
a) What load Pallow can be supported at the midpoint of the bar (x= a) if the allowable
stress in the steel wires is 220MPa and in the aluminum wire is 80MPa? (see figure
part a.)
b) What is Pallow if the load is positioned at x= a/2? (see figure part a.)
c) Repeat (b) above if the second and third wires are switched as shown in figure part b.
Answer: a) Pallow=1504N; b) Pallow=820N; c) Pallow=703N.

45
Chapter Three: Torsion

Torsion refers to the twisting of a straight bar when it is loaded by torques or twisting
moments(T) that tend to produce rotation about the
longitudinal axis of the bar. For example, when you turn a
screwdriver (Figure), your hand applies a torque T to the
handle and twists the rod of the screwdriver.
The SI unit for moment is the Newton meter (N .m).
An idealized case of torsional loading is pictured in

Figure-a, which shows a straight bar supported at one
end and loaded by two pairs of equal and opposite
forces.
The moment of a couple may be represented by a vector in the form of a double-headed arrow
(Figure-b).The direction (or sense) of the moment is indicated by the right-hand rule, using your
right hand, let your fingers rotate in the direction of the moment, and then your thumb will point
in the direction of the vector.
An alternative representation of a moment is curved arrow acting in the direction of rotation

(Figure-c).

46
Torsion formula of circular sections
Assumptions:
1. A plane section before twist remains plane after twist.

2. The distribution of shear strain (γ) through the section is linear.
3. The material of the body is linear elastic.
Length of the arc qq’ = rφ;
Also, length of arc qq’ = Lγ.
e£
œ8B =
j
¤C¥
And, 8B = [Linear variation of shear stress distribution along the radius]
k

47
Torque T= stress*area*arm
dA =2π ρ dρ use θ=φ/L

T
τ
dρ
Ž = r 62R ¦7 ¦ !¦
BCAB ρ
o
Ž = r 62R ¦7 6›¦§7 ¦ !¦
BCAB
Ž = 2R›§ r ¦H !¦
e
Ž = 2R › §
4
R
Ž= › § e
2
Polar moment of inertia
¨ = r ¦ !¦
BCAB
¨ = r62R ¦)¦ !¦
3
C
e
¨ = 2R r ¦H !¦ => ¨ = 2R
4
3
R e
¨=
2
T=J G θ
As θ=φ/L
Ž j
©=
› ¨
yk
›e Ž e
¤ ª
8B = => 8B =
j ¨

48
Hollow circular sections

R
¨= 6e − e 7
2
Ž e
8B =
¨
2
Cases for using of torsion formula:

y k P k
1. © = Compare with ∆=
¤ ª q
yu ku Pu ku
2. © = ∑EDv Compare with ∆= ∑EDv
¤u ªu qu u
Example 1:
Determine the maximum shearing stress occurs in the circular shaft AC.
Ž e
8B =
¨
R e
¨=
2

49
J=π/2(5)4=981.7mm4
30 ∗ 10H IJJ 5JJ

8B = = 152.8( <
981.7JJ
Example 2:
A circular hollow shaft with an outside diameter of 20mm and inside diameter of 16mm is
subjected to a torque of 40Nm. Determine the torsional shear stress at the outside surface and
inside surface of the shaft.
¨ = 6e − e 7
R
¨= 610 − 8 7 = 9274JJ
2
Ž e 40 ∗ 10H IJJ ∗ 10JJ

8B = « = = = 43.13( <
¨ 9274JJ
Ž e 40 ∗ 10H IJJ ∗ 8JJ

8DE = DE = = = 34.51( <
¨ 9274JJ
Example 3:
The steel shaft shown below is subjected to two concentrated torques at B and C. If the shear
modulus of the steel material G is 80GPa, determine:
1. The angle of twist at the free end (total angle of twist).

2. The maximum shear strain in the shaft.
Solution:
1. ¨ ) = •@ « − @DE – = 620 − 15 ) = 171806JJ

50
R R
¨)? = 6@ 7 = 615 7 = 79521.5JJ
2 2
Φ‰ = Φ ) Φ)‰
yk yk 3∗ 34 ∗233 3∗ 34 ∗|33
= | | =−
¤ª ) ¤ª )? -3∗ 34 ∗ | -3= -3∗ 34 ∗|’2 .2
= -0.00764+0.0132= 0.00556rad.
y C
2. 8B =
ª
210 ∗ 10H IJJ ∗ 20JJ
8B 7 ) = = 24.45( <
171806JJ
Check the shear stress at BC:

120 ∗ 10H IJJ ∗ 15JJ
)
8B )? = = 22.64( <
79521.5JJ
. 2
œ8B = = 0.0003e<!
-3333
Statically Indeterminate Problems
T = T1 + T2
Φ1 = Φ2
Žj Žj
=
› ¨ › ¨
› ¨
Ž = Ž
› ¨
From the equilibrium equation:
T2 = T – T1
› ¨
Ž = Ž − Ž
› ¨
› ¨
Ž [1 + Z = Ž
› ¨

51
› ¨ › ¨
Ž ∗¡ ¢ = Ž
› ¨
› ¨
Ž =¡ ¢ ∗ Ž
∑ › ¨
¤ ª
Ž = ®∑¯ ¯ ° ∗ Ž
¤ ª
τmax|2
¤ ª
Žj ®∑#¤ ª# ° Ž j
Φ = =
› ¨ › ¨ τmax|1
G1
Ž j
Φ =
∑ › ¨
G2
Že
8B | =
¨
Že
8B | =
¨ G2>G1
Example 1: The composite circular shaft is subjected to two concentrated torques as shown
below. If Gs=80*103MPa and Gb=34*103MPa, calculate:
1. The total angle of twist.
2. The maximum shear stress occurs in the part AB of the shaft.
Solution:
1. ¨ = 625 −
12.5 7 = 575242.8JJ
R
¨w = 612.5 ) = 38349.5JJ
2

52
' ›¨ = ›w ¨w › ¨ = 80 ∗ 10H ∗ 38349.5 + 34 ∗ 10H ∗ 575242.8
' ›¨ = 2.263 ∗ 10 3
IJJ
Φx = Φ ) + Φ)‰ + Φ?x
Žj Žj Žj
= | ) + |)? + |
∑ ›¨ ›¨ ›¨ ?x
200 ∗ 10H ∗ 400 200 ∗ 10H ∗ 300 300 ∗ 10H ∗ 300

= + + = 0.0524e<!
2.263 ∗ 10 3 80 ∗ 10H ∗ 38349.5 80 ∗ 10H ∗ 38349.5
¤ª -3∗ 34 ∗H-H ’.2
2. Žw = ∑s¤ªs ∗ Ž = . =H∗ 3¯±
∗ 200 = 27.11IJ
› ¨ 34 ∗ 10 ∗ 575242.8
H
Ž = ∗ Ž = ∗ 200 = 172.85IJ
∑ ›¨ 2.263 ∗ 10 3
Žw ew 27.11 ∗ 10H ∗ 12.5
8B |w = = = 8.8( <
¨w 38349.5
Že 172.85 ∗ 10H ∗ 25
8B | = = = 7.5( <
¨ 575242.8
Example 2: A prismatic circular shaft AB is made of steel having shearing modulus G and radius
r. Ends A and B are rigidly fixed. Determine the maximum shear stress in both regions, AC and
BC, due to the torsional moment T applied at C.
Solution:
Since there are two unknowns TA
and TB, another equation (based
upon deformations) is required.
This is set up by realizing that the angular rotation at C is the same if we determine it at the right
end of CB or the left end of AC.
Φ ? = Φ)‰
Žj Žj
| ? = |
›¨ ›¨ )?

53
Ž < Ž)
=
› ¨ › ¨
Ž = Ž)
<

T = TA + TB
Ž = Ž) Ž)
<
<
Ž=Y ] Ž)
<
<
Ž) = Y ] Ž
j
Ž = Y ] Ž
j
Ž e
8B | ? =
¨
Ž) e
8B |)? =
¨
Example 3: A stepped solid circular steel shaft has the shape shown in the figure below and is
having G=80*103MPa. The region AC is having D=75mm region CD having D=50mm, and
region BD having D=25mm. Determine the maximum shearing stress occurs in the shaft as well
as the angle of twist at C where a torsional load of 100N m is applied. Ends A and B are rigidly
clamped.
D=75mm
TA D=50mm TB
100Nm 50Nm D=25mm
xA Cx Dx Bx
500mm 500mm 500mm

TA
TA -100
TMD
TA -150 TB
R
¨ ? = 637.5 7 = 3106311JJ
2
R
¨?x = 625 7 = 613592JJ
2
R
¨)x = 612.5 7 = 613592JJ
2

54

TA + TB=150….Equilibrium equation
Φ x = Φ)x
Žj Žj
| x = |
›¨ ›¨ )x
Ž ∗ 500 YŽ − 100] ∗ 500 Ž) ∗ 500

=
› ∗ 3106311 › ∗ 613592 › ∗ 38350
Ž YŽ − 100] Ž)
² = ³ ∗ 3106311
3106311 613592 38350
TA + 5TA – 500 = 81TB =>6TA – 500 = 81TB…Compatibility equation
Substitute the equilibrium equation into compatibility equation:

6*(150-TB) -500 = 81TB
TB = 4.6Nm
TA= 145.4Nm
Ž e
8B | ? = | ?
¨
145.4 ∗ 10H ∗ 37.5
8B | ?= = 1.76( <
3106311
45.4 ∗ 10H ∗ 25
8B |?x = = 1.85( <
613592
4.6 ∗ 10H ∗ 12.5
8B |)x = = 1.5( <
38350
τmax = 1.85MPa. Maximum shear stress occurs between C and D.
Φ? = Φ ‰
Žj 145.4 ∗ 10H ∗ 500

Φ? = | ? = = 0.00029e<! = 0.0168°
›¨ 80 ∗ 10H ∗ 3106311

55
Torsion of Noncircular Members

The formulas obtained in the last sections for the
distributions of stress and estimation of angle of
twist under a torsional moment apply only to
members with a circular cross section. Such that,
it is wrong to assume that the shearing stress in
the cross section of a square bar varies linearly
with the distance from the axis of the bar and is,
therefore, largest at the corners of the cross
section. As you will see presently, the shearing stress is actually zero at these points.
Since the face of the element perpendicular to the y- axis is part of the free surface
of the bar, all stresses on this face must be zero. Referring to the figure shown
below: τyx=0; τyz=0. For the same reason, all stresses on the face of the element
perpendicular to the z axis must be zero, and we write τzx=0; τzy=0
The determination of the stresses in noncircular members subjected to a torsional loading

is beyond the interest of this course. However, the results obtained from the mathematical
theory of elasticity for straight bars with a uniform rectangular cross section is
given in this section for convenience. Denoting by L the length of the bar, by a and b,
respectively, the wider and narrower side of its cross section, (Figure), The
maximum shearing stress occurs along the center line of the wider face of the bar and is
equal to:
Ž
8B =
•<
Furthermore, the angle of twist is given as:
Žj
©=
´< H ›

56
The coefficients α and β depend only upon the ratio a/b and are given in the Table
shown below for a number of values of that ratio.
a/b α β
1.0 0.208 0.141
1.2 0.219 0.166
1.5 0.231 0.196
2 0.249 0.229
2.5 0.258 0.249
3 0.267 0.263
4 0.282 0.281
5 0.291 0.291
10 0.312 0.312
∞ 0.333 0.333
For very thin sections (i.e. a/b>>10), α = β = 1/3. Therefore, the maximum shearing stress
of the rectangular bar is written as:
3Ž
8B =
<
Additionally, the angle of twist is written as:
3Žj
©=
< H ›

57
Thin-walled members with open cross sections
R
Slotted circular pipe
a = 2πR
b=t
Slotted square tube
a = 4(a-t)
b=t
Angle
a = 2a-t
b=t

58
Example: Compare the angle of twist and maximum shear stress for three members of
length (L) having a square section, a rectangular section and a circular section of same
area. All members are subjected to same torque (T). The circular section is of 100mm
diameter, and the rectangular section is 25mm wide.
Solution:
Square Rectangular Circular

A=π/4(d)2=
A=7854mm2 A=7854mm2
π/4(100)2=7854mm2
a=314mm J= π/2(r)4= π/2(50)4=
a=b= 88.6mm
b=25mm 9817500mm4
¶· 3Žj Ž j
µ= ©= H © =
¸¹º» ¼ < › › ¨
Žj 3Žj Ž j
©= ©= © =
0.141688.6) › 314625)H › › 9817500 ›
Žj Ž j Ž j
©= ©= © =
8696532 › 1633781 › 9817500 ›
Ž 3Ž Ž e
8B = 8B = 8B =
•< < ¨
¶ 3Ž Ž 650)
½¾¹¿ = 8B = =
À. ÁÀÂ6ÂÂ. Ã)» 314625) 8B
9817500
¶ Ž Ž
½¾¹¿ = 8B = 8B =
ÄÅÅÆÃ» 65351 196350
Summary:
©CA‰ BEF A
> © wÇ«BCA > © ‰DC‰ A
CA‰ BEF A wÇ«BCA
8B > 8B > ‰DC‰ A
8B

59
Example: For the thin-walled square shaft with a longitudinal slot shown in the figure
below, determine the angle of twist at section 1-1 and section 2-2. Take G=84kN/mm2
2
1
4mm
50N m 80N m 30N m
50mm slot
200mm 200mm 300mm 300mm
1 2
50N m
+
T.M.D
-
30N m
Žj
Solution: The angle of twist for the rectangular section is:
©=
´< H ›
a= 4(50-4) = 184mm
b=4mm
< 184 1
∴ = = 46 > 10; ∴ ´ =
4 3
3 ∗ Žj
©='
< H›
3 ∗ 50 ∗ 10H IJJ ∗ 200JJ 3 ∗ 30 ∗ 10H IJJ ∗ 600JJ
© = −
L
184JJ ∗ (4JJ)H ∗ 84 ∗ 10H I/JJ 184JJ ∗ (4JJ)H ∗ 84 ∗ 10H I/JJ
= −0.0243e<!
3 ∗ 30 ∗ 10H IJJ ∗ 300JJ

© =− = −0.0273e<!
L
184JJ ∗ (4JJ)H ∗ 84 ∗ 10H I/JJ

60
Homework
1. The composite circular shaft is subjected to a concentrated torque (T) at point B, as shown
below. The region AB is made of bronze, while the region BC is made of steel and bronze.
Knowing that the allowable shearing stress of steel τallow=80MPa and the allowable shearing
stress of bronze τallow=60MPa, determine the maximum torque (T) that can be applied safely at
B. Use Gs=80GPa and Gb=34GPa
2. The solid square steel shaft shown in the figure below is subjected to the torque at C. Determine
the maximum shearing stress occurs in the shaft. Ends A and B are rigidly clamped.

