Z Lebensm Unters Forsch A (1997) 204: 88—94
OR I G I N A L P AP E R
Harald Müller
Determination of the carotenoid content in selected vegetables and
fruit by HPLC and photodiode array detection
Received: 27 March 1996
Abstract Epidemiological studies have shown inverse
correlations between the consumption of vegetables
and fruit rich in carotenoids and the incidence of cancer
and cardiovascular diseases. A total of 22 species of
vegetables (including potatoes) and 28 of fruit (includ-
ing rhubarb) were analysed for their contents of caro-
tenoids by reversed-phase high-performance liquid
chromatography (RP-HPLC) and photodiode array
detection. A total of 27 carotenoids (among them b-
carotene, lutein and violaxanthin also as cis isomers)
were identified and quantified. Lutein, b-carotene
(trans and cis forms) and violaxanthin were the pre-
dominant carotenoids in all green vegetables. Yellow
and yellow-red vegetables and fruit contained b-caro-
tene, a-carotene, b-cryptoxanthin and a-cryptoxanthin.
Antheraxanthin and neoxanthin were found in nearly
all produce. Lycopene was the predominant carotene in
tomatoes, papayas and grapefruit. Vegetables with
more than 10 mg of total carotenoids per 100-g edible
portion were kale (34.8), red paprika (30.4), parsley
(25.7), spinach (17.3), lamb’s lettuce (16.0), carrots (15.9)
and tomatoes (12.7). In the case of fruit, grapefruit (3.5),
papayas (3.4) and nectarines (2.4) were pre-eminent
with more than 2 mg of total carotenoids (except for
phytoene, phytofluene and f-carotene) per 100 g.
Key words Carotenoids · Vegetables · Fruit · HPLC ·
Photodiode array detection
Introduction
Scientific interest in the quantities of carotenoids and
their distribution patterns in various fruits and veg-
etables has revived since it was discovered that caro-
H. Müller
Institute of Nutritional Physiology, Federal Research Centre
for Nutrition, D-76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
( Springer-Verlag 1997
tenoids (carotenes and xanthophylls) are not only
precursors (provitamin) of vitamin A (retinol), but they
also contribute to the prevention of cancer and cardio-
vascular diseases [1]. Exclusive focusing on provitamin
A carotenes, in particular b-carotene, is outdated. The
first step in broadening research in this field was made
by Souci, Fachmann and Kraut [2], editors of the
German standard work on food components, who, in
their last edition, supplemented information about the
amounts of b-carotene and provitamin A with a list of
‘‘vitamin A inactive carotenoids in foods’’ in appendix
II.
In view of the great number of carotenoids which
have been detected in food, research should be concen-
trated on those which dominate, in terms of quantity,
and on those with either a provitamin A structure or
a minimum number (59) of conjugated double bonds
(lengths of the polyene chain in the chromophore) re-
sponsible for the antioxidative potential (radical-scav-
enging capacity and quencher of singlet oxygen). This
phenomenon is explained by resonance stabilization of
carotenoid radicals being formed. Consequently, the
carotenoids phytoene, phytofluene and f-carotene
should be of no antioxidative significance. Potent anti-
oxidants, on the other hand, such as the diketo-
carotenoids astaxanthin and canthaxanthin [3], are
not present in higher plants. One should differen-
tiate between the geometric (cis or all-trans) isomers,
which show different biological activities. As well as the
main carotenoids (b- and a-carotene, b-cryptoxanthin,
lutein, lycopene), many other carotenoids in fruit and
vegetables have been identified and quantified; how-
ever, the data reported differ so widely that only spec-
tral determination of pure chromatographic peaks by
photodiode array detectors and comparison with
spectra of authentic carotenoids are expected to shed
more light on the actual carotenoid distribution in the
various fruit and vegetable species. The results of our
own studies [4] of total-diet samples showing b-caro-
tene and lutein to be the dominant carotenoids in terms

