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Working Group
B3.26
December 2011
Guidelines for the Design and Construction
of AC Offshore Substations
for Wind Power Plants
Working Group
B3.26
Copyright © 2011
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use for personal purposes. Are prohibited, except if explicitly agreed by CIGRE, total or partial
reproduction of the publication for use other than personal and transfer to a third party; hence circulation
on any intranet or other company network is forbidden”.
Disclaimer notice
“CIGRE gives no warranty or assurance about the contents of this publication, nor does it accept any
responsibility, as to the accuracy or exhaustiveness of the information. All implied warranties and
conditions are excluded to the maximum extent permitted by law”.
Table of Contents
Page
Glossary of Abbreviations and Special Terms 13
Executive Summary 19
0. Introduction 22
0.1 AC Offshore Substation 23
0.2 Reading these Guidelines 23
0.3 Future Development Trends 24
0.3.1 Alternative Transmission Configurations 24
0.3.2 The Wider Long Term Picture: Offshore Grid 26
0.3.3 Relevance of this Brochure to Future Offshore Wind Power Plants 27
1. Fundamental Considerations 28
1.1 Risk Management and Assessment Process 28
1.1.1 Risk Considerations which Affect the Single Line Diagram 32
1.1.2 Risk Considerations Affecting the Offshore Substation Physical 34
Design
1.1.2.1 Basic Design Concept 34
1.1.2.1.1 Personnel Aspects 34
1.1.2.1.2 Assets 35
1.1.2.2 Operational Aspects 35
1.1.2.3 Commercial Aspects 35
1.2 Maintenance 36
1.2.1 Accessibility within the Substation of Equipment Needing Repair 36
1.2.2 Equipment Tagging 36
1.2.3 Diagnostics and Communication to Allow Focused Maintenance 36
1.2.4 FMECA and RCM in Maintenance Planning 37
1.2.5 Minimising the Need for Routine Maintenance 37
1.2.6 Over Designing to Reduce Unplanned Maintenance 37
1.2.7 Availability of Suitable Transport for Staff, Equipment and Spare 37
Parts
1.2.8 Availability of Maintenance Specialists with Offshore Training 37
1.3 Verification and Certification 37
1.3.1 Engineering Design Studies and Design Basis 38
1.3.2 Structures, Foundation and System Fabrication and Components 38
1.3.3 Transportation and Installation Phase 39
1.3.4 Commissioning Onshore and (Hook Up and Commissioning) 39
Offshore
1.3.5 Operation and Maintenance Phase 39
1
2. System Considerations 40
2.1 Reliability, Availability and Maintenance (RAM) 40
2.1.1 Availability and Reliability 40
2.1.2 Redundancy 41
2.1.2.1 Inter‐array Cable Considerations 43
2.1.2.2 Export Cable Considerations 45
2.1.2.3 Interconnecting Wind Power Plants 45
2.1.3 Maintenance 46
2.2 Overloading Capability 46
2.2.1 Overloading in Normal Operation 46
2.2.2 Overloading in Case Of Failure 47
2.3 Substations Size and Number Required 47
2.4 Grid Code Compliance 49
2.4.1 Point of Common Coupling 49
2.4.2 Grid Code Requirements 50
2.5 Reactive Compensation and Voltage Control 52
2.5.1 Reactive Power Balance 53
2.5.2 Wind Turbine Contribution 54
2.5.3 Dynamic Voltage Response 56
2.5.3.1 Use of On Load Tap‐Changers (OLTC) 56
2.5.3.2 Use of Wind Turbine Reactive Capabilities 56
2.5.4 Fault Ride Through 59
2.5.5 Transformer Tap‐Changers 60
2.5.6 Flexible AC Transmission Systems 61
2.5.6.1 MSC and MSCDN 62
2.5.7 Harmonic Performance and Filters 69
2.5.8 Background Harmonics and Active Filters 71
2.6 Fault Level 72
2.6.1 What is the Limiting Factor on Fault Level? 72
2.6.2 Three Phase and Single Phase Levels 72
2.6.3 Make and Break Fault Levels 73
2.6.4 Infeed from Grid System 73
2.6.5 Infeed from Wind Turbines 74
2.6.6 Transformer Impedance choice (including Interaction with 75
Reactive Design)
2.6.7 Consideration of Two or Three Winding Transformers 75
2.6.8 Effect of Cable Impedance and Stored Charge 76
2.6.9 Effect of External Faults 77
2.6.10 Operating Scenarios 77
2.7 General Substation Configuration 78
2.7.1 Choice of HV and MV Voltages 79
2.7.1.1 Medium Voltage Level 79
2.7.1.2 High Voltage Level 80
2.7.2 MV Busbar Layouts 82
2.7.3 HV Busbar Layouts 83
2.7.4 Power Transformer Connections 87
2.7.4.1 High Voltage Connections 87
2
2.7.4.2 Medium Voltage Connections 88
2.7.4.3 Internal Connections 88
2.7.5 Compensation or Filters Required on the Offshore Platform 88
2.8 Neutral Earthing 89
2.8.1 Alternatives for Neutral Point Earthing in the Collection Network 90
(e.g. 36 kV)
2.8.2 Transmission Network (e.g. 145 kV) 92
2.8.3 Trapped Charges and Location of Circuit Breakers 92
2.9 Insulation Co‐ordination 94
2.9.1 Continuous Operating Voltage 94
2.9.2 Very Fast Front Transients 94
2.9.3 Fast Front Overvoltages 95
2.9.4 Slow Front Overvoltages 95
2.9.5 Temporary Overvoltages 100
2.9.6 Mitigation Strategies 101
2.9.7 Conclusions and Further Work 103
2.10 Flicker and Voltage fluctuations 103
2.10.1 Flicker 103
2.10.2 Levels of Flicker 104
2.10.3 Sources of Flicker 104
2.10.4 Mitigation of Flicker 105
2.10.5 Voltage Fluctuations 105
2.11 System Studies Required 106
2.11.1 Load Flow Study 106
2.11.2 Short Circuit Study 106
2.11.3 Harmonics Study 107
2.11.4 Insulation Coordination Study 107
2.11.5 Electromagnetic Transient Studies 107
2.11.6 HV Export Network Transient Studies 107
2.11.7 Flicker and Voltage Fluctuation Study 108
2.11.8 Dynamic Stability Study 108
2.11.9 Safety Earthing Study 109
2.11.10 Neutral Grounding Study 109
2.11.11 Protection Coordination Study 109
2.11.12 Electromagnetic Field (EMF) Study 109
3
3.2.1.3 Lightning Impulse Withstand Level (LIWL) and Surge Arrester 111
Ratings
3.2.1.4 Configuration 111
3.2.1.5 Types of Circuit to be Switched 112
3.2.2 Aspects of Specification which come from Generic Operation and 113
Maintenance Considerations
3.2.2.1 Operational Considerations 113
3.2.2.2 Maintenance Considerations 113
3.2.2.3 Condition Monitoring 114
3.2.2.4 Remote Monitoring 114
3.2.2.5 Spares 114
3.2.2.6 End of Life Replacement 114
3.2.3 Aspects of Specification which are Plant Specific 114
3.2.3.1 Environment 114
3.2.3.2 Vibration and Transport Forces 116
3.2.3.3 Special Technical Considerations 117
3.2.3.3.1 Circuit‐breakers 117
3.2.3.3.2 Interlocking 118
3.2.3.3.3 Accommodation for Cable Terminations 119
3.2.3.3.4 Specification – Other Factors 119
3.2.3.4 Physical and Interface Considerations 120
3.2.4 Specific Requirements for Rooms or Enclosures 121
3.3 Main Transformers and Reactors 124
3.3.1 Aspects of Specification which come from System Studies 125
3.3.1.1 Voltage Ratio 125
3.3.1.2 MVA Rating 125
3.3.1.3 Impedance 125
3.3.1.4 Tap Change Range and Tap Steps 126
3.3.1.5 LIWL Levels 126
3.3.1.6 Two or Three Windings 126
3.3.1.7 Neutral Earthing 127
3.3.2 Aspects of Specification which come from Generic Operation and 127
Maintenance Considerations
3.3.2.1 Maintenance Strategies 127
3.3.2.2 Oil Management 128
3.3.2.3 SF6 Management 130
3.3.2.4 Condition Monitoring (CM) 131
3.3.2.5 Tapchanger 132
3.3.2.6 Bushings 132
3.3.2.7 Cooling 133
3.3.3 Repair and Replacement 134
3.3.3.1 Major Replacement Strategy 134
3.3.3.2 Spares 135
3.3.4 Aspects of Specification which are Plant Specific 135
3.3.4.1 Environment 135
3.3.4.1.1 Paint Finish, Main Tank/Radiators 135
3.3.4.1.2 Deterioration of Plastic Material by Ultra Violet Ray 136
4
3.3.4.1.3 Ambient Temperature Offshore 136
3.3.4.2 Vibration and Transport Forces 136
3.3.4.2.1 Forces Related to Land Transportation 137
3.3.4.2.2 Forces Related to Transport of Transformer Fully 137
Assembled on The Platform to the Offshore Destination
3.3.4.2.3 Vibrations from Earthquakes, Wind Gusts and Waves 139
3.3.4.2.4 Vibrations from Transformer 140
3.3.4.3 Special Technical Considerations 141
3.3.4.3.1 Early Requirement for Substation Design Information 141
3.3.4.3.2 Need for Minimizing the Total Cost 141
3.3.4.3.3 Insulation Systems in Power Transformers 143
3.3.4.3.4 Alternative Solid Insulation (Aramid) for Higher 151
Overload Capability and Extending the Life of Insulation
System
3.3.4.3.5 Method of Cooling 152
3.3.4.3.6 Air cooled Radiators Tank Mounted or Separate 153
3.3.4.3.7 How to Remove a Single Radiator Element 155
3.3.4.4 Physical and Interface Considerations 155
3.3.5 Specific Requirements for Rooms or Enclosures 156
3.4 Earthing/Auxiliary Transformers 158
3.4.1 Aspects of Specification which come from System Studies 158
3.4.1.1 Connected to Transformer or Busbar 158
3.4.1.2 Required to Provide Auxiliary Power for Platform only or 159
also for Turbine Strings
3.4.1.3 MVA Rating 159
3.4.1.4 Off Load or Off Circuit Tap Range 159
3.4.1.5 Impedance 159
3.4.1.6 Number Required 160
3.4.2 Aspects of Specification which come from Generic Operation and 160
Maintenance Considerations
3.4.2.1 Oil Management 160
3.4.3 Repair and Replacement 160
3.4.3.1 Major Replacement strategy 160
3.4.3.2 Spares 160
3.4.4 Aspects of Specification which are Plant Specific 161
3.4.4.1 Special Technical Considerations 161
3.4.4.1.1 Insulation System 161
3.4.4.1.2 Oil Conservator Type or Sealed Type 161
3.4.4.1.3 Avoiding Excessive LV voltages during HV Earth 162
Faults with Earthing/Auxiliary Transformers
3.4.4.2 Physical and Interface Considerations 163
3.4.5 Specific Requirements for Rooms or Enclosures 164
3.5 HV Switchgear 165
3.5.1 Aspects of Specification which come from System Studies 165
3.5.1.1 Voltage and Current Ratings 165
3.5.1.2 Fault Level Ratings 165
3.5.1.3 LIWL Level 165
5
3.5.1.4 Surge Arrester Ratings and Location 165
3.5.1.5 Configuration 166
3.5.1.6 Requirement for Point on Wave Switching 166
3.5.2 Aspects of Specification which come from Generic Operation and 166
Maintenance Considerations
3.5.2.1 SF6 Management 167
3.5.2.2 Condition Monitoring 167
3.5.2.3 Operating Mechanism 167
3.5.3 Repair and Replacement 168
3.5.3.1 Major Replacement Strategy 168
3.5.3.2 Spares 168
3.5.4 Aspects of Specification which are Plant Specific 169
3.5.4.1 Environment 169
3.5.4.2 Vibration and Transport Forces 169
3.5.4.3 Special Technical Considerations 170
3.5.4.3.1 Selection of Type of Equipment 170
3.5.4.3.2 Design of Voltage Transformers 171
3.5.4.3.3 Location of Current Transformers 171
3.5.4.4 Physical and Interface Considerations 171
3.5.5 Specific Requirements for Rooms or Enclosures 173
3.6 Export and Inter Array Cables 175
3.6.1 Aspects of Specification which come from System Studies 175
3.6.2 Aspects of Specification which come from Generic Operation and 175
Maintenance Considerations
3.6.2.1 Maintenance 179
3.6.2.2 Spares 179
3.6.2.3 Replacement Strategy 180
3.6.3 Aspects of Specification which are Plant Specific 180
3.6.3.1 Physical and Interface Considerations 181
3.6.4 Specific Requirements for Rooms or Enclosures 183
3.7 Site Tests and Commissioning 184
3.7.1 Overall Strategy 184
3.7.2 Pre‐energisation Onshore Commissioning 185
3.7.2.1 On Site High Voltage Tests 187
3.7.3 Pre‐energisation Offshore Commissioning 187
3.7.3.1 High Voltage Tests for Power Cables 189
3.7.4 Post Energisation Commissioning 190
3.7.4.1 Energisation of Sub‐Circuits 190
3.7.4.2 Post Energisation 191
3.7.4.3 Transformers 191
3.7.4.4 Switchgear 191
3.7.4.5 Export Cables 192
3.7.4.6 Control & Cable Marshalling Panels 192
3.7.4.7 Diesel Generator 192
3.7.4.8 Monitoring for Power Grid Connection Compliance 192
Commissioning
6
4. Physical Considerations 194
4.1 General 194
4.1.1 About Design Considerations 194
4.1.2 History and Development of Offshore Platforms 196
4.2 Overall Health and Safety Aspects 197
4.2.1 Vessel Access‐Normal Activity Boat Access 198
4.2.2 Emergency Evacuation‐by Sea and/or by Air 198
4.2.3 Emergency Evacuation of Injured Persons/Stretcher Cases 199
4.2.4 General Safety Equipment 199
4.3 Fundamental Design Parameters 199
4.3.1 Functional Requirements 200
4.3.2 Environmental Conditions 201
4.3.3 Risk, Safety and Rules 202
4.3.4 Economics 203
4.3.5 Lifetime Operational Cost 203
4.4 Additional Design Inputs 203
4.4.1 Electrical Equipment 203
4.4.2 Topside Layout 203
4.4.2.1 General 204
4.4.2.2 HV Transformers 204
4.4.2.3 HV Switchgear and MV Switchgear 205
4.4.2.4 Tariff/Settlement Metering 205
4.4.2.5 Protection, Control (SCADA) and Telecommunication Panels 205
4.4.2.6 Auxiliary Generators 206
4.4.2.7 Accommodation and Emergency Shelter Rooms 206
4.4.2.8 LV Supplies 206
4.4.2.9 Workshop and Storage Rooms 207
4.4.2.10 Standby Supplies and Battery Rooms 207
4.4.2.11 Platform Cranes 207
4.4.2.12 Fire System 207
4.4.2.13 Helicopter Access 208
4.4.2.14 Security 208
4.4.3 Topside Lift 208
4.4.4 Ownership Boundaries and Separation 210
4.4.5 Reactive Compensation Plant 210
4.4.6 Future Expansion and Expandability 210
4.4.7 Spare Philosophy and Redundancy 210
4.4.8 Cable Deck 211
4.4.9 Routes for Walkways, Minimum Walkway Sizes 211
4.4.10 Fabrication Site 212
4.5 Development of Design 212
4.5.1 Design codes 213
4.5.2 Structural integrity 217
4.5.2.1 Truss vs. Stressed skin 219
4.5.3 General Arrangement 221
4.5.4 Material Handling 223
4.5.4.1 Construction Phase 223
7
4.5.4.2 Operating and Maintenance Phase 224
4.5.4.3 Material Handling Assessment 224
4.5.4.4 Manual Handling 225
4.5.4.5 Material Handling Aids 225
4.5.4.6 Pedestal Crane 226
4.5.4.7 Portable Devices 228
4.5.4.8 Decommissioning 228
4.5.4.9 Storage Areas 229
4.5.4.9.1 Typical Equipment Stored Onshore 229
4.5.4.9.2 Typical Items Store Offshore 229
4.5.4.9.3 Hazardous Substances 231
4.5.4.9.4 Extended Storage 232
4.5.5 Primary Access and Egress Systems 232
4.5.5.1 Helicopter Deck 232
4.5.5.2 Boat Landing 234
4.5.5.3 Ladder Access/Egress Systems 235
4.5.6 Emergency Response 235
4.5.7 Platform Auxiliary Systems 237
4.5.7.1 Diesel Generators 238
4.5.7.2 Inert Gas System, SF6 Gas Detection 239
4.5.7.3 Electrical Design i.e. Lighting and Small Power 240
4.5.7.4 Lightning Protection for the Platform 240
4.5.7.5 Earthing and Bonding 240
4.5.7.6 Ventilation and HVAC 240
4.5.7.7 Water Handling, Sea and Fresh Water 241
4.5.7.8 Drainage for Grey and Black Water 242
4.5.7.9 Auxiliary System Control and Monitoring 242
4.5.7.10 Public Address, Navigation and Aviation Aids, SCADA, UPS, 242
Fire Detection & Alarm
4.5.7.11 Oil System and Containment‐Separator Tank 242
4.5.8 Corrosion Protection System 243
4.5.8.1 General 243
4.5.8.2 Topside 243
4.5.8.3 Substructure 243
4.5.8.4 Export Cables 244
4.5.9 Operation 244
4.5.9.1 Operational Modes 244
4.5.9.2 Operations with Personnel Offshore 245
4.5.9.3 Emergency Accommodation 245
4.5.9.4 Permanent Accommodation 245
4.5.9.5 The Separate Accommodation Module or Platform 246
4.5.9.6 Workshops 246
4.5.10 Commissioning of Plant Onshore 246
4.5.10.1 Platform Installation 247
4.5.10.1.1 Immediately after Installation 247
4.5.10.1.2 Initial Works 247
4.5.10.1.3 Removal of Transportation Aspects 248
8
4.5.10.1.4 Pre‐Commissioning 249
4.5.10.1.5 Telecommunications and Fibre Optics 249
4.5.10.1.6 Helideck 250
4.5.10.2 Energisation 250
4.6 Platform Concepts 251
4.6.1 Container Deck 251
4.6.1.1 General Description 251
4.6.1.2 Topside Fabrication 251
4.6.1.3 Interfaces 252
4.6.2 Semi Enclosed Topside 252
4.6.2.1 General Description 252
4.6.2.2 Topside Structure Fabrication 252
4.6.3 Fully Enclosed Topside 252
4.6.3.1 General Description 252
4.6.3.2 Topside Fabrication 253
4.7 Substructure 253
4.7.1 General 253
4.7.2 Monopile 255
4.7.3 Jacket 257
4.7.4 Gravity Based Foundation 259
4.7.5 Gravity Based Caisson Foundation 261
4.7.6 Self Elevating 262
4.8 Load out, Transportation and Installation 265
4.8.1 General 265
4.8.1.1 Overview of Available Lifting Vessels 265
4.8.1.2 Load Out 266
4.8.1.3 Sea Transportation 267
4.8.2 Hook Lift 268
4.8.3 Self Installing 269
4.8.4 Float Over 271
4.8.5 Installation Hook Up 272
4.8.5.1 Hook Up‐Traditional Jacket and Topside 272
4.8.6 Removal/Replacement of Large Plant Items 272
4.9 Fire and Explosion Design 273
4.9.1 Introduction 273
4.9.2 Fire and Explosion Hazards 273
4.9.3 Design Process 274
4.9.4 Fire and Smoke Detection 275
4.9.5 Active Fire Protection 276
4.9.6 Passive Fire Protection 277
4.9.7 Explosion Protection 278
9
5.1.2.2 Essential Loads 280
5.1.2.3 Non Essential Loads 283
5.1.3 LVAC System Operation 283
5.1.3.1 Normal LVAC Operation 283
5.1.3.2 Source of Auxiliary Supply 284
5.1.3.3 Separation of “Essential” and “Non Essential” Loads 284
5.1.3.4 Abnormal LVAC System Operation 284
5.1.4 Construction and Installation 285
5.1.4.1 LVAC Board Construction 285
5.1.4.2 LVAC Cable Systems and Routing 286
5.1.4.3 Protection, Control and Automation for the LVAC System 286
5.1.5 Black Start Capability 287
5.2 DC Supplies 291
5.2.1 LVDC Supplies 291
5.2.2 LVDC System Loads 291
5.2.2.1 LVDC Essential Maintained Loads 292
5.2.2.2 LVDC Operational Loads 293
5.2.3 LVDC System Operation 294
5.2.3.1 Normal LVDC Operation 294
5.2.3.2 Source of Auxiliary Supply for Battery Charging 294
5.2.3.3 Separation of “Essential” and “Non Essential” Loads 294
5.2.3.4 Abnormal LVDC System Operation 294
5.2.4 Construction and Installation 295
5.2.4.1 LVDC Board Construction 295
5.2.4.2 LVDC Cable Systems and Routing 296
5.2.4.3 Protection, Control and Automation for the LVDC System 296
5.2.5 The DC Supplies One Line Diagram 296
5.3 Protection 298
5.3.1 Statement of Requirements 298
5.3.2 Plant Protection 298
5.3.3 System Protection 298
5.3.4 Operation with Degraded Communications 299
5.3.5 Particular Technical and Protection Application Issues for 299
Offshore Connections
5.3.5.1 General Requirements for Protection 299
5.3.5.2 Protection Technology 299
5.3.5.3 Protection Discrimination 300
5.3.5.4 Protection Testing 300
5.3.5.5 Test and Isolation Facilities 300
5.3.5.6 Grouping and Accommodation of Protection 301
5.3.5.7 Environmental Requirements 301
5.3.6 Wind Power Plant Networks 301
5.3.6.1 Main Protections 302
5.3.6.2 Back Up Protection 302
5.3.7 Unusual Settings Considerations 303
5.3.7.1 Normal Direction of Power Flow 303
5.3.7.2 Performance Similar to a Generator 303
10
5.3.7.3 Increased Potential for Low Fault Currents 303
5.3.7.4 Turbine Reactive Power Capabilities/Reactive Power 303
Compensation
5.3.7.5 Fault Clearance Time Required at the PCC 303
5.3.7.6 Turbine Transformer Protection 304
5.3.8 Collection Array Protection 304
5.3.9 36 kV Busbar Protection 306
5.3.10 Platform Transformer Protection 308
5.3.11 Export Cable Protection 308
5.3.12 Breaker Fail Protection 309
5.3.13 Tripping Philosophy 309
5.3.14 Interface with Operational Intertrip Schemes 309
5.4 Control and Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) System 310
Requirements
5.4.1 Introduction 310
5.4.2 Structure of the SCADA Systems 311
5.4.3 Functionality of Each System 319
5.4.3.1 Wind Turbine SCADA 319
5.4.3.2 Collection System Scada 319
5.4.3.3 Offshore Transmission System Operator SCADA 319
5.4.4 Interoperability of the Systems 321
5.4.5 High Speed Signalling 321
5.4.6 Operation with Degraded Communications 321
5.5 CCTV and Security Systems 322
5.5.1 Statement of Requirements 322
5.5.2 Alarm System 322
5.5.3 CCTV System 322
5.5.3.1 Personnel Surveillance 322
5.5.3.2 Security Surveillance 323
5.5.3.3 Plant Surveillance 323
5.6 Navigation Aids 323
5.6.1 Statement of Requirements 323
5.6.2 Navigation Aid Power Supplies 323
5.6.3 Lamps 324
5.6.4 Foghorn 324
5.7 Communications 324
5.7.1 Statement of Requirements 324
5.7.2 Communication Routes and Usage 325
5.7.2.1 Routes 325
5.7.2.2 Voice Communication 325
5.7.2.3 Data Communications 326
5.7.2.4 High Speed Communications 326
5.7.3 Interfaces 326
5.7.4 Communications Technology 327
5.7.4.1 SDH Communications using Optical Fibre Links 327
5.7.4.2 SDH Communications using Leased Satellite Links 327
5.7.4.3 SDH Communications using Point to Point Microwave Links 328
11
5.7.4.4 Radio Systems for Voice Communications 328
5.7.4.5 Back Up Satellite Phone or Mobile Phone Systems for Voice 328
Communications
5.7.5 Communications System Monitoring and Maintenance 329
5.8 Equipment Accommodation and Environmental Management 334
5.8.1 Statement of Requirements 334
5.8.2 Constructional Requirements and Equipment Accommodation 334
5.9 Maintenance Management 335
5.10 Metering 335
References 341
Appendix 1 Example of the Use of Weibull Distribution 344
Appendix 2 Failure Modes, Effects and Criticality Analysis (FMECA) 350
Appendix 3 Power Transmission with Long AC Submarine Cables 354
Appendix 4 Codes and Standards per Discipline 364
12
Glossary of Abbreviations and Special Terms
This section comprises of two tables. The first shows abbreviations which have been used
throughout this brochure and the second shows words and phrases which may have
special meaning within this brochure.