61
Chapter Four: Axial Force, Shear and Bending Moment

Beam: the member that resists forces applied laterally or transversely to its axis, such as main
members supporting floors of buildings.
Beams
In this chapter, we are going to determine the system of internal forces that maintains equilibrium
for any beam system.
Types of supports
1. Roller or link: this support resists forces lie on one line of action of known direction.
Beam Beam
Link
Body
In this type of supports there is only one unknown reaction in the static equilibrium equations.
For the inclined support, the ratio between the two components is fixed.
2. Pin or hinge: this support resists forces act in any direction of the plane. The ratio
between the components is not constant (not as in the roller).

62
Beam
3. Fixed (clamped, built in) support
This support resists movement of any type in the plane. Translation and rotation are
prohibited.
Beam
Types of loadings
1. Concentrated load: this load could be either a force or moment
2. Uniformly distributed load: this is given as an intensity force per unit length (N/m,
kN/m…)
w2
w1
3. Uniformly (linearly) varying load: this load is most commonly produced by the
lateral soil or water pressure.

63
Classification of beams according to their supporting system
1. Simple beam or simply supported beam
2. Clamped beam or fixed-ended beam

64
3. Restrained beam (one fixed and one simple ends)
4. Cantilever beam
5. Overhanging beam
6. Continuous beam
For all beams the distance (L) between supports is called span
Classification of beams according to their analysis procedure
I. Unstable beams

65
Number of unknown reactions = 2
Number of Equilibrium equations= 3, which are:
∑Fx = 0
∑Fy = 0
∑Mo = 0
When No. of unknowns < No. of Equilibrium equations, the beam is known as unstable beam
II. Stable and statically determinate beams
Number of unknown reactions = 3
When No. of unknowns = No. of Equilibrium equations, the beam is known as stable and
statically determinate beam
III. Stable and statically indeterminate beams
Number of unknown reactions = 5 and 4, respectively
When No. of unknowns > No. of Equilibrium equations, the beam is known as stable and
statically indeterminate beam

66
Calculations of beams’ reactions
Example 1:
∑Fx = 0
Ax = 6kN
∑MA = 0
RB (8) = 8(4) + 6(7) +14
RB = 11.0kN
∑Fy = 0 +
Ay + 11 -8 -6 = 0
Ay = 3kN
Example 2:
The internal hinge always adds additional Equilibrium equation to the three original Equilibrium
equations that is:
∑Mhinge = 0
Part BC
∑Mc = 0
4(1) – RB(2) = 0 => RB = 2kN
∑Fy = 0 +
Cy + 2 - 4 = 0
Cy = 2kN
Part AC
∑Fy = 0 +
Ay - 6 - 2 = 0
Ay = 8kN

67
∑MA = 0
MA = 6(2) +2(2) = 16kN.m
∑Fx = 0
Ax = 0
Example 3:
8000
Answer: N/m
RA= 5600N A B
RB = 11200N 4.2m
Internal forces and moments in beams
10kN
1m 1
A B
1
2.0m 2.0m
5kN 5kN
The part to the left of section 1-1
∑Fy = 0 +
5-V=0
V = 5kN
M = 5 (1) = 5kN.m
The part to the right of section 1-1:
V = 10-5 = 5kN

68
M = 5(3) – 10(1) = 5kN.m
Whether the left part of the section or the right part is taken, we must arrive at the same internal
force results.
There are three types of internal forces in the plane as follows:
• Axial force (P), which algebraically equals the summation of all the axial forces exist on
one side of the section.
• Shear force (V), which equals the algebraic summation of all the forces that exist
perpendicularly on one side of the section.
• Bending moment (M), which equals the algebraic summation of the moments caused by
all the perpendicular forces affect one side of the section.
Sign convention
Axial force (P)
Tensile (+)
Compressive (-)
Shear force (V)
At the right-hand side of the segment, downward (+)
At the right-hand side of the segment, upward (-)
Bending moment (M)
If the moment causes concave, that moment should be considered (+)
If the moment causes convex, that moment should be considered (-)

69
Shear and moment diagrams by equations
Example 1: Draw the axial, shear force and bending moment diagrams by using equations for the
beam shown below.
1) 0 ≤ x ≤ 5m
∑Fx = 0 =>P = 3kN compression
∑Fy = 0 =>V = +2kN constant
∑Mo = 0 =>M- 2(x) = 0 =>M = +2x linear
2) 5m ≤ x ≤ 10m
∑Fx = 0=>P = 0
∑Fy = 0 =>2 – 4 – V = 0 =>V = -2 constant
∑Mo = 0 =>M- 2(x) + 4(x-5) = 0 =>M = 20-

2x linear

70
General notes
• The three diagrams (axial, shear and bending moment) must end at zero because this is
the condition that satisfies equilibrium.
• The points of concentrated force and/or concentrated moment and the points of supports
are deliberate points that breaking the continuity of a period.
Example 2: Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams by using equations for the
simple beam shown below.

71
0≤x ≤L w
∑Fy = 0 => M
A x
^j
o
= − ^n ⋯ ⋯ jb\`<e
2 wL/2 x
V
∑Mo = 0 =>
^jn ^n
(= − ⋯ ⋯ <e< ]c<
2 2

72
Example 3: Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams by using equations for the beam
shown below.
∑MA = 0 => RB (4) = 6(2) + 9(8/3)
RB=9kN
∑Fy = 0 => RA = 6 + 9 -9 = 6kN
0 ≤ x ≤ 4m
∑Fy = 0 =>V = 6-1.5x -xy/2; y

1.5kN
4.5n
= 6 − 1.5n − ⋯ ⋯ <e< ]c<
8 A x M
o
Find the point of zero shear:
x
Set V=0;
6kN V
4.5n
6 − 1.5n − =0
8
−0.563n − 1.5n + 6 = 0
1.5 ∓ Ê1.5 + 4(0.563)(6)

n= = 2.2J
−2(0.563)
∑Mo = 0 =>
1.5n 4.5n n n
( ∗ ∗ − 6n = 0
2 4 2 3
1.5n 4.5n H
( = 6n − + − ⋯ ⋯ …[ bd
2 24

73
Example 4: Draw the axial, shear force and bending moment diagrams by using equations for
the beam shown below.
∑MB = 0 =>
RA (3) + 40(1) – 30(1.5) -90(2.25) = 0
RA=69.17kN
60x
60kN/m
∑MA = 0 =>
RB (3) - 40(4) – 30(1.5) -90(0.75) = 0 M

30
P
A o V
RB= 90.83kN
Check: ∑Fy = 0?!=> 90 + 30 +40 = 90.83+ 69.17 O.K 69.17

x
1) 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.5m

74
∑Fx = 0 => P = 30
∑Fy = 0 => V = 69.17-60x
∑Mo = 0 =>
60n
(+ − 69.17n = 0
2
( = 69.17n − 30n
30
2) 1.5m ≤ x ≤ 3m 90
60kN/m
∑Fx = 0 => P = 30
∑Fy = 0 => V +30 - 69.17 + 90 = 0; V = -50.83 M
30
A P
∑Mo = 0 => o
M + 30(x-1.5) + 90(x-0.75) – 69.17(x) = 0 V

69.17
( = 112.5 − 50.83n x
30
90
60kN/m
3) 3m ≤ x ≤ 4m
M
∑Fx = 0 => P = 30 30
P
A B o
∑Fy = 0 => V +90 + 30 - 69.17 – 90.83 = 0; V = 40 1.5m 1.5m V
69.17 90.83
x
∑Mo = 0 =>
M + 30(x-1.5) + 90(x-0.75) – 69.17(x) -90.83(x-3) = 0
( = 40n − 160

75
Shear and moment diagrams by summation approach
Upward load +
Downward load -
For the element ∆x
∑Fy = 0 +
(V+∆V) - p(x). ∆x - V = 0
∆
= €6n7
∆n
∆ !Ì
lim = = €6n7
∆ →3 ∆n !n
!Ì
= €6n7 … … … … . . 617
!n
∑MA = 0
(M + ∆M) – M –V. ∆x - p(x) ∆x(∆x/2) = 0
∆( ∆n
= − €6n7
∆n 2

76
∆( ∆n
lim = lim − lim €6n7
∆ →3 ∆n ∆ →3 ∆ →3 2
!(
= 6n7 … … … … . . 627
!n
From equation (2):
! ( !
=
!n !n
! (
= €6n7 … … … … 637
!n
Or, in opposite way:
From equation (1): dV = p(x) dx, hence; 6n7 = m3 €6n7!n …
That means the shear force at the section equals the summation (area) of all normal loadings that
exists on one side of the section.
Also, from equation (2): dM = V(x) dx, hence; (6n7 = m3 6n7!n …
That means the bending moment at the section equals the summation (area) of all shear forces
that exists on one side of the section.
Examples
1.

77
General notes on drawing the axial, shear and bending moment diagrams
• Start drawing each diagram from the origin point, at the left hand side. The plot must end
at the zero ordinate, at the right hand side.
• Any concentrated horizontal (axial) force to the right hand side makes a vertical
downward jump with its magnitude in the axial force diagram, and vice versa.
• Any concentrated upward vertical (shear) force makes a vertical upward jump with its
magnitude in the shear force diagram, and vice versa.
• Any concentrated clockwise bending moment makes a vertical upward jump with its
magnitude in the bending moment diagram, and vice versa.
• When the loading diagram consists only of concentrated normal loads, the shear diagram
will be of constant functions and the moment diagram will be of linear variation.
• When the loading diagram consists only of uniformly distributed loads, the shear diagram
will be of linear functions and the moment diagram will be of second order variation.
• When the loading diagram consists only of linearly varying loads, the shear diagram will
be of second order functions and the moment diagram will be of third order variation.
• The point of zero shear force represents a maximum bending moment point.
2.

78
3.
4.

79
5.
L/3 wL/2
wkN/m
wL2/3
L
wL/2
S.F.D
_
wL/2
2nd order
B.M.D
_
3rd order
wL2/3
6.

80
7.
ola
Cu rab
b oid Pa
ar
ne
Li
8.

81
Solution of example 8 by equations:
0≤x≤3
∑Fy =0; V= +450 (constant)
∑M0 =0; M= +450x (linear)
3≤x≤6
∑Fy =0; V= +450-300(x-3) (linear)
@x=3; V=450
@x=6; V=-450
∑M0 =0; M= +450x - 300/2(x-3)2(parabola)
@x=3; M=1350
@x=6; M=1350
@x=4.5; M=2025-337.5=1687.5
6 ≤ x≤ 9
∑Fy =0; V= +450+1350-300(x-3); V= 1800-300(x-3) (linear)
@x=6; V=900
@x=9; V=0
∑M0 =0; M= +450x +1350(x-6) - 300/2(x-3)2(parabola)
@x=6; M=1350
@x=9; M= 2700

82
9.
Solution of example 9 by equations:
0≤x≤1
∑Fy =0; V= -5 (constant)
∑M0 =0; M= -5x (linear)
1≤x≤3
∑Fy =0; V= 25 - 5 – 20(x-1); V= 20-20(x-1) (linear)
@x=1; V=20
@x=3; V=-20

83
∑M0 =0; M= -5x- 20/2(x-1)2 +25(x-1) (parabola)
@x=1; M=-5
@x=3; M=-5
3≤x≤4
∑Fy =0; V= 25 + 25 -5-40; V= +5 (constant)
∑M0 =0; M= 25(x-1) +25(x-3) -5x-40(x-2)

(linear)
10. Draw the SFD and BMD for the beam AC. Also, draw the deflected shape of the beam,
and show the point of contra flexure. Determine the maximum positive bending
moment and find its location.
∑MB = 0
Rc (6) + 80 + 30(1.5) = 144(2);
Rc =27.2kN.
∑Fy = 0
RB + 27.2 -30 – 144 = 0;
RB = 146.8kN.
To find the position of zero shear point, take a free body diagram for the beam segment exists to
the right of a section passes through the zero shear point, as shown below:
-
=
=
y=8x.
y
M
∑Fy = 0; find x, as:
o
8n
V=0 x Rc
27.2 − =0
2

84
x=2.61m.
∑Mo = 0;
8 ∗ 2.61 ∗ 2.61 ∗ 2.61

( = 27.2(2.61) −
2∗3
M=47.3kN.m
48kN/m
10kN/m
80kN.m
A C
B
3m 6m
116.8
Pa
+ ra b
ola
SFD
_
linea _
r
-27.2
-30
x
Mmax
bic
cu
+
_ BMD
Para _
bola
-45
-125

85
11. For the beam loaded as shown below, plot the shear and bending moment
diagrams. Determine the magnitude of the maximum positive bending moment
and find its location.

