PHYS 104

General Physics IV
Heat and properties of matter
1st year
Physics + Physics & Chemistry + Physics & Computer Science+ Biophysics
groups

Dr. Heba AbdelMaksoud

Hebaabdelmaksoud@sci.asu.edu.eg

Physics Department
Faculty of Science
Ain Shams University
Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba.AbdelMaksoud
 Chapter 20
First Law of Thermodynamics
 20.1 Heat and Internal Energy
 20.2 Specific Heat and Calorimetry
 20.3 Latent Heat
 20.4 Work and Heat in Thermodynamic Processes
 20.5 The First Law of Thermodynamics
 20.6 Some Applications of the First Law of
Thermodynamics
20.7 Energy Transfer Mechanisms

Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba.AbdelMaksoud

 20.7 Energy Transfer Mechanisms
Heat Transfer
• Heat is a transfer of energy from one object to another due to a difference
in temperature
• Temperature is a measure of the molecular energy in an object.
• Heat always flows from an object of higher temp (TH) to one of lower temp
(TL)
• We are often interested in the rate at which this heat transfer takes place.

Heat transfers in three ways:

Conduction Convection Radiation

(Solid) (Liquid & Gas) (electromagnetic waves)

Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba.AbdelMaksoud

 20.7 Energy Transfer Mechanisms
Heat Transfer
Thermal Conduction
The process of energy transfer by heat can also be called conduction or thermal conduction.

• The transfer can be viewed on an atomic scale

 It is an exchange of energy between microscopic particles
by collisions
 The microscopic particles can be atoms, molecules or free
electrons
 Less energetic particles gain energy during collisions with
more energetic particles
• Rate of conduction depends upon the characteristics of the
substance.

Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba.AbdelMaksoud

 20.7 Energy Transfer Mechanisms
Heat Transfer
Thermal Conduction: Example
For example, if you hold one end of a long metal bar and insert the other end into a
flame, you will find that the temperature of the metal in your hand soon increases. The
energy reaches your hand by means of conduction. Initially, before the rod is inserted
into the flame, the microscopic particles in the metal are vibrating about their
equilibrium positions.

Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba.AbdelMaksoud

 20.7 Energy Transfer Mechanisms
Heat Transfer
Thermal Conduction: Example
• The molecules vibrate about their
equilibrium positions
• Particles near the heat source vibrate with
larger amplitudes
• These collide with adjacent molecules and
transfer some energy
• This increased vibration is detected by an
increase in the temperature of the metal
and of your potentially burned hand.

Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba.AbdelMaksoud

20.7 Energy Transfer Mechanisms
Heat Transfer
Thermal Conduction: Example
 20.7 Energy Transfer Mechanisms
Heat Transfer
Thermal Conduction: Example
• In general, metals are good conductors
o They contain large numbers of electrons that are relatively
free to move through the metal
o They can transport energy from one region to another
• Poor conductors include asbestos, paper, and gases
• Conduction can occur only if there is a difference in
temperature between two parts of the conducting
medium

Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba.AbdelMaksoud

 20.7 Energy Transfer Mechanisms
Heat Transfer
Thermal Conduction: Equation
• A slab of material of thickness x and cross-sectional area
A.
• One face of the slab is at a temperature Tc, and the other
face is at a temperature Th > Tc.

The rate of transfer is given by:

Q T
P  A
t x
P is in Watts when Q is in Joules and t is in seconds

Faculty of Science- ASU Chapter #1 Dr. Heba.AbdelMaksoud

 20.7 Energy Transfer Mechanisms
Heat Transfer
Thermal Conduction: Equation
Q T
P  A
t x

The law of thermal conduction

Q dT
P  kA temperature gradient
t dx

thermal conductivity of the material

P
k  unit  W / m.K
dT
A
dx
Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba.AbdelMaksoud
20.7 Energy Transfer Mechanisms
Heat Transfer
Thermal Conduction: Equation
Good conductors have high k values and good insulators
have low k values

Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba AbdelMaksoud

 20.7 Energy Transfer Mechanisms
Heat Transfer
Temperature Gradient
The rate at which temperature varies
with position
For a rod, the temperature gradient can be expressed as:

dT T  Tc
 h
dx L

Using the temperature gradient for the rod, the rate of energy transfer becomes:

 T hTc 
P  kA 
 L 

Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba AbdelMaksoud

 20.7 Energy Transfer Mechanisms
Heat Transfer
Temperature Gradient
For a compound slab containing several materials
of various thicknesses (L1, L2, …) and various
thermal conductivities (k1, k2, …) the rate of
energy transfer depends on temperatures at the
outer edges, and is given by:
AT hTc 
P
 Li / ki 
i

Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba AbdelMaksoud

20.7 Energy Transfer Mechanisms
Heat Transfer
Variables for conduction

Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba AbdelMaksoud

Quick Quiz 20.5: You have two rods of the same length and diameter but
they are formed from different materials. The rods will be used to connect two
regions of different temperature such that energy will transfer through the
rods by heat. They can be connected in series, as in part (a) of the figure below,
or in parallel, as in part (b). In which case is the rate of energy transfer by heat
larger?

(a) when the rods are in series

(b) when the rods are in parallel
(c) The rate is the same in both cases.

In parallel, the rods present a larger area

through which energy can transfer and a
smaller length.

Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba AbdelMaksoud

EXAMPLE 20.8: Two slabs of thickness L1 and L2 and thermal conductivities k1 and k2 are in
thermal contact with each other as shown in Figure 20.13. The temperatures of their
outer surfaces are Tc and Th , respectively, and Th > Tc . Determine the temperature at the
interface and the rate of energy transfer by conduction through the slabs in the steady-
state condition.
Solution
Express the rate at which energy is transferred through slab 1:

 T  Tc 
P1  k1 A
 L 

 1 
Express the rate at which energy is transferred through slab 2:
 T hT 
P2  k 2 A
 L 

 2 

 T Tc   T T 
k1 A   k 2 A h 
 L1   L2 

k1 L2Tc  k 2 L1T h A(Th  Tc )

T  P
k1 L2  k 2 L1 ( L1 / k1 )  ( L2 / k 2 )
Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba AbdelMaksoud
Problem 20.39 A bar of gold (Au) is in thermal contact with a bar of silver (Ag) of the same
length and area (Fig. P20.39). One end of the compound bar is maintained at 80.0°C,
and the opposite end is at 30.0°C. When the energy transfer reaches steady state, what is
the temperature at the junction?
Solution
In the steady state condition

AAu=AAg PAu  PAg

xAu=xAg
kAu= 314 W/m.oC k A  T   k A  T 
  x  Ag
Au Au Ag Ag
kAg= 427W/m.oC  x  Au
k Au TAu  k Ag TAg
k Au (80  T )  k Ag (T  30)
80k Au  30k Ag
T 
k Au  k Ag
(80 * 314)  (30 * 427)
T  512o C
314  427

Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba AbdelMaksoud

 20.7 Energy Transfer Mechanisms
Heat Transfer
Convection
Convection is the transfer of heat by
the motion of liquids and gases.
 Convection in a gas occurs because gas
expands when heated.

 Convection occurs because currents flow

when hot gas rises and cool gas sink.

 Convection in liquids also occurs because of

differences in density.

Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba AbdelMaksoud

Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba AbdelMaksoud
 Water movement

Cools at the Convection

surface current

Cooler Hot water

water sinks rises

Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba AbdelMaksoud

 20.7 Energy Transfer Mechanisms
Heat Transfer
Convection
• When the flow of gas or liquid
comes from differences in
density and temperature, it is
called free convection.

• When the flow of gas or liquid

is circulated by pumps or fans
it is called forced convection.

Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba AbdelMaksoud

 20.7 Energy Transfer Mechanisms
Heat Transfer
Convection
• Air directly above the
radiator is warmed and
expands.

• The density of the air

decreases, and it rises.

• A continuous air current is

established.
Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba AbdelMaksoud
 20.7 Energy Transfer Mechanisms
Heat Transfer
How does heat
energy get from the
Sun to the Earth?
Radiation There are no particles between
the Sun and the Earth so it
CANNOT travel by conduction
or by convection.

