Contents

• 2.1 Complex Numbers

• 2.2 Powers and Roots
• 2.3 Sets in the Complex Plane
• 2.4 Functions of a Complex Variable
• 2.5 Cauchy-Riemann Equations
• 2.6 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
• 2.7 Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
• 2.8 Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Ch17_1
 Complex Numbers

A complex number is any number of the z = a + ib

where a and b are real numbers and i is
the imaginary
units.
• z = x + iy, the real number x is called the real
part and y is called the imaginary part:
Re(z) = x, Im(z) = y

Ch17_2
 Arithmetic Operations
Suppose z1  x1  iy1, z2  x2  iy2
z1  z2  ( x1  x2 )  i ( y1  y2 )
z1  z2  ( x1  x2 )  i ( y1  y2 )
z1  z2  ( x1x2  y1 y2 )  i ( y1x2  x1 y2 )
z1 x1x2  y1 y2 y1x2  x1 y2
 2 i 2
z2 x2  y2 2
x2  y2
2

Ch17_3
 Complex Conjugate
Suppose z  x  iy, z  x  iy, and
z1  z2  z1  z2
z1  z2  z1  z2
z1 z2  z1 z2
 z1  z1
 
 z2  z2

Ch17_4
• Two important equations
z  z  ( x  iy )  ( x  iy )  2 x
(1)
zz  ( x  iy )( x  iy )  x 2  i 2 y 2  x 2  y 2
(2)
z  z  ( x  iy )  ( x  iy )  2iy
(3)

and zz zz

Re( z )  , Im( z ) 
2 2i
Ch17_5
 Geometric Interpretation
• Fig 2.1 is called the complex plane and a
complex number z is considered as a position
vector.

Fig 2.1
Ch17_6
 Modulus or Absolute Values
DEFINITION 2.3

The modulus or absolute value of z = x + iy, denoted by │z│,

is the real number

| z |  x  y  zz
2 2

Ch17_7
Fig 2.2

Ch17_8
 Powers and Roots
• Polar Form
Referring to Fig 2.3, we have
•
z = r(cos  + i sin ) (1)

• where r = |z| is the modulus of z and  is the

argument of z,  = arg(z). If  is in the interval
− <   , it is called the principal argument,
denoted by Arg(z).
Ch17_9
Fig 2.3
Ch17_10
Ch17_11
Ch17_12
 Example 1
Express z  1  3i in polar form.
Solution
See Fig 2.4 that the point lies in the fourth quarter.

r  z  1  3i  1  3  2
 3 5
tan   ,  arg( z ) 
1 3
 5 5 
z  2cos  i sin 
 3 3
Fig 2.4
r  z  1  3i  1  3  2
 3 5
tan   ,  arg( z ) 
1 3
 5 5 
z  2cos  i sin 
 3 3

In addition, choose that − <   , thus  = −/3.

   
z  2cos( )  i sin( )
 3 3 
Ch17_14
Multiplication and Division

Suppose z1  r1 (cos1  i sin 1 )

• z2  r2 (cos 2  i sin  2 )
Then
z1 z2  r1r2 [(cos1 cos 2  sin 1 sin  2 )
(2)
 i (sin 1 cos 2  cos1 sin  2 )]
for z2  0,

z1 r1
 [(cos1 cos 2  sin 1 sin  2 )
z2 r2 (3)
 i (sin 1 cos 2  cos1 sin  2 )] Ch17_15
  z1 
arg ( z1z2 )  arg z1  arg z2 , arg   arg z1  arg z2
 z2 

Dan memenuhi Hubungan

z1 | z1 |
| z1 z2 |  | z1 | | z2 | , ,
z2 | z2 | Ch17_16
• From the addition formulas from trigonometry,

z1 z2  r1r2 [cos(1   2 )  i sin(1   2 )] (4)

z1 r1 (5)
 [cos(1   2 )  i sin(1   2 )]
z2 r2
• Thus we can show

z1 | z1 | (6)
| z1 z2 |  | z1 | | z2 | , ,
z2 | z2 |

Ch17_17
Bilangan pangkat kompleks z

z r (cos 2  i sin 2 )
2 2

z r (cos 3  i sin 3 )
3 3

z n  r n (cos n  i sin n ) (8)