86
To find the location of zero shear point, take the free body diagram of the section shown below:
200 g
=
3 n
y=66.66x.
From the equilibrium equation ∑Fy = 0, find the value of x, as:
66.66n
400 = 200n +
2
33.33n + 200n − 400 = 0
−200 ∓ Ê40000 + 4(33.33)(400)

n=
2(33.33)
x=1.583m
In order to find the maximum positive moment, use the following equilibrium equation:
∑Mo = 0;
1.583 1.583 1.583

(8B = 400(1.583) − 200(1.583)( 7 − 66.6661.58376 76 7
2 2 3
Mmax=338.3N.m

87
12. The overhanging beam AC supports a uniform load of intensity (w). Determine the value
of x1 in terms of L such that the maximum positive bending moment equals the maximum
negative bending moment.
∑MB=0;
j+n
@ j = ^(j + n ) ∗ [j − ]
2
^
@ j= (j + n ) ∗ (j − n )
2
^
@ = (j − n )
2j
X X #
( Î(n) = (j − n )n −
k
!( ^
= (j − n ) − ^n = 0
!n 2j
j −n
n=
2j
X
(8B
Î
= (j − n ) ∗
k# L #̄ X
= 6j − n 7
k k k
^n
(8B
L
=
2
Find the value of x1 when M+max= M-max:
^ ^n
(j − n ) =
4j 2
(j − n )
=n
2j

88
Take the square root of both sides of the equation,
(j − n )
=n
√2j
n + 1.414jn − j = 0
−1.414j ∓ √2j + 4j −1.414j + 2.45j

n = = = 0.518j
2 2

89
Homework
1. The bending moment diagram of a beam is shown in the figure below. Construct the
corresponding shear force and vertical loading diagrams.(Ans. Reaction at right-hand
end= 100N)
2. Determine the shear force V and bending moment M at the midpoint C of the simple
beam AB shown in the figure.(Ans. Vc=-0.9375kN; Mc=4.125kNm)
3. A simply supported beam AB supports a linearly distributed load (see figure). The
intensity of the load varies linearly from50kN/m at support A to 25kN/m at support B.
Construct the shear force and bending moment diagrams of the beam.(Ans. Vmidspan=-
4.167kN; Mmidspan=75kNm)

90
4. An overhanging beam AC carries a linearly varying load as shown below. Determine the
position and the magnitude of the maximum positive bending moment. (Ans.
Mmax=310Nm at x=2.12m from point A)
1000N/m
A C
B
1m 2m
5. Write the shear force and bending moment equations at any point of the simply supported
beam shown below. Plot the corresponding diagrams.(Ans. Mmax=12000Nm)

91
Chapter Five: Pure Bending of Beams

Pure bending refers to flexure of a beam under a constant bending moment. Therefore, pure
bending occurs only in regions of a beam where the shear force is zero, as shown in the
Figure 1. However, nonuniform bending refers to flexure in the presence of shear forces, which
means that the bending moment changes as we move along the axis of the beam (Figure 2).
Figure 1: Simple beam in pure bending (M = M1)
Figure 2: Simple beam with central region in pure bending and end regions in nonuniform
bending

92
Curvature of a beam
When loads are applied to a beam, its longitudinal axis is deformed into a curve, as illustrated in
Figure 3. The resulting strains and stresses in the beam are directly related to the curvature of the
deflection curve.
Curvature is a measure of how sharply a beam

is curved (bent). If the load on a beam is small,
the beam will be nearly straight, the radius of
curvature will be very large, and the curvature
will be very small. If the load is increased, the
amount of bending will increase - the radius of
curvature will become smaller, and the
curvature will become larger.
Figure 3: Bending of a cantilever beam
To point up the idea of curvature, the two points

(m1 and m2) are located on the deflection curve.
Point m1 is chosen at an arbitrary distance x from
the y axis and point m2 is located at small distance
ds further along the curve. At each of these points, a
line normal to the tangent to the deflection curve is
drawn. These normals intersect at point O’, which
is the center of curvature of the deflection curve
(Figure 4).
The distance O’m1 from the centre of curvature to

the curve is called the radius of curvature ρ
(Greek letter rho), and the curvature κ (Greek
letter kappa) is defined as the reciprocal of the
radius of curvature. Therefore,
1
Ï=
¦
Figure 4: Curvature of a bent beam

93
Bending formula
Basic assumptions
1. A plane section before bending remains plane after bending.

2. The material is linear elastic (i.e. follows Hooke’s law).
3. The modulus of elasticity (E) is same in both tension and compression.
Figure 5: Deformations of a beam in pure bending: (a) side view of beam, (b) deformed beam

94
Figure 6: Behavior of a beam in bending
J€ = ¦ !§
ff ′ = g !§
ff ′ g
i= =
J€ ¦
Since the material is linear elastic:
l g
= ⋯ ⋯ 617
¦
The normal bending stress is varying linearly from zero at NA to a maximum value at extreme
fibers (mp and nq).

95
Figure 7: Distribution of bending stress in a beam
(= r ! . g
BCAB
l. g
(= r ! . g
¦
BCAB
l g !
(= r
¦
BCAB
l
(= ∗ Ð5
¦
l Ð
¦= ⋯ ⋯ 627
(
And from equation (1):
l g
¦= ⋯ ⋯ 617
l g l Ð
=
(
( g
= ⋯ ⋯ Ñ`\!b\„ f]eJ[c<
Ð
In symmetrical sections about x-axis, the maximum bending stress is:

96
( …
8B = ⋯ ⋯ Ñ`\!b\„ f]eJ[c<
Ð
In unsymmetrical sections about x-axis, the maximum bending stresses are:
C1
C2
( …1
‰ 78B = ⋯ ⋯ Ñ`\!b\„ f]eJ[c<
Ð
( …2
78B = ⋯ ⋯ Ñ`\!b\„ f]eJ[c<
Ð
Elastic section modulus

Ò ? Ò
78B = =
Ó ˆ
Where:
Ð
Ô=
…
For a rectangular section:
NA
h
ℎ
H
Ð5 =
12
Ð5 ℎ
Ô= =
… 6
b

97
For a circular section:

R
Ð5 = @
4 NA R
Ð5 R
Ô= = @H
… 4
Some useful moments of inertia
Triangle
V4
Ð5 =
H=
NA
h/3
Semicircle
R
Ð = @
8
b
4@
Ð = Ð Õ Ö
3R
Ð = 0.11@

98
Example 1: The cantilever beam, shown in the figure below, has 2.0m span and carries a
uniformly distributed load of magnitude 2kN/m and a concentrated vertical load of 10kN.
Determine the bending stress distribution at the critical section.
Solution: a critical section is the section where the maximum bending moment and consequently
the maximum bending stress occurs.
In order to find the location of NA, y1: 10kN

2kN/m
∑ g
24kN.m
g1 =
∑
20062076107 180620761107
14kN
g1 = = 57.37JJ
2006207 1806207 -
10kN
Ð5 = '6Ð ! 7
14kN
2006207H 20(180)H
-
Ð5 = 2006207647.37) +
12 12
+ 20(180)(110 − 57.37)
24kNm
= 2.88 ∗ 10| JJ
( …1 24 ∗ 10= IJJ ∗ 6200 − 57.377JJ

)8B = = = 118.85( < 6Ž`\ab]\7
Ð 2.88 ∗ 10| JJ
( …2 24 ∗ 10= IJJ ∗ 657.377JJ
‰ 78B = = = 47.81( < 6…]J€eàab]\7
Ð 2.88 ∗ 10| JJ

99
Stress blocks at the critical section

100
Example 2: Determine the maximum tensile and compressive bending stresses developed in the
overhanging beam shown below.
96kN
150 100 150
12kN/m
200mm
A
B
32kN 6m 2m
64kN
32 24
100 + +
200mm
SFD
+ +
NA 2.67m
_
42.67
40
200mm
y1
+
BMD
-
24
Section
Solution: from the bending moment diagram, there appear two critical sections because there are
a maximum positive moment and a maximum negative moment.
In order to find the location of NA, y1:
∑ g
g1 =
∑
400(600)(300) − [R(100) (300)] − 100(100)(550)

g1 = = 287.4JJ
400(600) − R(100) − 100(100)
Ð5 = '(Ð + ! )
400(600)H R(100) R(100)

Ð5 = + 400(600)(300 − 287.4) − 2 ∗ ² + (300 − 287.4) ³
12 8 2
100(100)H
−² + 100(100)(550 − 287.4) ³ = 6.46 ∗ 10’ JJ
12

101
Positive bending moment zone:
( …1 42.67 ∗ 10= IJJ ∗ 6600 − 287.4)JJ

‰ )8B = = = 2( <
Ð 6.46 ∗ 10’ JJ
( …2 42.67 ∗ 10= IJJ ∗ 6287.4)JJ
78B = = = 1.9( <
Ð 6.46 ∗ 10’ JJ
Negative bending moment zone:
( …2 24 ∗ 10= IJJ ∗ 6287.4)JJ

‰ 78B = = = 1.07( <
Ð 6.46 ∗ 10’ JJ
( …1 24 ∗ 10= IJJ ∗ 6600 − 287.4)JJ
78B = = = 1.16( <
Ð 6.46 ∗ 10’ JJ

102
Example 3: When two concentrated forces were applied at a W460 x 82 steel beam as shown in
figure, an elongation of 0.12mm was observed between the gauge points A and B. What was the
magnitude of the applied forces? Take E=200GPa and I= 371x106mm4.
Solution:
∆ 0.12JJ
P P
)
i =i = = = 0.0006
8 )
j 200JJ
2m 2m 2m
)
) =i ) ∗ l = 0.0006 ∗ 200 ∗ 10H

= 120( < P P
P
+
SFD
-
P
2*P
Bending formula: +
( ∗ … ( ∗ 62307JJ
=
BMD
) => 120 =
Ð 371 ∗ 10= JJ
62000 ∗ 7 ∗ 62307JJ
120 = => = 96783I = 96.8NI
371 ∗ 10= JJ

103
Example 4: A gray cast iron channel member as shown in the figure below acts as a horizontal
beam. When vertical forces are applied to this beam the distance AB increases by 0.02mm and
the distance CD decreases by 0.18mm. What the maximum normal stresses occur in the extreme
fibers, and what is the sense of the moment? E=100GPa.
200mm 20
Solution:
A
∆ 0.02JJ
B
)
i = = = +0.0001
)
j 200JJ
100
)
∆?x −0.18JJ
C D
i?x = = = −0.0009
j?x 200JJ 30
section
The beam is subjected to a negative bending moment
i )+ i?x i?x
=
100 g
0.0001 + 0.0009 0.0009

= => g = 90JJ
100 g
i • i ) i • 0.0001
= => = => i = 0.0003 6T`\ab]\7
30 10 30 10 •
σtop= εtop* E = 0.0003*100000MPa= 30MPa (tension)

i i?x i 0.0009
= => = => i = −0.0012 6d]J€eàab]\7
120 90 120 90
σbot= εbot* E = -0.0012*100000MPa= 120MPa (compression)

104
Beams of Two Materials
…
… … wood
……
… .. Concrete
..
Reinforcing steel
steel
Stress Distribution in Composite Sections (Method of Transformed section)
Same assumptions used in deriving the bending formula are valid in the composite sections.
q¯
\=
q#
Modular ratio

105
l
\′ =
l
Example: A composite beam is constructed from a wood beam (150mm x 250mm) and a steel
reinforcing plate (10mm thick x 150mm wide), as shown in the figure below. If the beam is
subjected to a positive bending moment of 30kN.m around its horizontal axis, determine the
maximum stresses developed in steel and wood. Take Es=200GPa and Ew=10GPa.
250mm
y1
10
Solution: The first step in the analysis is to locate the neutral axis of the cross section.
qs
Modular ratio \ =
33
= = 20
q× 3
∗
= \. = 2061507 = 3000JJ
30006107657 1506250761357
g1 = = 77JJ
30006107 15062507

106
3000(10)H 150(250)H
Ð5 = + 3000(10)(72) + + 150(250)(135 − 77) = 4.78n10- JJ
12 12
The maximum stresses in the transformed wood section:
( …1 30 ∗ 10= I. JJ ∗ 61837JJ
X )8B = = = 11.5( < 6d]J€eàab]\7
Ð5 4.78 ∗ 10- JJ
( …2 30 ∗ 10= I. JJ ∗ 6777JJ
78B = X7 = = = 4.83( < 6T`\ab]\7
Ð 4.78 ∗ 10- JJ
( g 30 ∗ 10= I. JJ ∗ 6677JJ
∗
= = = 4.21( < 6T`\ab]\7
X
Ð 4.78 ∗ 10- JJ
The actual stresses for steel in the actual section:
w 78B = \. X 78B = 20 ∗ 4.83 = 96.65( < 6T`\ab]\7
w7
∗
= \. ∗
X = 20 ∗ 4.21 = 84.2( < 6T`\ab]\7
Note: At the contact plane the ratio of the stress in the steel to the stress in the wood is (\ =
qs 33
= = 20). Although the strains in the steel and wood are equal at the contact plane, the
q× 3
stresses are different because of the different moduli (Es and Ew).