13
FRT Fault Ride Through
FTA Fault Tree Analysis
GCB Gas Circuit Breaker
GIB Gas Insulated Busbar (busduct)
GIS Gas Insulated Switchgear
GIT Gas Insulated Transformer
GPS Global Positioning System
GSC Grid Side Converter
GTO Gate Turn Off (thyristor)
H2 Hydrogen
HAZID Hazard Identification
HAZOP Hazard and Operability Study
HSE Health Safety and Environmental
HSOC High Set Overcurrent
HV High Voltage
HVAC Heat Ventilation and Air Conditioning
HVDC High Voltage Direct Current
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
IDMT Inverse Definite Minimum Time
IED Intelligent Electronic Device
IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
IGCT Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristors
IMO International Maritime Organization
IP Internet Protocol
ISO International Standardization Organization
LAN Local Area Network
LCC Life Cycle Cost
LIWV Lightning Impulse Withstand Voltage
LV Low Voltage
LVAC Low Voltage Alternating Current
LVDC Low Voltage Direct Current
MCB Miniature Circuit Breaker
MCCB Moulded Case Circuit Breaker
MCS Metal Clad Switchgear
MSC Mechanically Switched Capacitor
OHVS Offshore High Voltage Substation
MSCDN Mechanically Switched Capacitor with Damping Network
MSR Mechanically Switched Reactor
MV Medium Voltage
NMI Normally Manned Installation
NUI Normally Unmanned Installation
O&M Operation And Maintenance
OFAF Oil Forced Air Forced
OFTO Offshore Transmission Operator
OLTC On Load Tap Changer
ONAF Oil Natural Air Forced
14
ONAN Oil Natural Air Natural
OPEX Operational Expenditure
OTSO Offshore Transmission System Operator
PCC Point of Common Coupling (grid connection)
PFP Passive Fire Protection
QRA Qualitative Risk Assessment
RCM Reliability Centred Maintenance
REF Restricted Earth Fault
RMIS Risk Management Information System
RMS Root Mean Square
RSC Rotor Side Converter
RTU Remote Terminal Unit
SCADA Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
SCIG Squirrel Cage Induction Generator
SDH Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
SF6 Sulphur hexafluoride
SIWL Switching Impulse Withstand Level
SIWV Switching Impulse Withstand Voltage
SLGF Single Line to Ground Fault
SO System operator
SOLAS Safety Of Life At Sea
STATCOM Static Compensator (usually VSC type)
SVC Static VAr Compensator
SWATH Small Waterplane Area Twin Hull
SWL Safe Working Limit
TCR Thyristor Controlled Reactor
TEMPSC Totally Enclosed Motor Propelled Survival Craft
TO Transmission Owner
TOV Temporary Overvoltage
TSC Thyristor Switched Capacitor
TSO Transmission System Operator
VCB Vacuum Circuit Breaker
VLAN Virtual Local Area Network
VLF Very Low Frequency
VSC Voltage Source Converter
VT Voltage Transformer
WTG Wind Turbine Generator
XLPE Cross‐Linked Polyethylene
15
Table of Special Terms as Used in this Brochure
Word or Phrase Definition
Accommodation area Space used for cabins, offices, lavatories, galley, etc. Service
spaces and control stations may be included within the
accommodation space
Active Fire Protection Fire fighting system starting action by means of signal from
surveillance i.e. heat, smoke detectors etc.
Corrosion Protection Preventive action to avoid corrosion on offshore installations.
Davit Crane A crane that reaches over the side of an installation used for
carrying cargo and/or personnel.
Developer/Owner/Operator The organization responsible for developing, owning or operating
a whole or part of a wind power plant. In some cases this may be
the same organization who does all three functions whilst in other
circumstances this could be three separate organizations.
Emergency response Action to safeguard the health and safety of persons on or near
the offshore installation. This usually includes all actions through
alarm, escape, muster, communications and control, evacuation
and rescue.
Escape routes Clearly identified routes for egress from a room or enclosed space
in the event of a dangerous incident.
Export cable A cable connecting the offshore substation to the system onshore
used to export the power from the wind power plant.
Fatigue Degradation of material caused by cyclic stress.
Float‐over Type of installation method of substation topsides.
Foundation The part of an offshore substation structure which secures the
substation to the sea bed.
Gravity Based Foundation A static stable foundation standing on sea bottom and ballasted
by heavy stone and rock and own weight
Grid Code A set of rules and regulations governing the operation,
maintenance and development of a transmission system
Hazardous Areas Areas on the offshore substation which may be subject to
hazardous conditions. These hazards may arise from fire risks
from hydrocarbon materials or from the storage of materials
which may harmful to health.
Heli‐deck or heli‐pad A deck specifically designed for the safe landing and taking off of
helicopters.
Heli‐hoist An area on the offshore platform which has been specifically
designed for the safe transfer of materials or, in emergency
conditions, personnel from a helicopter by means of a winch line.
Integrity Ability of the installation to remain safe and stable to safeguard
personnel and facilities on board. Integrity is generally taken to
mean structural soundness, strength and stability required to fulfil
these actions.
Inter array cable A cable used to collect the power from the individual wind turbine
generator step up transformers (usually 36 kV)
J‐tube A J‐shaped tube mounted inside or outside the substructure in
16
order to guide a cable between the seabed and cable deck on the
topsides. The purpose is to protect the cable from environmental
loads (wave, current, wind etc.)
Lay down area Special area designed for on/offloading of various goods, supply
and spare parts.
Material / Mechanical/ The process by which the landing and movement of materials or
Equip. handling equipment can be safely and effectively carried out on the
offshore substation.
Monopile A single large pile made from steel which is driven into the seabed
to support a structure.
Muster Point A place where everyone on the platform is ordered to go when
there is an emergency situation.
Normally Manned An installation which is normally manned continuously during its
Installation operation.
Normally Unmanned An installation which is normally not manned during its operation
Installation
Offshore Installation This usually refers to the complete wind power plant which is
located offshore, consisting of the wind turbine generators, the
offshore substation and the interconnecting cabling.
Offshore Substation An offshore substation is a substation designed for the purpose of
transforming the voltage from the collection voltage to a suitable
transmission voltage for efficiently exporting the power to the
onshore network.
Passive Fire Protection A coating, cladding, or free standing system like e.g. a rated fire
wall that provides thermal protection in the event of a fire and
that requires no manual, mechanical or other means of action.
Physical Consideration In this brochure physical considerations are those aspects of the
design and installation concerned with the layout, structure,
transport and installation of the offshore substation.
Platform This is the steel structure on which the offshore substation
equipment is mounted.
Platform Auxiliary Systems Systems not directly a part of the electrical MV/HV systems
(substation) but for the platform itself.
Platform Installation This is the process of installing the platform complete with the
substation equipment onto the foundation located in the sea bed.
Prevailing Wind Dominating wind direction with the highest probability of
occurrence.
Self Installing A self installing platform is one which may incorporate its own
foundation or be able to be installed onto a prepared foundation
by means of jacking the platform using jacking legs which are part
of the platform.
Semisubmersible vessel A ship which can ballast its own cargo area below sea level
Splash zone The part of the installation that is periodically exposed to sea
water by means of waves and tidal variations.
Stressed skin A stressed skin design is one in which the covering or skin also
17
provides an integral part of the structural strength.
Sub structure Structure that carries the topside, e.g. jacket or monopile
Topside Structure or building placed on a sub structure to provide housing
of the HV equipment included for an offshore substation.
Truss brace A truss usually consists of one or more triangular units
constructed with straight members which come together at
nodes. With a truss braced design the structural strength is totally
in the frame and the covering or skin is not required to provide
any structural strength.
Utility Area Areas for auxiliary power supply, power conversion, batteries, LV
switchboards, workshops, storage areas and general machinery.
18
Executive Summary
Present developments show a growing interest in renewable and clean energy sources.
Rising temperatures, rising sea level and increasing occurrence of extreme weather
conditions have led people to believe we need to change our ways.
European countries have committed themselves to decrease emissions and to invest in
renewable energy. By 2020, 20% of the energy in Europe has to be produced by renewable
sources and the goal is set for 20% reduction of greenhouse gases. Elsewhere in the world
similar goals are being pursued.
A popular renewable energy source is wind. Worldwide hundreds of gigawatts of wind
power have been installed successfully on land. Recently the wind energy industry has
moved offshore where the winds are stronger and more consistent and more space is
available. The North Sea is a particularly attractive area where water depth is limited and
wind energy is abundant, but also the Baltic Sea and shallow coastal areas near the US and
China are being considered.
These new offshore wind power plant developments have led to the need for offshore high
voltage substation platforms. Offshore substations have been previously constructed and
installed for the oil and gas industry but there are some major differences between the oil
and gas substations and those required for wind power plants both from the technical and
economic view points. The wind power plant substations involve much higher power levels,
of the order of 500MVA with a number of large power transformers and from the economic
view point there is not as much money available to solve the problems as there generally is
in the oil and gas sector. Furthermore, because of the intermittency of the energy source a
completely new approach is required to the redundancy requirements compared to that
which is the norm for onshore substations (N‐1 etc,). This means that before beginning the
design process there are some fundamental policy decisions which need to be made by the
Developers/Utilities and these involve risk assessment, maintenance policy and certification.
These fundamental considerations are addressed in the first Chapter of the brochure.
Arising from these fundamental considerations a policy for the total development of the
offshore wind power plant should be established which will provide the framework for the
design of the offshore substation.
When this framework is firmly established the design work for the offshore substation can
begin. However, with the unusual conditions such as long submarine cables with significant
generation of reactive power, necessity to comply with Grid Codes, the development of the
single line diagram for the wind power plant will usually involve looking at the overall
system. The next Chapter describes the offshore AC substation design issues that involve
more than one component or even the complete system. This involves reliability, availability
and maintenance issues as well as system properties like total substation power, reactive
power management, applied voltages and harmonics. Focus is on the electrical system. The
purpose is not to provide standards nor solutions for the design issues, but to provide
guidance in the considerations that need to be taken into account when designing an
offshore substation. The Chapter concludes by including a list of the studies which will
normally be required. The completed studies will lead to the final single line diagram and
provide some of the key parameters for the primary plant to be installed on the offshore
substation.
Chapter 3 gives guidance on the writing of the technical specifications for the main electrical
equipment to be located on the offshore substation. When considering the specification
aspects for equipment these can generally be divided into four main sub groups as follows:‐
19
‐ Parameters coming from the system studies
These parameters are technical requirements such as the short circuit level, full load
current, lightning impulse withstand level, transformer impedance etc.
‐ Important items to define to the platform supplier associated with regard to the
accommodation for the equipment
It may well be necessary for the equipment supplier to define to the platform supplier
specific requirements for the room in which the equipment is to be accommodated.
The next Chapter 4 explains design considerations with respect to the High Voltage AC
Substation platforms and their associated substructures and foundations including
environmental impacts, remote location, maintenance issues, access management, etc.
Commencing with an overview of the platforms and the different technologies used today
followed by a brief discussion of the most important parameters that need to be
considered. It continues with one of the most important subjects when working offshore,
i.e. Health Safety and Environment (HSE). HSE must be considered in all aspects of the
substation and from the very beginning permeate the thinking and be part of the
fundamental design strategy.
The boundary conditions for the design are then set. These are typically parameters or
inputs that are external to the design and cannot be easily changed, e.g. local and global
legislations, site location and ambient conditions such as temperature, currents, wave
heights, wind speed etc.
Unlike boundary conditions that are to be considered as more or less fixed, the next section
discusses parts or aspects of the transmission system that will have a significant influence
on the platform design but may be subject to discussion and/or iteration. Examples of such
equipment or parameters are electrical components and secondary systems, substructure
interface, cable installations and installation programme, commissioning tests, etc.
Having “set the scene” in the previous sections, the actual design philosophies, design
parameters and issues within its own discipline that will have a major influence on the final
platform design are discussed. Aspects related to structural integrity, what to consider for
the general arrangement layout, primary access and egress systems, emergency response
and platform auxiliary systems are considered. Furthermore, a comparison of stressed skin
vs. clad truss braced design is provided and corrosion protection, operation and installation
and commissioning of plant onshore are discussed.
20
This leads on to different types of platform concepts like container deck, semi enclosed and
fully enclosed topsides. To some extent pros and cons of self installing concepts like floating
and jack‐up solutions are discussed and compared.
Having thoroughly dealt with the topside, the next section covers what is underneath, i.e.
the substructure. Different concepts are compared and pros and cons discussed.
Aspects of load out, transportation, installation and hook up and the consequences these
may imply on the overall design of the topside and substructure are covered. A brief
overview of the available lifting vessels is included for information.
Finally, an assessment of fire and explosion design, together with fire detection/alarm and
passive/active fire suppression is presented.
Chapter 5 deals with the substation secondary systems which are those systems which
provide the functionality necessary to
ensure safety of personnel engaged in operation of the substation and associated
systems
permit operation of the substation primary circuits.
monitor the performance of the installation
detect and manage abnormal conditions on the system and in primary equipment.
manage the environment in which the equipment operates.
The detailed functionality depends on the specific installation and the way in which it is
operated. The guidelines set out in this Chapter assume that the offshore substation is
classified as a normally unmanned (unattended) installation but allows for the use of the
substation as a marshalling point for staff involved in maintenance of the substation and
associated systems.
It also looks at how the secondary equipment requirements differ from what we are all
familiar with in onshore substations. This includes how the normal aspects such as
protection, control and metering are addressed as well as those new items such as CCTV,
navigation aids, aeronautical aids which are not normally associated with onshore
substations.
The final Chapter briefly summarises the work which is now required, from a new Working
Group, to address the aspects associated with AC collector substations for wind power
plants which will be connected by HVDC links which was expressly excluded from the
content of this brochure.
It is sincerely hoped by the whole team involved in the preparation of this brochure that this
document will assist all Utilities, Developers and Contractors to achieve satisfactory
solutions for the offshore substations required for their wind power plants.
21
0. Introduction
The Stone Age did not end because people ran out of stone and the age of fossil fuels will
not end because we run out of fossil fuels, it will end sooner. This is coupled with the
recognised global dependence on the finite energy resource which is fossil fuel and that
alternative and sustainable sources of electrical generation are required. Present
developments show a growing interest in renewable and clean energy sources. Rising
temperatures, rising sea level and increasing occurrence of extreme weather conditions
have led people to believe we need to change our ways.
European countries have committed themselves to decrease emissions and to invest in
renewable energy. By 2020, 20% of the energy in Europe has to be produced by renewable
sources and the goal is set for 20% reduction of greenhouse gases. Elsewhere in the world
similar goals are being pursued.
A popular renewable energy source is wind. Worldwide hundreds of gigawatts of wind
power have been installed successfully on land. Recently the wind energy industry has
moved offshore where wind speeds are generally higher than on land, larger machines with
higher energy yields can be installed, and where constraints from land area and planning are
reduced. The North Sea is a particularly attractive area where water depth is limited and
wind is abundant, but also the Baltic Sea and shallow coastal areas near the US and China
are being considered. The development of worldwide offshore wind power plant capacity is
shown in Figure 0‐1.
6000 600
5000 500
Cumulative Capacity (MW)
4000 400
Cumulative
capacity (MW)
3000 300
Wind Farm
Capacity (MW)
2000 200
1000 100
0 0
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012
Year
The distance from shore of the new offshore wind power plant developments has led to the
need for offshore high voltage AC substation platforms. A number of these platforms have
already been installed and many more are being designed or constructed. This brochure
presents guidelines for the design of offshore AC substations, based on the lessons learned
22
so far. It is not our goal to provide answers to all the questions that one might have on
offshore AC substations, but to discuss the specific issues encountered when building an
offshore substation and point out potential problems and their respective solutions.
23
adaptations needed for the harsh offshore environment and the modular approach required
to minimise the maintenance intervention time.
The physical aspects (i.e. issues related to the physical environment an offshore platform is
exposed to) are described in Section 4. A lot of knowledge about this is already present in
the offshore oil and gas industry, but recent experience shows that not all that applies to oil
and gas can be adopted for offshore substations for wind power plants. This section
describes the challenges of building a substation offshore and the precautions taken to
protect people and equipment.
Offshore substations demand more from their secondary equipment in terms of reliability.
When communications are lost or emergency power does not function, there is no easy way
to go and check on the substation. Secondary equipment is therefore a vital part of the
offshore platform and must be well designed. Section 5 gives some design guidelines and
considerations to support the design of a robust secondary system.
It is intended that this brochure will provide useful guidelines to anyone designing and
constructing AC offshore substations for wind power plants and thereby support the
development of a successful offshore infrastructure and hence the transition to a cleaner
energy supply.
1
Koch, H. and Retzmann, D. Connecting large offshore wind power plants to the transmission network. in Transmission and
Distribution Conference and Exposition, IEEE PES, pp 1‐5, 19‐22 April 2010. 2010.
24
A similar picture can be drawn when losses and transmission capacity are considered. HVDC
converters have high losses, but the cable losses are only the resistive losses which are low
compared to the total losses (capacitive and resistive) encountered in long AC cables.
Especially for higher voltages (which may seem attractive because of lower current and thus
lower losses) AC cables produce a lot of reactive power, limiting the active power transport
capacity. Projects with 100km cable lengths have solved this with large compensation
stations onshore or with equipment on an offshore substation on the way to shore.
The choice between AC and DC transmission depends on a number of factors, such as
distance from shore, nominal power of the wind power plant (cluster) and local grid
situation. The comparison changes all the time due to the development of HVDC and cable
technology. The break even distance is also influenced by the price of copper and aluminium
as it is the cost of cables that defines the slope of the curves in the diagram above.
Currently, one might expect the break‐even distance between AC and DC transmission to be
between 50 and 120 km.
Some innovative solutions are being considered such as Gas Insulated Lines2 [2] or High
Temperature Superconducting Cables3 [3], which could provide bulk power transmission
over large distances. It is not the purpose of this brochure to discuss these techniques in
detail, nevertheless a short explanation is included.
For bulk transmission over large distance, it is expected that multiple wind power plants or
large wind power plants with multiple substations are connected to one offshore power
hub. The wind power plants still have their individual AC substations, but instead of a direct
cable connection to shore, these are connected to the offshore power hub, where the
AC/DC converter is located. The power is transmitted to shore using HVDC and there will be
an onshore converter station to convert back to AC.
In the future an alternative solution to HVDC connection could possibly be Gas Insulated
Lines, which require gas filled pipes that are buried under the seabed or installed in tunnels.
Alternatively, High Temperature Superconducting Cables (HTSC) could be used. HTSC
requires cooling stations to maintain superconductivity, but will save an offshore
transformer (high voltage transmission is not required because I2R losses are negligible).
2 APPLICATION OF LONG HIGH CAPACITY GAS INSULATED LINES IN STRUCTURES – H.Koch – 42nd CIGRE Session 2008
3 OPTIMIZING CABLE LAYOUT FOR LONG LENGTH HIGH TEMPERATURE SUPERCONDUCTING CABLE SYSTEMS – A.Geschiere – 42nd CIGRE Session 2008
25
0.3.2 The Wider Long Term Picture: Offshore Grid
A growing number of interconnectors and a need to efficiently transmit energy from
offshore wind power plants to the shore, have lead to numerous ideas about offshore grids
(Figure 0‐5 to Figure 0‐8 show just a few examples). Offshore grids may help us to efficiently
transport wind power to shore and support optimal use of offshore infrastructure. The
integration of North Sea energy markets will enable higher amounts of wind power to be
incorporated in the electricity network.
Figure 0‐5. Econcern's offshore grid: Figure 0‐6. TenneT vision on offshore grid
Poseidon
Figure 0‐7. EWEA 20 year offshore network Figure 0‐8. Greenpeace offshore
development plan grid
The first steps towards the offshore grid are already completed in the form of submarine
interconnectors and wind power plant connections. A possible next step is to combine these
two and connect wind power plants directly to interconnectors. The business case for these
wind interconnectors depends on the distance between the wind power plants and shore
and the expected congestion rent of the interconnection. Technically, this configuration is
feasible using HVDC VSC technology. In addition to the technical challenges of developing a
HVDC breaker for example, the alignment of regulatory and legal frameworks is necessary.
This non technical issue is especially challenging when more than two countries are
involved, therefore it can be expected that an offshore grid will be primarily based on
26
bilateral connections. One could also argue that (large) connections between wind power
plant nodes are generally not efficient because main transport flows will be between
production and load centres and not between production facilities4 [4]. It is expected that
the new Working Groups B4.56 to B4.60 will provide more detailed discussions of issues
related to HVDC Grids.
4 LONG‐TERM GRID PLANNING IN THE NETHERLANDS – M.v.d.Meijden – 43th CIGRE Session 2010
27
1. Fundamental Considerations
This section introduces key considerations of risk, maintenance and certification which will
produce a significant impact upon the design of the substation.
28
- Verifies that the risk reduction strategies used are efficient, cost effective, and the
right ones
- Validates and reports that the risks are decreasing significantly
• Train staff on risk management processes which will improve the understanding and
practice of risk management including the essential skills needed to effectively identify
and manage substation risks proactively
One method which may be required to fulfil national requirements is to perform a hazard
identification study (HAZID) for the substation. The primary objective of this HAZID is to
identify specific potential hazards, operability problems, environmental considerations,
impacts associated with the design concept and, where appropriate, to recommend actions
to resolve findings that are identified. The objective of the HAZID is to obtain a complete list
of such events including:
• Structural integrity or foundation failure
• Electrocution
• Fire
• Explosion
• Physical danger
• Release of toxic or other hazardous substance
• Radiation
• Escape and rescue
• Transfer and access
Process
The execution of the HAZID itself should be performed using a suitably qualified
independent chairman. The majority of the team members should have suitable levels of
technical knowledge, technical experience and technical familiarity with the design under
study. The HAZID team should consist of the following members as a minimum:
1. Chairman
2. Secretary
3. Project manager
4. Engineering manager
5. QHSE engineer
6. HV engineer
7. LV engineer
8. O&M engineer
9. Structural engineer
It is recommended to work out a safety philosophy for the substation, describing; transfer,
access, evacuation, fire protection/detection etc. This philosophy, layout drawings and
single line diagrams may be basic material for the HAZID.
During the HAZID actions will be assigned to the participants (3‐9).
The participant can sub‐delegate the action close‐out, but is still responsible to ensure
actions are adequately closed out by fulfilling an action sheet how to implement the
29
mitigation and safeguards to avoid/minimize the hazardous event. The action sheet is
returned to the project manager.
If Failure Modes, Effects and Criticality Analysis (FMECA) is undertaken as a part of the
design process, as this is also a risk management tool, the results from it should feed into
the wider risk management framework of the project itself. This necessitates that there be
close co‐ordination between these two activities. This is most efficiently done by having
personnel overlap between both activities with the FMECA results being one of a number of
inputs to the HAZID risk management process.
Risk rating
The identified hazards can be ranked according to the description given below. The ranking
is used in order to identify the important hazards that may be analysed further and which
hazards can be neglected.
The risk may be evaluated by using a risk matrix and an example is given below:
Probability of failure scale / year
Consequence Unlikely Low Moderate High
Catastrophic
Severe
Moderate
Low
Indicative 1/10 000 – 1/1000 – 1/100 1/100 – 1/10 > 1/10
values only 1/1000
The applied general risk acceptance principle is based on qualitative risk assessment and a
risk ranking concept expressed by a coloured Risk Matrix. The risk matrix is the overall tool
for checking and documenting whether the risk is acceptable (green), unacceptable (red), or
tolerable (yellow) when reduced to ALARP level.
Legend:
Area Risk Criteria
Red High Unacceptable
Yellow Medium Tolerable if ALARP
Green Low Acceptable
Generally medium risks are tolerable once all reasonable practicable actions have been
taken to reduce them. Further reduction action is needed, unless the costs are grossly
disproportionate to the benefits
A flow diagram for a HAZID is shown in the diagram below:
30
As a result of the risk management and assessment process, specific risks, hazards, and
safety concerns can now be addressed and fully communicated. Listed below is a brief
highlighted list of those associated risk items which are further addressed within this
brochure.
31
Risk Title / Covered
Category of Risk
Description of Risk in Section
32
carry the full load output of the wind power plant). In many cases this decision has been
made by intuitive feel rather than a quantitative risk assessment of the likelihood that the
available energy will need to be curtailed.
In order to perform a simple economic comparison of different network configuration
options, the following formula may be applied for each component (or network corridor)
under scrutiny:
Lost Generation (MWh) = MTTR x r x G
Where MTTR is the mean time to repair (in hours), r is the probability of component failure,
and G is the lost generation when component failure occurs (in MW). The expected load
factor for the wind power plant could be applied to calculate the lost generation when the
failure occurs.
The marginal cost of component redundancy should then be compared with the cost of
energy not delivered from the above calculation in net present value terms over the lifetime
of the development.