of quantity (as well as eight further carotenoids)
prompted us to determine the origin of the various
carotenoids. Whether artefacts emerged during extrac-
tion, saponification and/or HPLC, as suggested by
others [5], has not been investigated.
Materials and methods
Material
Samples of fruit and vegetables (cultivars were usually not known)
were obtained either directly from the producers or were purchased
at retail shops. Preparation for analysis was the same as that for
consumption. Sample mass was between 5 and 20 g fresh mass
depending on the carotenoid and water contents. The samples were
not exposed to heat.
Chemicals
Instead of the lengthy IUPAC nomenclature [6], the usual trivial
names are used for the carotenoids [e.g. lutein for (3R,3@R,6@R)-b,e-
carotene-3,3@-diol or zeaxanthin for (3R,3R@)-b,b-carotene-3,3@-
diol]. The reference substances a-,b-carotene and lycopene were
obtained from Sigma (Deisenhofen, Germany), lutein from Fluka
(Neu-Ulm, Germany). Zeaxanthin, b-crytoxanthin and echinenone
were provided for by Hoffmann-La Roche (Basel, Switzerland).
Carotenoids not commercially available were extracted from suit-
able plants, isolated pure by chromatographic methods, identified
according to [7, 8] and quantified by means of the specific 1% (1 cm)
extinction coefficients. So neoxanthin was obtained from green cab-
bage, violaxanthin from spinach, antheraxanthin from potatoes, and
a-cryptoxanthin from carrot leaves. Methanol, ethanol, 2-propanol,
acetone, acetonitrile, n-hexane, tetrahydrofurane, pyrogallol, KOH
and Na SO , free of water, and the adsorbents SiO , Al O and
2 4 2 2 3
MgO (all of p.a. grade or HPLC quality) were obtained from Merck
(Darmstadt, Germany), butylhydroxytoluol (BHT) from Sigma.
Equipment
The HPLC system used consisted of an injector (Waters, type U6K),
pumps (Waters, type 501), gradient-controlling device (Waters, type
680), photodiode array detector (Shimadzu, type SPD-M10AV),
UV-VIS detector (Gamma-Analysen-Technik, GAT, type LCD
501), integrator (Merck-Hitachi, type D-2000), and separating col-
umn (VYDAC 201TP54, Separations Group, Hesperia, USA).
Methods
Preparation of samples. According to a modification of [9], 5—20 g
of samples was homogenized and extracted in an Ultra Turrax by
50 ml of acetone/ethanol (1 : 1), to which 1 ml of 5% aqueous pyro-
gallol solution as antioxidant had been added. When necessary (for
removal of chlorophyll and undesirable lipids, or for hydrolysis of
xanthophyll esters), samples were saponified by addition of 5 ml of
40% methanolic KOH, and then were allowed to rest for 18 h at
room temperature with the light excluded. The insoluble residue was
separated by filtration, then 40 ml each of 0.5% Na SO solution
2 4
and n-hexane was added, and the sample was shaken for 2 min. After
phase separation, the lower phase was removed and shaken again
with 40 ml n-hexane. The recombined n-hexane phases were dried
by 20 g of water-free Na SO and reduced in the rotation evapor-
2 4
89
Fig. 1 Separation of the reference carotenoids by HPLC (for condi-
tions, see Materials and methods): neoxanthin (retention time"
3.95 min), violaxanthin (4.45 min), antheraxanthin (5.47 min),
lutein (6.14 min), zeaxanthin (6.92 min), a-cryptoxanthin (8.40 min),
b-cryptoxanthin (10.40 min), a-carotine (15.03 min), b-carotine, all-
trans (17.24 min), b-carotine, cis (19.14 min), lycopene (28.08 min)
ator at 35 °C and +150 mbar (15 kPa) of low pressure. Residual n-
hexane was removed by introduction of nitrogen and the residue
was added to 5 ml of methanol/tetrahydrofurane (1 : 1) which had
been stabilized by 0.01% BHT. Depending on the colour intensity,
the sample was diluted (between 1 : 5 and 1 : 100) by the meth-
anol/THF mixture for HPLC studies. Echinenone was used as an
internal standard only in the preliminary phase (it may interfere with
a-carotene determination). Recovery rates of the reference caro-
tenoids were above 90%. Saponification losses occasionally ob-
served were the greatest (+25%) for lycopene. Carotenes, on the
other hand, have been found to be more resistant than xanthophylls
against alkali (KOH).