Ch17_18
 Demoivre’s Formula

(cos   i sin  )  cos n   i sin n

n

Dan 𝒛 𝒙+𝒊𝒚 𝒙 𝒊𝒚
𝒆 = 𝒆 = 𝒆 𝒆

• Sehingga menurut aturan euler (kuliah

sebelumnya)

𝒆𝒛 = 𝒆𝒙 (𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 + 𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽)

Ch17_19
 Pangkat dan akar kompleks
• A number w is an nth root of a nonzero number z
if wn = z. If we let w =  (cos  + i sin ) and
z = r (cos  + i sin ), then
 n (cos n  i sin n )  r (cos  i sin  )
 n  r ,   r1 / n
cos n  cos , sin n  sin 
  2k
 , k  0,1,2,..., n  1
n
The root corresponds to k=0 called the principal nth
root.
Ch17_20
 Akar komplek
• Thus the n roots of a nonzero complex number
z = r (cos  + i sin ) are given by
• Karena Wn = Z
sehingga W = z1/n
(10)
1/ n     2k     2k 
wk  r cos    i sin  
  n   n 
• where k = 0, 1, 2, …, n – 1.

Ch17_21
Functions of a Complex Variable
• Complex Functions

w  f ( z )  u ( x, y )  iv( x, y )
• (1)

• where u and v are real-valued functions.

Also, w = f(z) can be interpreted as a mapping
or transformation from the z-plane to the w-
plane. See Fig 2.12.

Ch17_22
Fig 2.12
Ch17_23
Example 1
Find the image of the line Re(z) = 1 under f(z) = z2.
Solution

f ( z )  z  ( x  iy )
2 2

u ( x, y )  x  y , v( x, y )  2 xy
2 2

Now Re(z) = x = 1,
u = 1 – y2, v = 2y.

y  v / 2, then u  1  v / 4 2

Ch17_24
Fig 2.13
Ch17_25
Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Suppose f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is differentiable at a
point z = x + iy. Then at z the first-order partial
derivatives of u and v exists and satisfy the
Cauchy-Riemann equations

u v u v
 and 
x y y x

Ch17_26
Example 1
• The polynomial f(z) = z2 + z is analytic for all z
and f(z) = x2 − y2 + x + i(2xy + y). Thus u = x2 −
y2 + x, v = 2xy + y. We can see that

u v
 2x  1 
x y
u v
 2 y  
y x

Ch17_27
Example 2
Show that f(z) = (2x2 + y) + i(y2 – x) is not analytic at
any point.
Solution
u v
 4 x and  2y
x y
u v
 1 and  1
y x

We see that u/y = −v/x but u/x = v/y is

satisfied only on the line y = 2x. However, for any z on
this line, there is no neighborhood or open disk about
z in which f is differentiable. We conclude that f is
nowhere analytic.
Ch17_28
THEOREM 2.3

Criterion for Analyticity

Suppose the real-valued function u(x, y) and v(x, y) are
continuous and have continuous first-order partial
derivatives in a domain D. If u and v satisfy the
Cauchy-Riemann equations at all points of D, then the
complex function f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is analytic in D.

Ch17_29
 Example 3
x y
For the equation f ( z )  2 i 2 , we have
x y 2
x y 2

u y 2  x2 v
 2 
x ( x  y ) 2 2
y
u 2 xy v
 2 
y (x  y ) 2 2
x
That is, the Cauchy-Riemann equations are
satisfied except at the point x2 + y2 = 0, that is z =
0. We conclude that f is analytic in any domain
not containing the point z = 0.
Ch17_30
• From (5) and (7), we have
u v v u
f ( z )   i   i (8)
x x y y
This is a formula to compute f ’(z) if f(z) is
differentiable at the point z.

Ch17_31
DEFINITION 2.8

Harmonic Functions
A real-valued function (x, y) that has continuous
second-order partial derivatives in a domain D and
satisfies Laplace’s equation is said to be harmonic in D.