Another quantitative assessment could use a statistical assessment tool for assessing the
likely available energy of the wind power plant throughout the year. Such an assessment
may use the Weibull distribution method. Given certain data about the wind conditions at
the wind power plant location it is then possible to calculate the probability of a certain
wind speed existing and hence the number of hours per year for which that wind speed will
exist. If the power curve of output power of the wind turbine generator against wind speed
is known the likely output of the wind power plant may be calculated to show the output
power profile across a year. This enables quantitative calculation to be made of the risk of
energy curtailment (loss) in the event of loss of a particular network component.
Optimal Circuit Ratings
Furthermore such calculations can also assist in assessing the optimal size of export cables
to be used to get the best compromise between initial capital cost and the cost of losses
over the lifetime of the plant. An example of such a calculation utilizing the Weibull
distribution function is included as Appendix 1.
The feeder loss‐load factor represents a translation factor between energy and power losses
method that may be employed, as an alternative to the above described method, to
calculate the actual annual energy losses in any feeder circuit. This method of energy loss
calculation is used for conventional transmission and distribution planning calculations to
quantify the cost of losses and feed into techno‐economic optioneering analyses. Annual
energy losses can be calculated using the following equation:
Annual Energy Losses (MWHr) = Loss Load Factor (LLF) x Peak Power Losses (MW) x
8766(hours in a year)
The peak power losses through the feeder can be calculated by hand or more accurately
using a power systems simulation model, assuming maximum output of the generation
connected along or to the end of the feeder. The LLF for a feeder can be calculated from
the prevailing generation profile data, using the following equation:
LLF = 1/n x ∑ (Demand2 / Peak Load2)
Where n = number of discrete generation outputs over the period (per annum for
example)
This type of assessment should also be combined with other availability calculations using
established procedures such as failure modes, effects and criticality analysis (FMECA) in
order to reach the correct level of redundancy to be used for any particular wind power
33
plant. Please refer to Appendix 2 for a description of FMECA study and how it is used as a
reliability assessment and improvement tool.
34
The emergency evacuation of persons from the offshore platform must be considered at the
design stage of the offshore platform as it will influence the facilities to be included on the
platform, typically
Type and location of liferafts and means of lowering them to the sea
Type and location of descent systems to the sea/liferaft for persons
Type and location of other life saving equipment
Muster area and public address systems
Evacuation routes and markings etc
• Emergency evacuation of injured persons / stretcher cases
The emergency evacuation of injured persons / stretcher cases from the offshore platform
must be considered at the design stage of the offshore platform as it will influence the
facilities to be included on the platform, typically
Width of access walkways and stairways to evacuation points
Provision of suitable stretchers
Cranes with access to boat landings should have an emergency man riding facility to lower a
stretcher to a vessel or alternatively a davit crane may have a suitable padeye to which a
descent system can be fitted for emergency use.
• Exposed locations on the substation platform (walkways and staircases)
• Restricted working areas due to compact design
• Electrical hazards when testing or operating
• Unfamiliarity with the layout and equipment
• Loss of services such as lighting, heating or communications
• Working in confined spaces
• Fire
• Explosion
1.1.2.1.2 Assets
If the assets are to be protected against certain catastrophic events then the following
contingencies need to be considered:‐
Fire
Explosion
Collision from shipping
Security (protection against malicious acts)
35
Repair of any item of plant offshore will be much more costly than performing the same
repair onshore. This will generally mean that repairing equipment offshore will very rarely
be a cost effective option. This will mean that replacement modules will need to be
considered as the normal method of carrying out repairs.
Loss of production
This should already have been taken into account in the considerations regarding
redundancy as mentioned in Section 1.1.1 above with regard to the choice of the single line
diagram.
Insurance costs /claims for accidents
As the risks associated with offshore substations are so much higher than for onshore ones
then the cost of insurance is likely to be substantially higher. Consideration may need to be
given to the design of the plant to enable insurance to be obtained at a reasonable cost or
even at all. This may well be true for aspects such as fire fighting.
Transport / repair equipment costs
These considerations will affect the choice of spare parts, accessibility, modularization etc.
which will be expanded upon in Section 3.
1.2 Maintenance
Any activity to be carried out on an offshore substation platform will typically cost
approximately ten times that of a similar activity carried out onshore. This means that the
amount of maintenance intervention must be kept to a minimum compatible with
reasonable capital investment. Consequently, the design of the equipment and the
substation layout must take this into account.
The following paragraphs highlight some of the aspects
36
it is actually monitoring. The need for condition monitoring is covered in Section 3 and for
the communication systems is covered in Section 5.
1.2.7 Availability of Suitable Transport for Staff, Equipment and Spare Parts
It is essential that consideration is given within the design of the substation platform to
enable the safe landing of equipment and spare parts and the staff required to install them.
This may consist of boat landing, davit and platform cranes, laydown areas, heli‐hoist
facilities or possibly a helideck. These considerations are detailed in Section 4.
37
requirements set out in IEC 61400‐22. According to this standard, Statements of Compliance
(or Conformity Statements) are issued for individual phases of a project, while a Project
Certificate is issued for the entire (substation) project based on the individual conformity
verification activities.
The HV electricity rules and certification regimes is not discussed in this chapter. The
common practice in this field shall be followed or possibly be enhanced for offshore
installations.
38
inspections and tests proves that the referenced requirements are achieved, a Statement of
Compliance (or Conformity Statement) is issued.
39
2. System Considerations
This section describes the offshore AC substation design issues ranging from those that
involve more than one component up to the complete system. This includes reliability,
availability and maintenance issues as well as system characteristics like total substation
power flows, reactive power management, applied voltages and harmonics. Focus is on the
electrical system. The physical (offshore) aspects are covered in section 4.
This section does not provide standards or solutions to design issues, but it seeks to provide
guidance and highlight considerations that should be taken into account when designing an
offshore AC substation.
40
Demand for power transmission
120%
Percentage of installed power
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Figure 2-1. Wind power duration curve expresses demand for power transmission
When measuring the availability of an offshore wind power plant substation, it is advised to
express availability relative to production. The relevant question being: What percentage of
the energy produced can be transmitted? This way of thinking has a large impact on the
redundancy considerations and maintenance philosophy, which will be described in the next
sections.
2.1.2 Redundancy
Introducing redundancy in a system is a cost versus risk decision. Introduction of
redundancy will reduce operational risk, but will also increase costs. The risk is determined
by the chance of failure of a certain component and the impact of failure of a certain
component. The cost of redundancy is normally the investment needed to install a second
system that can cover failure of the first system. In case of high risks, higher cost of
redundancy will be acceptable. In offshore systems the cost of redundancy is usually higher
than for onshore installations, which can influence the level of redundancy to be built into
the system.
High risk
Low risk
Impact
Redundancy in grid systems is often expressed in terms of (N‐1) or (N‐2) indicating that one
or two components of the system (consisting of n components) can fail without influencing
the performance of the system. To make a wind power plant substation truly (N‐1)
redundant would introduce relatively high marginal investment costs. The resulting strategy
is therefore to minimise the chance of failure of the complete system by prioritising
component redundancy. Redundancy is most efficient in components with a high chance of
failure and/or a high impact of failure that have low procurement and integration costs. For
offshore AC platforms this includes HVAC systems, cooling pumps, secondary systems and
communication infrastructure.
41
An alternative to complete redundancy of a system component, where you install two
components capable of 100% of nominal capacity, is to install two times 50% or two times
70%. This will still result in loss of capacity when one component fails, but not all capacity is
lost. In many cases a choice for two times 70% also results in lower stresses during
operation (since there is over‐capacity, the components will not be fully loaded) and
therefore an extended lifetime of substation components. For critical components which
would have a high impact if not available (e.g. cooling pumps), even three times 70%
configurations are considered.
In [5] the lifetime cost associated with different transformer configurations are compared
taking into account lower losses, extended lifetime and reduced energy losses5.
5
A. R. Henderson, L. Greedy, F. Spinato, C. A. Morgan, Optimising Redundancy of Offshore Electrical Infrastructure Assets
th th
by Assessment of Overall Economic Cost, European Offshore Wind Energy Conference, Stockholm, Sweden, 14 – 18
September 2009
42
is installed, the peaks in wind power can still be transmitted for limited periods utilising the
overloading capacity of the system components. Overloading system components will
reduce the life expectancy of the equipment. The idea of installing less than nominal is often
referred to as (N + 'a little bit') redundancy.
In practice, most systems are not designed with complete redundancy, but some critical
components will be (N‐1) redundant, e.g. secondary equipment and communications, HVAC
and cooling systems.
Primary and secondary plant on the platform itself will be discussed later on in this
brochure. Two main components that connect to the platform, that have a considerable
impact on system design and reliability are the MV and HV cables. Each project will have to
determine the desired risk profile and optimise redundancy for the complete system.
One disadvantage of this configuration is that a cable fault at the beginning of the string will
cause loss of all the turbines on the string. To add redundancy to the inter array cable
system, ring structures can be introduced as shown in Figure 2‐5.
This however, causes considerable extra costs because all cable diameters will have to be
larger. Therefore most wind power plants only make use of ring structures to provide
emergency power for wind turbines in case of an inter array cable fault. This allows the
cable size to decrease along the array and the cable connections at the end of the strings,
which are not normally in service, are not rated to carry the full turbine generation in case
of fault, but can be used as emergency power supply. This will provide power for
communications and HVAC systems of the disconnected turbines, but cannot transmit the
produced power (Figure 2‐6).
43
Figure 2-5. Ring based inter array cable system
An alternative way to reduce the risk of loss of a large number of turbines is to connect
fewer turbines to one string. Taking all these considerations into account, an optimal wind
power plant could be configured as shown in Figure 2‐7.
44
For every wind power plant the optimal configuration is different depending on the number
and output rating of turbines, the geography of the area, the number of substations, the
acceptable risk profile etc.
450 450
400 400
350 350
300 300
250 250
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
1050
1400
1750
2100
2450
2800
3150
3500
3850
4200
4550
4900
5250
5600
5950
6300
6650
7000
7350
7700
8050
8400
8750
350
700
0
1050
1400
1750
2100
2450
2800
3150
3500
3850
4200
4550
4900
5250
5600
5950
6300
6650
7000
7350
7700
8050
8400
8750
350
700
0
45
Figure 2‐9 shows the situation when only 200 MW of export capacity (one cable) is
available. In this case the power from one wind power plant can always be transmitted (blue
area) as well as part of the power from the other wind power plant (green area). The red
area represents the power that is still lost due to limited transmission capacity. Note that
this will only occur for about 3000 hours a year. Statistically, 40% of the energy produced in
the second wind power plant can be transmitted through the export cable of the first wind
power plant during a cable fault.
Figure 2‐9 also shows that the maximum useful capacity of the connection cable is
theoretically 200 MW in this case. In this example some factors like overloading of cables
and different load profiles due to maintenance or forced unavailability are not taken into
account. The investment decision for the connection cable mainly depends on the distance
between the wind power plants, cost of constrained energy and the reliability of the export
cables (in case of high reliability the connection cable will not be economical).
2.1.3 Maintenance
Offshore maintenance, like all offshore work, is expensive and should therefore be
minimized. On top of the costs, offshore maintenance involves a hazardous working
environment, long travel times and is highly dependent on the prevailing weather
conditions.
Platforms can only be accessed by boats when the wave height is less than 1.5 m to 2.5 m,
depending on the access system being used. For exchange of large equipment or cable
repair, an extended period of calm weather is necessary. Historical data from the North Sea
shows that average waiting time for a 7‐day weather window is about 17 days. However,
due to seasonal changes, expected waiting time from October through December is close to
45 days.
One positive feature of offshore maintenance work in relation to the weather is the fact that
maintenance weather windows are commonly related to low electricity generation; another
reason to encourage planned preventative maintenance. On the other hand, when a failure
occurs in a period with high wind, chances are that maintenance will not be possible due to
the weather and production losses will be substantial.
When availability is measured in percentage of energy transmitted, the logical consequence
is to plan maintenance in times of low wind power production. Planned maintenance can be
conducted during low wind periods, while unplanned maintenance due to failures has a
tendency to occur in high wind periods when repair works are most difficult. This results in a
strong preference for planned maintenance compared to unplanned maintenance. When
developing operation and maintenance plans, it may be more appropriate to increase levels
of planned maintenance to reduce the risk of costly unplanned maintenance.
46
time of the equipment (or if life‐time is seen as a design parameter, the need for higher
robustness), which will mitigate some of the investment cost advantage. During the life time
of the equipment the losses will also be higher due to a higher utilisation, thus causing
higher operational costs. These disadvantages will have to be taken into account during the
design phase.
Secondary equipment like water pumps, cooling systems and HVAC installations can also be
considered for overloading. These systems are often already redundant because of their
importance and relatively low costs. Still, space and money may be saved when for instance
a 2 x 70% scenario is applied. In this case, both installations can accommodate 70% of the
platform needs and in normal operation will only be loaded for about 70% (50% of total
platform need). In case one installation is unavailable, the other is overloaded for a limited
period to accommodate the needs of the complete platform (or at least it's most important
parts). This provides a compromise between the low security of a 1 x 100% system and the
high costs of a 2 x 100% system. Naturally, a number of other variations can be developed
based on specific situations.
47
In general terms, the following key factors should be considered to choose the optimal place
for an offshore wind power plant substation:
• The size and shape of the wind power plant area.
• The position of the onshore grid connection point and requirements of the
grid owner.
• The route of the export cables.
• The possibility of a common energy export along with neighbouring wind
power plants.
• Permitting and legislation issues.
• Water depth and seabed characteristics.
• Project installation plan.
• The arrangement of the wind power plant internal collection system.
• Shipping lanes
• Access by boat/helicopter
Given the constant increase in the installed capacity (MW) of new offshore wind projects, it
is necessary to go further and assess the possibility of installing more than one offshore
transformer platform, and therefore some additional factors have to be considered‐
• The length of the collection system circuits, involving the maximum
acceptable voltage drops and electrical losses.
• The installation procedure, involving the availability of technical means and
their cost.
• Operation and maintenance issues.
The decision about the optimal number of substations (commonly one or two) to be
installed in an offshore wind power plant should be the result of considering all the previous
factors for each one of the different alternatives by means of a techno‐economic study to
choose the best option. Such a study will entail a comparison between the capital
expenditures (CAPEX) plus the operation expenditures (OPEX) required by every alternative
versus their respective electrical losses assessed along the whole life of the installation. Any
of the options considered in the comparison should comply as a prime condition with the
grid connection requirements and voltage regulation in the internal collection system. To
carry out this kind of study it is necessary to have a large amount of information, mainly
regarding pricing of equipment and installation works, but it is the only way to make a
decision based on objective criteria.
The result of the abovementioned study should be delimited with some restrictions
regarding size and weight of both the topside of the substation and the foundation.
Obviously, the number of transformers will drive the dimensions and weight of the
platform, but the number of transformers is driven by the maximum current admissible for
the medium voltage switchgear (presently 2,500 A at 33 kV is the maximum rating of the
switchgear), that limits the maximum power to 280 MVA for a three winding transformer.
Considering the most common procedure, important heavy‐lifting operations are required
for assembling the offshore substations on site (at least one for the foundation and another
for the topside), and therefore large crane vessels are needed (either sheerlegs or revolving
cranes). In this way, the size but mainly the weight, are key factors in order to assess the
availability and cost of the required vessel. Only as general data, there are less than 20
vessels around the world with a lifting capacity over 1,000 tonnes (refer to Section 4.8.1.1
for more details) and it is an almost impossible mission to find a free slot in their work
planning. The situation is worse if a big substation with several transformers is considered
48
(weighing over 1,500 tonnes), because the range of available crane vessels is even smaller.
Additional information to be taken into account is the daily cost of this kind of vessel (where
a daily rate of over € 500.000 may well be applicable).
In practice, one of the biggest offshore substations currently designed and in operation
features an installed power of 400 MW (although there are others planned for larger
capacity, under consideration). For wind power plants with an installed capacity over 400‐
500 MW two transformer platforms are likely to be required although the previous factors
have to be considered. Currently there are a few projects including several smaller
substations, where substations have only handled approximately 80‐90 MW. Nevertheless,
in most of these cases, the division of the projects into different construction phases or
separated areas has entailed the need of several substations in order to export energy to
the grid as soon as possible, and therefore this is not the result of a techno‐economic
assessment.
As a conclusion, the decision about the location and number of substations in an offshore
wind power plant should be based on a thorough techno‐economic assessment that
compares the different alternatives in terms of CAPEX+OPEX vs. electrical losses along the
life span of the installation, taking into account the technical factors and restrictions
previously mentioned. In this way, the decision is made on an objective basis.
49
Figure 2‐10. Recommended PCC for single wind power plant situation
Figure 2‐11. Recommended PCC for multiple wind power plant situation with Offshore
TSO
50
This section gives an overview of common grid code requirements for wind turbines or wind
power plants.
1,2
Poland
1
Spain
Relative Voltage
0,8
Germany
0,6
Ireland
0,4
0,2 Netherlands (only
single turbine >5
MW)
0
150
450
750
1050
1350
1650
1950
2250
2550
2850
3150
3450
3750
4050
4350
4650
4950
Time (ms) 5250
Figure 2‐12. Example of FRT requirements in grid codes (EWIS study 2008)
Frequency response
To maintain a stable grid frequency, conventional turbines have a primary reaction to
frequency deviations in the grid. When frequency is low, production will increase, when
frequency rises, production should decrease. This way, the grid balance is quickly restored in
case of large changes in production or demand and the frequency remains stable.
Wind turbines are often excluded from this system, because it requires that production is
limited to 90% of the possible output. In case of wind energy with a low marginal cost, this is
considered a waste. Only in countries with high wind energy penetration or islanded
systems, wind turbines are required to provide frequency response, this is sometimes
limited to a reduction of active power when in presence of a frequency increase.
51
illustrated in Figure 2‐13. The wind power plant should be able to operate with different
setpoint voltages and slopes, according to Grid Code requirements.
Vref
Qmax Qmin
Capacitive Mvar inductive Mvar
The Grid Code requirements determine the Qmax and Qmin values (see Figure 2‐13) and these
are dependent on wind power plant rated active power.
In case of offshore wind power plants, the grid connection will be realised by submarine
cables, producing reactive power. To compensate for this reactive power, static or dynamic
compensation can be used, but it is also possible to use the wind turbines to (partly)
compensate for the reactive power of the cable connection. This however is only possible if
grid code does not apply at the turbine, but at the actual connection point to the grid.
52
This chapter will elaborate on the need for reactive power compensation and evaluate tools
that can be applied to control the reactive power balance.
6
M. Pavlovsky, P. Bauer. “Cable selection and Shunt Compensation for Offshore Windparks”, Delft University of
Technology, The Netherlands
7
G. E. Balog, N. Christl, G. Evenset, F. Rudolfsen. “Power Transmission over long distances with cables”. CIGRÉ, B1‐306,
Session 2004
8
J. Overton, “Study on the Development of the Offshore Grid for Connection of the Round Two Wind power plants” Pag
21. Econnect 2005
53
both distance to shore and voltage levels the need for compensation is becoming more
relevant because of the higher charging current generated.
54
Figure 2‐15. Schematic representation of the DFIG
The reactive power operating range of the DFIG (at full output) is dependent on the size of
the converter with a typical reactive power operating range between 0.98 (capacitive) to
0.96 (inductive) achievable from a DFIG with a 25% rated converter. Wider reactive
operating ranges may be achieved by increasing the converter capacity.
Figure 2‐16. Schematic representation of the generator with full‐scale power converter
The optimal points for reactive power generation in offshore wind power plants very much
depend on the configuration of the overall power system. When a wind power plant is
connected to the network through long AC submarine cables the utilization of wind turbines
for reactive power generation may not be the optimal solution considering the reactive
power losses along the length of the cable. When a reactive power operating range for a
wind power plant (as specified by the grid code) is required at the point of connection to the
onshore network, additional sources of reactive power (e.g. SVC, STATCOM) may be
required at this point.
55
2.5.3 Dynamic Voltage Response
Large offshore wind power plants connected to the onshore grid through long high voltage
AC export cables present special characteristics that should be taken into account when
designing the voltage control scheme.
Wind power plants are normally required to be able to perform continuous voltage control
at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC) as described in the section on Grid Code
requirements.
Other Grid Code requirements like maximum dead time before wind power plant response
begins; allowed overshoot and speed of response have an impact on the design of the
voltage control scheme.
The number of challenges varies according to the different Grid Code requirements;
however a summary of these challenges can be found below.
First of all the long AC export cables inject a significant amount of reactive power into the
PCC. Some of this injected reactive power has to be compensated somehow, either by
onshore reactors, through a reactive compensation plant or by using WTG reactive
absorption capabilities (park controller).
Secondly, submarine high voltage export cables can be subject to significant de‐rating
factors when arriving at the shoreline (sea defense) as well as when arriving at the offshore
platform (J‐tube). These de‐rating factors have to be taken into account when designing the
reactive power voltage control scheme, so that they are not violated.
Finally, Grid Codes often require fast response times, which rules out the transformers’ on
load tap changer (OLTC) as a means to provide support during transients. When evaluating
the dynamic voltage control response of the wind power plant, transformer tap positions
should remain as they were in steady state in order to evaluate whether the wind power
plant has enough reactive power capabilities to meet Grid Code requirements.
There are several voltage control strategies that can be used in order to comply with Grid
Code requirements, all of them having different impact on compensation plant rating and
dynamic performances, a number of these options are discussed below.
56
compensation plant rating, as well as voltage fluctuation throughout the wind power plant
during transients.
Through the control actions of an overall park controller wind turbines can make use of their
reactive power capabilities. In general two different control modes are used.
2. Voltage control
When through the actions of an overall park controller the wind turbines perform voltage
control, the goal is to have a V/Q slope characteristic at a specific busbar in the wind power
plant (See Figure 2‐13). The selection of the busbar where voltage control should be
performed (onshore, offshore, PCC) has different impacts in the dynamic performance.
There are several reasons that can lead to the use of this strategy, among them:
• The need to rapidly support / limit voltage fluctuations throughout the wind power
plant.
• The need to reduce rating / size of the reactive compensation plant.
The advantages of this control strategy can be summarized below
• Better voltage profiles during transients when compared to fixed reactive power control,
which translates into better support/limitation of voltage fluctuations throughout the
wind power plant.
• Size/rating of the reactive compensation plant can be reduced, since when a voltage
step occurs at the PCC the voltages throughout the wind power plant will be affected.
The park controller will control wind turbine reactive power injection / absorption to
react in the correct direction and therefore assist the reactive compensation plant to
reach slope characteristics.
It should be mentioned that if the Wind turbines are performing voltage control at any point
different than the PCC, a separate reactive compensation plant must be used to perform
voltage control at the PCC.
Reactive compensation plant
In order to meet dynamic Grid Code voltage control requirements a reactive compensation
plant performing voltage control at the PCC can be used.
It is during dynamic simulations that the weaknesses of a voltage control scheme based only
on the use of the reactive power capabilities of the wind turbines (No reactive
compensation plant) through the park controller actions are exposed.
57
A reactive power compensation scheme using only the reactive power capabilities of the
wind turbines will in some cases not be enough to comply with the dynamic voltage control
Grid Code requirements, since after a large step in voltage at the PCC, both onshore and
offshore transformer taps will be in a wrong position. The response time is often too slow
compared to the timescale of the Grid Code requirements, causing limitations in the
reactive power that can be provided by the wind turbines.
These limitations in the reactive power capabilities of the wind turbines could prevent the
wind power plant from reaching the slope characteristic requirements at the PCC when
large voltage steps occur.
Different types of reactive compensation plants can be used to perform voltage control at
the PCC and comply with dynamic Grid Code requirements. A description of the benefits and
drawbacks of the different options can be found below.
2. SVC / STATCOM
The SVC/STATCOM solution should be considered when the reactive power needs to be
continuously and smoothly delivered. Other reasons to consider the SVC solution could be
that the amount of necessary switched branches is too high, and/or the speed of response
of the mechanical breakers is too slow.
Other advantages of using an SVC solution to perform voltage control at the PCC are:
• Better voltage profiles throughout the wind power plant during transients.
• Power oscillation damping feature available.
Harmonic filters
Harmonic filters might be necessary to avoid amplification of background harmonics and at
the same time to reduce wind power plant harmonic injections to the PCC. Harmonic filters
58
have an impact in the design of the reactive compensation voltage control strategy, an
example of the areas affected by harmonic filters are:
• Reactive compensation plant size and rating
• Settings of the overall park controller, which determines wind turbine reactive power
contribution.
The extra reactive power injection caused by harmonic filters, can be counteracted by
appropriate settings of the overall park controller, which can set the wind turbines to
absorb any extra reactive power injected by the filters. If this is the case, currents at the
offshore end of the cable should be looked at so that they do not exceed their limits.
Since IGBT semiconductors are very sensitive to overload and the DFIG’s DC link can only
sustain a limited fault duration, additional protection measures are required to protect the
system under fault conditions. In the case of a grid fault, high voltages are induced in the
rotor windings that cause excessive currents in the rotor and a rush of power from the rotor
terminals to the converter. The converter reaches its limits and loses control of the
generator during the fault, and protection is required to break the high currents and control
the energy flow. A simple method of protection is to short circuit the rotor through a
“crowbar”, which limits the rotor current (Figure 2‐17).