107
Example 2: Determine the maximum stress in concrete and steel for the reinforced concrete beam
of the section shown below. The section is subjected to a positive bending moment of 70kN.m.
Assume the modular ratio n=15. Compare the maximum stresses with the allowable stresses in
both concrete and steel.
..
..
Solution: As the concrete under tension stresses is very weak, it will crack below the neutral
surface (for the positive moment) and the steel rods will carry the entire tensile load, while the
upper part of the concrete beam will carry the compressive load. That is to say, we consider
the concrete area in the tension zone is negligible.
R
=2∗ (30) = 1413.7JJ
w
4
\. w = 15 ∗ 1413.7 = 21206JJ
To find the location of the NA:
The first moment of the compression area around the NA = the first moment of the tension area
around the NA.
250* kd* kd/2 = 21206* (500-kd)
N! + 169.65N! − 84823 = 0
kd=218.5mm
250(218.5)H
Ð5 = + 21206(500 − 218.5) = 2.55 ∗ 10’ JJ
3
( …1 70 ∗ 10= I. JJ ∗ 6218.57JJ
‰ )8B = = = 6.0( < 6d]J€eàab]\ 7 < 0.45f‰′
Ð5 2.55 ∗ 10’ JJ
= 0.45(21) = 9.45( <
( …2 70 ∗ 10= I. JJ ∗ 6281.57JJ
w =\∗ = 15 ∗ = 115.9( < < fw 7B X = 140( <
Ð5 2.55 ∗ 10’ JJ

108
Example 3: A hollow rectangular reinforced concrete section is cast as shown in the figure below.
The modular ratio n=10, and the maximum compressive stress in the concrete caused by positive
bending moment is 7MPa. Determine the stress in the steel and the bending moment applied to
the section.
Solution: We need first to transform the actual composite section to a concrete transformed
section.
nAs= 10*3600 = 36000mm2
Now, we need to find the location of the neutral axis for the transformed section:
M&
2 ∗ 100 ∗ N! ∗ + 400 ∗ 120 ∗ 60 + 36000 ∗ 1120
N! =
2 ∗ 100 ∗ N! + 400 ∗ 120 + 36000
100N! + 43200000
N! =
200N! + 48000 + 36000
N! + 840N! − 432000 = 0
−840 + Ê840 + 4(432000)

N! = = 360JJ
2
100 ∗ (360)H 400 ∗ (120)H

Ð5 = ∗2+ + 400(120)(300) + 36000(760)
3 12
Ð5 = 3.1 ∗ 10’ + 5.76 ∗ 10| + 4.32 ∗ 10’ + 2.08 ∗ 10 3

= 2.83 ∗ 10 3 JJ
( ∗ N! I ( ∗ 360JJ
= => 7 = => ( = 550NI. J
‰) tp
Ð5 JJ 2.83 ∗ 10 3 JJ
( ∗ (1120 − N!) 550 ∗ 10= I. JJ ∗ (1120 − 360)JJ

=\∗ = 10 ∗ = 147.7( <
w
Ð5 2.83 ∗ 10 3 JJ

109
20% Q3: The reinforced concrete section of the T-shape shown in Fig.3 is subjected to a positive
bending moment of 150kN.m.If the modular ratio n=10, determine the maximum compressive
stress in the concrete and the stress in the steel.
Solution:
600mm
600mm
100
kd
500mm
300mm
4 ɸ 25mm
nAs
300mm
Transformed section
R R
= I]. ]f <ea ∗ ! = 4 ∗ (25) = 1963.5JJ
w
4 4
e`< ]f Te<\af]eJ`! aT``c T] d]\de`T` = \ ∗ w = 10 ∗ 1963.5 = 19635JJ
After making the transformed section (as shown in the figure above), obtain the position of N.A.
First moment of compression area about N.A = First moment of tension area about N.A.
6N! − 1007
600 ∗ 100 ∗ 6N! − 507 3006N! − 1007 ∗ = 196356500 − N!7
2
6N! − 1007
150N! 3006N! − 1007 ∗ = 196356500 − N!7
2
150N! 49635N! − 11317500 = 0
N! + 330.9N! − 75450 = 0
−330.9 + Ê330.9 + 4(75450)

N! = = 155JJ
2
600 ∗ (100)H 300 ∗ (55)H

Ð5 = + 600 ∗ 100 ∗ (155 − 50) + + 19635(500 − 155)
12 3

110
Ð5 = 5 ∗ 10| + 66 ∗ 10| + 1.7 ∗ 10| + 233 ∗ 10| = 306 ∗ 10| JJ
( ∗ N! 150 ∗ 10= IJJ ∗ 360JJ

= = = 7.6( <
‰) tp
Ð5 306 ∗ 10| JJ
( ∗ (! − N!) 150 ∗ 10= IJJ ∗ (500 − 155)JJ

=\∗ = 10 ∗ = 169( <
w
Ð5 306 ∗ 10| JJ
Homework
1. In order to reach the same maximum bending stress for a square section in the two
different positions as shown in the figure, determine the ratio of the bending moments.
Assume the bending moment takes place around the horizontal axis.
2. A beam having a solid rectangular cross-section of the dimensions shown in the figure is
subjected to a positive bending moment of 16kN.m acting around the horizontal axis.
a) Find the compressive force acting on the shaded area of the cross-section
developed by the bending stresses.
b) Find the tensile force acting on the shaded area of the cross-hatched area
developed by the bending stresses.
50
50
3. Determine the allowable bending moment around horizontal neutral axes for the
composite beams of wood and steel having the cross-sectional dimensions shown in the
figures. Materials are fastened together so that they act as a unit. Es= 200GPa; Ew =
8.3GPa. The allowable bending stresses are σs = 140MPa and σw = 8.3MPa.

111
4. A simple beam of span length 3.2m carries a uniform load of intensity 48kN/m. The cross
section of the beam is a hollow box with wood flanges and steel side plates, as shown in
the figure. The wood flanges are 75mm by 100mm in cross section, and the steel plates
are 300 mm deep. What is the required thickness t of the steel plates if the allowable
stresses are 120MPa for the steel and 6.5MPa for the wood? (Assume that the moduli of
elasticity for the steel and wood are 210GPa and 10GPa, respectively, and disregard the
weight of the beam.) Answer: tmin=15mm.

112
Chapter Six: Shearing Stresses in Beams

In a beam loaded by transverse forces acting perpendicular to the axis of the beam, as shown in
the figure below, not only are bending stresses generated parallel to the axis of the beam but
shearing stresses also act over cross sections of the beam perpendicular to the axis of the beam.
Mx
Vx
b j j b j
d f d f
A B
dx
j h
FA FB f g
dF
y1
Neutral
h
axis
dx

113
dF
Assume: MB>MA; σB>σA; FB>FA
dF = FB-FA
! = mBCAB . ! − mBCAB . !
ÙFVÚ B &A
() . g ( .g
! =r ! −r !
Ð5 Ð5
() − (
! = r g. !
Ð5
Let: MB = MA + dM
( !( − (
! = r g. !
Ð5
Divide both sides by dx:
! !(/!n
= r g. !
!n Ð5
Let: q= dF/dx = shear flow, which is the shear force per unit length.
!(
=
!n
Û=r g ! = g
Ü B &A = fbeaT J]J`\T ]f <e`< < ][T I
BCAB
B &A
Û
_=
Ð5
Then, the shear stress can be given as:

114
&ƒ
_ Û
= &Ý
= =
Ð5
Q is the first moment of area separated by the fiber about NA
Q= 100*30*85= 255000mm3
30mm
Or, alternatively:
y1
h=200mm
Q=100*170*15= 255000mm3
fib Neutral
er
axis
The Shear Flow (q) would help to find the spacing between bolts,
as follow:
b=100mm
ƒ
Ô=
Ç
Where:
S= spacing between the bolts, and
F= allowable shearing force per bolt.
S
Example 1: The T shaped wooden beam of the cross-sectional dimensions given in the figure
below transmits a vertical shear force of 3000N. Find the necessary spacing of the nails connected
the two planks in order to make the beam acts as a unit. Assume that the allowable shearing force
carried by each nail is 700N.
200
Solution:
x
50mm
Find the location of the NA:
200(50)(25) + 50(200)(150)
g1 = = 87.5JJ
y1
200(50) + 50(200)
NA
200(50)H 50(200)H
Ð5 = + 200(50)(87.5 − 25) +
12 12
+ 50(200)(150 − 87.5)
200mm
= 1.135 ∗ 10- JJ
Q = 200 (50) (87.5-25) = 625000mm3
50
115
Or, Q =50 (200) (150-87.5) = 625000mm3
Û 3000I ∗ 625000JJH
_= = = 16.51I/JJ
Ð5 1.135 ∗ 10- JJ
700I
Ô€<db\„ `T^``\ \<bca, Ô = = = 42.4JJ
_ 16.51I/JJ
Practically, use nails spacing @ 40mm c/c.
Solution for alternative arrangement of planks:

25 150 25
Nails between planks 1 and 2:
50mm
Q= 25(50) (87.5-25) = 78125mm3 2 1
87.5
Û 3000I ∗ 78125JJH
_= = = 2.06I/JJ
Ð5 1.135 ∗ 10- JJ 3 NA
700I
Ô€<db\„ `T^``\ \<bca, Ô = = = 340JJ
_ 2.06I/JJ 200mm
Nails between planks 2 and 3:
Q = 75 (50) (87.5-25) = 234375mm3
Û 3000I ∗ 234375JJH
_= = = 6.19I/JJ
Ð5 1.135 ∗ 10- JJ 50
700I
Ô€<db\„ `T^``\ \<bca, Ô = = = 113JJ
_ 6.19I/JJ

116
Example 2: A simply supported beam of 6.0m span supports a uniformly distributed load of
intensity of 3.0kN/m, and has the cross-sectional dimensions shown below. Determine the
necessary spacing between 10mm vertical screws whereby each screw can transmit a shear force
of 2.0kN. Take INA = 2.36x10-3m4
50
100
a a 3kN/m
NA 6m
500
9kN
100 +
SFD
1.5m -
9kN
3m
50 50
200mm
section
Solution:
First moment of area (shaded area) about NA, Û = ∑ gÞ
Q = 200(50) (225) +2 (50) (100) (200) = 4.25* 106mm3
Û 9000I ∗ 4.25 ∗ 10= JJH

_= = = 16.2I/JJ
Ð5 2.36 ∗ 10’ JJ
Near the supports:
2000I
Ô= = = 123.5JJ
_ 16.2I/JJ
Similar calculation when V=4.5kN, to cover the mid span zone:
Û 4500I ∗ 4.25 ∗ 10= JJH

_= = = 8.1I/JJ
Ð5 2.36 ∗ 10’ JJ
2000I
Ô= = = 247JJ
_ 8.1I/JJ
The shearing stress formula for a rectangular cross-section:

117
‡ß
=
ÓŸz
V V
[ • − g ‚ ∗ • + g ‚]
=
Ð5
y1
ℎ fib Neutral
= Y6 7 − g ] er
2Ð5 2
h
axis
To find the maximum shear stress,
!
= •0 − 2g ‘ = 0; g = 0
!g 2Ð5 b
à ∗ áÁ
½¾¹¿ =
Â ∗ âãä
à ∗ áÁ »à »à
½¾¹¿ = = =
ºá»
Â ∗ ÄÁ Áºá Á ä
à
If ½¹åæ = ;
ä
½¾¹¿ = Ä. ç½¹åæ
Volume of shear stresses block= 2/3*τmax*b*h
2 3
]c[J` = Õ Ö ℎ =
3 2 ℎ

118
Example 1: Determine the shearing stresses at different levels of an I-section beam, which is
loaded as shown in the figure below.
500kN
250kN 250kN
Solution:
150(300)H 138(276)H
Ð5 = − = 95.7 ∗ 10= JJ
12 12
Û
=
Ð5
L = 0, `d<[a` Û = 0
250000 ∗ Y150 ∗ 12 ∗ 144]

7Ù BEFA = = 4.5( <
L
95.7 ∗ 10= ∗ 150
250000 ∗ [150 ∗ 12 ∗ 144]
)XA = = 56.4( <
L
95.7 ∗ 10= ∗ 12
250000 ∗ [150 ∗ 12 ∗ 144 + 12 ∗ 12 ∗ 132]
= = 60.5( <
HLH
95.7 ∗ 10= ∗ 12
250000 ∗ [150 ∗ 12 ∗ 144 + 12 ∗ 138 ∗ 69]
= = 81.3( <
L
95.7 ∗ 10= ∗ 12

119
Example 2: A T-beam has cross-sectional dimensions shown in the figure below is subjected to a
shear force V=68kN. Determine the maximum shear stress in the web of the beam.
210 ∗ 20 ∗ 10 + 16 ∗ 280 ∗ 160

g1 = = 87.42JJ
16mm
210 ∗ 20 + 16 ∗ 280
210(20)H 16(280)H
Ð5 = + 210 ∗ 20 ∗ (87.42 − 10) + + 16
12 12
300mm
280
∗ 280 ∗ (160 − 87.42) = 7.82 ∗ 10| JJ
‡ß
=
NA
ÓŸz
y1
68000 ∗ [16 ∗ 212.58 ∗ 106.29]
= = = 19.64( <
7.82 ∗ 10| ∗ 16
210mm
8B 5
section
Example 3: A steel cantilever beam is made of two structural tee- section beams welded together
as shown in the figure below. Determine the allowable safe load (P) that the beam can carry. The
allowable stresses are: σ=150MPa in tension and compression, τ=100MPa in shear, and
q=2000N/mm on the welded joint.
200mm
25
25
150
NA
weld
y1
100
150 25
section
Solution: Find the position of the neutral axis.
23( 2)( .2)Î 2( 33)( 2)Î 33( 2)( H|.2)

g1 = = 135.2JJ
23( 2)Î 2( 33)Î 33( 2)
Determine the moment of inertia of the section about neutral axis.