HP¸C. For RP-HPLC, a VYDAC 5l-C18 column (250]4.6 mm)
temperature regulated at 20 °C, plus a precolumn consisting of a
Waters Guard-PAK module equipped with a l-Bondapak C
18
insert were used. The flow rate was 1 ml/min throughout. Eluent for
isocratic separation (HPLC chromatogram of reference carotenoids,
see Fig. 1) was a mixture of methanol and acetone (95 : 5) [10], which
was redistilled finally for reuse. The mixture of methanol, acetonit-
rile and ammonium acetate (85 : 15 : 0.01) is also suitable for the
entire spectral range. Gradient separation, according to [11], was
achieved by acetonitrile/2-propanol (40 : 60) and water. After analy-
sis at 450 nm (0.01 AUF) by UV/VIS detector [which is superior in
sensitivity to a photodiode array detector (PAD)] the peaks were
assigned to the carotenoids according to their coelution and reten-
tion time. The PAD was used to record chromatograms simulta-
neously at wavelengths of 450, 350 and 290 nm and to determine
peak spectra for carotenoid identification and for the checking of
peak purity. For measurements and spectral determination in UV,
methanol had to be applied instead of a mixture of methanol and
acetone (95 : 5). For quantification according to the external stan-
dard method a ‘‘one-point calibration’’ was done for each carotenoid
available. In the measured range, results were linear throughout.
Limits of detection depended on retention times (bottom width of
peaks) (2.5 ng/g for violaxanthin with a retention time of 4.5 min,
15 ng/g for lycopene with a retention time of 28 min; sample mass:
20 g). Carotenoids, for which reference substances were not avail-
able, were quantified by their 1% (1 cm) extinction coefficients,
E [7, 8]. Fictitious concentration, c*"detector signal/E]100,
which had been determined as a function of the size and geometry of
the flow-through cell was related to the c* value of b-carotene, which
90
had been determined in the same way; its actual concentration was
known. Rare derivatives, e.g. b-crytoxanthin-5,6,5@,6@-diepoxide,
were quantified by the coefficient of the initial substance, in this case
b-cryptoxanthin.
Results and discussion
In the 22 species of vegetables (including potatoes) and
the 28 of fruit (including rhubarb) investigated, 27 indi-
vidual carotenoids, including three cis forms (b-caro-
tene, lutein, violaxanthin) were detected. In Table 1, the
dry matter (dm) and carotenoid contents of the leafy,
fruit, root and tuber vegetables are listed in the order of
decreasing total carotenoid content. What is remark-
able is the high proportion of b-carotene in the cis form,
which is certainly not due exclusively to saponification
[12], as cis forms have also been detected in non-
saponified samples. In the non-saponified sample of
Brussels sprouts, 24% of the lutein was in the cis form;
it was detected exclusively in Brussels sprouts. In the
chromatogram, violeoxanthin, according to [7] prob-
ably the 9-cis form of violaxanthin, ranks, as do all cis
forms, behind the all-trans forms in the immediate
vicinity of the peak; for detection one has to rely on its
spectrum. A comparison of spectra is shown in Fig. 2;
shifts in wavelengths, *j, correspond approximately to
those reported by [7]. Taraxanthin (lutein-5,6-epoxide)
was detected only in Brussels sprouts and white cab-
bage. However, vegetables (except for red cabbage)
containing neither violeoxanthin nor taraxanthin did
contain antheraxanthin. The distribution pattern in
leafy vegetables of 30—60% lutein, 12—25% b-carotene,
10—28% violaxanthin and 1—5% neoxanthin is compa-
rable to data reported by [13] for the four chloroplast
carotenoids. In some leafy vegetables a-carotene, b-
cryptoxanthin and a-cryptoxanthin were detected at
levels of less than 1% as minor carotenoids of pro-
vitamin A nature.
Of the fruit vegetables investigated, only red paprika
and tomatoes were pre-eminent in their total caro-
tenoid contents. The total content of paprika (which is
confirmed by [14]) includes 13.94 mg/100 g capsan-
thin/capsorubin and 5.0 mg/100 g capsolutein (re-
ported also by [15]). Besides these three carotenoids,
which have been found in paprika exclusively, zeaxan-