Crowbar
Power
Converter
Control
Blade
~
~
Partial-Scale
Gear-Box
Converter
Grid
DFIG
Transformer
59
When the crowbar is triggered, the rotor is short‐circuited via the crowbar impedance, the
rotor side converter (RSC) is disabled and the DFIG acts as a SCIG. The grid side connector
(GSC) remains connected and can therefore produce limited reactive power during the fault.
Previously, the DFIG would have been tripped as soon as the crowbar protection was
activated, but now FRT is required. Improvement of the FRT capability of DFIGs can be
implemented in the following ways:
• By implementing a control strategy where the grid voltage (reactive power) control is
taken over by the GSC. Once the crowbar protection is removed, the RSC will operate
again as normal. The removal of the crowbar protection can be performed based on
different criteria, e.g. magnitude of grid voltage or rotor currents.
• With the addition of a “chopper” module into the DC link that activates before the
crowbar to avoid DC link overvoltage during grid fault conditions. Following the voltage
depression, if the DC voltage is maintained by the chopper, the RSC goes back into
operation after a few milliseconds and the DFIG can be controlled even if it is operating
on a low voltage level. If the grid fault voltage depression is severe and the chopper is
unable to control the DC link voltage, the crowbar is fired and the rotor is short circuited
as above. Converters and choppers could theoretically be designed to withstand even
terminal short‐circuits but economic considerations normally limit these designs to
lower ratings.
Use of the full‐scale power converter, in particular the voltage source converter (VSC) type
of link, may lead to improvement of fault ride‐through capability of large wind power plants
[9]9. VSC has been developed over recent years, and utilises power electronics devices such
as IGBTs, IGCTs and GTOs. The advantages of VSC include the fact that reactive and active
power can be controlled independently and additional reactive power compensation may
not be required. For improving the fault ride‐through of the wind power plant, it is
important to implement a good control strategy for the VSC station. In [9], a three‐phase
fault was applied, and the system was found to recover 0.5s after the fault, and the wind
turbines remain connected to the network.
Whilst the DFIG is currently the wind turbine type with the greatest market share, relatively
complex and expensive design strategies are required to improve its FRT capability. For large
offshore wind power plants fully variable speed wind turbines connected by full‐scale power
converters may gain popularity because of their favourable properties concerning black
start and reactive power. Recent research has shown that these configurations are capable
of providing better FRT support as compared to SCIG and DFIG.
9
Livani, H., Bandarabadi, M., Alinejad, Y., Lesan, S., Karimi‐Davijani, H, “Improvement of fault ride‐through capability in
wind power plants using VSC‐HVDC”, European Journal of Scientific Research, Vol. 28, No.3, 2009 pp 328‐337
60
• Where over‐voltages are likely on lightly loaded capacitive networks, creation of
“artificial reactors” through tap staggering on parallel transformers has been applied to
absorb reactive power. This however, will only provide limited reactive power
absorption and parallel operation may not always be favorable due to fault level
considerations.
Routine maintenance requirements however make OLTCs an unattractive component of the
offshore substation with the majority of outages associated with substation transformers
caused by mechanical failure, primarily a result of failure of the on‐load tap changer. This
situation may be partially alleviated by the use of “vacutap” tap changers where the number
of operations between maintenance is increased by a factor of three.
With this in mind, the decision of whether or not to include tap changers in the design of an
offshore substation should be based on the results of comprehensive steady state and
dynamic system studies, and consultation with the relevant system operator.
Alternatives to on‐load tap‐changers include:
• specifying the wind turbines to be able to operate with a wide voltage range, so that
voltage control at the substation is no longer necessary;
• fitting off‐load tap‐changers, which are cheaper, smaller and have less frequent
maintenance requirements. The operator must then accept that occasionally it will be
required to shut down the wind power plant for a few minutes in order to adjust the tap
position.
Solid‐state load tap changers for medium power transformers (15 kV to 34 kV) are being
investigated, and it is claimed that they could reduce maintenance costs by 50‐80% while
increasing safety, reliability and power quality. Increased losses would be a disadvantage,
but techno‐economic optimisation of the offshore substation design should include
consideration of efficiencies and flexibility gained with the introduction of such devices
(potentially reducing the need for reactive compensation on the offshore substation).
61
• The reactive power output of the wind park cannot be adjusted fast enough, e.g.
because of the communication time between central wind park reactive power
controller and WTGs or because of slowly acting devices like transformer tap changers.
• Due to the internal impedances of the wind park (cables and transformers) some of the
WTGs reach their voltage operating limits before they can supply the reactive current
required.
In cases like these the reactive power output of the wind park needs to be complemented
by extra reactive power devices, as there are:
• Mechanically switched capacitors (MSC)
• Mechanically switched capacitive damping networks (MSCDN), also known as C‐Type
Filters
• Mechanically switched reactors (MSR)
• Thyristor based Static VAR Compensators (SVC)
• VSC based SVCs or Synchronous Static Compensators (STATCOM)
The devices mentioned above are summarized under the terminology Flexible AC
Transmission Systems (FACTS). FACTS can be used at the PCC of the wind park or inside the
wind park network. The different types of FACTS devices are explained in more detail in the
following paragraphs.
The technology choice depends on how rapid the response of the system has to be.
Therefore, for steady state compensation such as power factor control, mechanically
switched might be enough. However, for more demanding circumstances such as
restoration after voltage drop, static compensators seem more appropriate because of a
faster response. Fixed or mechanical compensation requires less space than static
compensation. Therefore, if it is essential to locate some compensation offshore the fixed or
mechanical compensation is principally used..
RHP
L
Arr
62
3
1×10
100
10
1 10 100
Harmonic Order
20 Mvar, n0=18, 132 , RHP=100 ohm
63
If attenuation at a certain harmonic frequency is important the tuning frequency of the MSC
has to be chosen low enough to have the high pass resistor effective at the lowest
frequency of interest.
The high pass resistor not only carries harmonic currents where its attenuating effect is
desired, it also carries current of the network power frequency (fundamental frequency
current) according to the impedance conditions in the MSC branch. Fundamental frequency
current through the resistor is undesired because of the fundamental frequency power
losses and corresponding power rating of the resistor. Lower MSC tuning frequencies tend
to result in higher fundamental frequency power losses and resistor ratings.
The power loss issue can be solved using MSCDN technology. Figure 2‐20 shows a MSCDN
tuned to quite a low frequency of 145 Hz. In this case, however, the high pass resistor is
connected in parallel with a LC resonance circuit tuned to the fundamental frequency.
Under ideal conditions the resistor is thus bypassed at fundamental frequency and becomes
increasingly effective at higher frequencies. MSCDNs are often used if tuning frequencies
equal or lower than the 5th harmonic are required.
Low MSC tuning frequencies are often used together with wind park applications because of
the extended ac cable networks being prone to form low frequency resonances with the
adjacent power networks.
An arrester can be used to achieve economic insulation levels of the reactor and resistor in
cases, where the MSC branch is to be connected to a high voltage level, e.g. greater than
100 kV.
C1
C2
RHP
L
Arr
64
3
1×10
100
1 10 100
Harmonic Order
20 Mvar, n0=2.9, 132 , RHP=300 ohm
MSR
In cases where the inductive output of the wind power plant alone is not sufficient MSRs
can be used. Figure 2‐22 shows a simplified single line diagram of a typical MSR branch.
L
Arr
65
possible over voltages due to circuit breaker re‐strikes arresters can be used. In case of
vacuum breakers, the use of special RC damping circuits may be needed.
Depending on the voltage level or space restrictions, e.g. at platforms, the MSR may be of
air core or iron core type.
More than one MSR can be connected in parallel to achieve the required MVAR step size.
Regarding the controllability of their reactive power output SVCs can be distinguished in:
• continuously controllable SVC solutions
• switched SVC solutions
Thyristor based SVCs are available in both technologies while VSC type SVC are normally
operated in continuously controlled mode only.
Figure 2‐23 shows a single line of a Thyristor based SVC together with its components. A
typical SVC comprises:
• Step down transformer
• Thyristor controlled reactor (TCR)
• Thyristor switched capacitor (TSC)
• Fixed capacitors (filters) (FC)
• Controls
The required capacitive power will be installed in capacitive branches which may be
permanently connected (Fixed Capacitor, FC) or switched by Thyristor valves (Thyristor
Switched Capacitor, TSC) at the medium voltage (MV) bus. FC branches are typically tuned
by series reactors for harmonic filtering purposes.
66
HV
MV
Controls
TCR TSC FC
67
IN UN
∆U
UVSC
Controls
{Im}
maximum VSC current
IN
UVSC {Re}
UN
∆U
Figure 2‐25. Operating principle of a VSC based SVC (example showing overexcited
operation)
68
The operation principle of a VSC allows maintaining a required current magnitude within a
wide range of system voltages. This behavior is illustrated and compared against the
characteristics of a Thyristor based SVC in Figure 2‐26.
The VSC based SVC has advantages at system undervoltages because it behaves like a
constant current source while the Thyristor based SVC output current decreases in direct
proportion with the voltage according to its impedance characteristic.
10
C. Smith and N. Hayward, ‘Use of STATCOM for offshore wind stability and grid compliance’, European Offshore Wind
conference, Stockholm, 2009
69
• The harmonic content of transformer inrush current can excite the system resonant
frequency. This could result in over‐voltages that may last for a substantial period
of time [11]11.
• The resonant frequency may shift significantly according to the number of wind
turbines energised and the configuration of the circuits connected to the offshore
MV wind power plant array. The harmonic resonant frequencies vary in frequency
and magnitude dependent on the number of cables and turbines in service.
• Given the significant application of power electronics in offshore wind power
plants, inter‐harmonics may become important. Guidelines regarding the
measurement of inter‐harmonics are given in IEC 61000‐3‐6.
• Harmonic studies are required to assess the level of the offshore wind power plant
harmonic emission into the point of common coupling (PCC). Standards suggest
that power electronic converters for the purpose of harmonic analysis can be
simply represented by a harmonic current or voltage source. These simple models
have however been shown to give inappropriate results [12]12.
Harmonic studies determine whether or not passive filters are necessary as well as their
rating and frequency characteristics. The filters could have a significant impact on the wind
power plant’s reactive power compensation scheme, and may require large space, affect
magnetic contour distances in the substation and noise levels. Therefore harmonic studies
should be carried out at the earliest possible stage in the project. Harmonic study
methodologies for offshore wind power plants taking into account amplification of
background harmonics as well as distortion caused by wind turbine and SVC harmonic
injections are presented in [13]13.
Requirements and guidelines place maximum limits on various current and voltage
harmonics generated and drawn at the PCC. When connecting large offshore wind power
plants to the AC system, filters may be required in order to ensure that the injection of
harmonics into the grid is limited to acceptable levels. Filtering is required due to the
following effects of harmonics:
• Additional Stresses; the waveform distortion causes losses, resulting in additional
heating and stresses in the equipment.
• Malfunction of electronic equipment; harmonics may cause unpredicted equipment
tripping within the wind power plant.
• Telecommunication system disturbance.
There are two main types of filter; passive and active. Traditionally, passive filters have
been installed in power systems; however interest in active power filters has grown over a
number of years due to more stringent requirements.
Passive Filters
Passive filters are designed to operate at distinct frequencies and are usually shunt
elements creating a low impedance path for the harmonics to be filtered. The filter
comprises capacitors and inductors which make up a resonant circuit.
11
R. A. Turner, K. S. Smith,’Resonance excited by transformer inrush current in Inter‐connected offshore power systems’,
IEEE, 2008
12
L. Kocewiak, J. Hjerrild, C. Bak, ‘Harmonic models of a back‐to‐back converter in large offshore wind power plants
compared with measurement data’, Proceedings of Nordic Wind Power Conference, 2009
13
A. Shafiu, A. Hernandez, F. Schettler, J. Finn, E. Jørgensen “HARMONIC STUDIES FOR OFFSHORE WINDPOWER PLANTS”
Published in ACDC 2010 The 9th international conference on AC and DC transmission. October 2010 London UK
70
Resistors are included in most cases to give the filter a more ‘soft’ damped characteristic so
that impedance variations of the filter (caused by manufacturing tolerances, changes in
temperature, frequency variations, etc.) can be taken into account. The resistor not only
carries the harmonic currents as desired, but also the fundamental frequency current,
resulting in high losses, heating and a possible requirement for forced ventilation. A C‐type
filter provides significant reduction in fundamental frequency loss, as the resistor is in
parallel with a LC resonant circuit tuned to the fundamental frequency.
Active Filters
Active filters can cover a range of frequencies, including inter‐harmonics and non‐
characteristic harmonics. They use power electronics to produce a voltage or current
waveform to mitigate selected harmonics. Active filters reduce each particular harmonic
just by injecting a controlled voltage or current with the frequency of that harmonic.
To achieve a specific harmonic performance active filters have smaller space requirements
and simpler filter arrangements in comparison to passive filter solutions. Active filters for
HV systems are typically shunt connected and equipped with a capacitive coupling
impedance. The coupling impedance allows the fundamental frequency voltage at the active
filter converter to be considerably reduced. As a side effect the active filter branch provides
reactive power and adds resonances with the power system at frequencies that are not
actively filtered. The design of the coupling impedance depends on the voltage and current
ratings of the converter as well as the harmonics to be filtered. The active filter converter
can be bypassed for fundamental frequency current reducing the fundamental frequency
loading to a minimum. They can also provide flexibility for changing frequency
characteristics within their rated capability.
As a power electronic component, an active filter is more complex than a passive filter. As a
consequence the reliability of an active filter branch tends to be lower than those of a
passive filter. In practice, harmonic performance may therefore be required to be
acceptable temporarily with the active filter out of service or adequate redundancy may be
required.
Active damping functionality could be added to a STATCOM [10]. This technique has been
used in the steel industry in MV and LV networks.
71
that are not actively controlled can be calculated according to the principles applied for
passive filter branches.
When successfully implemented, control target b) would make the dedicated network bus
look like a short circuit at the controlled frequency. Considering a given voltage distortion at
a busbar, an active filter cannot distinguish regarding the sources contributing to that
distortion. The individual harmonic frequency voltage distortion will be minimized. At the
same time this affects the targeted harmonic currents in the network. The resulting
harmonic currents may be important, e.g. with respect to possible telecommunication
interference.
Control target a) or b) can be preferred depending on the specific requirements of a project.
In general, the requirements should allow for certain residual harmonic currents or voltages
respectively, which cannot be avoided due to measuring tolerances.
72
the fault currents be known. The types of fault occurrence will fall into one of two
categories.
Phase A
Phase B
Phase C
Asymmetric faults
Asymmetrical faults involve only one or two of the phases and comprise of either phase‐
phase‐earth faults, phase‐phase faults or 1‐phase‐earth faults. The magnitude of the
currents are generally less than the three phase case, but the calculations are more complex
since the system is no longer balanced.
An understanding of the magnitude of these currents is necessary for the purpose of
calculating the settings of the protective equipment.
Ph ase A P ha se A
Ph ase B
Pha se B
Phase C Pha se C
73
impedance will increase. This will decrease fault levels slightly at the expense of increasing
transmission losses. More significant however, will be the type of transformer used and its
corresponding impedance. If fault levels on the wind power plant prove problematically
high, the transformer design can be adjusted to give optimum fault reduction and power
losses. Typical fault infeeds from the grid vary depending on the voltage level and grid
situation at the PCC, i.e. for voltage levels of
400 kV, 275 kV and 132 kV the 3 phase rms fault levels (break duty) may be up to
approximately 63 kA, 40 kA and 40 kA, respectively.
With the infeed from most wind turbine generators decaying rapidly with time (as described
in the following sub‐section), high fault level design considerations are mostly focussed on
the make fault level for offshore AC substations and the limiting of the fault levels at the
point of connection of the individual generators. This connection point can be a critical
factor for the rating of the switchgear installed in the turbines.
Load In In In In
Table 2‐1. Fault level contribution from the different generator types
The fault contribution of these generators reduces with time, and the break fault current
contribution can be assumed to be negligible for the SCIG, DFIG and full scale convertor
connected generators. A synchronous generator can however contribute up to 4.5 times
rated current to the rms system break fault current at its terminals.
The greater the number of WT’s per array and the greater number of arrays in total will
have an impact on the total fault contribution. The fault contribution from the WT’s are
determined from the cable and / or transformer impedance, up to the fault point. As
discussed in Section 2.6.4, if fault levels on the wind power plant exceed equipment design
levels, the transformer design can be adjusted to give optimum fault reduction and power
losses.
74
2.6.6 Transformer Impedance Choice (including Interaction with
Reactive Design)
Transformer internal impedance is usually expressed as a percentage value (%ZT), which
represents a percentage of rated terminal voltage required to circulate full load current in a
short‐circuited secondary winding. This internal impedance comprises a reactance derived
from the effect of leakage flux in the windings (%XT) and an equivalent resistance (%RT) that
represents losses to the current flow (e.g. copper and stray eddy‐current losses).
The transformer impedance has a major effect on system fault level since it determines the
maximum current flow through the transformer under fault conditions. Essentially, a
transformer with a low impedance value leads to high system fault levels, and vice versa. In
reality , the actual fault level is also affected by the grid source impedance, the impedance
of cables between the transformer and the fault, the type of generators connected and the
fault impedance itself, which will be discussed later.
Standard designs from manufacturers have an inherent value of impedance determined by
established arrangements of core and windings. It may however be desirable to decide on a
transformer with impedance greater than standard to limit the short‐circuit duty on
downstream switchgear, or to select a transformer with lower impedance to relieve plant
energisation by reducing the voltage drop.
75
are either 2‐winding or 3‐winding. A 2‐winding transformer is of simpler design marginally
cheaper than a three winding equivalent. Transformer tapping on the HV winding can be
easily incorporated and the appropriate tap setting chosen to adjust the LV voltage to 1.0
p.u. if required. However this design is, in general, characterised with the highest available
fault duties on the MV collector busbar.
A 3‐winding transformer offers the opportunity for the collector circuits to be split between
the two secondary windings. The parallel impedance of these two windings can be
comparable to a two winding equivalent, but when the secondary windings are run split the
impedance is increased. This has the advantage of reducing the fault levels at the collector
circuit level. A 3‐winding configuration can also offer a better interconnection in terms of
redundancy as shown in the figure below. If voltage control using transformer taps is
required, it is preferable to have a balanced load on each of the LV windings to ensure
balanced secondary voltages.
76
on a number of factors that include length, material and cross sectional area of the
conductor, temperature and burial depth, among others. Cable reactance is dependent on
the spacing of the phase conductors and shielding between them. In general, larger spacing
between phases increases the reactance and lower shield resistance increases the positive‐
sequence impedance because shield currents and losses are higher. Thinner insulation also
increases the positive‐sequence impedance because there is increased coupling between
the phase conductor and the shield hence shield currents are higher.
The insulation of the cable acts as a capacitor when energised and the core screen has to
transfer the associated charging current, distributed along the complete cable length, to the
insulation on every half‐cycle of the voltage. This capacitive component will impact on the
reactive component of the fault current and its X/R ratio.
77
configuration in 3‐winding transformers is to have cross‐connected secondary windings (as
shown in Figure 2‐31). This configuration can be operated either permanently or during
faulted condition, i.e. in case one of the secondary windings fails, the systems downstream
can be reconfigured to operate at reduced load through the unfaulted winding. Fault level
change at the MV side should be taken into account.
78
2.7.1 Choice of HV and MV Voltages
It is one of the basic principles of electric transmission and distribution to raise the voltage
to reduce proportionally the current for a given power and therefore reduce the losses with
the square of the current. In practice, the voltage levels should be adapted to each specific
application, taking into account the available range of products complying with the project
requirements and making a balance between the higher cost of using a higher voltage and
the savings due to the lower power losses.
The voltage levels within the electric infrastructure of a wind power plant comprise
commonly a medium voltage level for the internal collection system and a high voltage level
for the export circuits. In most of the initial offshore wind power plant projects the high
voltage level was omitted because of low installed power and short distance to the grid,
which allows to feed directly into the grid the energy yield at medium voltage level.
Nevertheless, with the continuous increasing in installed power this possibility became
unfeasible in practice due to the high number of cables necessary to transport power to
shore and therefore a current offshore wind power plant normally includes an offshore
substation to step‐up the collection system voltage to the transmission voltage for
connection to the power grid onshore.
79
Theoretically, it seems of common sense to apply the basic principle of increasing the
voltage level for reducing the losses and the cable amount at the same time. Nevertheless,
in practice this is not so easy mainly due to aforementioned size issues. There is currently
only one manufacturer offering SF6 metal enclosed switchgear up to 52 kV with sizes that
could possibly be installed inside some wind turbine towers. If this possibility is assumed as
valid the collection system could be designed for 48 kV approximately, although in this case
new problems arise, like scaling up the transformer or the internal cabling of the wind
turbine to this voltage level. This possibility is intended as feasible in the future, although is
currently immature due to the retrofitting process that the wind turbine manufacturers
should carry out in collaboration with electric equipment suppliers. In practice this process
means time to design, time to implement and time to test and certify so if this possibility
was demanded by the market, it could not be implemented immediately.
According to [14] the use of higher voltage levels (up to 66 kV) for the collection systems of
offshore wind power plants can be profitable for wind power plants near shore (4 km) or
with moderate installed power by eliminating the need of an offshore substation14. Anyway,
taking into account the current trends of the offshore wind sector, the wind power plants
will be bigger and further from shore so an offshore substation will be required. This should
not be an obstacle to consider the possibility of using higher voltages for collection systems
by means of a techno‐economic analysis, although at the present moment this is not a
market reality. It seems that for several years the preferred voltage level of the offshore
wind power plant collection systems will remain at 36 kV. Probably the new generation of
offshore wind turbines over 5 MW (currently under developing) will contribute to highlight
the need for using higher voltages for collection systems (and will provide more internal
space for installation of such equipment).
Finally, it is necessary to remark that the voltage level of the collection system has a
negligible influence on substation design, since the differences between 36 kV and 52 kV
switchgear are not significant from either technical or economic points of view within the
whole substation. On the other hand, the feasibility of the use of 72.5 kV switchgear for
collection systems requires considerable consideration, given the important step both in
size and cost regarding the lower levels.
80
• The grid connection point provided by the transmission or distribution network
operator is normally within this voltage range, although in some cases of high
installed power it is necessary to install additional onshore step‐up transformers to
link the installation with the transmission grid (for example 132/400 kV), and thus
provide a suitable way to convey the generated energy.
• There is a technical limitation in practice to install three‐core submarine cables over
170 kV given their high diameters and weights. The first 245 kV three‐core
submarine cable has been recently ordered for the 400 MW Anholt Wind Power
plant (25 km off the Danish coast). This is a significant milestone, which probably will
mean the beginning of a wide use of this voltage level for projects of several
hundreds of MW in the future.
As mentioned above, the voltage level for connection to the grid is not just a technical
driven decision. It is to be highlighted that the 132‐150 kV range allows the installation of
more than one export line (providing redundancy), which will be less feasible with higher
voltages. On the other hand, the next step of AC voltage levels, 400 kV, does not seem to
have a very promising future in offshore wind sector due to the following reasons:
• The 400 kV switchgear and transformers are quite bulky and not easy to arrange on
an offshore platform.
• It is impractical to manufacture a submarine three‐core 400 kV cable because it is
unfeasible to install even with most advanced of the existing cable ships given its
diameter, weight and bending radius. This means that either a lot of development
work has to take place in installation techniques or three single‐core cables should
be installed. The last option entails an important installation cost increase and a
wider right of way on the seabed (which can be a trouble source regarding
environmental permits).
• Theoretically, a 400 kV AC offshore installation seems to be competitive for installed
power over 350/400 MW and for distances above 40/50 km. However, at these
distances 400 kV cables will generate a lot of reactive power, making active power
transmission very inefficient and is therefore not an attractive option.
As a function of the previous reasoning, the following conclusions can be established:
The sub‐transmission voltage levels (110‐150 kV AC) will remain as a common solution for
energy export systems for the offshore wind power plants under different ways:
• Direct connection to the distribution grid onshore.
• Indirect connection to the transmission grid onshore by means of an additional step‐
up transformer (for example 132/400 kV).
• Connection to an offshore HVDC transmission system by means of an offshore
converter substation. This will be a very common solution for bulk wind power
transmission in extensive areas of the UK´s Round Three and German North and
Baltic Seas.
The 245 kV AC level will gain importance for projects up to 350/400 MW and distances to
grid connection point above 30/40 km.
The HVDC voltage source converters will become the most common solution for
development of offshore wind in UK and Germany, including the deployment of Pan‐
European submarine transmission grids mainly in the North Sea.
81
2.7.2 MV Busbar Layouts
The medium voltage switchgear will be made up of metal enclosed, SF6 insulated modules,
each one representing a complete bay itself, since it includes all the switching, breaking and
protection elements, as well as instrument transformers. Therefore, this system allows very
high flexibility to define the configuration of the medium voltage system with low space
requirements within the offshore substation.