THEOREM 2.4

A Source of Harmonic Functions

Suppose f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is analytic in a domain D.
Then the functions u(x, y) and v(x, y) are harmonic
functions.
Ch17_32
 THEOREM 17.4
Proof we assume u and v have continuous second order derivative
u v u v
 ,   , then
x y y x
 2u  2 v  2u  2v
 and 
x 2
xy y 2
yx
 2u  2u
Thus  2 0
x y
2

Similarly we have
 2v  2v
 2 0
x y
2
Ch17_33
 Conjugate Harmonic Functions
• If u and v are harmonic in D, and u(x,y)+iv(x,y)
is an analytic function in D, then u and v are
called the conjugate harmonic function of
each other.

Ch17_34
 Example 4
(a) Verify u(x, y) = x3 – 3xy2 – 5y is harmonic in
the entire complex plane.
(b) Find the conjugate harmonic function of u.
Solution
u  2
u u  2
u
(a)  3x  3 y , 2  6 x,  6 xy  5, 2  6 x
2 2
x x y y
 2u  2u
 2  6x  6x  0
x y
2

Ch17_35
 Example 4 (2)
v u v u
(b)   3x  3 y and
2 2
  6xy  5
y x x y
Integrating the first one, v( x, y )  3 x 2 y  y 3  h( x)
v
and  6 xy  h' ( x), h' ( x)  5, h( x)  5 x  C
x
Thus v( x,y)  3x 2 y  y 3  5 x  C

Ch17_36
 2.6 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
• Exponential Functions
Recall that the function f(x) = ex has the property
f ( x)  f ( x) and f ( x1  x2 )  f ( x1 ) f ( x2 )
(1)
and the Euler’s formula is
eiy  cos y  i sin y, y : a real number
(2)

Thus e xiy  e x (cos y  i sin y )

Ch17_37
 Example 1
Evaluate e1.7+4.2i.
Solution
1.7  4.2i
e  e (cos 4.2  i sin 4.2)
1.7

 2.6873  4.7710i

Ch17_38
• Also we have
z
de
e z
dz
z1
z1  z2 e z1  z2
e e e
z1 z2
, z2  e
e

Ch17_39
 Periodicity

z i 2 z i 2
e e e
 e (cos 2  i sin 2 )  e
z z

Ch17_40
Polar From of a Complex number

i
z  r (cos   i sin  )  re

Ch17_41
 Logarithm Function
• Given a complex number z = x + iy, z  0, we
define
w = ln z if z = ew (5)
Let w = u + iv, then We have
x  iy  eu iv  eu (cos v  i sin v)  eu cos v  ieu sin v
and also
x  e cos v, y  e sin v
u u

e2u  x 2  y 2  r 2 | z |2 , u  log e | z |
y
tan v  , v    2n ,   arg z, n  0,  1,  2,...
x
Ch17_42
 DEFINITION 2.10

Logarithm of a Complex Number

For z  0, and  = arg z,

ln z  log e | z | i (  2n ) , n  0,  1,  2,  (6)

Ch17_43
 Example 2
Find the values of (a) ln (−2) (b) ln i, (c) ln (−1 – i ).
Solution
(a )   arg(2)   , loge | 2 | 0.6932
ln(2)  0.6932  i (  2n )

(b)   arg(i )  , loge 1  0
2

ln(i )  i (  2n )
2 5
(c)   arg(1  i )  , loge | 1  i | loge 2  0.3466
4
5
ln(1  i )  0.3466  i (  2n )
4 Ch17_44
 Example 3
Find all values of z such that e z  3  i.
Solution

z  ln( 3  i ),| 3  i | 2, arg( 3  i ) 
6

z  ln( 3  i )  loge 2  i (  2n )
6

 0.6931  i (  2n )
6

Ch17_45
 Principal Value
• Ln z  log e | z | iArg z (7)

Since Arg z  ( ,  ] is unique, there is only one

value of Ln z for which z  0.