thin, antheraxanthin and mutatoxanthin were also de-
tected at high concentrations by the application of
a gradient and the comparison of spectra. As isomeriz-
ation of the 5,6-epoxide form, as in antheraxanthin,
into the 5,8-epoxide form — also called the furanoid
form — as in mutatoxanthin, is catalysed only by an
acid, mutatoxanthin formation cannot be assumed to
be due to alkaline saponification. Transition of the
5,6-epoxide into the 5,8-epoxide (furanoid) form is asso-
ciated with the loss of one conjugated double bond in
the chromophore, visible by the hypsochrome shift of
the spectral maxima by 14—17 nm (see Fig. 3). The
antioxidative potential of such a highly isomerized ca-
rotenoid can be assumed to be reduced. As for tom-
atoes, those grown in winter in greenhouses (GH) have
only one-third of the total carotenoid content of out-
door produce. The difference is due mainly to the
amount of lycopene they contain (10% of which was
epoxides). GH tomatoes contained 0.44 mg of phyto-
fluene per 100 g, accounting for 10% of the total caro-
tenoid content, and 0.10 mg of b-carotene-5,6-epoxide.
Green paprika and french beans had been grown in
a private garden. In the green-fruit vegetables, as in the
leafy vegetables investigated, lutein, b-carotene and
violaxanthin, or its cis-isomer violeoxanthin, prevailed.
Of root and tuber vegetables, carrots are the most
important. Therefore samples of three developmental
phases were investigated. Young carrots in a stage in
which they are not offered for sale had the lowest
b-carotene level, which nearly equalled their a-carotene
content. This 1 : 1 ratio shifted with growth to a 2 : 1
ratio of b-carotene to a-carotene; such relations have
been found to occur exclusively in carrots. The amount
of lutein remained nearly constant. Large, ripe carrots
contained, in addition to the carotenoids shown in
Table 1, 0.99 mg/100 g f-carotene and 0.09 mg/100 g
b-carotene-5,6-epoxide. Other vegetables of this group
investigated, i.e. kohlrabi, asparagus, onions and po-
tatoes, because of their low carotenoid levels, are irrel-
evant to anyone interested in carotenoid-rich produce.
b-Carotene contents were comparable to those re-
ported by others [2] and were mostly in the range of
normal fluctuation, which is due to the different cul-
tivars, soils, fertilizers, climatic conditions and degrees
of ripeness. The different analytical methods applied
also yielded different results. Differences in the quantity
and distribution patterns reported here and those re-
ported by others [16, 17], in relation to broccoli, spin-
ach, Brussels sprouts, kale, french beans and tomatoes
in the USA, may be caused by the different cultivars
grown in Europe, the different degrees of ripeness and
differences in conditions of growth. Carotenoid con-
tents of vegetables grown in the USA were higher, on
average, while those determined in Finland [18] were
comparable to the values measured in the authors’
laboratory.
Table 2 provides a summary of the results obtained
from fruit. The carotenes phytoene, phytofluene and
f-carotene, higher concentrations of which are present
in a few fruit species only, are listed in Table 3. Gener-
ally, carotenoid levels in fruit are much lower than in
vegetables, although in both nearly the same carotenes
and xanthophylls are present. b-Carotene and lutein
dominate, as in vegetables, a-carotene and b-crypto-
xanthin are present in approximately the same concen-
trations, while the amount of a-cryptoxanthin is lower.
Zeaxanthin, antheraxanthin, violaxanthin or violeo-
xanthin, and neoxanthin, although present in nearly all
fruit species, differ greatly in terms of quantity (see a list
of carotenoid contents of native fruit species in [19]).
Table 1 The quantities of different carotenoids in various vegetables. [b-Car b-carotene, a-Car a-carotene, b-Cry b-cryptoxanthan, ¸ut lutein, Zeaxanth zeaxanthin, »iolaxant violaxanthin
(zeaxanthin-5,6,5@,6@-diepoxide), »ioleoxanth violeoxanthin (9-cis-violaxanthin), ¹araxanthin (lutein-5,6-epoxide), Antheraxan antheraxanthin (zeaxanthin-5,6-epoxide), Mutatoxan mutatoxanthin
(zeaxanthin-5,8-epoxide)]