120
1506257H 2562007H
Ð5 = 15062576135.2 U 12.57 25620076135.2 U 1257
12 12
2006257 H
20062576237.5 U 135.27 1.26 ∗ 10- JJ
12
•
( …
The allowable force (P) based on the bending stresses:
Ð5
B X 150( <, f]e ]T— T`\ab]\ <\! d]J€eàab]\
1000 ∗ 135.2
150( < W 140NI
1.26 ∗ 10-
• The allowable force (P) based on the shearing stresses:
Û
V=P;
Ð5
∗ Y200 ∗ 25 ∗ 102.3 25 ∗ 89.8 ∗ 44.9Z
100( < W 514.5NI
5
1.26 ∗ 10- ∗ 25
•
Û
The allowable force (P) based on the shear flow in the welding joint:
_
Ð5
Q=200(25)(102.3)+25(125)(27.3)= 5.97*105mm3
∗ 5.97 ∗ 102
_XA & 2000 W 422.2NI
1.26 ∗ 10-
The safe allowable load Psafe= 140kN
Example: A wood box beam shown in the figure is

constructed of two boards, each 180x40mm in cross section,
that serve as flanges and two plywood webs, each 15mm
thick. The total height of the beam is 280mm. The plywood is
fastened to the flanges by wood screws having an allowable
load in shear of F=800N each. If the shear force V acting on
the cross section is 10.5kN, determine the maximum
permissible longitudinal spacing (S) of the screws.
Solution:
21062807H 18062007H
Ð5 U 2.64 ∗ 10- JJ
12 12

121
1
Û (180 ∗ 40 ∗ 120) = 432000JJH
2
Û
_=
Ð5
10.5 ∗ 10H ∗ 432000 17.18I

_= =
2.64 ∗ 10- JJ
800
Ô= = = 46.6JJ
_ 17.18
For practical fabrication of the beam, use spacing between screws S=45mm.
Example: A beam is loaded so that the moment diagram of it varies as shown in the figure.
a. Find the maximum longitudinal shearing force in the 12mm diameter bolts spaced 300mm
apart.
b. Find the maximum shearing stress in the glued joint.
Solution: Find the position of the neutral axis
200(50)(25) + 100(150)(125)
g1 = = 85JJ
200(50) + 100(150)
Determine the moment of inertia of the section about neutral axis
200(50)H 100(150)H
Ð5 = + 200(50)(85 − 25) + + 100(150)(125 − 85) = 9 ∗ 10|JJ
12 12

122
a) Find Q @ the red fiber, which represents Q for the bolt

Q= 100(50) (-60) +150(50) (40) =-300000+300000=0
q=0
b) Find Q @ the glued joint
Q=200(50) (60) =600000mm3
Or: Q=100(150) (40) =600000mm3
Û
Ð5
5000 ∗ 600000
= 0.333( <
F «A
9 ∗ 10| ∗ 100

123
% Q3: A double T beam is constructed of three wood boards, as shown in the figure. The
flange and the webs are joined together by screws of an allowable shear force F=1200N
per screw.
a) Calculate the maximum permissible longitudinal spacing of the screws.

b) Calculate the maximum bending stress in the beam section.
12kN
500mm
x
2m 2m
NA
6kN
+
S.F.D
-
6kN
12kNm
100 100
+
B.M.D
Solution: In order to find the location of NA, y1:
∑ g
g1 =
∑
500(100)(50) + 2[300(100)(250)]
g1 = = 159JJ
500(100) + 2(300)(100)
Ð5 = '(Ð + ! )
500(100)H
Ð5 = + 500(100)(159 − 50) + 2
12
100(300)H
∗ ² + 100(300)(250 − 159) ³ = 1.58 ∗ 10’ JJ
12
a) V=6kN

124
1
Û [500(100)(159 − 50)] = 2725000JJH
2
Û 6000I ∗ 2725000JJH
_= = 10.34I/JJ
Ð5 1.58 ∗ 10’ JJ
1200I
Ô= = = 116JJ
_ 3.H 5
88
b) M=12kN.m
( …‰ 12 ∗ 10= IJJ ∗ 159JJ

‰ )8B = = 1.2( <
Ð 1.58 ∗ 10’ JJ
( … 12 ∗ 10= IJJ ∗ (400 − 159)JJ
78B = 1.8( <
Ð 1.58 ∗ 10’ JJ

125
Homework
1. Two wood box beams (beams A and B) have the same outside dimensions (200mm x
360mm) and the same thickness (t=20mm) throughout, as shown in the figure on the next
page. Both beams are formed by nailing, with each nail having an allowable shear load of
250N. The beams are designed for a shear force V=3.2kN.
a) What is the maximum longitudinal spacing A for the nails in beam A? s=78.3mm.
b) What is the maximum longitudinal spacing B for the nails in beam B? s=97.9mm.
c) Which beam is more efficient in resisting the shear force?
2. A cast-iron beam has the cross-sectional dimensions shown in the figure. If the allowable
stresses are 50MPa in tension, 205MPa in compression and 55MPa in shear, what are the
maximum allowable shear and the maximum allowable bending moment in this beam?
Confine your calculations at the holes at section a-a. Ans: 417kN, 39.6 kN.m.
3. A steel welded box girder having the dimensions shown in the figure transmits a vertical
shear force V=1500kN. Determine the shearing stresses at the sections a, b and c. For the
section, I=15x109mm4.

126

127
Chapter Seven: Compound (combined) stresses

In a single element of a force system, the stresses developed at that element may be written as:
1. Normal stresses
P
a. Due to an axial force:
Ò?
Ó
b. Due to a bending moment:
2. Shearing stresses
yŒ
ª
a. Due to a torque (circular shafts):
y
Rectangular shafts: 8B è B #
‡ß
Ó
b. Due to a shear force:
Combined stresses are developed when two or more different force systems simultaneously act on
a structural member.
1. Normal stresses
If structural members are subjected to a simultaneous action of both bending and axial loads, the
combined stresses can be obtained by superposition of the bending stresses and the axial stresses.
P
σ = σ =
MC σ =
P
−
MC
A I A I
P MC
σ =
MC σ = +
I A I
(…
∓ ∓
Ð
Alternative combined stress distributions

128
Example: A 50mmx75mm, 1.5m bar is loaded as shown in the figure below. Determine the
maximum tensile and compressive stresses acting normal to the section through the beam.
75mm
Solution: 3.6kN
Axial stress: 25kN 25kN

P 2333
B DB = 6.67( <
23∗|2
2.7kN 375mm 1125 0.9kN
Bending stresses:
(… 1.013 ∗ 10= ∗ 37.5

= =
Ð
2.7kN
AE&DEF 23∗|24 +
= 21.6( <
SFD
-
0.9kN
1.013kN.m
+
BMD
Using the superposition principal:
(…
=+ − = 6.67 − 21.6 = −14.93( <
•
Ð
(…
=+ + = 6.67 + 21.6 = +28.27( <
Ð
σ = 6.67 MPa σ = 21 . 6 MPa σ = 14 . 93 MPa
σ = 21.6MPa σ = 28 . 27 MPa

129
From the symmetry of the triangles:
g 75
= => g = 25.92JJ
14.93 14.93 + 28.27
14.93 ∗ 25.92
…= ∗ 50 ∗ 10LH = 9.68NI
2
28.27 ∗ (75 − 25.92)
Ž= ∗ 50 ∗ 10LH = 34.68NI
2
The axial force: P = T-C= 34.68-9.68= 25kN
M = (T * d1) + (C * d2)
32.72 17.28
( = 34.68NI ∗ J + 9.68NI ∗ J = 1.30NI. J
1000 1000
M – P.e =1.3 + 25*(25.92-37.5)/1000 = 1.013kN.m

130
A force applied to a prismatic member anywhere parallel to its axis
The meaning of the couple:
P P P P
e e M=P.e
o o o
≡ ≡
P
Myy
( … ( …
b
∓ ∓ ∓
z
Ð Ð Mzz
h
y

131
Example: Find the stress distribution at the section ABCD for the block shown in the figure.
Solution:
P = 64kN; Myy = 64(0.15) = 9.6kN.m;

150mm
Mzz = 64(0.075+0.15/2) = 9.6kN.m 300mm
P
A = 300*150 = 45000mm2 64kN
150(300)H
Ð = 3.375 ∗ 10- JJ
12
75mm Mzz
Myy
300(150)H
D
Ð = = 0.844 ∗ 10- JJ
12 y z
500mm
( … ( …
=− ∓ ∓
)?x
Ð Ð
64000 9.6 ∗ 10= ∗ 150 9.6 ∗ 10= ∗ 75

=− ∓ ∓
A
)?x
45000 3.375 ∗ 10- 0.844 ∗ 10-
C
)?x = −1.42 ∓ 4.27 ∓ 8.53
= −1.42 − 4.27 − 8.53 = −14.22( <

B
) = −1.42 + 4.27 − 8.53 = −5.68( <
? = −1.42 + 4.27 + 8.53 = +11.38( <
x = −1.42 − 4.27 + 8.53 = +2.84( <
2.84MPa
125mm
D
A
11.38MPa
-14.22MPa
C
B
100
-5.68MPa
Line of zero stress

132
Example: A short 100mm square steel bar with a 50mm diameter axial hole is built at the base
and is loaded at the top as shown in the figure. Determine the value of the force P so that the
maximum normal stress at the fixed-end would not exceed 140MPa.
Solution:
R(50)
6100) − = 8037JJ
4
100(100)H
R(25)
Ð= − = 8.03 ∗ 10= JJ
12 4
d]a30 ( ab\30 ∗ 400) ∗ … ( d]a30 ∗ 50) ∗ …

=− − + = 140( <
Ð Ð
d]a30 ( ab\30 ∗ 400) ∗ 50 ( d]a30 ∗ 50) ∗ 50

140 = − − +
8037 8.03 ∗ 10= 8.03 ∗ 10=
140 = −1.078 ∗ 10L − 1.25 ∗ 10LH + 2.7 ∗ 10L = −1.088 ∗ 10LH
140 = => = 129NI

954.4
d]a30 ( ab\30 ∗ 400) ∗ … ( d]a30 ∗ 50) ∗ …

=− + − = 140( <
)
Ð Ð
d]a30 ( ab\30 ∗ 400) ∗ 50 ( d]a30 ∗ 50) ∗ 50

140 = − + −
8037 8.03 ∗ 10= 8.03 ∗ 10=
140 = −1.078 ∗ 10L + 1.25 ∗ 10LH − 2.7 ∗ 10L = +8.72 ∗ 10L

133
P
140 = => = 161NI.
|
The safe force P=129kN
Example: A cast iron block is loaded as shown in the figure. Determine the stresses acting normal
to a section (ABCD) at 0.5m from the top, and locate the line of zero stress.
Solution:
Myy = 10kN * 0.5m = 5.0kN.m
10kN 50mm 100mm
Mzz = 15kN * 0.38m = 5.7kN.m
100(200)H
Ð = = 6.67 ∗ 10| JJ
50mm
12
100mm
200(100)H
Ð = = 1.67 ∗ 10| JJ
12
( … ( …
D
=− ∓ ∓
)?x
Ð Ð y z
500mm
5.0 ∗ 10= ∗ 100 5.7 ∗ 10= ∗ 50

120
=∓ ∓
)?x
6.67 ∗ 10| 1.67 ∗ 10| 15kN Mzz
A
)?x = ∓7.5 ∓ 17.1

C
Myy
= +7.5 + 17.1 = +24.6( <
) = −7.5 + 17.1 = +9.6( <
= −7.5 − 17.1 = −24.6( <