Ch17_46
 Example 4
• The principal values of example 2 are as follows.
(a) Arg(2)  
Ln (2)  0.6932  i
 
(b) Arg(i )  , Ln (i )  i
2 2
5
(c) Arg(1  i )  is not the principal value.
4
3
Let n  1, then Ln (1  i )  0.3466  i
4

Ch17_47
 Example 4 (2)
• Each function in the collection of ln z is called
a branch. The function Ln z is called the
principal branch or the principal logarithm
function.
• Some familiar properties of logarithmic
function hold in complex case:
ln( z1z2 )  ln z1  ln z2
z1
ln( )  ln z1  ln z2 (8)
z2
Ch17_48
 Example 5
Suppose z1 = 1 and z2 = −1. If we take ln z1 = 2i,
ln z2 = i, we get

ln( z1z2 )  ln(1)  ln z1  ln z2  3i

z1
ln( )  ln(1)  ln z1  ln z2  i
z2

Ch17_49
 Analyticity
• The function Ln z is not analytic at z = 0, since
Ln 0 is not defined. Moreover, Ln z is
discontinuous at all points of the negative real
axis. Since Ln z is the principal branch of ln z,
the nonpositive real axis is referred to as a
branch cut. See Fig 2.19.

Ch17_50
Fig 2.19

Ch17_51
• It is left as exercises to show
d 1
Ln z  (9)
dz z

for all z in D (the complex plane except those

on the non-positive real axis).

Ch17_52
 Complex Powers
• In real variables, we have x  e ln x .
If  is a complex number, z = x + iy, we have

  ln z
z e , z0 (10)

Ch17_53
 Example 6
Find the value of i2i.
Solution

With z  i, arg z   / 2,   2i, from (9),

2i[log e 1i ( / 2 2 n )]
i e2i
 e(14 n )
where n  0,  1,  2,...

Ch17_54
 2.7 Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions

• Trigonometric Functions
From Euler’s Formula, we have
ix ix
e e
ix
e eix
(1)
sin x  cos x 
2i 2

Ch17_55
DEFINITION 2.11

Trigonometric Sine and Cosine

For any complex number z = x + iy,
eiz  eiz eiz  eiz
sin z  cos z  (2)
2i 2
• Four additional trigonometric functions:
sin z 1
tan z  , cot z  , (3)
cos z tan z
1 1
sec z  , csc z 
cos z sin z Ch17_56
 Analyticity
• Since eiz and e-iz are entire functions, then sin z
and cos z are entire functions. Besides, sin z =
0 only for the real numbers z = n and cos z =
0 only for the real numbers z = (2n+1)/2.
Thus tan z and sec z are analytic except z =
(2n+1)/2, and cot z and
csc z are analytic except z = n.

Ch17_57
 Derivatives
d d eiz  eiz eiz  eiz
• sin z    cos z
dz dz 2i 2

Similarly
d we have d
sin z  cos z cos z   sin z
dz dz
d d
tan z  sec2 z cot z   csc2 z
dz dz
d d
sec z  sec z tan z csc z   csc z cot z (4)
dz dz

Ch17_58
 Identities
sin( z )   sin z cos( z )  cos z
cos 2 z  sin 2 z  1
sin( z1  z2 )  sin z1 cos z2  cos z1 sin z2
cos( z1  z2 )  cos z1 cos z2  sin z1 sin z2
sin 2 z  2 sin z cos z cos 2 z  cos z  sin z
2 2

Ch17_59
 Zeros
• If y is real, we have
e y  e y e y  e y
sinh y  and cosh y  (5)
2 2

• From Definition 2.17 and Euler’s formula

i ( x iy ) i ( x iy )
e e
sin z 
2i
y y
e e
y
e e
y
 sin x( )  i cos x( )
2 2
Ch17_60
Thus we have
sin z  sin x cosh y  i cos x sinh y (6)
and
cos z  cos x cosh y  i sin x sinh y (7)
From (6) and (7) and cosh2y = 1 + sinh2y
(8)
| sin z |  sin x  sinh y
2 2 2

(9)
| cos z |2  cos2 x  sinh 2 y
Ch17_61
 Example 1
• From (6) we have
sin(2  i )  sin 2 cosh1  i cos 2 sinh1
 1.4301  0.4891i

Ch17_62
 Example 2
Solve cos z = 10. iz
e e
iz
Solution cos z   10
2
e2iz  20eiz  1  0, eiz  10  3 11
iz  loge (10  3 11)  2ni
Since loge (10  3 11)   loge (10  3 11)

we have z  2n  i log e (10  3 11)