The medium voltage busbar arrangement should be approached considering the general
design philosophy of the whole installation regarding functionality and redundancy. On the
other hand, the switchgear itself should be defined according to the voltage rating
(commonly 36 kV), but mainly according to current ratings both for continuous or short‐
circuit operation. For the first offshore substations, the preferred medium voltage
configuration has been a single busbar to which are connected all the array circuits by
means of breakers, even for wind power plants with moderate installed power like Horns
Rev 1 (160 MW) or Lillgrund (110 MW). In the following generation of offshore wind power
plants, like UK´s Round 2 or German projects, the power has been increased to several
hundred MW and this has called for more elaborated designs of the electric layout of the
substations, including the medium voltage system.
Many of these new substations are equipped with two power transformers, so the single
busbar has been divided into two parts for connection to the two transformers and, in some
cases, the transformers have two secondary windings so each one of the medium voltage
semi‐busbars has been again divided into another two parts for connection to the two
windings.
82
Figure 2‐31. Single busbar configuration with two switchable sections for each
transformer (Thanet Wind Power plant). It can be observed the cross connection of the
semi‐busbars to the three‐winding transformers to avoid loss of supply to one half of
the substation in case of a transformer failure.
By means of dividing the busbars into switchable sections (normally disconnected) for three‐
winding transformers, it is possible to reduce the short circuit ratings both for the busbars
and for each one of the connected bays given the increased impedance of this
configuration. For this configuration to provide better availability in case of failure, one
could oversize both the power ratings of the transformers and of the export cables. In this
way, when a transformer fails, it is physically possible to connect the whole wind power
plant to one of the transformers, although the maximum power will be limited by the rating
of the windings. The degree of oversizing should be decided as a result of an optimization
study in every case.
In distribution network installations, the power managed in medium voltage switching
stations is very small compared to an offshore wind power plant, but even so is quite
common to use double busbars. This may be the next step for medium voltage systems of
offshore substations, given that the additional cost is not very significant within the total
cost of the substation and the additional redundancy provides total system availability in
case of failure of a bay or even of a busbar.
83
Figure 2‐32. Lillgrund Electric System. Simple Configuration.
84
M
Figure 2-35. Proposed HVAC Electrical design using two semi-busbar separated with
circuit breaker.
Besides the aforementioned reasons, to carry out a techno‐economic assessment is strongly
recommended, to consider the trade‐off between the initial capital investment, and the lost
energy due to unavailability for both scheduled and unscheduled maintenance (which can
be of particular concern in the marine environment due to the intrinsic difficulty of working
at sea). This may result in some form of redundancy, either partial or full, to be considered
in design phase, which will add to the CAPEX, but will increase the availability and thus
reduce the lost energy along the lifespan of the installation.
Another key factor for selecting a configuration is the capacity of the offshore wind power
plant and their distance to the onshore connection point that rules if a conventional HVAC
solution will be cost‐effective or, other case, a HVDC solution would be more convenient.
Figure 2‐36 shows a solution proposed for a 500 MW wind power plant in the connection
study developed for Round 3 wind power plants, comprising two offshore AC substations
and two three‐core, 245 kV export cables. On the other hand, Figure 2‐37 shows a possible
solution from the same study for a high capacity installation (1100 MW) with a significant
distance to the coast. This configuration consists of two HVAC offshore platforms with three
85
220 MVA power transformers and two power export cables each one for connection to a
HVDC offshore converter station.
Figure 2‐36. Proposed HVAC Electrical design used for the 500 MW wind power plants
for U.K. Round 3 (Source: “THE CROWN ESTATE. Round 3 Offshore Wind Power plant
Connection Study. Version 1.0”)
Figure 2‐37. Proposed HVDC and HVAC Electrical design used for the 1100 MW wind
power plants for U.K. Round 3 (Source: “THE CROWN ESTATE. Round 3 Offshore Wind
Power plant Connection Study. Version 1.0”)
In the first of the previous cases, the busbars of the two substations are connected by
means of breakers. The idea of using two platforms for the same wind power plant could be
86
suitable when the area occupied by the wind power plant is very wide and therefore the
medium voltage circuits are very long (with high losses and important voltage drops). Given
the high cost of an offshore platform, again, it is necessary to develop a study to determine
the boundary from which the use of a second platform is the best techno‐economic option.
Regarding the configuration of the busbar and taking into account a significant installed
power, it is advisable to have some kind of redundancy. It is considered that with a power of
several hundreds of MW a double busbar or ring may be justified (mainly if the installation
involves three or more transformers and two or more export lines). For installations with
two transformers and their corresponding export lines, the semi‐busbars could be the best
option. Anyway, none of this reasoning is useful considered alone, in the sense that for any
redundant element to be useful, it has to be designed taking into account a design
philosophy for the whole installation: from the wind turbines to the grid connection point.
87
2.7.4.2 Medium Voltage Connections
The use of SF6 metal enclosed switchgear entails the use of a cable connection, and
therefore, the secondary windings of the transformers will be fitted with plug‐in bushings
for dry insulated cables. This is a very flexible solution although the route for the cables
should be designed considering the mechanical characteristics of the cables along with
interferences with other elements of the installation. In case of high currents (connection to
big transformers) the use of several cables per phase will be required, although alternatively
a solid bus duct system can be used for medium voltage level too.
88
2.8 Neutral Earthing
A proper grounding scheme is a vital component of any power system. Improperly grounded
systems can result in equipment failures, over‐voltages, and flashovers.
The system earthing is designed to limit the maximum earth fault current, in order to avoid
dangerous step and touch voltages. To achieve this, different earthing designs have to be
used depending on the capacitive coupling to earth of the system. In offshore wind power
plants the type and length of cables determine the capacitance of the system and are
therefore important for the choice of system earthing design.
In three phase systems, the neutral point of a star connected transformer winding is usually
used for grounding. In the case of delta connected systems, a special grounding
arrangement such as Earthing Transformers or Zig‐zag transformers are used.
On the basis of the grounding used, Power Systems can be classified into:‐
• Ungrounded Systems
• Direct Grounded Systems
• Low Resistance Grounded Systems
• High Resistance Grounded Systems
• Isolated systems
These methods have different properties and give different features to the network,
especially at earth‐faults. One method may be suitable for one type of grid while quite
inconvenient for another. Traditionally, the direct grounding system is used for HV systems,
in transmission networks (above 100 kV) effective grounding is commonly used [15]15. The
isolated alternative is typically used for smaller LV and MV networks [16]16.
The neutral earthing influences the current and voltage stresses during double and single
phase faults with ground connection. Table 2‐2 shows typical levels of voltage rises on
healthy phases for different methods of system grounding in networks [15].
Phase-
Grounding
Earth
Method
voltage
Isolated 1.73 pu
Solid <1.4 pu
Resistance <1.73 pu
Reactance <1.73 pu
Earthing
transformer <1.73 pu
Table 2-2. Typical voltage rise on healthy phases for different grounding methods.
In offshore wind power plants the higher repair costs as well as the longer down times in
comparison with onshore substations are especially important; therefore there are different
priorities to those in classic transmission substations when considering the earthing
method. For this goal to be achieved a fast and selective clearing of the fault is needed, at
the same time the temporary over voltages in the healthy phases must be effectively
limited. Thus, a phase to ground fault in the offshore wind power plant must not lead to a
15
P.Hansen, J.Ostergaard, J.Christiansen, “System Grounding of wind power plant medium voltage cable grids”Nordic Wind
Power Conference, November 2007, Roskilde, Denmark
16 th
B. Franken, H.Breder, M.Dahlgren, E. Nielsen, ‘Collection grid topologies for offshore wind parks’, CIRED 18
international Conference on Electricity Distribution, Turin, June 2005
89
cascade tripping of the wind turbine generators or to endangerment of other offshore
network components [17]17.
Earthing transformers
Earthing transformers are used to provide a ground path to either an ungrounded "Y" or a
delta connected system. Earthing transformers are typically used to:
• Provide a relatively low impedance path to ground, thereby maintaining the earthing
transformer neutral at or near ground potential.
• Limit the magnitude of transient over voltages when re‐striking ground faults occur.
• Provide a source of ground fault current during line‐to‐ground faults.
• Permit the connection of single phase loads when desired.
• Allow location and therefore selective clearing of ground faults.
Grounding transformers are normally constructed either with:
• A ZigZag (Zn) connected winding with or without an auxiliary winding or
• As a Wye (Ynd) connected winding with a delta connected secondary that may or may not
be used to supply auxiliary power
Wye connected earthing transformers, require a delta connected secondary.
The Zig‐Zag connection can be used without a Delta connected winding or the 4‐ or 5‐leg
core design normally used for this purpose in distribution and power transformers.
Eliminating the need for a secondary winding can make this option both less expensive and
17
R. van de Sandt et al, “Neutral Earthing in Offshore Wind Power plant Grids” IEEE, Bucharest, Power Tech Conference
2009
18
Maßnahmen bei Beeinflussung von Fernmeldeanlagen durch Starkstromanlagen, DIN VDE 0228‐2:1987
19
A.Guldbrand, O.Samuelsson, ‘Central or Local Compensation of Earth‐Fault Currents in Non‐Effectively Earthed
Distribution Systems’
20
S. Johansson et al, ‘AC Cable solutions for Offshore Wind Energy’. Copenhagen Offshore Wind, 2005
90
smaller than a comparable two‐winding grounding transformer, and therefore provide
grounding with a smaller unit than a two‐winding Wye‐Delta transformer.
It is important to understand that Zig‐Zag transformers can also have the ability to provide
auxiliary power, and this can be either a Wye or Delta connected load.
A solidly grounded system using a grounding transformer offers many safety improvements
over an ungrounded system. However, the ground transformer alone lacks the current
limiting ability of a resistive grounding system. For this reason, neutral ground resistors are
often used in conjunction with the grounding transformer to limit neutral ground fault
current magnitude. Their ohm values should be specified to allow high enough ground fault
current flow to permit reliable operation of the protective relaying equipment, but low
enough to limit thermal damage. Earth fault factors using earthing transformers can reach
values of 1.73.
When a solidly earthed earthing transformer is used the magnitude of the phase to ground
short circuit current can be influenced through:
• Changing the zero sequence impedance of the transformer.
• The number of grounded transformers.
An optimisation is possible as a compromise between the magnitude of the phase to ground
short circuit current and the earth fault factor.
There is the risk of losing the earthing transformer and thus the effective grounding in case
of a transformer fault. In order to reduce this risk redundant earthing transformers or
busbar couplers to neighboring earthed busbars should be considered.
The grounding impedance using earthing transformers can be tuned by adjusting the
transformer’s zero sequence impedance. This type of grounding has been applied in several
UK wind power plants as well as in Denmark.
Solid Earthing
A solid earthing leads to higher phase to ground short circuit currents, which can be quickly
cleared with high selectivity with a simple protection concept. Special attention has to be
paid to:
• The high short circuit current magnitudes which may cause damage at the fault
location as well as unacceptable cable sheath currents in case of offshore wind
power plant collection grids
• Dangerous step and touch voltages.
The advantages of solid earthing are:
• Fast and selective clearing of faults.
• Lower voltage stresses caused by temporary overvoltages.
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Reactance grounded system
In isolated systems with a strong capacitive connection to ground the capacitive earth fault
currents may become problematic. In reactance grounded systems the earth fault current is
decreased by using neutral point reactors called Petersen Coils. A special case of reactance
grounded system is when the reactance is designed to exactly compensate the capacitive
earth fault current, for this case single phase to ground fault currents can be reduced to a
very small resistive component, this is called resonance grounding. Resonance grounding
sometimes used on overhead distribution systems is not used in wind power plants because
of other disadvantages. The disadvantages include
• The resulting over voltages in the healthy phases (earth fault factor can reach 1.73 or
higher).
• The relatively small fault current which is critical with respect to fast selective fault
clearing.
21
Anna Guldbrand, ‘Earth faults in Extensive Cable Networks’, Licentiate Thesis, Lund University, Sweden 2009
92
Figure 2‐39. Cable discharge when de‐energising export cable.
If the offshore transformer is not earthed at the star point or a circuit breaker is used at the
offshore substation, then any voltage transformers fitted on the cable circuit at either end
can effectively discharge the cables. Figure 2‐40 shows that a voltage transformer located at
the onshore or at the offshore end, can lead to the discharge of the cable after opening of
the circuit breakers. The voltage transformers need to be designed so that they can
withstand the electromechanical and thermal stresses of the cable discharge, even if this is
not their primary purpose (e.g. Voltage transformer for point on wave switching at the
offshore end of the cable).
Y
Y
Y
Y
If the offshore transformer is not earthed at the star point or a circuit breaker is used at the
offshore substation, and there are no voltage transformers at either end of the cable circuit
then another option to discharge the cables is through the cable earth switch. After opening
the onshore and offshore end circuit breakers, an earth switch can be used to create a path
to ground for the cable to discharge (See Figure 2‐41). The discharging current has to be
regarded for the design of the earthing switch regarding in magnitude and di/dt.
M
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If GIS/AIS equipment is used at the onshore end then the cable earth switch will be a fault
making earth switch and it would be recommended that after de‐energising the cable circuit
the cable earth switch is closed to discharge the cable and then re‐opened before re‐
energising. This can be made an operational procedure to ensure that the cable is never
energised when it still has trapped charge.
22 Lars Liljestrand, A. S. (2007). Transients in collection grids of large offshore wind parks. Wind Energy, Volume 11, Issue 1 , 45‐61.
94
methods were tested in an Elforsk report [23]23, with the combination of surge capacitor
protection and surge arresters performing best.
23
Reza, M. and Breder, H., (2009) Cable System Transient Study, Vindforsk V‐110. Experiments with switching transients
and their mitigation in a windpower collection grid scale model, Elforsk report 09:05. Available from
http://www.vindenergi.org/Vindforskrapporter/09_05_rapport.pdf
24
IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group (2009). Wind Power Plant Grounding, Overvoltage
Protection, and Insulation Coordintion. IEEE Power & Energy Society General Meeting. Calgary.
95
overvoltages can be obtained. Below the typical causes for transient overvoltages in
offshore wind power plants are listed.
Figure 2-42. Three phase voltages at the MV platform during energisation of a radial. A)
when no other radials are connected. B) when all other radials are already energized.
The lower surge impedance at the source side of the VCB also means that any reflected
voltage wave coming from the feeder being energized sees a lower surge impedance when
it reaches the busbar, resulting in a reflection back into the feeder. The effect of this can be
seen Figure 2‐43. The voltage magnitude at the terminals of the wind turbine transformer is
higher when the radial is energized with no other radials connected. The rate of change of
voltage at the terminals of the wind turbine is higher when the radial is energized with all
other radials already connected.
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Figure 2-43. Voltage in phase B at the terminals of a wind turbine in a radial being
energized. A) when no other radials are connected. B) when all other radials are
connected.
The travelling wave characteristics of the cable system can be seen Figure 2‐44. There is a
high rate of change of voltage close to the vacuum circuit breaker at the platform. As the
wave reaches each successive turbine in the radial, it becomes rounded due to the damping
in the cable. When the wave reaches the last wind turbine in the radial (WT8 in the
example shown), the wave is visibly rounded and the voltage is nearly doubled due to the
wave meeting the open end of the radial. Due to this doubling effect within the radials,
surge arresters located within the offshore substation may not provide good overvoltage
protection for the equipment located along the radial. For this reason, surge arresters may
need to be located at the ends of each radial.
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Figure 2‐44. Voltage wave in one phase as it propagates through a wind turbine radial
during energisation when all other radials are already energised. The red waveform
represents the voltage at the array side of the circuit breaker. The other waveforms
show the voltage seen at the base of each wind turbine. The different coloured circles
from wind turbine 1 (WT1) to wind turbine 8 (WT8) correspond to the colours in the
graph.
98
Figure 2‐45. Phase‐to‐ground voltages at the first wind turbine transformer (red) and
last transformer in a radial (blue) after a single‐line‐to‐ground fault has been applied at
the base of the first wind turbine.
Figure 2‐46. Three phase voltage and current across a VCB which is clearing a SLGF in a
radial.
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Reactor switching
Switchable reactors can be used to compensate cable charging currents in offshore wind
power plants with long cables. To limit possible over voltages during disconnection due to
circuit breaker re‐strikes or re‐ignition, controlled switching and arresters can be used.
When using vacuum breakers, high frequency voltage oscillations in the reactor can occur
during disconnection due to circuit breaker re‐strikes. The use of special RC damping circuits
may be employed to avoid current zero crossing after the first re‐strike and therefore
prevent high frequency voltage oscillations and damage to the reactor. For HV export cables
it is unlikely that vacuum CBs will be used, although the principles are still valid.
Circuit breakers can be tested for transient recovery voltage (TRV) associated with fault
clearing, however routine switching will cause the generation of very fast transients which if
unchecked will damage insulation and contacts. In both cases, the designer needs to be
confident that the condition and capability of the CB is not compromised for both fault
clearing and routine switching when operated near reactors.
Transformer Energisation
Inrush currents occur during transformer energisation when the core becomes saturated.
Inrush currents can have a very high magnitude and significant harmonic content. The
harmonic rich transformer inrush currents can interact with the harmonic resonances of the
power system and result in overvoltages lasting several seconds [25]25.
In the case of offshore wind power plants high inductances (relatively weak power systems)
and higher capacitances (long cables) yield lower resonance frequencies and a higher
chance of TOV. In addition the more extensive use of cable is likely to result in longer
duration resonance conditions (many tens of seconds)
Ground Faults
As described in section 2.9.4 ground faults can cause transient overvoltages, however they
can also cause temporary overvoltages lasting for seconds, depending on the system
protection settings and grounding strategy. For more details refer to Section 2.8.
25
Turner, R.A. and Smith, K.S. (2008) Resonance Excited by Transformer Inrush Current in Inter‐Connected Offshore Power
Systems. in Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting, IAS '08. IEEE
100
Load rejection
Temporary overvoltages could occur immediately after the main circuit breaker at the
onshore connection point disconnects the wind power plant from the rest of the
transmission network, so the wind power plant and Export cable goes into isolated
operation [26,27]26,27. Depending on the protection system of the wind turbines, they may
continue to inject active current into the isolated network, charging its capacitance. Once
the turbines disconnect, the energy stored in the long AC cable capacitance and the shunt
reactor inductance could oscillate with a low frequency, leading to high overvoltages lasting
for several seconds. In this case, overvoltage protection which is able to absorb the energy
from the cable/reactor system may be applied.
26
Akhmatov, V. (2006). Excessive Overvoltage in Long Cables of Large Offshore Wind power plants. Wind Engineering, Vol.
30, No. 5 , 375‐383.
27
W. Wiechowski, P. B. (2008). Selected Studies on Offshore Wind Power plant Cable Connections ‐ Challenges and
Experience of the Danish TSO. Power and Energy Society General Meeting ‐ Conversion and Delivery of Electrical Energy in
the 21st Century (pp. 1‐8). Pittsburgh, PA: IEEE.
28
Larsson, A. (May 2008). Practical Experiences gained at Lillgrund Offshore Wind Power plant. Wind Integration
Workshop. Madrid: Energynautics.
101
higher voltages the arrester starts to absorb energy according to its VI characteristic. All the
expected TOV magnitudes and durations should be compared with the manufacturer’s TOV
capability curves (power frequency voltage vs time characteristic Figure 2‐47) for the surge
arresters installed. Typical TOV causes in offshore windpower plants are described in section
2.9.5.
Phase‐to‐Phase Overvoltages
Arresters are typically installed phase to ground, so they may not provide adequate phase‐
to‐phase protection for delta connected transformer windings. Increasing the phase‐to‐
phase insulation strength (LIWL) of the transformer may not be possible due to the fact that
the transformer may have been ordered a few years in advance. Phase to phase surge
arresters could be installed in either of the arrangements shown in Figure 2‐48. If they are
required, consideration of their location should be made as there is limited space on the
offshore platform. The energy handling capability for phase to phase of phase to ground
faults needs to be studied.
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Figure 2‐48. Configurations for phase‐to‐phase surge arresters.
Further Work
The waveforms experienced within an offshore wind power plant can be significantly
different to the test waveforms specified by the IEC. This raises the question as to whether
the standard waveforms are appropriate. CIGRE WG C54‐142 “Electrical Environment for
Transformers” is currently looking at this issue and will be including recommendations on
standards for waveforms. The work of CIGRE WG A2/C4‐309 “Electrical Transient
Interaction between Transformers and the Power System” may also be relevant.
It is very difficult, if not impossible, to obtain models of wind turbines from manufacturers
for transient studies. It has been suggested to form a new CIGRE working group with the
aim to produce a ‘benchmark’ transient model for DFIG and full converter wind turbines.
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Figure 2‐49. Tolerance level for Voltage variation against frequency.
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power from a wind turbine the actual level of flicker produced is a function of both the short
circuit level and the grid angle (X/R ratio) of the connection point. As early wind turbines
were connected in remote locations with weak grids and low X/R ratios the level of flicker
being produced was higher.
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Apart from the mitigation strategies mentioned in Section 2.10.4, the following may be
considered in order to reduce voltage fluctuation at the PCC during energisation of main
electrical components.
• Pre‐inserted resistors
• Point on wave switching
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• To determine maximum short circuit contribution from the wind turbine
generators to the point of common coupling.
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network, so chopping and re‐ignition are less of a concern, however the capacitance
trapped in the long cables and high operating voltage generate some onerous condition
when energised. The nature of the transients generated during switching or faults in a
predominantly cabled network will be quite different in shape and amplitude to that of an
overhead line network (longer in duration and possible higher in energy). The combination
of transformers and cables provide a very harmonic and resonance rich spectrum of
transients that could affect protection, particularly if it is based on traditional OHL design
principles. The key points to consider include:
• The size of inrush currents and the energy handling requirements of surge
arresters, prior to specifying any surge arresting equipment.
• The impact of transients where export cables connect to the mature onshore
network – The studies should identify the profile of the transients generated
within the onshore substation, existing protection settings sensitivity should
be checked particularly with regard to the duration of inrush currents and
overvoltages associated with resonance.
Where point on wave is considered, the impact of incorrect VT wiring or timing failure
should be examined on the adjacent plant.
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• To assess whether the wind power plant module(s) are able to ride through
these voltage sags and show a stable post‐fault behaviour (in accordance
with Grid Code Fault Ride Through requirements)
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3. Electrical Equipment Considerations
3.1 Introduction
This section gives guidance on how to write the technical specifications for the main
electrical equipment to be located on the offshore substation. These are MV Switchgear,
Main Transformers and Reactors, Auxiliary transformers, HV Switchgear and Export and
Array Cables. When considering the specification aspects for equipment these can generally
be divided into four main sub groups as follows:‐
3.2 MV Switchgear
3.2.1 Aspects of Specification which come from System Studies
3.2.1.1 Voltage and Current Ratings
The voltage of the array collection system will have been studied and decided in the system
studies described in Section 2 of this brochure. For virtually all offshore wind power plant
systems which have required an offshore substation the voltage has been 33 kV nominal i.e.
36 kV IEC rated voltage. For further information on collector voltage considerations please
refer to Section 2.7.1.
If we consider the current rating of the array collection circuits then 40MVA would require a
current of approximately 700A thus requiring the use of 1250A panels. If the array collection
MVA is limited to 36 MVA then 630A panels could be used.
For the transformer incomer circuits, most manufacturers will manufacture panels rated up
to 2500A maximum. This means that the maximum transformer winding rating which can be
connected via a single circuit breaker is 142 MVA. It is possible to connect higher winding
ratings by means of connecting two panels in parallel to achieve the higher rating but
adequate allowance has to be made for the unequal sharing between the two panels. It is
expected that ratings up to approximately 250 MVA could be accommodated in this way.
The next current consideration is the current rating of the busbar. Certain manufacturers
may offer a busbar rating up to 4000A. This equates to a rating of 228MVA. This does not
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mean that the maximum load which can be accommodated on the switchboard is 228MVA
but it does mean that the relative placing of the circuit breakers on the board needs to be
taken into account.
Based on the considerations above the current ratings of the array cable circuits, the
transformer incomer circuits (including if two are required in parallel) and the busbar rating
can be defined in the specification.
3.2.1.3 Lightning Impulse Withstand Level (LIWL) and Surge Arrester Ratings
Usually if the switchgear is rated at 36 kV then the LIWL rating of the equipment in
accordance with IEC will be 170 kV peak. However, from experience on some wind power
plants the phase to phase surge voltages can give rise to high switching surge voltages.
Some manufacturers have extended the capability of their 36 kV equipment to operate at
40.5 kV and this may have a LIWL rating of 185 kV peak associated with it. If the results of
the insulation coordination are showing that higher than normal LIWL are required then this
may be a possible solution. Usually, it is the phase to phase overvoltages which are a
problem rather than the phase to earth voltage so that another way of dealing with this is to
specify switchgear which is fully phase segregated.