B
?
x = +7.5 − 17.1 = −9.6( <

+24.6MPa
71.9mm -9.6MPa
D
Line of zero stress
A
B -24.6MPa
+9.6MPa

134
Example: A small dam of triangular shape as shown in the figure is made from concrete, which
weighs 2550kg/m3. Find the normal stress distribution at the base AB when the water behind the
dam is as indicated in the figure. For the purpose of calculation, consider one lineal meter of the
dam in the direction perpendicular to the plane of paper.
1 10NI
é ¡ (3.3J) Õ H Ö¢ (3.3J)(1J) = 54.45NI
2 J
1 25NI
= = ¡ (2.1J)(3.6J)(1J)¢ Õ H Ö = 94.5NI
2 J
( = é(1.1J) − (0.35J) = 54.45NI ∗ 1.1J − 94.5NI ∗ 0.35J = 26.82NIJ
(… 94.5 26.82(1.05) 8.5NI

=− + =− + = −45 + 36.5 = − (d]J€eàab]\)
)
Ð (2.1)(1) ( . )4
J
(… 94.5 26.82(1.05) 81.5NI

=− − =− − = −45 − 36.5 = − 6d]J€eàab]\7
Ð (2.1)(1) ( . ) 4
J

135
2. Superposition of shearing stresses
Example: Find the maximum shearing stress due to the applied forces in the plane AB of the
10mm diameter circular shaft.
Solution:
a. Shear stress due to the shear force

B
τ @ A and B =0;
τ @ C, D and E = τmax .
Û
t max
E C D
Ð
$•• # – %∗•)
23∗¡ ∗• ‚¢
= 4.24( <
A
# 4$
8B $(•)%
∗ 3
%
b. Shear stress due to the torque T

τ @ C =0; B
τ @ A, B, D and E = τmax .
Ž @
=
8B
¨ E C D
20000 ∗ 5
8B = 101.86( <
(5 )
A
8B ]dd[ea @ €]b\T l 4.24 + 101.86 = 106.1( <

136
Example: Find the maximum shearing stress due to the applied forces in the fixed end
50kN
100mm
100kN
50
250mm
Torque (T) = 50* 0.05/2 = 1.25kN.m
Shear force (V) = 50kN
Bending moment (M) = 50*0.25 = 12.5kN.m
Axial force (P) = 100kN
• Normal stresses
Axial stress:
P 33333
B DB = 20( <
23∗ 33
Bending stresses:
(… 12.5 ∗ 10= ∗ 50
= = = 150( <
AE&DEF
Ð 23∗ 334
Using the superposition principal:
(…
=+ + = 20 + 150 = 170( <
•
Ð
(…
=+ − = 20 − 150 = −130( <
Ð
• Shear stresses
a) Due to the shear force
τ @ A, B, E and F =0;
τ @ C, O and D is τmax .

137
Û
Ð
50 ∗ 10H ∗ [50 ∗ 50 ∗ 25]

8B 23( 33)4
= 15( <
∗ 50
b) Due to the torque
τ @ A, B, E, F and O =0;
τ @ C, and D is τmax
Ž
=
8B
• <
a /b = 100/50 = 2 (α = 0.246)
1.25 ∗ 10=
= 20.33( <
8B
0.246 ∗ 100 ∗ (50)
8B )‰ 8• «E& @ ë ![` T] ![` T] Ž 15 + 20.33 = 35.33( <

138
Homework
1. An inclined beam having a cross-section of 0.2m by 0.3m supports a downward load as

shown in the figure. Determine the maximum stress acting normal to the section A-A.
Neglect the weight of the member.
0.
3m
2. An Aluminum –alloy block is loaded as shown in the figure.

The application of this load produces a tensile strain of 500 x 10-6 at gage A. P
Calculate the magnitude of the applied load P. Let E = 100GPa.
120mm
180mm
400mm
y z
20mm
Gage A

139
Chapter Eight: Analysis of Plane Stress and Strain

In fact, if a plane element is taken out from a body, it will be subjected to the normal stresses σx
and σy together with the shearing stress τxy, as shown in the figure below. No stresses are
assumed to act on the element in the z-direction.
We shall assume that the stresses σx, σy and τxy are known. Regularly, it is desirable to investigate
the state of stress on a plane perpendicular to the axis x’ of an angle θ, measured counter-
clockwise to the x-axis, as shown in the figure. Assume the area of the inclined plane is one unit.
Then, by applying the equations of static equilibrium to the forces on the wedge, stresses σx and
τxy can be found:
From ∑ ì 0
í (1) = (cos §)( cos §) + (ab\§)(d]a§) + (sin §)( sin §) + (cos §)( sin §)
í = (cos §) + (sin §) + 2 (sin §) (cos §)
1 + d]a2§ 1 − d]a2§
= ( )+ ( )+ (ab\2 §)
2 2
í
+ −
=( )+ (d]a2§) + (ab\2 §) ⋯ ⋯ 61)
2 2
í
Similarly, from ∑ ì =0

140
í í 61) = (cos §)( cos §) − (ab\§)(d]a§) − (sin §)( sin §) + (cos §)(ab\§)
í í = (cos § − sin §) − (ab\§)(d]a§) + (cos §)(ab\§)
−
= −• ‚ ab\2§ + d]a2§ ⋯ ⋯ (2)
2
í í
Equations 1 and 2 are the general expressions for the normal and shearing stresses, respectively,
on any plane located by the angle θ and caused by a known system of stresses.
Sign convention
σx, σy= + tensile
σx, σy= - compressive
τxy = + on the right-hand face, tends to rotate the element counterclockwise
θ = + counterclockwise
Principal Stresses
To find the direction of the maximum or minimum normal stress, Equation 1 is differentiated
with respect to θ, and the derivative is set equal to zero i.e.
&opí op Loó
&ò
=− ∗ 2ab\2§ + 2 (cos2 §) = 0
öpó
Therefore, tan 2§ = ⋯ ⋯ (3)
(op Loó )/
The two planes defined by the angles θ1 are called principal planes. The normal stresses that exist
on these planes are designated as principal stresses. They are the maximum and minimum values
of the normal stress in the element under consideration. The expression for the maximum normal
stress, denoted by σ1, and the minimum normal stress, denoted by σ2, become:

141
+ −
= ∓ ÷• ‚ +( ) ⋯ ⋯ 64)
,
2 2
Maximum shearing stresses
To determine the maximum value of the shearing stress, Equation 2 should be differentiated with
respect to the angle θ2 and set this derivative equal to zero. Therefore:
!
= −• − –d]a2§ − 2 ab\2§ = 0
!§
′ ′
op Loó

tan 2§ = − ⋯ ⋯ 65)
The values of sin2θ2 and cos2θ2 may now be substituted in Equation 2 to yield the maximum and
minimum values of the normal stresses.
Therefore, the maximum shearing stress can be found from the Equation 6:
−
= ∓÷ • ‚ +( ) ⋯ ⋯ 66)
8B ,8DE
2
Mohr’s Circle of Stress

+ −
=( )+ (d]a2§) + (ab\2 §) ⋯ ⋯ (1)
2 2
í
−
= −• ‚ ab\2§ + cos2θ ⋯ (2)
ì í
2
Equation 1)2 + Equation 2)2, will lead to eliminate the variable θ as in the following expression:
+ −
( −( )) + ( ì í) =( ) +( ) ⋯ ⋯ (7)
2 2
í
Compare Equation 7 with the following standard equation:
(n − <) + (g) = e
Therefore, Equation 7 represents a circle equation whereby its centre (a, 0) is:
+
<=
2
And its radius (r) is:

142
U
e … ù6 ) +( )
2

143
The constructed circle is named a circle of stress or Mohr’s circle of stress. It is so named in
honor of the German Professor in civil engineering Otto Christian Mohr (1835-1918), who in
1895 suggested its use in the stress analysis.
Otto Mohr
The famous German civil engineer Otto Christian Mohr

(1835–1918) was both a theoretician and a practical
designer. He was a professor at the Stuttgart Polytechnic
and later at the Dresden Polytechnic. He developed the
circle of stress in1895.
Mohr made numerous contributions to the theory of

structures, including the Williot-Mohr diagram for
truss displacements, the moment-area method for
beam deflections, and the Maxwell-Mohr method for
analyzing statically indeterminate structures.
Important conclusions on Mohr’s circle of stress
1. The largest possible normal stress is σ1; the smallest possible normal stress is σ2. No
shearing stresses exist together with either one of these principal stresses.
2. The largest shearing stress τmax is numerically equal to the radius of the circle, also to (σ1-
σ2)/2. A normal stress equal to (σ1 + σ2)/2 acts on each plane of the maximum shearing
stress.
3. If σ1 = σ2, Mohr’s circle degenerates into a point, and no shearing stresses at all develop
in the xy plane.
4. If σx + σy = 0, the centre of Mohr’s circle coincides with the origin of σ-τ coordinates,
and the state of pure shear stress exists.
5. The sum of the normal stresses on any two mutually perpendicular planes is invariant, i.e.
σx+ σy = σ1 + σ2 = σx’ + σy’ = constant
Construction of Mohr’s circle of stress

1. Make a sketch of the element for which the normal stresses and shearing stresses are
known with the proper sense.
2. Set up a rectangular coordinate system of axes. The horizontal x-axis is the normal stress
axis and the vertical y-axis is the shearing stress axis.
3. Locate the centre of the circle, which is on the horizontal axis at a distance of (σx+ σy)/2
from the origin.

144
op Loó
4. Compute the radius of the circle of value e ù6 7 6 7 and draw the circle.
5. The points of the circle intersection with horizontal x-axis represent the largest normal
stresses (principal stresses) of coordinates (σ1, 0) and (σ2, 0).
6. Draw a line between the centre of the circle and a point called the control point A. The
coordinates of the control point is A (σx , τxy). Alternatively, the control point could be B
(σy , -τxy).
7. To determine the direction and the sense of the stresses, each angle on the Mohr’s circle
represents twice the angle on the direction of the stress on the real element.
8. The clockwise rotation on the circle represents counter-clockwise rotation on the element
and vice versa.
Example 1: Draw Mohr’s circle of stress for the state of plane stress shown on the element below.
a) Show the planes on which the principal stresses act, and for each plane indicate its
direction and sense.
b) Same as (a) for the maximum shearing stresses.
c) Find the magnitude and the sense of the normal and shearing stresses on an inclined plane
of 30° from the vertical plane.
Solution:
The centre of the circle is C (a, 0) where:
−2 + 4
< = =1
2 2
Therefore, C (1, 0)

145
U −2 − 4
e … ÷• ‚ +( ) = ÷Õ Ö + (4) = 5
2 2
Pa
4M
63.4°
6M
Pa
Principal stresses planes

146
5M
Pa
18.4
°
1M
Pa
Maximum shearing stresses planes
σy’=5.95MPa
τx’y’=0.6MPa σx’=3.95MPa
30°
30°
x
Normal and shearing stress

on the inclined plane

147
Example 2: For the state of stress shown on the element below, use Mohr’s circle of stress to
determine:
a) The principal stresses and the direction of their planes.

b) The maximum shearing stresses and the direction of their planes.
Solution: σx= +20; σy= +40; τxy= +40
+20 + 40
< = = 30
2 2
Therefore, C (30, 0)
− +20 − 40
e = … = ÷• ‚ +( ) = ÷Õ Ö + (40) = 41.2
2 2
The Principal Stresses are:
+ − 20 + 40 20 − 40
= ∓ ÷• ‚ +( ) = ∓ ÷Õ Ö + (40)
,
2 2 2 2
, = 30 ∓ 41.2 = | . ÒPB
L . ÒPB
The maximum shearing stresses are:
− +20 − 40
8B = ÷• ‚ +( ) = ÷Õ Ö + (40) = ∓41.2( <
8DE 2 2

148
The direction of maximum normal stresses on the Mohr’s circle is:
2§ = 14° + 90° = 104° …
The direction of maximum shearing stresses on the Mohr’s circle is:
10
sin 2§ = => 2§ = 14° …
41.2

149
30MPa
41.2MPa
30MPa
7°
Maximum shearing stresses planes
Example 3: Draw Mohr’s circle of stress for the states of stress given in the figure.
a) Clearly show the planes on which the principal stresses act, and for each stress indicate
with arrows its direction and sense.
b) Same as (a) for the maximum shearing stresses and the associated normal stresses.
Solution: σx= +10; σy= +10; τxy= 0
+10 + 10
< = = 10
2 2
Therefore, C (10, 0)

150
U +10 − 10
e ÷• ‚ +( ) = ÷Õ Ö + (0) = 0
2 2

151
Homework
1. A plane element is subject to the stresses shown in the figure below. Using Mohr’s circle,
determine (a) the principal stresses and their directions, and (b) the maximum shearing
stresses and the directions of the planes on which they occur. Ans: σ1 = 20MPa at 63.4°,
σ2 = -80MPa, τmax = 50MPa at 18.4°
2. A plane element removed from a thin-walled circular tube loaded in torsion is subject to
the shearing stresses shown in the figure below. Determine the principal stresses existing
in this element and the directions of the planes on which they occur. Ans: 50MPa at 45°
3. Draw each one of the infinitesimal elements A, B and C individually, and indicate the
stress state on the isolated element. For each stress, show the direction and sense by
arrows.