Ch17_63
 DEFINITION 2.12

Hyperbolic Sine and Cosine

For any complex number z = x + iy,
e z  e z e z  e z
sinh z  cosh z  (10)
2 2
• Additional functions are defined as
sinh z 1
tanh z  coth z 
cosh z tanh z (11)
1 1
sec h z  csc h z 
cosh z sinh z
Ch17_64
• Similarly we have
d
sinh z  cosh z and d cosh z  sinh z
dz dz (12)
sin z  i sinh(iz ) , cos z  cosh(iz )
(13)
sinh z  i sin(iz ) , cosh z  cos(iz )

(14)

Ch17_65
 Zeros
•
sinh z  i sin iz  i sin( y  ix)
 i[sin( y ) cosh x  i cos( y ) sinh x]
Since sin(−y) = − sin y, cos(−y) = cos y, then
(15)
sinh z  sinh x cos y  i cosh x sin y
cosh z  cosh x cos y  i sinh x sin y (16)
It also follows from (14) that the zeros of sinh z and
cosh z are respectively,

z = ni and z = (2n+1)i/2, n = 0, 1, 2, ….

Ch17_66
 Periodicity
• From (6),
sin( z  2i )
 sin( x  iy  2 )
 sin( x  2 ) cosh y  i cos( x  2 ) sinh y
 sin x cosh y  i cos x sinh y  sin z

The period is then 2.

Ch17_67
 2.8 Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions

• Inverse Sine
We define
z  sin w if w  sin 1 z (1)
From (1),
eiw  e iw
 z, e  2ize  1  0
2 iw iw

2i
eiw  iz  (1  z 2 )1/2 (2)

Ch17_68
• Solving (2) for w then gives
sin 1 z  i ln[iz  (1  z 2 )1/ 2 ]
(3)
Similarly we can get
cos 1 z  i ln[ z  i (1  z 2 )1/ 2 ]
(4)
1i iz
tan z  ln
2 iz
(5)
Ch17_69
 Example 1
Find all values of sin 1 5.
Solution
From (3),
sin 1 5  i ln[ 5i  (1  ( 5) 2 )1/ 2 ]
(1  ( 5) )
2 1/ 2
 (4)
1/ 2
 2i
sin 1 5  i ln[( 5  2)i ]

 i[loge ( 5  2)  (  2n )i ],
2
n  0,  1,  2,...
Ch17_70
 Example 1 (2)
Noting that
1
loge ( 5  2)  loge   loge ( 5  2).
52
Thus for n  0,  1,  2,...

1 
sin 5  2n  i loge ( 5  2)
2
(6)

Ch17_71
 Derivatives
• If we define w = sin-1z, z = sin w, then
d d dw 1
z sin w gives 
dz dz dz cos w
Using cos 2 w  sin 2 w  1, cos w  (1  sin 2 w)1/ 2
 (1  z 2 )1/ 2 , thus
d 1 1
sin z 
dz (1  z 2 )1/ 2 (7)
d 1 1
cos z  (8)
dz (1  z 2 )1/ 2
d 1 1
tan z  (9)
dz 1  z2 Ch17_72
 Example 2
Find the derivative of w = sin-1 z at z = 5.
Solution
(1  ( 5) 2 )1/ 2  (4)1/ 2  2i
dw 1 1 1
z 5    i
dz (1  ( 5) )
2 1/ 2
2i 2

Ch17_73
 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
• Similarly we have
sinh 1 z  ln[ z  ( z 2  1)1/ 2 ]
cosh 1 z  ln[ z  ( z 2  1)1/ 2 ] (10)
1 1 z (11)
1
tanh z  ln
2 1 z
(12)
d 1
sinh 1 z  2
dz ( z  1)1/ 2

(13)
Ch17_74
d 1
cosh z  2
1
dz ( z  1)1/ 2
(14)
d 1 1
tanh z 
dz 1  z2 (15)

Ch17_75
 Example 3
Find all values of cosh-1(−1).
Solution
From (11),
cosh 1 (1)  ln(1)  loge 1  (  2n )i
 (  2n )i  (2n  1)i
n  0,  1,  2,...

Ch17_76