RADIATION
?

Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba AbdelMaksoud

 20.7 Energy Transfer Mechanisms
Heat Transfer
Radiation
• Radiation is heat transfer by electromagnetic
waves.
• Thermal radiation is electromagnetic waves
(including light) produced by objects because
of their temperature.
• The higher the temperature of an object, the
more thermal radiation it gives off.
Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba AbdelMaksoud
 20.7 Energy Transfer Mechanisms
Heat Transfer
Radiation
Stefan’s Law Surface area (m2)

Power
(watts)
P = s AeT4

Absolute temperature
Stefan-Boltzmann constant (K)
5.67 x 10-8 watts/m2K4)

Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba AbdelMaksoud

 20.7 Energy Transfer Mechanisms
Heat Transfer
Radiation
Stefan’s Law
P = σ AeT4
P  sAe(T 4  To4 )

e is a constant called the emissivity e varies from 0 to 1

Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba AbdelMaksoud

 20.7 Energy Transfer Mechanisms
Heat Transfer
The emissivity is also equal to the absorptivity (which determines the rate at which a
surface absorbs radiation).
• An ideal absorber is defined as an object that
absorbs all of the energy incident on it.
e=1
• This type of object is called a black body.
• An ideal absorber is also an ideal radiator of
energy.
• An ideal reflector absorbs none of the energy
incident on it.
e=0
Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba AbdelMaksoud
Problem 20.41 A student is trying to decide what to wear. His bedroom is at 20.0°C. His
skin temperature is 35.0°C. The area of his exposed skin is 1.50 m2. People all over the
world have skin that is dark in the infrared, with emissivity about 0.900. Find the net
energy loss from his body by radiation in 10.0 min.

To= 20.0°C Solution

T= 35 °C
A= 1.5 m2
e= 0.9 The net rate of energy loss from his skin is

Pnet  sAe(T  T ) 4
o
4

8
Pnet  (5.67 x10 ) * (1.5) * (0.9) * (308)  (293)  4 4

Pnet  125 W
Q
Pnet   Q  Pnet t  (125) * (10 * 60)  7.48 x10 4 J
t

Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba AbdelMaksoud

Problem 20.56: Water in an electric teakettle is boiling. The power absorbed by the water is
1.00 kW. Assuming the pressure of vapor in the kettle equals atmospheric pressure,
determine the speed of effusion of vapor from the kettle’s spout if the spout has a cross-
sectional area of 2.00 cm2.

P= 1 kW Solution
A=2 cm2
m
PV  nRT  RT
M
Pt
Q  mL v m
Lv
Q mL v m P
P    Pt RT PV  P  RT 
t t t L v PV      
Lv M t  Lv  M 
PV PAx  P  RT 
    
t t  v 
L M 
 P  RT 
PAv    
 v 
L M 
 P  RT  1 
v     
 
Lv  M  PA 
1000 * 8.314 * 373
v  3.76 m / s
0.018 * 2.26 x10 6 *1.013 x105 * 2 x10  4
Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba AbdelMaksoud
Problem 20.62: The inside of a hollow cylinder is maintained at a temperature Ta while the
outside is at a lower temperature, Tb (Fig. P20.62). The wall of the cylinder has a thermal
conductivity k. Ignoring end effects, show that the rate of energy conduction from the
inner to the outer surface in the radial direction is:
dQ  T T 
 2Lk  a b 
dt  ln(b / a ) 
Suggestions: The temperature gradient is dT/dr. Notice that a radial energy current passes
through a concentric cylinder of area 2πrL.
Solution
dQ  dT   dT 
 kA  k 2rL
dt  dx 
 
 dr 

dQ  1  dr 
dT    
dt  2kL  r 
Ta
dQ    dr 
b
1

Tb
dT 
dt  2kL  
  
a 

r 
dQ  1 
Ta  Tb   (ln b  ln a )
dt  2kL 
dQ  1  b 
Ta  Tb    ln  
dt  2kL  a
dQ 2kLTa  Tb 

dt ln b a 

Faculty of Science- ASU Dr. Heba AbdelMaksoud