In order to control the overvoltage on the 36 kV system transferred through the transformer
it’s often required to fit surge arresters on the 36 kV system. These surge arresters may
sometimes be fitted at the LV terminals of the transformer but in some cases it is necessary
to fit these arresters at the incomer circuits of the 36 kV switchboard. If these are to be
accommodated in the switchboard then the rated voltage of the arrester and its energy
capability as derived from the insulation coordination studies must be specified. If needed
from insulation level point of view, arresters may also be installed phase‐to‐phase.
3.2.1.4 Configuration
There are various different configurations which can be used for the 36 kV switchboards. In
this section only a few of the basic options will be mentioned.
The first choice is should the switchboard be a double busbar design or a single busbar
design? A double busbar design means that every circuit either incomer or array cable can
be selected to either busbar. The two busbars can either be run separate with the bus
coupler circuit breaker open or run coupled with the bus coupler breaker closed. If the
substation has two transformers then one transformer can be run normally connected to
the main busbar and the other connected to the reserve busbar. In theory the double
busbar arrangement has the advantage that if a busbar fault occurs to one busbar all circuits
can be connected to the other busbar. The reality of this very much depends upon the
physical construction of the busbar. However, double busbar switchgear is more costly and
requires more space because the switchboard is deeper than the single switchboard option.
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In the majority of offshore substations built to date the switchboards have been of single
busbar design.
If single busbar design is chosen then the next question is how many separate sections of
switchboard are required? This decision will be driven by the type of transformer being
used. If the transformers are two winding then each transformer gets its own section of 36
kV switchboard. Another consideration is whether or not these two separate sections of
switchboard are to be located in two separate rooms to avoid a fire from affecting both
switchboards. If one room is acceptable then the two switchboards will normally be
connected via a bus section panel, whilst if separate rooms are required then an
interconnector possibly using bus duct connections will be required.
If the transformers being used are three winding type then for a station having two
transformers it would be normal to have four separate sections of busbar, with one winding
from a transformer connected to each busbar. This cross connected configuration with bus
section circuit breakers between the two sections enables all of the inter array cables to be
connected to either transformer in the event of loss of one transformer. This type of
configuration has been used and proposed for various wind power plants.
Another possibility with the single busbar arrangement is to connect the separate sections
of busbar round in a ring. This configuration has been used with three off three winding
transformers where the three winding transformer was used to more evenly share the load
currents rather than for fault current limiting.
Clearly there are various different options which can be chosen but the option selected
must align with the assumptions used in both the load flow and short circuit studies and also
take account of the reliability and availability calculations.
If the wind power plant is relatively small the offshore substation may only have one
transformer. In such a case the transformer may be three winding in order to limit the fault
levels arising from the fault infeed from the WTGs. In this case there would be two separate
sections of 36 kV busbar. Another possibility is the use of a single two winding transformer
with two connections from the secondary winding one to each side of the bus section in a
36 kV two section busbar.This would be acceptable depending on fault level contribution
and by having two separate sections would mean that a busbar fault would only lose half of
the WTGs.
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3.2.2 Aspects of Specification which come from Generic Operation and
Maintenance Considerations
Experience with offshore installations to date has shown that the cost of maintenance and
the downtime during faults or equipment failures are two of the most significant differences
when it comes to the specification of MV switchgear for offshore installations compared to
onshore installations. In the first instance, a very high level of reliability is an economic
imperative and this is achieved through very exacting and accurate specifications. Additional
component redundancy is also an important consideration to achieve very high levels of
availability. A very rapid repair time is also necessary to achieve minimal revenue losses
during equipment failures. A further consideration is the harsh corrosive environment that
the equipment will be located in. Whilst it is assumed in this guide that the MV switchgear
will be housed in environmentally controlled switchrooms, an allowance for additional
corrosion protection would be recommended as inevitably the external environment will
have some impact on the equipment during any downtime of the environmental control
units and when the switchroom is exposed to the elements during major maintenance
activities.
One of the major challenges faced by switchgear is for it to function correctly after very long
periods of non‐functioning. To this end consideration should be given to the regular
operation of switchgear and the interval of such operations should be agreed during the
FMECA and RCM studies at the point that gives maximum reliability. To achieve this, it
should be co‐ordinated with the substation configuration design and other maintenance
activities. It could also be an automated function that operates during periods of low wind
non‐production at the specified intervals so as to minimise revenue loss as well as
minimizing switchgear wear as interrupted currents will be very low under these conditions.
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On offshore platforms space is normally at a premium and the user should try to minimise
the space required for racking in/out of switchgear and other maintenance activities. In
order to achieve minimal repair times, detailed consideration should be given to the
handling and storage of spare components, tools and the breakers themselves and also the
ease with which they can be moved around and on and off the platform.
3.2.2.5 Spares
In order to minimise repairs on board the platform itself, it is recommended that the
switchgear be highly modularised to minimise the work required to be carried out offshore
and enable any detailed or intricate repair work to be carried out onshore as much as
possible. Most of the components in a bay are common, so generally keeping a spare bay
onshore will address most issues. Transport facilities to get the bay onto the platform and
lifting must be thought out in advance, including the loading procedures and transfer from
the platform laydown area to the MV hall. Lifting equipment and logistics on the platform
need to be considered on the fully commissioned offshore installation and not during
construction.
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For MV offshore wind networks – which to date tend to be dominated by 36 kV service
voltage and associated products for the array connections – the situation is more onerous,
as the designs of available switchgear products have evolved from an indoor service
requirement and there is no consideration for outdoor duty in their underpinning
development.
Establishing and maintaining adequate and reliable control of switchroom environmental
conditions is a critical issue for offshore substations. Despite a tendency to specify gas‐
insulated switchgear designs in this voltage range (and by this eliminating any influence of
air content on dielectric performance) any inadvertent exposure of the switchgear assembly
to the highly onerous saline content of ambient marine air can rapidly deteriorate
switchgear condition. This is not limited to cosmetic corrosion alone, as most gas‐insulated
designs still employ air‐insulated components to some extent (operating mechanisms;
closing and tripping coils; protection devices; secondary circuits and terminations; local
controls and instrumentation). A recommendation is therefore to install salt filters in any air
inlets and let the indoor environment be slightly over‐pressured compared to the outside or
install heating systems to avoid any condensation.
Close attention to the design and layout of switchrooms on offshore platforms can also
significantly reduce the susceptibility of switchrooms to inadvertent harmful ingress of salt
saturated air. Examples include appropriate ingress protection ratings for switchroom doors
and proper location of door entries to minimise any risk of water ingress when access is
required during storm conditions. Sequential door layouts for exterior points of access with
an intermediate “porch” area between them to avoid direct exposure of switchroom
contents to the prevailing weather, may appear obvious but are not necessarily employed.
In marine environment, the equipment is exposed to extreme weather conditions such as
high humidity and the prevailing offshore winds that make fog and mist. For this reason, it
will be important to select an adequate medium voltage switchgear for the offshore
platforms.
It seems evident that SF6 Gas Insulated Switchgear (GIS) or cubicle type Gas Insulated
Switchgear (C‐GIS) will be desired rather than air insulated Metal‐Clad Switchgear (MCS)
which has potential risk of primary insulation deterioration by oxygen and moisture.
Also the space required for the switchgear with the Gas Insulated Switchgear is lower than
the air insulated medium voltage Switchgear. This aspect is important to take into account
on offshore platform where the space is limited
It will be important to consider what should be the measures against different
environmental agents like corrosion, condensation and combination of them.
Different factors such as high humidity, the appearance of condensation or an increase in
the amount of pollution in the atmosphere can cause atmospheric corrosion. This is a
process that takes place in a film of moisture on the metal surface. A solution against the
corrosion that may take place in the medium voltage switchgear is to apply an anticorrosion
coating system in accordance with the current issue of the ISO 12944 standard series. For
the very high corrosive conditions in the marine environment, the paint system category
should be C4 for indoors. Some of the typical materials for these anticorrosion paintings are
chlorinated rubber, epoxy, polyurethane, coal tar vinyl, coal tar epoxy, polyvinyl chloride
among others. It is important to realise that the medium voltage switchgear employed in
offshore substations is commonly installed protected from the direct environmental
impacts, inside enclosures or buildings with controlled conditions, and therefore not
115
exposed to humid and saline air. In this way, the finishing of the switchgear surfaces for use
in offshore platforms can be the manufacturer’s standard.
116
of forces and vibrations. This is especially critical for connections and interfaces between
components. They are normally designed for static conditions.
During the sea transportation the platform may be subjected to roll, pitch and heave which
will impose forces onto the parts of switchgear. The magnitude of these forces will be
dependent on the degree of roll and pitch, the duration of transport, the location of the
platform on the barge/vessel, the height above the centre of gravity of the barge/vessel.
The limiting motion criteria for the sail out should be confirmed at an early stage of the
substation design process.
This topic is discussed in more detail in Section 4.8 – Load out, transportation and
installation.
The design of the switchgear should make due allowance for these additional external
forces and this may require special attachments to facilitate the fitting of sea transport
fastening.
The design should also consider any forces that may be introduced at the time of lift for
moving to the vessel and the final lift process necessary to install a substation platform on
its foundation.
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are preferred. They allow a very large number of switching operations (up to 30,000 at rated
current, i.e. 3 times higher than SF6‐breakers) without any inspection or maintenance. As
this technology is available up to 36 kV this is the highest voltage level applicable for
installation on offshore substations. Considering the new rated voltage of 40.5 kV which is
under consideration as future standard voltage in IEC 60071 and IEC 60038 (mainly due to
its wide application in China) the service voltage can be increased to 38 kV. But it has to be
considered that currently there are fewer manufacturers of GIS with vacuum breakers at
40.5 kV than at 36 kV.
The use of vacuum breakers has further advantages for the application in offshore
substations. The medium‐voltage distribution grid of a wind power plant is a cable grid and
therefore often requires switching of capacitive currents of no‐ or low‐load cables. This task
can be done by vacuum breakers in an excellent manner. The generation of overvoltages
caused by chopping of the small currents during switching today is reduced in state‐of‐the‐
art vacuum breakers by the selection of suitable contact material and its mechanical design.
3.2.3.3.2 Interlocking
During normal operation the complete offshore wind power plant is remote controlled from
a central control room located onshore (unmanned substation) or offshore (manned
substation). Faulty operations, e.g. earthing of a live cable or connection of asynchronous
parts of the grid is avoided by the control and protection system, and additional hardwired
(or software acc. IEC 61850) electrical interlocks typically employing blocking solenoids. For
maintenance purposes manual operation of the switchboards is required. A project key
decision is the application of manual maintenance interlocking for use as part of a safe
system of work ‐ e.g. "permit system". Within the substation this is a less complex issue,
where the presence of personnel enables manual interlocking schemes to be practically
implemented. However, where such schemes are introduced between the substation
platform and downstream array circuits to connected wind turbines, these introduce
additional sea‐based transportation which in itself bears a safety risk in addition to added
process downtime.
Project decisions are necessary on how this balance of commercial and human risk is to be
balanced. Although many UK onshore transmission and distribution network operators
would typically rely on procedures, training and competency where substantial distances
are involved in managing remote isolations, it should be recognised that offshore operators
may emanate from other sectors ‐ such as generation ‐ which may not necessarily have
evolved from the same sector of industry, and where such a purely procedural approach
may be seen to depart from their recognised working practices.
A related issue that faces the use of maintenance interlocking, particularly in the UK, is the
increasing difficulty in applying solely mechanically‐derived key interlocking to many types
of the indoor gas‐insulated switchgear that dominates the product base for all onshore and
offshore installations at and above 24 kV ‐ key interlocking being critical to interface
"mechanically" with remote plant and locations where maintenance interlocking is required.
An important point is the scope for misinterpretation of a "mechanical" coded key seen
mounted in some switchboards or key exchange boxes as being part of a truly mechanical
interlock. There are many examples where these could be mistaken for a traditional fully‐
mechanical scheme ‐ whereas they are reliant on solenoids or limit switches which are not
visible externally, but in the UK would be considered invalid as a maintenance interlock in
many operating company's Safety Rules.
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In the UK all this leads to a tendency to have to use such interlocking systems to support
procedural safe systems of work, rather than depend directly upon them. This in turn
requires additional padlocking and human intervention, along with focused training and
awareness.
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Construction Design and Management Regulations require a formal identification and
addressing of such issues at the design stage, though the role of CDM Designer defined in
the Regulations.
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z The switchgear design should take due note of the fact that the cable entries will
generally need to be effectively sealed, where they enter the room/enclosure, against
fire and possibly the marine environment. Again the position of the cable head on the
switchgear will influence the facilities which need to be built into the room/enclosure
where the cable connections enter.
The location of the switchgear bays within the switchboard should be reviewed with the
substation platform layout to determine the approach routes for the cable/busduct
connections.
The physical locations of the sub‐sea cable entries at the platform cable deck and relative
positions of connected plant items will generally dictate a preferred cable route. The bays
should be arranged to mitigate external cable crosses where possible.
The switchgear base will normally be fixed directly to steel floor plates or rails on the
platform and the floor should be of a simple design to facilitate this type of fixing.
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Figure 3‐2. Example of 36 kV busduct entry to switchgear bottom
122
personnel access. Large steel doors used offshore may be excessively heavy so
incorporation of removable panels in the enclosure may be an effective alternative to keep
the doors to an acceptable or standard size.
The switchroom should contain a fire detection/alarm system and the substation fire plan
will detail if the switchroom/enclosure is to be designed as a passive fire protection or
contain an automatic fire suppression system. Where a fire rating is assigned to the
switchroom wall then any access doors within the wall must be suitably fire rated to match
that of the wall.
The room/enclosure layout should consider emergency egress from the room in the event
of an incident. Consideration needs to be given to the room dimensions and positioning of
the switchgear to provide suitable escape routes and doors. For other than small rooms this
normally means there should be at least two points of access/egress. In certain
circumstances an escape hatch can be provided to replace a second full size door. All
hinged doors and escape hatches should include panic bars on the internal face.
During an internal fault, or failure of a gas zone within an SF6 switchboard, high pressure
gasses may be vented into the room/enclosure. The volume and pressure of these gasses
when vented into the room will cause an overpressure within the room. This overpressure
needs to be evaluated and if necessary suitable pressure relief devices built into the room to
prevent mechanical damage to walls, doors etc and injury to people who may be in the
room at the time of the discharge.
It is common on offshore structures to identify areas which may be subject to an unplanned
release of gasses and to include in the design a gas detection system for identified areas.
Where GIS switchgear is used there has sometimes been a requirement from Clients to
include an SF6 gas detection system separate from the switchgear. This independent
detection system would typically initiate an alarm to a SCADA system and a warning beacon
with sounder external to the room.
Given the SF6 alarm systems integral to the switchgear the beacon & sounder could be
initiated from the switchgear negating the need for an independent scheme. This solution
should be investigated where practical.
The electrical equipment which will be housed in these rooms has been designed for indoor
use in Normal Service Conditions where:‐
a) The ambient air temperature does not exceed 40 oC and its average value, measured
over a period of 24 hours, does not exceed 35 oC
The minimum ambient air temperature is –5 oC for class “minus 5 indoor” as defined in
clause 2 of IEC Standard 60694:1996
b) The conditions of humidity are as stated in clause 2 of IEC Standard 60694:1996
The heating system to these areas should maintain a minimum ambient air temperature of
+5 oC
The ventilation system should incorporate maintainable salt filters
Reliance on watertight substation designs, accompanied with adequate and reliable heating,
ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) systems is of paramount importance, and in turn
places great emphasis on the performance of substation HVAC systems. Consideration
should be given to using redundant systems. Whilst some HVAC manufacturers may state
that their products are designed to withstand sea‐going environments, their ability to do so
reliably should be subject to increased inspection and maintenance frequencies compared
to onshore. This leads to a conflict with inherent pressures across the offshore wind
industry to extend intervals between substation inspection and maintenance activities in
123
order to minimise cost and risk associated with the offshore transportation of field service
personnel.
Effective remote monitoring of substation operating conditions is therefore a crucial factor
in mitigating against exposure of offshore switchgear to any degradation in the control of
the switchroom service environment. Sole reliance on fault alarms from HVAC systems is
limited in effectiveness. Continuous measurement of actual switchroom temperature and
humidity employing low‐set alarm thresholds with remote annunciation is essential to
provide any opportunity for effective early response for unmanned offshore platforms.
Coil
Spacer
Radial
core block
Coil
A risk of transformer failure or a platform fire is a major problem, since the compact nature
of the platform is such that it is very likely adjacent equipment may be damaged.
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Liquid‐immersed transformers or other liquid‐immersed components filled with mineral oil
may be major contributors to fire risks by acting as fire sources. Other substation
components, like diesel fuel storages or other electrical apparatus are also important
contributors to fire risks in the confined substation space. In this case, the transformer could
become subject to the fire. Oil leaks from transformers may result in environmental
pollution when not collected properly by dump tanks. This together with other health and
safety issues may be a driver for the type of insulation system to be chosen for transformer
to be installed on the platform (e.g. gas or alternative fluid).
Transformers on the platform ideally need to be light weight, small, low maintenance and
reliable for reducing the building and operational costs.
This section describes the major considerations in transformer specification for offshore
substations. Various design options are discussed.
3.3.1.3 Impedance
Usually a dominant factor in choosing the impedance of the transformer will be the need to
limit the fault level to that which can be accommodated by the 36 kV ring main units
associated with each Wind Turbine Generator (WTG). Naturally allowance has to be made
for the infeed from the WTGs and this varies significantly between different designs of WTG.
These issues will have been investigated in the short circuit studies referred to in Section 2.
125
However, the impedance of the transformers also has a significant impact on the system’s
reactive compensation requirements. A high impedance value will mean that the reactive
power loss variation from no load to full load due to the I2X loss through the transformer
will be large requiring a larger installed capacity and wider operating range in the reactive
compensation plant. Also the impedance may have an effect upon resonant frequencies
occurring within the wind power plant thus impacting on harmonics. Hence the final choice
of the transformer impedance may depend upon the results of the load flow, short circuit
and harmonic studies.
126
3.3.1.7 Neutral Earthing
The usual vector group for these offshore transformers is star/delta with the star winding on
the HV side. In most countries the HV star winding will be solidly earthed. However in some
countries to avoid the earth fault level from exceeding the phase fault level; some
transformer neutrals may be left unearthed. In this case the transformer winding will need
to be fully insulated rather than using graded insulation. The decision on earthed or
unearthed star windings will need to be agreed with the system operator of the system into
which the wind power plant is connecting.
The 33 kV delta systems will normally be earthed either by resistance earthing or by using
the zero sequence impedance of the earthing transformer to limit the earth fault current to
an acceptable level such as 1kA. This will help to reduce the cost associated with the inter‐
array cable sheaths.
127
equipment requiring low or zero maintenance and a long‐life is preferred, inevitably this will
result in a more expensive front end cost, however this should be balanced against the
lifetime ownership cost and risk.
The offshore O&M regime is likely to be a combination of time based and condition based
maintenance (CBM), where condition monitoring and risk assessments will be overlaid on a
rudimentary time based plan, to minimize the need for site visits.
The permitting process and safety rules for an offshore environment will need to take
account of any changes in O&M practice.
The designer must consider how any activity associated with either preventative or
corrective maintenance can be achieved. This includes developing the method statements,
tools, work space and spare part provision necessary to successfully carry out the process
without a return trip to shore. Where necessary, special tools should be kept on the
platform. It is very important to consider how remote services can be best utilized, since it
will not be possible to send specialists offshore unless they have the appropriate training
and constitution (sea sickness can be a major obstacle).
Just like onshore, recommissioning following any maintenance will require skilled resource
and procedures. All personnel on the platform will need to be suitably authorized or
supervised (possibly remotely) to carry out and return to service all equipment associated
with any fault or corrective O&M procedure.
Moving parts and operating mechanisms will require periodical maintenance. Where
possible, maintenance free solutions are desired such as employing solid lubrication or
grease‐less pins and shafts.
Transformer tank painting may or may not be required during the platform specified
lifetime and the paint specification should be chosen to avoid re‐coating where possible.
The final layout needs to take account of all anticipated activities, in particular access and
the space to perform all necessary operations. This may include hatches and removable
panels to facilitate replacements and the installation of any fixing points or support services
which may be used to manoeuvre parts or equipment into position.
128
2. Transfer from the quayside to the platform (this is fraught with risks and
unconventional) since the transformer will be filled with oil while in transit, so the
transformer designer and transporter will need to consider how the movement of oil
will be affected by the risks of sea transport and what internal impact this may have
on sensitive components like oil membranes, bladders or breathers.
3. Platform based inspections and repairs (post fault forensic testing, changing out
radiators, tap changer, bushings)
4. Replacement (transformer fault)
It is essential that the status and condition of the oil can be monitored, in addition to more
sensitive components on the transformer, such as breathers, bellows, barriers etc which
could be damaged if the oil movement is uncharacteristic for the design.
Oil handling presents a major environmental risk, however this needs to be facilitated since
a tank fault would result in the transformer replacement and removal of the oil from the
dump tanks to a transport vessel.
The process of draining the oil from liquid‐filled apparatus always brings a danger that some
spillage may happen. Where possible the insulating oil should be kept in the tank since
moisture will lead to degradation of the insulation performance. Separating valves or double
valves should be used between critical components filled with insulating fluid. Whatever
method of cooling is employed with liquid‐immersed transformers, double valves should be
used between the transformer tank and cooling (e.g. radiators etc) such that, when
disconnection of a radiator is required for repair, there is no need to drain the oil from the
radiator or the main tank. This does however result in transportation of oil filled equipment
and the inherent risk this brings.
The anticipated life of an offshore transformer is estimated to be between 25‐40years, so it
is possible that with the selection of liquids that are biodegradable and are less sensitive to
aging processes and typical aging catalysts, like moisture or oxygen (e.g. ester fluids), the
need for oil processing facilities (drying, degassing) can be minimal or possibly removed for
any routine activity.
In the case of a major fault, the oil will need to be reclaimed if the tank ruptures and
transferred to a ship. This procedure must be considered, since pumping either to a vessel
or reprocessing for any new equipment will be necessary. Adequate power supplies, access
and space will be required for the processing unit
129
z Storage facilities for emergency conditions – dump tank capacity for multiple
transformer platforms
z Oil processing facilities if a number of transformers are located together.
z The processing requirements for maintained equipment should be minimised as
much as possible (oil processing, vacuum filling, etc.),
Dump tanks will need to be checked for leaks and corrosion. The choice of material and anti‐
corrosion protection system can be a major consideration here. The system includes many
valves and pipework which will be exposed to a corrosive environment at sea. There are
pressure relief valve detector systems which can be specified to prevent the collateral
damage associated with fires, however the inadvertent operation or testing must be
considered.
Transformer breathers enable volume changes in the oil to occur without letting moisture
absorb into the oil. There are a number of devices ranging from a free breathing design
(which maintains a nitrogen blanket/bag over the top of the oil to a drycol breather which
uses silica gel to absorb moisture. The latter requires regular changing while the former is
maintenance free. In both cases transportation with the transformer full of oil could
potentially damage the sensitive equipment installed in the conservator tank, like bladder or
oil level indicator.
29
CIGRE Technical Brochure 430 “SF6 Tightness Guide”, 2010
30
CIGRE Technical Brochure 276 “Guide for the preparation of customised practical SF6 handling instructions”, 2005
31
CIGRE Technical Brochure 234 “SF6 recycling guide”, 2003
130
distribution of the leakage rate was very low under suitable design. (detail please refer
to Cigre technical brochure)
To reduce the emission from the equipment,
z Controlled pressure systems should not be used
z Only equipment having a leakage rate below 0.5 % p.a. should be installed.(IEC
standard requires it)
z Corrosion has to be prevented by strictly following the manufacturer’s instructions.
The part of gas sealing (e.g. Flanges) is weak for corrosion. Each manufacture
should indicate how to protect it from the corrosion in offshore.
z To monitor the SF6 gas density (pressure and temperature) is useful.
These sensors are very common, and it is easy to procure a suitable one.
(2) SF6 handling loss is important
The experience of Vattenfall Europe Berlin, under normal service conditions, the
handling losses account for 70 % of the annual total emissions and SF6 leakage for the
remaining 30 %. (Other countries report a similar tendency.)
To reduce the handling loss,
z On‐site maintenance and repair work as well as decommissioning of equipment
containing SF6 must be performed by suitably trained personnel or under their
supervision in order to minimise SF6 emissions during the whole life of equipment.
z Some areas (e.g. EU), it is established by regulations.
3.3.2.6 Bushings
Transformers are not generally transported on‐shore with bushings installed, so
accelerometers to ensure transportation does not exceed design forces (needs to be
carefully considered at the specification stage). Vibration associated with an offshore
environment is a relatively new area for power transformer design. Marine specialists
32
CIGRE Brochure No.462 Obtaining Value from On‐Line Substation Condition Monitoring
132
should be consulted when identifying typical conditions to design for. The HV connections
will normally be either cable or gas insulated busduct (GIB). If cable is used, then usually
proprietary plug in connectors will be used. If GIB the bushings will be gas to oil bushings.