Vegetable % dm Carotenoid content (mg/100 g edible portion)

b-Car cis-b-Car a-Car b-Cry a-Cry Lut Zeaxanth Violaxanth Taraxanthin! Neoxanth Mutatoxan! Lycopene Total
Violeoxanth Antheraxan

¸eaves and stems

Kale 17.7 7.28 1.40 0.15 0.12 0.07 18.63 5.81 0.66 0.64 34.76
Parsley, leaf 10.5 5.50 0.86 0.17 0.11 0.09 13.78 0.34 3.59 0.37 0.66 25.47
Spinach 9.2 3.25 0.43 0.09 9.54 0.35 3.04 0.16 0.45 17.31
Lamb’s lettuce 7.4 3.22 0.76 0.08 0.10 0.06 9.65 1.64 0.21 0.24 15.96
Lettuce 5.5 1.29 0.39 0.04 0.03 2.92 2.36 1.31 0.14 8.48
Brussels sprouts 15.9 0.63 0.13 0.05 2.71 1.07 1.29! 0.28 6.15
Endive 4.1 0.89 0.20 2.08 0.43 3.60
Iceberg lettuce 4.5 0.33 0.069 0.006 0.69 0.33 0.40 0.033 1.85
Red cabbage 12.7 0.05 0.027 0.001 0.15 0.08 0.05 0.058 0.014 0.43
White cabbage 11.7 0.021 0.013 0.002 0.002 0.08 0.004 0.07 0.05! 0.014 0.25
Flowers and fruits
Red paprika 12.9 3.25 0.53 0.51 1.01 0.12 2.20 1.67#2.02! 0.13 30.37*
Tomato 6.2 0.89 0.15 0.21 11.44 12.69
Tomato, gh 5.8 0.61 0.15 0.36 0.10 0.09 3.02 4.33
Squash, summer 4.8 0.20 0.02 0.011 0.013 1.33 0.15 0.01 0.031 1.76
Broccoli 10.6 0.28 0.04 0.011 0.010 0.80 0.18 0.22 0.02 1.56
French beans 12.6 0.25 0.02 0.03 0.014 0.007 0.76 0.10 0.21 0.035 0.024 1.46
Green paprika 7.5 0.10 0.009 0.01 0.002 0.005 0.41 0.12 0.012 0.025 0.70
Cauliflower 7.3 0.002 0.002 0.001 0.015 0.009 0.006 0.001 0.04
Roots and tubers
Carrot, large 8.7 9.02 0.52 4.89 0.36 15.87e
Carrot, med-sized 15.7 6.50 0.14 3.06 0.012 0.026 0.56 10.29
Carrot, young 4.65 0.16 4.12 0.028 0.02 0.44 0.014 0.014 0.015 9.46
Potato 21.8 0.005 0.003 0.10 0.016 0.18 0.014 0.13 0.45
Kohlrabi 6.9 0.009 0.002 0.003 0.012 0.003 0.03 0.009 0.07
Asparagus 8.6 0.001 0.025 0.025 0.008 0.06
Onion 8.7 0.002 0.015 0.003 0.001 0.02

* Including 13.94 mg/100 g of capsanthin/capsorubin and 5.0 mg/100 g of capsolutein