152
Transformation Equations of Plane Strain
It follows that an element in plane strain has no normal strain εz in the z-direction and no shear
strains γxz and γyz in the xz and yz planes, respectively. Thus, plane strain is defined by the
following conditions:
εz = 0; γxz = 0; γyz = 0
The transformation equations for plane stress can also be used for the stresses in plane strain.
Only, the symbol σ must be replaced by ε and τ must be replaced by γ/2. Therefore, the
transformation expressions of plane strain become:
i i i −i œ
i 6 )+ (d]a2§) + (sin2 §) ⋯ ⋯ (8)
2 2 2
í
œ ì í i −i œ
= −• ‚ ab\2§ + cos2θ
2 2 2
œ ì í = −•i − i –ab\2§ + œ cos2θ ⋯ ⋯ (9)
Sign convention
εx, εy= +elongation
εx, εy= - contraction
γxy = + elongation for the diagonal of positive slope
θ = + counterclockwise
Principal strains
i +i i −i œ
i = ∓ ÷• ‚ + ( ) ⋯ ⋯ 610)
,
2 2 2
γxy = 0, No shear strain associated with the principal strains

153
Principal strains exist on perpendicular planes with the principal angles θ1 calculated from the
following equation:
œ
tan 2§ = ⋯ ⋯ (11)
(i − i )
Maximum shear strain
œ8B i −i œ
= ∓÷• ‚ + ( ) ⋯ ⋯ 612)
2 2 2
In the directions of maximum shear strain, the normal strains are:

i i
i ⋯ ⋯ (13)
2
The maximum shear strains in the xy plane are associated with axes at 45° to the directions of the
principal strains.
Mohr’s Circle of Plane Strain
Mohr’s circle for plane strain is constructed in the same manner as the circle for plane stress, as
illustrated in the figure below. Normal strain ε is plotted as the abscissa (positive to the right)
and one-half the shear strain (γxy/2) is plotted as the ordinate (positive upward). The center C of
the circle has an abscissa equal to a( εaverage) (Eq. 13).
ε x −ε y γ
2
r= +(
xy
( ) )2
2
2

154
Example: An infinitesimal element on a body contracts along the x-axis by 0.0005m/m, elongates
along the y-axis by 0.0003m/m and the shear stain of this element is -0.0006rad, as shown below.
Determine the principal strains and their directions.
Solution:
εx= -5 x 10-4
εy= +3 x 10-4
γxy = -6 x 10-4 (contraction for the diagonal of positive slope)
i i U5x10L + 3x10L
…Õ , 0Ö => … û , 0ý => …(−1,0) x 10L
2 2
−5x10L − 3x10L −6x10L

e = ÷û ý +( ) 5 x 10L
2 2
6x10-4
-4
ε1= +4 x 10
ε2= -6 x 10-4
2θ1 = 143.13° counterclockwise 71.56
4x10-4
Principal strains

155
Chapter Eleven: Deflection of Beams

Under the action of lateral applied forces, the
axis of a beam deflects from its initial position.
Deflection amounts in the structural elements
must be very small in order to:
• Avoid the undesirable psychological

feelings on the occupants.
• Minimize or prevent the failure in
finishing materials.
Figure 1: Deflection of a cantilever beam
Therefore, specifications limit the maximum permissible deflection to a certain value, span/360,
span/ 480…etc.
In this chapter, only deflections caused by bending moments are considered. Additionally, the
elastic deflections of the beams are only considered.
Double Integration Method
In chapter five, the relationship between the curvature and the bending moment is derived, and
given as:
1 (
Ï = ⋯ ⋯ 61)
¦ l Ð
Figure 2: Behavior of a beam in bending

156
In analytical geometry, the curvature of a line is defined as:
&#
1
= & #
⋯ ⋯ (2)
¦ 4
&
¡1 + •& ‚ ¢
#
In small deflections theory, the square of the slope, (dy/dx)2, is a negligible quantity because the
deflection of the elastic curve is very small.
Therefore, the curvature of a line becomes:
1 ! g
≈ ⋯ ⋯ (3)
¦ !n
! g (
≈ ⋯ ⋯ 64)
!n l Ð
Alternatively, Equation 4 can be written as:
! g
l Ð ≈ (6n7 ⋯ ⋯ 65)
!n
Examples
Determine the general formula for estimating the rotation and deflection at any section of the
beams shown below. Also, find the maximum rotation and maximum deflection. Assume EI=
constant.
&#
1. l Ð & # (6n7
Elastic curve
! g
l Ð UJ
!n m m
Integrate both sides of the above x
equation:
&
l Ð UJn …
L
& B.M.D
-
Apply the Boundary Conditions
m
(B.C):
!g
@n 0; 0 => … = 0
!n
!g
l Ð UJn ⋯ @]T<Tb]\ `_[<Tb]\
!n

157
!g J j
@n j; Õ Ö §8B U
!n 8B l Ð
Integrate both sides of the rotation equation:
Jn
l Ð g U …
2
Apply the Boundary Conditions (B.C):
@n 0; g 0 => … = 0
Jn
l Ð g U ⋯ ë`fc`dTb]\ `_[<Tb]\
2
J j
@n j; g8B ∆8B U
2l Ð
&#
2. l Ð & # (6n7
! g
l Ð U j n
Elastic curve
!n
P
Integrate both sides of the above equation:
x
& P #
l Ð U jn …
&
L
P
B.M.D
!g
-
@n 0; 0 => … = 0
!n
PL
!g n
l Ð U jn ⋯ @]T<Tb]\ `_[<Tb]\
!n 2
!g j
@n j; Õ Ö §8B U
!n 8B 2l Ð
jn nH
l Ð g U + +…
2 6
@n 0; g 0 => … = 0

158
jn nH
l Ð g U + ⋯ ë`fc`dTb]\ `_[<Tb]\
2 6
jH
@n j; g8B ∆8B U
3l Ð
&#
l Ð (6n7 y
& #
3. Elastic curve
! g ^j ^n
l Ð U − + ^jn
!n 2 2
w
wL2/2
x
& Xk# X 4 Xk #
l Ð U U …
wL L
& = B.M.D
-
Apply the Boundary Conditions (B.C): la
abo
!g
Par
@n 0; 0 => … = 0
wL2/2
!n
!g ^j n ^n H ^jn
l Ð U − + ⋯ @]T<Tb]\ `_[<Tb]\
!n 2 6 2
!g ^jH
@n j; Õ Ö §8B U
!n 8B 6l Ð
^j n ^n ^jn H
l Ð g U − + +…
4 24 6
@n = 0; g 0 => … = 0
^j n ^n ^jn H
l Ð g U − + ⋯ ë`fc`dTb]\ `_[<Tb]\
4 24 6
^ j
@n j; g8B ∆8B U
8l Ð

159
&#
4. l Ð & # (6n7
! g ^n H
l Ð U
!n 6j
w
y
Integrate both sides of the above equation: wL2/6
& X %
l Ð & U k
… x
Apply the Boundary Conditions (B.C): L wL/2
!g ^jH
@n j; 0 => … =
!n 24
!g ^n ^jH
l Ð U + ⋯ @]T<Tb]\ `_[<Tb]\
!n 24j 24
!g ^jH
@n 0; Õ Ö §8B
!n 8B 24l Ð
^n 2 ^jH n
l Ð g U − +…
120j 24
^j
@n = j; g 0 => … = −
30
^n 2 ^jH n ^j
l Ð g U − − ⋯ ë`fc`dTb]\ `_[<Tb]\
120j 24 30
^ j
@n 0; g8B ∆8B U
30l Ð

160
&# &# Xk X #
5. l Ð & # (6n7 ; l Ð & # U
& Xk # X 4
l Ð U …
& =
j !g ^jH
@n ; 0 => … = −
2 !n 24
!g ^jn ^n H ^jH
l Ð − − ⋯ @]T<Tb]\ `_[<Tb]\
!n 4 6 24
!g ^jH
@n 0 ]e n j; Õ Ö §8B U
!n 8B 24l Ð
^jn H ^n ^jH n
l Ð g − − +…
12 24 24
@n = 0; g 0 => … = 0
^jn H ^n ^jH n
l Ð g − − ⋯ ë`fc`dTb]\ `_[<Tb]\
12 24 24
k 2X k%
@n ; g8B ∆8B U
H- q Ó
Very popular value of maximum deflection in a simply
supported beam

161
!2 g
(6n7; l Ð =
&# n
6. Part AB: 0 ≤ n ≤ 2<; l Ð
& # 2 3
!n
2a a
B
A C
x
P/3 x 2P/3
& P #
l Ð … ⋯ ⋯ 61)
& =
n3
l Ð g + … n + … ⋯ ⋯ (2)
18
!2 g
Part BC: 2< ≤ n ≤ 3<; l Ð = − (n − 2<) = (3< − n)
n 2
!n2 3 3
!g 2 n
l Ð û3<n − ý + …H ⋯ ⋯ (3)
!n 3 2
2 3<n nH
l Ð g û − ý + …H n + … ⋯ ⋯ (4)
3 2 6
The four constants are found by using two boundary conditions known as:
@n = 0; g 0 <\! @n j; g 0
Also, two continuity conditions must be applied at point B:
!g !g
@ €]b\T Ñ 6n 2<); | |
!n )
!n )?
@ €]b\T Ñ 6n 2<); g| ) g|)?
From Equation 2:
(0)3
0= + … (0) + … => … 0 ⋯ (5)
18
From Equation 4:

162
2 3<(j) (j)H
0= û − ý + …H (j) + … ⋯ (6)
3 2 6
From Equation 1 and Equation 3:
(2<) 2 (2<)
+… = û3<(2<) − ý + …H ⋯ (7)
6 3 2
From Equation 2 and Equation 4:
(2<)H 2 3<(2<) (2<)H

+ …1 (2<) + …2 = û − ý + …H (2<) + … ⋯ (8)
18 3 2 6
Solving Equations (5-8) simultaneously, we get:
4 <
… =−
9
… =0
22 <
…H = −
9
4 <H
… =
3
Equations (1-4) become:
Part AB: 0 ≤ n ≤ 2<
!g n 4 <
l Ð − ⋯ (9)
!n 6 9
n3 4 n<2
l Ð g − ⋯ (10)
18 9
Part BC: 2< ≤ n ≤ 3<
!g 2 n 22 <
l Ð û3<n − ý − ⋯ (11)
!n 3 2 9
2 3<n nH 22 n< 4 <H

l Ð g û − ý− + ⋯ (12)
3 2 6 9 3
By inspecting the elastic curve, the maximum deflection occurs at point D, somewhere in
the region AB. At point D the slope must be zero.

163
Therefore, from Equation 9:
n 4 <
0= −
6 9
x= 1.633a
Substituting in Equation 10:
61.633<)3 4 (1.633<)<2
l Ð g8B −
18 9
(<)3
g8B U0.484
l Ð
Macaulay’s Method (Singularity Functions)
The techniques discussed in the preceding section are adequate if the loadings are continuously
varying over the length of the beam. Nevertheless, if concentrated forces or moments are present,
a distinct pair of shearing force and bending moment equations must be written for each interval
between such concentrated forces or moments. Although this presents no fundamental
difficulties, it is usually elaborated approach and gives very cumbersome results. These results
are particularly unwieldy to work with in dealing with deflections of beams.
As a minimum, some shortness of representation can be achieved by introduction of singularity or

half-range functions. Let us introduce, by definition, the pointed brackets <x- a> and define this
quantity to be zero if (x – a) < 0, that is, x < a, and to be simply (x – a) if (x – a) > 0, that is, x > a.
That is, a half-range function is defined to have a value only when the argument is positive. When
the argument is positive, the pointed brackets behave just as ordinary parentheses.
Solution of example 6 by using singularity functions:
&#
l Ð & # (6n7;
< n W1
(6n7 − < n − 2< >1
3

164
!2 g <n>
lÐ = − < n − 2< >
!n 2
3
!g <n> < n − 2< >

lÐ = − + … ⋯ ⋯ (13)
!n 6 2
< n >H < n − 2< >H

lÐg = − +… n+…
18 6
Apply the two boundary conditions known as:
@n = 0; g 0 <\! @n 3<; g 0
… =0
(3<)H (3< − 2<)H

0= − + … (3<)
18 6
4 <
… =−
9
Therefore, the deflection equation of the whole beam can be written as:
< n >H < n − 2< >H 4 < n

lÐg = − − ⋯ ⋯ (14)
18 6 9
Once again, by inspecting the elastic curve, the maximum deflection occurs at point D,
somewhere in the region AB. At point D the slope must be zero.
Therefore, from Equation 13:
n 4 <
0= −
6 9
x= 1.633a
Substituting in Equation 14:
61.633<)3 4 (1.633<)<2
l Ð g8B −
18 9
(<)3
g8B U0.484
l Ð

165
7. Using the singularity functions, determine the deflection equation of the cantilever beam
loaded as shown below.
&#
l Ð (6n7;
& #
j 1
(6n7 U < nW −2 < n− >
1
4
Therefore, the differential curvature equation for the beam becomes:
!2 g j
lÐ = − < n > −2 < n− >
!n 2
4
!g <n> j
lÐ =− − <n− > +…
!n 2 4
The second integration leads to:

k
< n >H < n − >H
lÐg = − − +… n+…
6 3
Apply the first boundary condition known as:
!g
@n = j; 0
!n
j 3j
0=− − ( ) +…
2 4
j 9 j
… = +
2 16
17 j
… =
16
Apply the second boundary condition known as:
@n = j; g 0:

166
jH 3j
0=− − ( )H + … j + …
6 3 4
145 jH
… =−
192
Thus,
k
< n >H < n − >H 17 j 145 jH
lÐg = − − + n−
6 3 16 192
The slope (rotation) and deflection equations can be rewritten in the following forms:
Interval AB (0 ≤ n ≤ ) Interval BC ( ≤ n ≤ j)
j j
4 4
n
!g 17 j !g n j 17 j
lÐ +=− lÐ =− − (n − ) +
!n 2 16 !n 2 4 16
n H 17 j n 145 jH
lÐg = − + − k
6 16 192 nH (n − )H 17 j n 145 jH
lÐg = − − + −
6 3 16 192
8. Using the singularity functions, determine the deflection equation of the overhanging beam
loaded as shown below. Also, find the value of EIy at the midspan between the supports.
y 6kN
5kN/m
B C D E x
A
1m 3m 3m 2m
6kN
5kN/m
B C
A E
D
5kN/m
1 3 3 2
8kN
13kN

167
5<n−1> 5<n−4>
(6n7 8 n U + + 13 < n − 7 >
2 2
Therefore, the differential curvature equation for the elastic curve becomes:
!2 g 5<n−1> 5<n−4>
lÐ = 8 n U + + 13 < n − 7 >
!n 2
2 2
Integrate both sides of the above equation twice gives:
!g 5 < n − 1 >H 5 < n − 4 >H 13 < n − 7 >

lÐ = 4 n U + + +…
!n 6 6 2
4 n H 5 < n − 1 > 5<n−4> 13 < n − 7 >H
lÐg = − + + +… n+…
3 24 24 6
To find the value of C2, we apply the B.C. @x=0; y=o. That gives C2=0.
Also, to obtain C1, we note that @x=7; y=0. This gives:
4 67)H 5(6) 5(3)
0= − + + 0 + … (7) + 0
3 24 24
C1= -29.17
4 n H 5 < n − 1 > 5<n−4> 13 < n − 7 >H
lÐg = − + + − 29.17n
3 24 24 6
In order to obtain the midspan deflection, the value x=3.5m is substituted in the
deflection equation and ignoring the negative values of the pointed brackets <x-4>4 and
<x-7>3. We find:
4 63.5)H 5 < 3.5 − 1 >
lÐg = − − 29.17(3.5)
3 24
53
g = − NI − JH
lÐ

168
Note: example on writing the moment expression for the entire beam when a couple
applied at a point:
(3
( 6n7 n U (3 < n U < W3
j
Example: a simply supported beam carries a triangularly distributed load.
Because of the symmetry of the beam and loading, only the moment equation for the part
AB is used.
! g nH
l Ð 24n −
!n 2
!g n
l Ð 12n − +…
!n 8
n2
l Ð g 4n H −
+… n+…
40
In order to work out the constant of integration, it is obvious that at support A (x=0; y=0). In
addition and because of symmetry, at point B (midspan of the beam) x=4; dy/dx=0.

169
&#
9. l Ð & # (6n7;
k
Part AB 0 ≤ n ≤
! g 3^j ^jn
l Ð U +
!n 8 2
& HXk# Xk #
l Ð U …
& -
!g
@n 0; 0 => … = 0
!n
!g 3^j n ^jn j
l Ð U + ⋯ @]T<Tb]\ `_[<Tb]\ 0 ≤ n ≤
!n 8 4 2
3^j n ^jn H
l Ð g U + +…
16 12
@n = 0; g 0 => … = 0
3^j n ^jn H j
l Ð g U + ⋯ ë`fc`dTb]\ `_[<Tb]\ 0 ≤ n ≤
16 12 2
k
Part BC ≤n≤j

170
! g 3^j ^jn ^ j
l Ð U + − (n − )
!n 8 2 2 2
& HXk# Xk # X 4 k # k#
l Ð & U -
U •H U ‚ …H ⋯ ⋯ 63)
Apply the Continuity Condition:
j !g !g
@ €]b\T Ñ 6n ); | |
2 !n )
!n )?
k k
!g 3^j ∗ ^j( )
l Ð 7) U +
!n 8 4
!g ^jH
l Ð 7 U a[ aTbT[T` T—ba b\ `_ 63)
!n ) 8
^jH 3^jH ^jH ^jH

l Ð 6U )=− + − + …H
8lÐ 16 16 48
^jH
…H =
48
!g 3^j n ^jn ^ n H jn j n ^jH j

l Ð U + − û − + ý+ @]T<Tb]\ `_[<Tb]\ ≤ n ≤ j
!n 8 4 2 3 2 4 48 2
3^j n ^jn H ^ n jn H j n ^jH n

l Ð g U + − û − + ý + + … ⋯ ⋯ (4)
16 12 2 12 6 8 48
Apply the Continuity Conditions:
j
@ €]b\T Ñ 6n ); g| g|)?
2 )
k k
3^j ∗ ( ) ^j( )H
l Ð g7) U +
16 12
7^j
l Ð g7) U a[ aTbT[T` T—ba b\ `_ 64)
192lÐ
|Xk% HXk# 6 7# Xk6 74 X 6 7% k6 74 k# 6 7# Xk4 6 7

lÐ 6U 7 U # #
U û #
U # #
ý #
…
’ qÓ = = - -
^j
…
248

171
3^j n ^jn H ^ n jn H j n ^jH n ^j j

l Ð g U + − û − + ý+ + ë`fc`dTb]\ `_[<Tb]\ ≤ n ≤ j
16 12 2 12 6 8 48 248 2
( 6n 7
&#
10. l Ð & #
y P
x C
2Pa A B x
EI1 EI2
a a
P
Part AB 0 ≤ n ≤ <
&#
l Ð U2 < + n
& #
& P #
l Ð U2 <n + +…
&
!g
@n = 0; 0 => … = 0
!n
!g 2 <n n
U ⋯ @]T<Tb]\ `_[<Tb]\ 0 ≤ n ≤ <
!n l Ð 2l Ð
<n nH
g=− …
l Ð 6l Ð
@n 0; g 0 => … = 0
<n nH
g=− ⋯ ë`fc`dTb]\ `_[<Tb]\ 0 ≤ n ≤ <
l Ð 6l Ð

172
Part BC < ≤ n ≤ 2<
! g
l Ð U2 < + n
!n
& PB P #
U …H
& q Ó# q Ó#
<n nH
g U …H n …
l Ð 6l Ð
Apply the First Continuity Conditions:
!g !g
@ ]b\T Ñ; Z Z
!n )
!n )?
!g 2 < < 3 <

f]e €<eT Ñ: ¡ ¢ U U
!n ) l Ð 2l Ð 2l Ð
!g 2 < < 3 <

f]e €<eT Ñ…: ¡ ¢ U …H U …H
!n ) l Ð 2l Ð 2l Ð
3 < 3 < 3 < 3 <

U U …H W …H U
2l Ð 2l Ð 2l Ð 2l Ð
Apply the Second Continuity Condition:
@ ]b\T Ñ; gZ ) gZ)?
<H <H 5 <H

f]e €<eT Ñ: YgZ) U U
l Ð 6l Ð 6l Ð
<H <H 3 <H 3 <H

f]e €<eT Ñ…: YgZ) U U …
l Ð 6l Ð 2l Ð 2l Ð
5 <H 2 < H 3 <H

U U …
6l Ð 3l Ð 2l Ð
2 <H 2 <H
… U
3l Ð 3l Ð
<n nH 3 < n 3 < n 2 < H 2 <H

g U U U ⋯ ë`fc`dTb]\ `_[<Tb]\ < ≤ n ≤ 2<
l Ð 6l Ð 2l Ð 2l Ð 3l Ð 3l Ð

173
11. A picture is taken for a man performing a pole vault, and the minimum radius of curvature
of the pole is estimated by measurement to be 4.5m. If the pole is 40mm in diameter and it
is made of a glass-reinforced plastic for which Eg=131GPa, determine the maximum
bending stress in the pole.
1 (
=
¦ lÐ
R(e) R(20)
Ð= = = 125664JJ
4 4
1 (
= => ( = 3.66 ∗ 10= I. JJ
4500 131000(125664)
(… 3.66 ∗ 10= ∗ 20
= = = 582.5( <
8B
Ð 125664

174
Homework
For the beams loaded as shown in the figures below, determine the equation of rotation and
equation of deflection.
Xk# # Xk 4 X •
1. Answer: g U
=qÓ qÓ 3k qÓ
2.
3.
12. Determine the slope and deflection at point C of the cantilever beam shown below. Take
E=12GPa, and I=1.0667x109mm4.

175
Solution: If the uniformly partially distributed load is extended virtually to cover the whole span,
the added uniform load must be balanced by same load of opposite direction, as shown below:
( LH)
(6n7 U63 + 16n − 2n ∗ + 2(n − 3) ∗ − 4(n − 4.5)
! g
lÐ = −63 + 16n − n + (n − 3) − 4(n − 4.5)
!n
!g n H (n − 3)H
lÐ = −63n + 8n − + − 2(n − 4.5) + …
!n 3 3
63n 8n H n (n − 3) (n − 4.5)H
lÐg = − + − + −2 +…
2 3 12 12 3
Apply the first Boundary Conditions (B.C):
!g
@n = 0; 0 => … = 0
!n
Apply the second Boundary Conditions (B.C):
@n = 0; g 0 => … = 0

176
!g 1 6H (6 − 3)H −157.5NI. J ∗ 10’

| §‰ ²−63 ∗ 6 + 8 ∗ 6 − + − 2(6 − 4.5) ³ =
!n ‰ lÐ 3 3 12 ∗ 10H ∗ 1.0667 ∗ 10’
= −0.0123e<!
1 63 ∗ 6 8 ∗ 6H 6 (6 − 3) (6 − 4.5)H −661.5NI. JH ∗ 10
g‰ = ∆‰ = ²− + − + −2 ³=
lÐ 2 3 12 12 3 12 ∗ 10H ∗ 1.0667 ∗ 10’
= −51.7JJ

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1

Course: Mechanics of Materials (Strength of Materials)

Lecturer: Dr Ali Al-Ghalib

Academic year: 2014-2015, second year classes

P1, P2, P3 … are external loads

Al-Mustansiriya University Dr Ali Al-Ghalib Civil Engineering Department

Subject Chapter Page

Stress, Axial Loads 1 1

Strain, Hooke’s Law, Axial Load Problems 2 33

Axial Force, Shear and Bending moment 4 91

Pure Bending of Beams 5 119

Shearing Stresses in Beams 6 163

Compound Stresses 7 199

Analysis of Plane Stress and Strain 8 235

Deflection of Beams 11 353

U.S. Customary Units and Their SI Equivalents

Quantity U.S. Customary SI Equivalent

Force lb. 4.448N

Area in2 645.2mm2

Stress Ib/in2 (psi) 6.895kN/m2 (kPa)

Al-Mustansiriya University Dr Ali Al-Ghalib Civil Engineering Department

Multiplication factor Prefix Symbol

Al-Mustansiriya University Dr Ali Al-Ghalib Civil Engineering Department

Chapter One: Stress- Axial Loads

The concept of the stress

A is the corresponding area of the element.

Al-Mustansiriya University Dr Ali Al-Ghalib Civil Engineering Department

A is the corresponding area of the element.

Units of the stress (SI system)

N/m2 =Pa (Pascal), kN/m2 =kPa, MN/m2 =N/mm2 = MPa.

General stresses in a space element

σx, σy,σz are normal stresses

Al-Mustansiriya University Dr Ali Al-Ghalib Civil Engineering Department

, , , , , are shear stresses

But, this infinitesimal element is in equilibrium, therefore:

Τxy (dy .dx) – Τyx (dx .dy) = 0

P = axial (passes through the centroid) tensile force

When the applied force is axial and normal, a uniform (equal)

Al-Mustansiriya University Dr Ali Al-Ghalib Civil Engineering Department

The bearing stress is a normal

In this example, we have two bearing

Al-Mustansiriya University Dr Ali Al-Ghalib Civil Engineering Department

Failure of a bolt in single

ii. Double shear

b) Punching shear stress

c) Torsional shear stress

Al-Mustansiriya University Dr Ali Al-Ghalib Civil Engineering Department

F.B.D for the beam:

10(3.5) = Rc (1) → Rc= 35kN

• Normal stress on the bolt

• Bearing stress at point C between the beam and the wall:

Al-Mustansiriya University Dr Ali Al-Ghalib Civil Engineering Department

Investigate the state of stress at level of 1.0m above the base.

P = 20kN/m2 * 0.5m *0.5m = 5kN

W1 = [0.5+1.0]/2 m * 1.0m * 0.5m * 25kN/m3 = 9.4kN

σa = Fa/ Aa-a =14.4kN/ (1.0*0.5)m2 = 28.8kPa (compressive stress)

W = weight of the block = [0.5 + 1.5]/2 *2 *0.5 * 25 = 25kN

σb = R/ Abase=30kN/ (1.5*0.5)m2 = 40kPa

Al-Mustansiriya University Dr Ali Al-Ghalib Civil Engineering Department

Ax = 310 +180 – 90 = 400kN

Stress @ sec 1-1:

Stress @ sec 2-2:

The two solid cylindrical steel rods AB and BC are welded

W = weight of the block = [0.5 + 1.5]/2 2 0.5 * 25 = 25kN

Psafe = π (22)2 102 10-3= 155kN

Psafe = [300-4(25)]* 613610-3 = 163.2kN