Generally these are maintenance free since there is no exposure to pollution. However,
spares and the replacement procedure should be established to change out any suspect or
failed bushings needs to be established. Suspect bushings can only be identified through tan
delta tests or p.d monitoring. The units should also be specified to enable oil samples to be
taken, if required. The LV connections may either be cable or solid busducts. For cable, again
proprietary plug in connectors will normally be used but for solid busducts oil/air bushings
are used and then enclosed in a suitable housing.
3.3.2.7 Cooling
The cooling system is going to take up most of the transformer maintenance requirement
due to the many moving parts required to circulate cooling fluids and the heat exchange
mechanism (air or sea water). The reliability and availability tends to be dictated by the
cooling plant and in practice is the source of most alarms. Eliminating them by use of natural
cooling would provide a significant improvement to reliability and maintenance
requirements, however this would expose the unit to the severe marine environment and
require a much larger footprint. Unfortunately, power transformers with natural cooling are
not typically used for the range of power rating typical for offshore collecting substations.
Forced cooling is likely and this will have a big impact on auxiliary power demand, change
over facilities will be necessary to manage redundant cooling systems.
Table 3‐7 summarises the differences between different cooling designs.
The interface between radiators and the cooling systems should generally be protected
from the severe marine environment to prolong lifetime and minimise corrosion risk.
In a marine environment, water cooling systems can be used, eliminating the impact of the
harsh atmosphere on the moving parts. However, maintenance of pumps is still required in
such a case.
Cooling capability shall also include additional losses caused by harmonics which need to be
dissipated from the transformer. This should be addressed in the thermal calculations of the
transformer and considered in the heat run test.
Fan cooling
Both direct air cooling and closed water cooling systems retain the use of fans.
Where fans have to be used, a level of redundancy may be a good practice to avoid
endangering the system capacity when some of them fail. Switching of fan groups operating
also helps to distribute their wear evenly and reduce the maintenance required. Where fans
are used infrequently, a control system (using robust PLCs) should be programmed to switch
them on periodically to keep moving parts operational and avoid collecting extensive saline
deposits on critical elements.
Elements of the transformer cooling will be exposed to the atmosphere, in particular the
radiator units will need to be either regularly cleaned or replaced. This will require isolation,
the location of isolation valves will make the difference between maintaining the unit on or
offline.
Sea Water cooling
This technique is widely employed offshore in fixed installations and vessels and advice
should be sought from the Marine industry to benefit from their experience. The key O&M
133
points to note are that the system is compact and complex so accessibility to carry out
maintenance needs to be carefully thought through.
The main factors affecting O&M will be:‐
• Redundancy is essential to allow routine maintenance to be carried out.
• Filtration ‐ regular filter changes since debris and material will clog up the systems if
not removed
• Saline pollution and corrosion is going to be one of the main issues to manage.
• Automated cleaning systems are prone to failure. In addition this is likely to reduce
the transformer availability. Segregating or redundant modules may be an option.
• Physical access to clean heat exchanger units and radiator fins will be required. Care
needs to be taken with regard to personnel safety during this operation, since this is
likely to be difficult to access.
• Where sensitive parts are concerned then a closed loop system using de‐ionised
water should be used together with a water to water heat exchanger.
• As the natural cooling capability will be quite low, monitoring of the cooling system
will be essential.
3.3.3 Repair and Replacement
A fault is likely to result in a long outage since the replacement time will be between 2‐18
months depending on whether a spare unit is available.
Not every transformer fault will necessitate the replacement of the transformer.
The routine replacement of components will be required so it is important to have a good
QA system which can easily identify and tag components so the correct part is transported
to the platform, since ‘popping back to shore’ is not really an option.
3.3.3.1 Major Replacement Strategy
The initial design phase should allow for the emergency replacement of main items of
equipment, in particular the power transformers, which could involve replacement of cooler
elements, complete cooler banks or the transformer tank.
To date the only known incident where the main offshore transformer has failed and
needed to be replaced occurred on the Nysted offshore substation platform located in the
Baltic Sea. The 132/33 kV transformer failed in service and tests indicated the unit needed
be returned to shore for repair.
This process involved a number of critical processes and these provide guidelines to the
work elements that must be considered, typically:‐
z Electrical and mechanical disconnection of the transformer from the system
z Removal, to a separate vessel, of approximately 20 tonnes of oil
z Booking of a suitable heavy lift vessel (floating crane)
z Repair capacity at a transformer manufacturer and availability of spare parts
z Suitable handling facilities at the selected dock
z Creation of suitable access zones in the roof on the platform to allow removal of the
transformer using the crane
z Oil handling facilities to refill the transformer after re‐assembly on the platform
z Availability of suitably qualified personnel to undertake the works
The faulted winding was replaced with a spare winding (purchased together with the
transformer) and following successful testing the unit was prepared for return for
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installation on the offshore substation, the complete process taking approximately 4½
months
The paper prepared by Andersen, Marcussen, Jacobsen & Nielsen [33]33 provides a detailed
summary of the events and experience gained by this major transformer failure at an
offshore platform and provides a good base document for strategy planning.
3.3.3.2 Spares
The platform design is determined by the size and weight of components, therefore since
only essential equipment will be kept on the platform the storage of spare parts will be on
shore. The size, weight and storage of spare parts should be determined by transportation
and platform access limitations. To minimize the variety of spares, standardization of parts
and units should be taken into account. Necessity and manufacturing lead times should be
considered for spares volume.
Strategic spares
Retaining strategic spare parts will be an important economic decision, since offshore, full
redundancy of primary plant is unlikely. However a spare transformer and reactor may be a
requirement. In addition the project should order an extra set of bushings, TC components,
radiators and/or heat exchanger and earthing transformer. The number depends on the
total number of that design in the whole wind park.
Routine spares
Routine spares are just as important as strategic spares. Pumps and motors for the cooling,
fans, breather depending on the design chosen
End of life replacement.
The platform life is determined by the jacket which has a design life of 25‐40 years
depending on the developer’s requirements. As such the whole platform will return to shore
for overhaul. Therefore end of life replacement offshore is not anticipated but only
replacement in the case of a fault.
33
Andersen, N., Marcussen, J.H., Jacobsen, E., and Nielsen, S.B., Experience Gained by a major Transformer Failure at the
Offshore Platform of the Nysted Offshore Wind power plant, in 7th International Workshop on Large‐Scale Integration of
Wind Power into Power Systems as well as on Transmission Networks for Offshore Wind power plants. 26 ‐ 28th May 2008,
Energynautics: Madrid, Spain.
135
Transformers could be located indoors to protect from the environment. However, there
are heat dissipation issues (except water cooling). Radiators or coolers should be located
outside and the painting of the radiators should also be considered. Because the structure
of the radiator is complex, it is painted by immersion in a paint tank. With this process, it is
difficult to control the painting film thickness and sometimes differences in the painting film
thickness occurs. Therefore, it is necessary to check the thickness of painting film.
The Manufacturer should also consider the tank structure to prevent the build‐up of water.
It is necessary to apply a gradual inclination to the upper part of the tank so that rain water
will not be retained.
136
transformers these are usually transported without oil and with all large external
components disassembled (bushings, radiators, etc.). Once filled with oil and fully
assembled on site, they may still experience small movements related to final positioning in
place.
In case of transformers for offshore substations, the transport forces and vibrations are
expected to be more complex and can be divided in five major groups, depending on their
frequency and duration:
z forces related to land transportation,
z forces related to transport of transformer fully assembled on the platform to the
offshore destination,
z forces of lifting platform from the barge and locating on the foundation out at sea
z vibrations from earthquakes, wind gusts and waves when installed on the platform,
z vibrations from electrical equipment transferred through construction components.
Consideration for all modes of the forces or vibrations should be taken into account at the
design stage of the transformer. The platform designer should specify the expected level of
vibrations arising from environmental impacts and the transformer manufacturer should
indicate the maximum permissible level of forces or vibrations allowed for the given design.
137
Figure 3‐6. Example of Temporary Bracing on a Transformer for Sea Transportation
The critical component exposed to unusual mechanical stresses can be conservator and its
supporting structure. A conservator by nature will allow for fluid free movement and
therefore will allow the oil to move significantly during transformer transportation. This
inertia from the oil movement can produce additional forces on the supporting structure
which is not experienced on a transformer which is installed onshore. In addition this can
cause damage to the bladder, if installed in the conservator tank. The stress and dangers
related to oil free movement within the conservator volume should be assessed. If needed
the temporary solution for transport phase should be proposed. If the conservator is not
equipped with the bladder, filling it up to the top for transportation could help reducing oil
movement. It would still create significant forces of conservator supporting structure, as the
oil weight would increase. The other option could be reducing level of oil in conservator to
provide some more space below the bladder level.
The images below illustrate the assessment of the stress distribution during transportation
and illustrates a typical example where the stress concentration is around the fastening
points and welds.
138
z Between the transformer tank and a separate radiator bank which is connected by oil
pipes,
z Between the transformer and HV/LV primary connections (GIS busducts, solid insulated
busbars, etc.).
The design of topsides and equipment interfaces needs to consider this problem to mitigate
any possible transport damage. Interconnections between the main plant components
should provide enough flexibility to accommodate for reasonable movement which is
inevitable during lifting and transport.
139
Another issue is mechanical strength of insulation material in case of resin encapsulated
transformers. Although this type of technology would be unlikely to be used for main
transformers, it could happen that cast‐resin transformers could be used as auxiliary
transformers. Some wind turbine manufacturers specify vibration tests to ensure that
design of a given cast‐resin transformer can withstand long time vibrations without cracking
when installed inside the nacelle of wind turbine. Installation of transformer on the platform
may result in similar effects with regard to mechanical fatigue of encapsulated insulation
system.
3.3.4.2.4 Vibrations from Transformer
Because the transformer is excited by 50 or 60Hz, the vibration of the transformer tank is at
the fundamental frequency 100 or 120Hz while operating. When the vibrating tank is
installed on the platform directly, the vibration of the transformer is transmitted to the
platform. In addition, the vibration spreads to other equipment which is installed in
surroundings, and it may cause malfunctions in the long time perspective. Moreover, the
noise in the platform might increase by the transmitted vibration.
Therefore it may be important to use the well proven and effective measures to set up the
anti vibration isolator between the transformer and platform to intercept the transmission
route.
Particular attention is required when selecting the material. Normally transformers are
installed outside where the environmental conditions are very severe. To select the material
with weather resistance is important. If the material deteriorates, it would require a serious
maintenance effort to exchange the rubber vibration isolators from under the transformer
due to the weight of the transformer.
When seismic design is required, with onshore transformers locking down attachments are
fitted however, offshore mitigation of vibration transmissibility is difficult.
There are some differences between the onshore substation and the offshore substation.
(1) For the onshore substation, the base of transformer is very stiff.
For offshore substation the base of the transformer is not stiff.
(2) For the onshore substation, the use of stiff rubber vibration isolators can be chosen For
the offshore substation stiff rubber vibration isolators cannot be used.
In onshore substation case, to make vibration transmissibility sufficiently low, the natural
frequency of the transformer and vibration isolator system should be tuned to well below
the operating frequency of 100Hz or 120Hz. But this causes significant inconvenience as the
natural frequency is very close to the dominant frequency range of earthquakes. Seismic
ground motion may be amplified by resonance and may cause significant damage to the
transformer. To reach a compromise between vibration transmissibility and seismic
strength, the transmissibility is unavoidably set to a conservative level and the rubbers
chosen for isolators are relatively stiff. Thus the effect of locking attachments does not
destroy the effect of the stiff rubbers and transmissibility reduction is limited. The offshore
substation base is not stiff. Therefore it is difficult to get adequate vibration transmissibility
reduction by utilising stiff rubbers
Within an offshore substation, to reduce the vibration transmissibility and also make fixing
for seismic design are conflicting requirements. It is therefore necessary to make a balance
at the design stage of the substation from several points of view (economical efficiency,
liveability and safety).
140
3.3.4.3 Special Technical Considerations
3.3.4.3.1 Early Requirement for Substation Design Information
Ideally, all the appropriate technical options should be considered already in the early
design phase of an offshore substation. To allow this, it is important that the equipment
provider has the possibility to suggest different design alternatives. The specification of the
electrical equipment should indicate that weight (and size) of the equipment has got special
importance in the given installation, and this specification should not limit the choice to one
solution only, as different alternatives might be advantageous for a given substation.
When a new design concept is introduced some additional tests may be required to prove
its performance. Sometimes, they are costly and time consuming, so they may not be
preferred by equipment providers. However, it must be remembered that the
implementation of such new concepts may bring specific technical or economical benefits to
offshore substations. Then again, the proper evaluation of concept is necessary on the side
of equipment provider and substation designer.
It may happen that some offshore solutions do not have to be introduced specifically for
offshore wind power plant substations. There is much more experience in the oil and gas
industry, and a number of solutions developed before could be copied. Still, copying of
solutions should be wise, and should take into account the specifics of the application.
These new innovations cannot be done within a normal project programme and must be
carried out in advance of the start of an actual project.
The data on transformer weight and dimensions is critical to platform designers, so it is
extremely important that physical characteristics of transformer resulting from chosen
design concept will not be changed later, when platform design or construction is already in
progress.
141
electrical equipment weight by 1 ton could further reduce the topsides and supporting
structure weights by 3 tons [34]34.
Obviously, the weight of the jacket or piles depends on many other factors like water depth
or environmental conditions, as well. The impact of these is different in different regions.
For example, the North Sea presents much more severe conditions compared to the Baltic
Sea. Still, the equipment weight is a key factor for the structure complexity. To get a full
picture of the platform cost, including costs of supporting structure and electrical
equipment for specific projects, good communication between the electrical equipment
supplier and the platform manufacturer is essential. A close cooperation is also crucial in
order to achieve an optimal design solution and proper evaluations against different
alternatives.
34
N.G. Boyd, Taylor Woodrow: “Topsides Weight Reduction Design Techniques For Offshore Platforms”, Paper Number
5257‐MS, Offshore Technology Conference, 5‐8 May 1986, Houston, Texas
142
structure which must be considered in design evaluation, but also the cost of transportation
and installation. Including this element at the design stage is not natural for substation
designers, who do not have this issue in case of conventional onshore installations. Hence, it
is also difficult to estimate what can be the impact of specific components on the
transportation and installation cost. Anyway, the designers should give some thoughts to
this topic when evaluating different design concepts.
The pros and cons must be evaluated for a given solution by the transformer designer, and
transformer designer can propose them to reduce the initial cost and maintenance cost (the
life cycle cost).
We need to change the view point for evaluation from conventional thinking because of the
unique situation of an offshore substation.
For example transformer weight is an important item for conventional substation. The base
of transformer size is decided by its weight. In offshore substation, transformer weight also
affects transformer base, platform size and weight and jacket or mono pile structure.
The examples of LCC items, which should be considered for minimizing, are indicated in
Table 3‐2.
To minimize the life cycle cost (LCC), the transformer designer should discuss with the
system designer and the platform designer. The objective is to obtain the overall optimum
solution for the transformer, platform and foundation.
143
Performance of oil is critical for the correct performance of the transformer. The oil has to
be protected against oxidation and moisture access. At the same time the thermal
expansion must be allowed when temperatures inside the transformer tank are changing.
The systems used for protection of oil against the environmental impacts from the air
include according to IEC 60076‐1 [35]35:
z freely breathing systems with dehydrating breathers,
z diaphragm or bladder‐type liquid preservation systems,
z inert gas pressure systems,
z sealed‐tank systems with gas cushion,
z hermetically sealed completely filled tanks.
Hermetically sealed tanks provide best protection against moisture and oxygen access to
the transformer fluid. However, allowing sufficient tank expansion for hot liquid has limited
their typical application to smaller transformers only (common solution for small
distribution transformers). For bigger units a nitrogen cushion can be used over the oil level
to allow for required oil expansion. The development in the application of hermetic
transformers has continued towards larger sizes and transformers up to 60 MVA, 110/33 kV
have already been successfully installed on offshore substations.
The majority of transformers installed so far use more conventional oil protection systems –
conservators allowing expansion of oil. Access of air over the oil surface in the conservator is
enabled through dehydrating breathers, which remove moisture from the incoming air. In
free breathing systems the air in conservator has got direct contact with the oil and transfer
of oxygen and moisture between the air and oil is possible. This process is harmful for the
transformer insulation system as it causes degradation of oil and solid insulation in the long
term perspective. Moreover, the dehydrating breathers normally require periodic
maintenance or replacement. The disadvantage of free breathing systems can be more
pronounced in an offshore environment, where moisture and salinity content in the air is
dramatically higher than onshore. The degradation processes in such transformers may be
more visible, or more frequent maintenance of dehydrating breathers can be required,
which should be rather avoided in case of offshore installations.
The use of rubber bags or bladders in conservators prevents direct contact of oil with the air
and limits access of moisture to oil by about ten times. In such solution the space over the
oil is normally protected by the dehydrating breather, too. This is for the occasion of bladder
to be damaged or moisture penetration through the bladder material. Consequently, the
undesired periodic maintenance is still required to the breather, however, low maintenance
breathers are available and these should be used for offshore substations.
Performance of oil in the given system and related maintenance required should be
thoroughly considered when specifying transformer for offshore application.
The environmental impact and fire safety of an offshore transformer is related to the type of
insulating liquid used. Since the total quantity of oil present in an offshore substation may
reach hundreds of tons, considerations of the environmental protection and fire safety
become paramount.
Transformers filled with mineral oil are notorious for their fire behaviour. Mineral oil used
commonly in conventional liquid‐immersed power transformers is flammable. Electrical
failures in the area of transformer active part or bushings can result in oil spillage and fire.
The transformer can also be a victim of fire occurring at the platform and related to
35
IEC 60076‐1 Power transformers, Part 1: General
144
malfunction of other components. The fire protection systems are necessary to limit
damages resulting from oil fires. This issue is critical in case of offshore installations, where
the quick access of fire fighting personnel is not possible. This is described in more detail in
Section 4.
Tank rupture or even transformer explosion could result from high energy failure inside the
transformer. The high energy arc created in transformer oil generates large volumes of oil
vapours. The pressure building up quickly may lead to violent tank expansion resulting in its
rupture. Oil can be spilled and result in fire as mentioned before. There are various
strategies for prevention of tank ruptures. They are based on pressure relief valves installed
on the tank surface. When pressure builds up, the valve opens allowing for evacuation of oil
excess and prevents tank walls or radiators from mechanical damages. The modern
protection strategies include solutions collecting oil evacuated from the tank and filling
emptied volumes of the tank with nitrogen to prevent oxygen access to the failed
transformer. This eliminates the possibility of fire. SERGI is system commonly known and
using this principle, although they do not have any offshore experience yet.
Some studies show that evacuating of pressure and oil excess in one location is not
sufficient and it is critical to have the pressure relief device located as close as possible to
the location of internal failure inside the transformer tank. Hence, it may be preferred to
have a number of pressure relief devices distributed on tank walls and transformer cover.
Some solutions use more than twenty pressure valves. In such cases they are all connected
to an oil collection tank by a piping system.
Apart from dangers related to fire or explosion risks, the environmental safety is also
critical. Mineral oil used in transformers is harmful to the environment and is not
biodegradable. For that reason, all transformer installations with transformer oil contain oil
collection systems to prevent oil spillage. The simplest way of preventing environmental
damage from fluid leakage or spillage is to build collection trays under the equipment to
collect the fluids. The leaked fluid could then be piped to sump tanks, which will be
designed to contain, as a minimum, the amount of fluid from the single largest piece of fluid
filled equipment (transformer).
The planned collection of spilled fluid as described above, can only occur if this spillage has
not been caused by some violent event such as an explosion. Given the large volumes
involved, planning to minimize the likelihood of catastrophic unexpected events in the
substation should be part of the basic design.
In order to reduce the environmental and fire safety hazards posed by mineral oil, it is
possible to build in these safety features by the use of fire resistant biodegradable
alternative insulating fluids. Historically, the application of alternative fluids was limited to
small capacity transformers. They are widely used in application for wind turbine
transformers and within the same range of MVA capacity could be applicable for auxiliary
transformers in the offshore substations. However, recent developments recognising
benefits of these fluids move towards higher MVA and voltage ratings. The electrical
equipment design is similar to that used with mineral oil, although some adjustments may
need to be made to allow for the difference in the performance characteristics of these
fluids from mineral oil. These considerations are most evident in the design of the larger
volume, higher capacity alternative fluid transformers. A full discussion of the properties of
these alternative insulating fluids can be found in the CIGRE Technical Brochure 436
“Experiences in Service with New Insulating Liquids”, 2010.
145
(i) specific issues related to alternative fluids,
advantages: less flammable, biodegradable,
disadvantages: higher viscosity, higher thermal expansion,
gelling at lower temperatures (natural esters), dielectric performance,
suitability for tap changer operation
There are a number of alternative fluids available as alternatives to mineral oil for
transformer insulation and details can be found in IEC‐60076‐14.
The most common and commercially available fluids fall into three main categories:
z synthetic ester,
z natural ester,
z silicone fluid.
Table 3‐3 gives a brief overall comparison of the broad properties of these fluids.
146
Table 3‐4. Properties of selected dielectric ester fluids used in the transformer industry
(as per CIGRE Brochure 436)
With these alternative fluids, a responsible attitude should be adopted, but it does mean
that when a volume of liquid leaks to sea their environmental impact would be much less
than with the equivalent leak of mineral oil.
With present legislation a large amount of environment friendly material, which is not a
material of a natural origin, cannot be thrown into the sea. Moreover, even if it is natural
material (ex. rapeseed oil etc.) originating in the natural world, a large amount of leaked
material causes harm to the natural world in the short term and so it needs to be treated
the same as for mineral oil.
Figure 3‐8. Comparison of biodegradation rates (from CIGRE Technical Brochure 436)
147
The issue of environmental safety related to alternative dielectric fluids still requires further
studies and development of international regulations accordingly.
(iii) impact of less flammable fluids on requirements for fire protection systems
Equipment filled with less‐flammable fluid is less vulnerable to burn in case of overheating
or electrical fault. If it happens that the fire starts, the fire will either extinguish by itself or it
will be less violent compared to the fire of mineral oil. Also the equipment filled with less‐
flammable fluid will be less sensitive to fires in its vicinity. On the other hand, even if
conventional mineral oil was used in the main transformers, the less‐flammable fluid could
be used in auxiliary units to eliminate risks in the main unit surroundings.
International Standard IEC 60695‐1‐40 “Fire hazard testing: guidance for assessing the fire
hazard of electrotechnical products ‐ insulating liquids” [36]36 illustrates and confirms the
good fire safety record of liquid‐filled transformers, and that fire incidents with such fluids
are very rare. Conventional transformers have a mineral oil class O1 liquid (liquid with fire
point <300°C and a net calorific value >42MJ/kg). For comparison, the synthetic esters and
silicone liquid are classified class K3 (liquid with fire point >300°C and a net calorific value
<32MJ/kg). Natural esters are classified as K2, due to their slightly higher net calorific value.
It is realised that it may be difficult to completely remove the fire‐extinguisher system by
using less flammable fluids in place of mineral oil at present. It may not be permissible to
remove the fire extinguishing system because, in albeit extreme circumstances, they may
catch fire. Less flammable fluids cannot eliminate the fire risks completely and they retain
an explosive risk similar to that of a transformer filled with mineral oil.
The specific allowance reduction of fire fighting requirements still depends on national
regulations. For example in Japan, in the fire service law, no permission is given for reducing
the fire protection equipment when using less‐flammable fluids. However in USA, the less‐
flammable fluids are recognized as a fire safeguard by Section 15 of American National
Electrical Safety Code (NEC) [37]37. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) provides the
reduction condition of the fire fighting equipment and the electric protection device of the
substation by using less‐flammable fluids for transformer having a rated voltage of not more
than 35 kV.
A recent study by the Swiss Institute for the Promotion of Safety and Security has assessed
different fire safety situations and compared the risk where a synthetic ester filled
transformer is compared to an equivalent mineral oil filled transformer. [38]38: “Equivalence
study for transformer fire protection using “ester‐based” insulating fluid” Swiss Institute for
the Promotion of Safety and Security, Zurich, Switzerland, June 2011.
Assessment was made for the likelihood of the following situations:
a) The transformer affected is totally destroyed by fire; neighbouring plant sections or
transformers should remain thermally intact.
b) Fire damage due to an electrical fault of a transformer should be avoided or should
be regarded as highly unlikely.
c) A fire with a capacity of 10 MW in the immediate area should not impair the
function of the transformer
With the conditions in place where:
36
IEC 60695‐1‐40 “Fire hazard testing: guidance for assessing the fire hazard of electrotechnical products ‐ insulating
liquids”
37
American National Electrical Safety Code (NEC)
38
Equivalence study for transformer fire protection using “ester‐based” insulating fluid” Swiss Institute for the Promotion
of Safety and Security, Zurich, Switzerland, June 2011
148
1 Transformer outdoors with protective screen
2 Transformer outdoors without protective screen with little safety clearance
3 One transformer in the room (fire sector)
4 Several transformers in the same room (fire sector)
The safety assessment outcomes were recorded as
Y Target can probably be reached
N Target can probably not be reached
The full assessment table is presented below
From the point of view of practical application, scenarios a) and b) are the most significant,
as they represent the situation where the fluid filled transformer is the source of the fire. In
these cases, the assessment table below clearly shows that the use of synthetic ester is at
least as good as using mineral oil with fire protection systems. Indeed, in scenario b), the
table shows that even with a variety of fire protections systems in place, the use of mineral
oil is unlikely to be safer than using synthetic ester without an extinguishing system.