e
Including 0.99 mg/100 g of f-carotene and 0.09 mg/100 g of b-carotene-5,6-epoxide
91
92
Fig. 2 Comparison of the VIS spectra of violaxanthin (j "416,
.!9
438, 467 nm) and violeoxanthin (9-cis-violaxanthin) (j "416,
.!9
436, 465 nm), recorded by photodiode array detection
Fig. 3 Comparison of the VIS spectra of antheraxanthin
(j "443, 467 nm) and mutatoxanthin (j "426, 453 nm), re-
.!9 .!9
corded by photodiode array detection
Exceptions are papaya (from Brazil), grapefruit and
clementines, in which mono- and diepoxides of b-
cryptoxanthin have been detected. In the red flesh of
papaya and in blood grapefruits high levels of lycopene
and its didehydro derivative have also been found.
Total carotenoid, b-carotene and lycopene contents
correlate well with those [20] reported to occur in
Brazilian papayas from the Sao Paulo region. Auro-
xanthin, a diepoxide of zeaxanthin ("violaxanthin),
which isomerized from the 5,6,5@,6@-diepoxide into the
5,8,5@,8@-diepoxide (difuranoid) form, has only been de-
tected in avocados; its loss of antioxidative potential is
assumed to be even higher than that of mutatoxanthin.
c-Carotene, which can be readily mistaken for
the cis forms of b-carotene if identification relies solely
on the retention time, was identified in black currants,
apricots and papayas by its VIS spectrum. Wave-
lengths for the carotenes phytoene, phytofluene and
f-carotene, as listed in Table 3, were 286, 347 and
400 nm. Maxima have been found in the two-peak and
three-peak spectra. Although present in relatively high
concentrations in the aforementioned fruit species (and
in some vegetable species, e.g. tomatoes) they are, for
the reasons already explained, no doubt of little im-
portance as antioxidants. Rhubarb, which does not fit
the given scheme, has been found to contain lutein
(0.131 mg/100 g edible share), violaxanthin (0.047),
b-carotene (0.031), antheraxanthin (0.006), a-carotene
(0.001), b-cryptoxanthin (0.001) and a-cryptoxanthin
(0.001).
Of some importance as a source of carotenoid for
humans are also those carotenoids which are ingested
by hens, as part of their feed, which subsequently get
into the egg yolk. Eggs of hens kept outdoors were
shown to contain 7.84 mg of total carotenoids/100 g
egg yolk, or 1.49 mg/egg (mass, including shell, 63.4 g,
egg yolk 19.0 g). Of the total carotenoid content of eggs
65% was accounted for by lutein, 14% by zeaxanthin,
5.8% each by lutein-5,6-epoxide (taraxanthin) and an-
theraxanthin, 5% by isozeaxanthin (b,b-carotene-4,4@
diol), 3.6% by b-carotene, and the rest by violaxanthin
and neoxanthin.
In conclusion, according to most recently acquired
knowledge, antioxidants in the form of carotenoids
(and flavonoids, other than vitamins A, C and E) may
prevent cancer and cardiovascular diseases. To ensure
the intake of a sufficient quantity of antioxidants, the
human diet, which realistically contains 100—500 g/day
of fruit and vegetables, should contain a high propor-
tion of carotenoid-rich produce. As a break from pre-
vious practice with regard to provision of an adequate
vitamin A intake, attention should be paid not only to
the quantity of provitamin A (b- and a-carotene, and b-
and a-cryptoxanthin), but also to the total carotenoid
content of the individual fruit and vegetable species.
The recommended daily carotenoid intake still refers
exclusively to b-carotene M2 mg according to the DGE
(Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ernährung) [21], or 5—6 mg
according to the NCI (National Cancer Institute of the
USA) [22]N; thus, there is urgent need for revision. As
b-carotene is present in fruit and vegetables always in
combination with other carotenoids, an intake of, for
example, 2 mg b-carotene means a total carotenoid
intake of, so our studies have shown, 6.6—11.6 mg in the
case of leafy vegetables, 9.8—28.5 mg for fruit vegetables,
and about 3.5 mg for carrots, as representatives of roots
and tubers. Similar relations have been found to occur
Table 2 See legend to Table 1 for abbreviations. [Cry-diepox b-Cryptoxanthin-5,6,5@,6@-diepoxide, Auroxanth auroxanthin (zeaxanthin-5,8,5@,8@-diepoxide) Didehydrolyc didehydrolycopene]

Fruit % dm Carotenoid content (mg/100 g edible portion)

b-Car c-Car! a-Car Cry-diepox! Cry-5,6-ep! cis-Lut! Zeaxanth Auroxanth! Violeoxan Neoxanth Antheraxan Didehydrolyc! Total
cis-b-Car b-Cry Cry-5,8-ep" Lut Violaxanth Lycopene
a-Cryp

Berries
Blackberry 17.0 0.11 0.02 0.02 0.008 0.005 0.65 0.06 0.009 0.02 0.90
‘‘Josta’’ berry 17.4 0.20 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.005 0.26 0.04 0.06 0.122 0.09 0.83
Gooseberry 16.2 0.07 0.008 0.005 0.003 0.003 0.26 0.04 0.007 0.40
Raspberry 14.7 0.011 0.002 0.025 0.009 0.21 0.011 0.04 0.02 0.33
Black currant 18.1 0.014 0.003! 0.003 0.003 0.18 0.011 0.014 0.006 0.23
Bilberry 16.2 0.009 0.002 0.14 0.012 0.03 0.005 0.19
Red currant 15.5 0.009 0.003 0.003 0.07 0.002 0.003 0.007 0.10
Strawberry 9.5 0.005 0.001 0.0002 0.0005 0.0004 0.04 0.003 0.002 0.0004 0.05
Grape 21.4 0.003 0.001 0.0003 0.0005 0.01 0.003 0.001 0.003 0.003 0.03
Stone fruit
Nectarine 11.3 0.33 0.07 0.14 0.08 0.05 0.98 0.08 0.51 0.09 0.08 2.40
Apricot 12.4 0.71 0.19#0.05! 0.02 0.06 0.008 0.04 0.006 0.02 0.014 0.009 1.13
Cherry,
morello 12.6 0.40 0.34 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.03 0.07 1.00
Peach 9.4 0.10 0.03 0.05 0.005 0.03 0.06 0.35 0.009 0.14 0.77
Mirabelle 18.7 0.18 0.06 0.007 0.02 0.009 0.20 0.21 0.006 0.06 0.76
Plum
‘‘zwetschge’’ 18.0 0.09 0.03 0.012 0.014 0.11#0.02! 0.18 0.03 0.48
Plum 14.6 0.07 0.02 0.005 0.16 0.16 0.01 0.008 0.43
Cherry, sweet 17.4 0.02 0.007 0.006 0.009 0.02 0.06 0.012 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.33
Pome
Pear 15.3 0.004 0.001 0.0004 0.06 0.003 0.01 0.001 0.08
Apple ‘‘Jak.
Fischer’’ 15.4 0.011 0.002 0.008 0.001 0.03 0.001 0.01 0.003 0.003 0.07
Apple ‘‘Elstar’’ 15.9 0.02 0.004 0.004#0.01! 0.02 0.003 0.06 0.01 0.02 0.14
Exotic fruit
Grapefruit 10.2 0.59 0.012 0.03! 0.020 0.009 0.005 0.013 2.77#0.05! 3.50
Papaya 14.7 0.38 0.21! 0.05 0.08#0.04! 0.04#0.04" 0.008 0.009 0.009 0.008 2.07#0.49! 3.44
Clementine 13.1 0.03 0.005 0.50#0.03! 0.011" 0.06 0.23 0.15 1.02
Avocado 20.0 0.04 0.012 0.010 0.02 0.008 0.23 0.16! 0.10 0.007 0.59
Orange 14.8 0.013 0.006 0.05 0.002 0.02 0.008 0.22 0.08 0.40
Kiwi fruit 12.8 0.012 0.14 0.02 0.03 0.20
Banana 26.8 0.021 0.003 0.02 0.001 0.001 0.02 0.001 0.06
Lemon 11.4 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.02 0.002 0.008 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.04
93
94

Table 3 Phytoene, phytofluene

and f-carotene contents of stone Fruit Content (mg/100 g edible portion) of: Total
fruit and exotic fruit
Phytoene Phytofluene f-carotene

Stone fruit
Nectarine 0.40 0.122 0.009 0.53
Apricot 1.05 0.45 1.50
Cherry, morello 0.05 0.05
Peach 0.18 0.07 0.014 0.26
Exotic fruit
Papaya 0.25 0.26 0.17 0.68
Grapefruit 0.07 0.06 0.013 0.14
Clementine 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.19
Avocado 0.03 0.03
Orange 0.08 0.04 0.02 0.14
Lemon 0.01 0.002 0.003 0.02

in the various fruit species. Accordingly, data indicating
the amount of b-carotene supplied by a particular pro-
duce do not provide a basis from which the total
carotenoid content supplied can be calculated, as there
is no universal conversion factor. Future recommended
intakes should include those of the main carotenoids,
i.e. b- and a-carotene, b-cryptoxanthin, lutein, zeaxan-
thin, antheraxanthin, violaxanthin and lycopene.
Acknowledgements The author thanks Mr. M. Werner for technical
assistance in the analytical work, and Hoffmann-La Roche, Basel
(Switzerland), for their kindness in providing the reference substan-
ces zeaxanthin, b-cryptoxanthin and echinenone gratuitously.
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