Only in scenario c), which represents the situation where the transformer is not the source
of the fire, is there some assessment equivalence. This is entirely logical as the fluid inside a
transformer, however fire safe, cannot influence events outside the transformer and
prevent nearby objects burning, and in this situation, a deluge system may be appropriate.
What can be said is that a fire safe fluid such as synthetic ester will not contribute to the
spreading of such a fire.
No extinguishing “conventional” “conventional” Spray – high‐
system gas extinguishing water deluge pressure
systems systems extinguishing
(nitrogen/CO2) system (> 75 bar)
1) 2) 3) 4) 1) 2) 3) 4) 1) 2) 3) 4) 1) 2) 3) 4)
a) Oil Y N Y N Y N Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
a) ester Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y + Y Y
b) oil N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N
b) ester Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
c) oil Y N Y N Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
c) ester Y N Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Table 3‐5. Swiss Institute for the Promotion of Safety and Security fire safety assessment ‐
synthetic ester filled vs. mineral oil filled transformers
(iv) alternative insulation systems in liquid‐immersed transformers as per IEC 60076‐14,
By use of alternative insulation systems in liquid‐immersed transformers, performance
characteristics can be modified. For example, use of aramid fibre for winding insulation
allows for higher temperatures and reduction of cooling system. Or, using insulation of
higher thermal capability can reduce insulation thermal degradation and improve long term
reliability of equipment.
149
Table 3‐6 shows comparison of medium size power transformer insulated with hybrid
insulation system using aramid insulation as per IEC/TS 60076‐14 [39]39 vs. conventional
transformer of the same voltage and power rating. In the example presented, the weight
reduction is about 11%. In extreme cases, when the weight is more critical and higher load
loss increase could be accepted, the weight reduction achieved by using hybrid insulation
system could be up to 25%.
The hybrid technology was historically developed for mobile transformer substations, where
weight and size of equipment was critical for substations mobility. As a result, the majority
of related data refers to medium size power transformers from the range 15‐60 MVA,
however, recent developments focus on larger transformers in the range of 200 MVA.
The pros and cons must be evaluated for a given solution, and the life cycle cost should be
analysed. For the electrical performance, the compact hybrid insulated transformer, as
presented in the table, has higher load loss than a conventional design. This is of course a
disadvantage in any distribution or transmission network. However, in an offshore
demanding environment, the reduced weight and simplified maintenance may be evaluated
that such a hybrid solution might be of interest anyway.
(2) Gas insulated transformers
This transformer was developed for indoor and/or underground substation in urban areas.
In 1956, the first unit of gas insulated transformer (GIT) was developed further in USA. In
those days, ironically, PCB oil was used for safety purpose. Therefore, this technology was
not developed in USA. The first GIT in Japan was put into commercial operation in 1967.
Since then, more than 10,000 GITs have been installed and are currently operating in the
field. More than twenty 300MVA‐class GITs have been provided, including the largest‐
capacity units in the world: the 330‐400MVA GIT. By the same technology, 275‐150Mvar gas
insulated shunt reactor (GIR) has been provided in 1994. These facts indicate that GIT/GIR
technology is reliable and proven.
The GIT/GIR has some advantages; non‐flammable and, non‐explosive. It is useful for
building smaller substations by using gas insulated technology. Because this transformer is
non flammable, it is not necessary to take the fire prevention distance between transformer
and other equipments. GIT has lighter weight than oil transformer. Because core and coil
weight of GIT is the same as conventional transformer. But SF6 gas and mineral oil weight is
39
IEC 60076‐14 Power transformers, Part 14: Design and application of liquid‐immersed power transformers using high‐
temperature insulation materials
40
K. Leuridan, J. Declercq, R.P. Marek, J.C. Duart “Compact power transformers for substation in urban areas using hybrid
insulation system”, CIGRE A2 Colloquium, Brugge, 2007
150
different. And GIT has small risk of low frequency vibration from wind gusts and waves,
Because the relative density of cooling medium is very small. (Refer to 3.3.4.2.3)
Its superior characteristics are very useful to reduce the risk, dimensions and weight of
offshore substation.
Of course this transformer has some disadvantages, such as:
(i) Auxiliary loss is bigger than conventional transformer
(ii) Natural cooling rating is smaller than conventional transformer
(Low pressure transformer can apply radiator for natural cooling but there is a limitation.
Maximum natural cooling rating is approx.30MVA. More than 30MVA, transformer will be
much bigger.)
To draw out its ability and reduce the total cost for building offshore substation, it is
desirable that purchaser and manufacture discuss the most suitable specification of
transformers for offshore substation.
(3) Dry type transformers
Dry‐type technology is normally used for low voltage and small capacity transformers. Air
being the insulating medium for main insulation and the manufacturing technology are the
limiting factors for expansion of the technology to the range of large power transformers.
Although the advantage of the technology for offshore application could be oil‐free, and no
issues related with its handling, the disadvantages related to sensitivity of dry‐type systems
to harsh environment exclude it from offshore applications. Dry‐type transformers would
normally require hermetic enclosures in offshore application which would make them
significantly bigger compared to liquid‐immersed units of the same power capacity.
Another issue is mechanical strength of insulation in case of resin encapsulated transformers.
Any crack in the insulation system of cast-resin type transformers may lead to breakdown and
catastrophic failure. Moreover, cracking of cast structure cannot be detected before the failure
unless partial discharge measurement is made on the transformer during periodic
maintenance. The support part or the lead of winding should be inspected carefully in regular
inspections. With application on offshore platforms which are exposed to various vibrations
modes, the sensitivity to mechanical impacts is another disadvantage.
3.3.4.3.4 Alternative Solid Insulation (Aramid) for Higher Overload Capability and
Extending the Life of Insulation System
The reliability of offshore equipment is a key issue, as maintenance or repair works are very
costly. Although, thermal failures of insulation in regular network transformers do not
happen very often, all the means should be taken to ensure good long term performance of
insulation system of the transformer. Specifying reduced maximum hot spot for windings
used sometimes in onshore applications, is not practical offshore, as it would require more
cooling to be installed on the transformer. Application of insulation materials of higher
thermal class than conventional cellulose could be a suitable solution. For all the
transformer technologies the aramid conductor insulation could be utilised. Additionally,
some other materials can be applicable in specific transformer technologies. For example,
thermally upgraded papers could also be used in liquid‐immersed transformers, and
polyimide films in gas insulated units. Higher thermal class of conductor insulation material
provides extended insulation life not only in case of operating of transformer in rated
conditions, but also in case of unexpected overloads. Hence, it can be considered as extra
safety measure for the equipment, built into its design (example 200 MVA main transformer
in Belwind project).
151
3.3.4.3.5 Method of Cooling
Different options can be used for air cooled equipment. One example is conventional
radiators, with or without forced air flow, which can be used to dissipate heat from the
transformers. The forced air flow could reduce size of cooling system but it requires fans. It
is a trade off between the more space consuming alternative without forced air or the
relatively compact alternative requiring fans.
Using even more compact solutions (including water coolers) may be preferable in terms of
saving space on the platform. However, coolers with water require pumps and piping which
are both slightly costly and space consuming. Water cooling can be considered in two ways,
one is using sea water (open water) cooling and another is closed water cooling. Sea water
cooling, marine debris/obstacles adhere inside of pipes, water coolers, pumps. Therefore
cleaning will be required to keep the cooling capability during the operation. Normally to
protect the transformer’s cooling system water should be divided into two systems. Primary
water system uses sea water, secondary water system uses pure water (closed system).
Another system is closed water cooling, which doesn’t use sea water. This system requires
the air cooler, which is located outdoors in a severe condition, to dissipate the transformer
heat. This cooling system is a little complicated, but after long operation, when cooling
system reaches the end of its life span, it can be changed without oil treatment. (refer to
Table 3‐7) All these systems are available for both liquid‐immersed and gas insulated
transformers.
The typical cases of equipment requiring maintenance are parts of the cooling system, such
as fans and pumps. Eliminating them by the use of natural cooling would provide a
significant improvement in reliability and maintenance requirements. Although power
transformers with natural cooling are not typically used for the range of power rating typical
for offshore collecting substations, the ONAN cooling could be considered from
maintenance perspective.
To eliminate the fans water cooling systems can be used, eliminating impact of the harsh
atmosphere on the moving parts. However, maintenance of pumps is still required in such a
case. (refer to Table 3‐8)
152
AIR COOLING CLOSED WATER COOLING SEA WATER COOLING
OUT SIDE INDOOR INDOOR
INDOOR
Severe
environment
Outside
Severer
environment
Configuration
Sea
153
Tank mounted air cooler Separated air cooler
advantage Overall footprint is smaller Only coolers need high levels of
ventilation:
1) Making fire suppression around
transformer tank easier
2) Allowing a more controlled
environment around the
transformer tank
No issues with differential movement Transformer tank assembly is smaller
of tank and radiators during and lighter reducing the necessary
transport or in service. capacity of the support structure.
Significantly less platform volume More flexibility in platform design?
required if we assume the coolers
need both enclosure (to prevent oil
spills) and maintenance access to the
coolers
Should be easier to assemble on site The transformer and coolers are
lifted separately and empty which
reduces the capacity of the crane
required.
Easier access for maintenance of
radiators than for tank mounted
version, radiators could be more
easily exchanged (?)
More suited to an enclosed topsides
concept – e.g. floating platforms
which self install, as the transformer
space can be almost completely
enclosed.
Potential to locate the coolers at a
relatively higher level to the
transformer, and as a result use the
platform space better.
Separate coolers means we can
replace individual cooler cartridges
at a time while keeping the whole
transformer live, and not entering
the transformer space.
Option to address the amount of
enclosure of the coolers. Some
suppliers have been designing the
coolers to stand in the open on the
platform.
Separate coolers allow to consider
alternative forms of oil cooling. This
will be more important for HV/DC
platforms which have an inherent
154
need for more cooling of equipment.
disadvantage Concentrated load requires stronger Additional support structures are
platform structure (cost?) required for the oil pipes between
tank and cooler.
Whole of transformer space has to Filling of the transformer and coolers
have high levels of ventilation: with oil is more difficult as the
1) Making fire suppression more location of the transformer is
difficult typically a number of metres above
2) Exposing the transformer tank to ground level in the shipyard.
more salt corrosion and
contamination
Larger crane will be required for lift Needs careful design of the piping
especially if it is filled with oil at systems.
ground level.
Access for maintenance of the
coolers is more difficult.
Heavier transformer means a heavier
offshore installation vessel should
the transformer need to be replaced.
TABLE 3‐9. Comparison between tank mounted radiators and separated
conservator
butterfly valve
radiator
Main tank
drain valve
155
The high voltage connections to the transformer HV windings would generally be made
using either cables or gas insulated busbars (GIB) and the method of connection needs to be
identified at an early stage to allow the mechanical design of the transformer to proceed.
If the design incorporates GIB connections then as stated above the possibility of differential
movement during sea transport needs to be considered. Also where the GIB passes through
any enclosure panels it must be suitably sealed against the environment and/or fire
consistent with the rating of the enclosure.
The connections to the transformer LV windings would generally be made using either
cables or solid insulated busducts and the method of connection needs to be identified at an
early stage to allow the mechanical design of the transformer to proceed.
If the radiators are to be mounted separate from the transformer then traditionally the
transformer manufacturer provides the control cables between the transformer and the
radiators. At the time of order for the transformer the route for these cables may not be
known, hence this interface needs to be identified and managed.
If the design incorporates cables then the problem of differential movement may not be so
onerous, however, the approach of the cables must be carefully considered and may need
to be varied depending upon whether the transformer tank is located in an open position or
within a covered room. Cables approaching horizontally or vertically from above may be
acceptable if the transformer is housed within a covered room, however, they may not be
suitable if the transformer is in an open position. For a transformer in an open position
cables approaching vertically from below would be preferred.
There are factors which need to be considered in the design of the transformer, typically:‐
z Interconnecting cables between the transformer and items of switchgear would
normally be installed and tested in the onshore fabricator’s yard prior to sail‐out of the
platform.
z Disconnectable cable terminations would be preferred with the female portion of the
termination and insulator included in the transformer cable chamber. This allows the
chamber to be conditioned and hermetically sealed in the manufacturer’s works with
no need to open the chamber to the elements during cable installation.
z The minimum bending radius for the cables need to be considered together with
working space adjacent to the transformer for the cable installers. This can be
particularly important when the transformer is mounted to the deck plates and the
space directly below is an open area exposed to the marine environment. The
operatives in this instance would be working from below the transformer through
access areas in the deck plates. The position of the cable head on the transformer will
influence the facilities which need to be built into the room/enclosure where the cable
connections enter.
As stated above the switchgear interconnection cables would normally be installed and
tested during the onshore assembly in the fabricator’s yard. To permit electrical testing of
the cables the transformer cable boxes may need to include removable links.
156
During the early stages of the substation platform design process the physical parameters of
the transformer must be identified, typically weight, oil volumes, footprint, cable entry
points, type of HV and LV connections and direction of approach of connections.
Whilst the overall weight is an important factor in the design of the primary steel members
for the platform the footprint is vital to determine the actual locations for the main steel
deck members. The steel deck members must be located to match the points where the
transformer load is transferred into the deck, typically beneath the anti‐vibration pads and
jacking points.
The locations for cable entry points need to be identified to ensure that the support steel
for the deck does not interfere with the cable access. The design should identify access
positions for HV power cables or GIB ducting, LV power cables or solid insulation busducts,
multicore control cables to the transformer, tap changer, fans etc.
As stated in 3.2.3.4 space within an offshore substation platform is always at a premium and
increases in room/enclosure sizes produce a large financial penalty, therefore, the pressure
is to keep the room dimensions to a minimum. The following items should be considered in
the design of the room/enclosure:‐
z The platform designer must determine the minimum amount of space around the
transformers to permit all aspects of planned and unplanned operation, maintenance
and repair works
z Sufficient space must be allowed for handling of any large sized test equipment
z Access should be considered to permit maintenance of the tap‐changer and fitting of
the extraction tools
z Sufficient space must be allowed for any necessary fixed or temporary access platforms
required to access specific parts of the transformer (typically the tap‐changer, Buchholz
relays etc). If a permanent platform is to be installed with an access ladder or stair then
access may need to be prohibited whilst the transformer is in service. This may involve
interlocking a climbing preventer with the electrical switchgear.
The design must allow for future replacement of radiator elements, a complete radiator
bank and also the replacement of a transformer tank. The following items should be
considered in the design of the room/enclosure:‐
z The radiator elements will generally be in an open location, however, access needs to
be allowed for removal either by the platform crane, suitable lifting beams, or a vessel
mounted marine crane. If the radiators are covered by a roof section then this may
need to be removable
z The transformer should be positioned such that removal can be effected by the use of a
vessel mounted marine crane/jack‐up crane. To facilitate this procedure the roof of the
transformer room may need to be removable
z The design will need to consider the draining and re‐filling with oil which will
necessitate suitable 400 Volt electrical supplies to power the filtration equipment and
space to position the equipment together with the oil
When dimensioning access doors into the room/enclosure they should consider equipment
access during initial installation and lifetime maintenance or repairs, together with
personnel access. Steel doors used offshore may become excessively heavy so
incorporation of removable panels in the enclosure may be an effective alternative to keep
the doors to an acceptable or standard size.
The room/enclosure layout should consider emergency egress from the room in the event
of an incident. Consideration needs to be given to the room dimensions and positioning of
157
the transformer to provide suitable escape routes and doors. All hinged doors and escape
hatches should include panic bars on the internal face.
Heat will be generated by both the transformer tank and the radiators during service and
the room dimensions, ventilation systems will need to allow for the dissipation of this heat
in their design.
A typical fan assisted radiator bank may require up to 100m3 /second of cooling air for a
200MVA class transformer so the room/enclosure will need to permit a free flow of air to
and from the radiators. If the enclosure has walls then they could typically comprise open
mesh, louvers or a similar construction. If the radiators are in an open location then
measures should be taken to discourage roosting sea birds with their attendant guano
pollution.
The transformer room/enclosure needs to be constructed with an oil retaining bund which
would prevent any escape of oil from entering the sea. The bund deck/floor should be
constructed with falls (typically 1:80 or 1:100) to direct fluids into drains to a remote oil
containment tank. The system should consider and allow for:‐
z The collection of general oil spills from the transformer or radiator together with any
maintenance activities.
z The collection of oil from a transformer or radiator leak where there is a pressure head
to cause it to spray (typically near to the bottom of a radiator)
z A serious leak where, at worst all of the oil from the transformer could be discharged
z A catastrophic failure where burning oil is discharged to the deck/floor causing a pool
fire.
z The drainage system should include flame traps to prevent burning oil from reaching
the remote storage tank
z Rain water from the radiator area
z Water from an automatic, water based, fire suppression system where fitted
z Separation of the oil from water
The oil containment tank must be suitably dimensioned to accept as a minimum the full
volume of oil from the largest oil filled device plus the full volume of water from an
automatic fire suppression system plus spare capacity (suggest 15%). The method of
specifying the tank capacity may vary to meet local regulations.
The drain pipework between the transformer bund and the containment tanks should
discharge fluids at a minimum rate of 7,000 litres per minute
The transformer room should contain a fire detection/alarm system and the substation fire
plan will usually detail if the transformer/enclosure is to be designed as an active fire
protection zone and contain an automatic fire suppression system. Where a fire rating is
assigned to the transformer room walls then any access doors within the wall must be
suitably fire rated to match that of the wall.
Requirements for the transformer lighting, small power, heating and ventilation systems are
detailed elsewhere in these guidelines
3.4.1.2 Required to Provide Auxiliary Power for Platform only or also for Turbine
Strings
Usually the earthing transformers will have secondary windings allowing them to also act as
auxiliary transformers for the platform supplies. This saves the cost and weight of providing
separate auxiliary transformers. On the majority of offshore substations built to date the
auxiliary transformers have only been rated to supply the auxiliary supplies of the offshore
substation itself and have not been designed to allow powering up the 36 kV array strings to
feed auxiliary power for the WTGs when the AC supply from the shore is lost. If this
powering of the WTGs is to be provided then this needs significant consideration. Usually it
will not be recommended to use the normal earthing auxiliary transformers as this would
require:‐
a) that they are connected to the 36 kV busbars
b) that they are rated for a high kVA to allow for the reactive power of the array strings
unless additional reactors are provided for this purpose
c) The normal platform diesel would need to be designed very large with the
associated requirement for the fuel storage
If powering of the WTGs in system black conditions is required it is recommended that this
is a separate specially designed system.
3.4.1.5 Impedance
The zero sequence impedance will be determined by which type of earthing scheme is used
to limit the earth fault current. If resistance earthing is to be used then the zero sequence
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impedance of the earthing transformer will normally be designed as low as possible. If
however the current is to be limited by the earthing transformer then the zero sequence
impedance will be chosen to limit the current to the chosen value.
The positive and negative sequence impedances will normally be similar to those used for
onshore auxiliary transformers in the range 5‐9%.
3.4.3.2 Spares
Strategic spares
A spare earthing/auxiliary transformer should be considered. Along with a set of bushings,
the number depends on the total number of that design in the whole wind park.
Routine spares
None
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End of life replacement.
The platform life is determined by the jacket which has a design life of 25‐40 years
depending on the developer’s requirements. As such the whole platform will return to shore
for overhaul. Therefore end of life replacement offshore is not anticipated only in the case
of a fault.
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3.4.4.1.3 Avoiding Excessive LV Voltages during HV Earth Faults with
Earthing/Auxiliary Transformers
In case of an earth fault the earth fault current in the HV‐system of the earthing/auxiliary
transformer flows via the neutral of the earthing/auxiliary transformer and is limited by the
zero‐sequence impedance.
As the earth fault current runs in all 3 phases/limbs, the earth fault current causes a
magnetic zero‐sequence stray flux which is acting in the same direction (in all three limbs).
Depending on its mechanical arrangement, the LV‐winding (e.g. 400V, 415 V) is influenced
to a higher or lower degree by one of the two parts of this zero‐sequence stray flux, which
induces an additional voltage (zero‐sequence voltage) in the LV‐winding.
As this happens in all three limbs of the earthing/auxiliary transformer, the result is a
displacement of all the three phase to ground voltages (in relation to the grounded and
therefore fixed neutral of the LV‐winding).
Note: The phase to phase voltages are not affected by this voltage displacement.
This is illustrated in the following diagrams, figures 3‐9 and 3‐10.
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Figure 3‐11. LV‐connection
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z Interconnecting cables between the transformer and items of switchgear would
normally be installed and tested in the onshore fabricator’s yard prior to sail‐out of the
platform.
z Disconnectable cable terminations would be preferred with the female portion of the
termination and insulator included in the transformer cable box.
z The minimum bending radius for cables need to be considered together with working
space adjacent to the transformer for the cable installers. The position of the cable box
will influence the facilities which need to be built into the room/enclosure where any
cable connections enter.
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If the transformer is mounted in an open location then measures should be taken to
discourage roosting sea birds with their attendant guano pollution.
The fire rating of the enclosure may be influenced by the filling medium for the
earthing/auxiliary transformer and its fire characteristics. A transformer filled with mineral
oil may require a different enclosure rating to one filled with a synthetic ester which would
not support burning after the ignition source is removed. A transformer filled with mineral
oil may require an automatic fire suppression system whilst one filled with a synthetic ester
may not require any automatic fire suppression system.
This should be detailed within the fire plan for the substation.
As a general rule it would be appropriate for the earthing/auxiliary transformer to be either
a dry design or filled with a synthetic ester.
Requirements for the switchroom lighting, small power, heating and ventilation systems are
detailed elsewhere in these guidelines
3.5 HV Switchgear
As a general introduction to HV switchgear, it should be said that the high voltage
switchgear utilized on offshore platforms will be the metal‐enclosed SF6 (Sulphur
Hexafluoride) type which is often referred to as GIS (Gas Insulated Switchgear). SF6 is the
standard insulating medium in these applications as it is a very good electrical insulator (and
it can effectively extinguish arcs) which means that electrical distances can be minimized
and the switchgear can be as compact as possible.
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many cases they will be located in the switchgear. If high energy rating is required additional
matched arresters may be used on the cable connection side also. The surge arrester ratings
and energy ratings will be confirmed by the insulation coordination studies.
3.5.1.5 Configuration
The simplest switching configuration found on offshore platforms is simply a disconnector
between the submarine cable circuit and the transformer. Earth switches either side of the
disconnector will also normally be required. If this configuration is to be used it should be
checked by the voltage fluctuation study and insulation coordination studies to ensure that
the surges and voltage fluctuations on energisation are acceptable. Also, it should be
considered that with this configuration, the submarine cable and the transformer will be
one common protection zone.
The next most common configuration is to simply add a circuit breaker between the
submarine cable and the transformer. This avoids the need for intertripping to clear a
transformer fault and also means that the switching surge associated with the cable is
separated from the switching surge associated with energising the transformer.
The main factors to consider with regard to configuration is the amount of submarine cables
and transformers. A design with one submarine cable and two transformers will typically
give a configuration with one GIS bay for the submarine cable, a busbar and two
transformer GIS bays. A design with two submarine cables and two transformers will
typically give only two GIS bays (one for each transformer) as very often the transformer
and the submarine cable are rated the same, which means transformer cross connecting
switchgear is located on the MV side. There are numerous different design scenarios and
the requirement for any more complex switching arrangement will depend upon the
reliability and availability study. It is worth noting, that there has been at least one offshore
substation where a five switch switchboard has been required.
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reconfigure the substation to isolate and safely maintain or replace bays while keeping the
remainder energised is important (but in some cases not always possible to achieve).
Some degree of standardization for offshore platforms would help to address O&M
challenges associated with spares management, replacement procedures, transport, tools
and training.
GIS can be made very compact, however sufficient space should be provided between bays
and gas barriers to allow any repair or replacement to be physically and safely carried out by
typical fitters.
Modular construction will help with O&M enabling fast changeout. This also keeps the skills
required to effect a replacement basic, reducing the need for specialist engineers on the
platform. Smaller components are easier to transport and move around the platform.
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3.5.3 Repair and Replacement
The routine replacement of components will be required, so it is important to have a good
QA system which can easily identify and tag components so the correct part is transported
to the platform, since ‘popping back to shore’ is not really an option.
Any access into the GIS needs to ensure trapped charge is dissipated, therefore the design
and de‐energisation sequence should take this into account regarding VT location and earth
switch location.
The procedure to replace each major component should be established at the design stage
to ensure sufficient space is available for both the failed and replacement in the enclosure.
At design stage, it is also important to consider if any temporary facilities need to be
provided such as I‐beam in the ceiling, permanent crane support etc. The supplier will know
what needs to be in place to keep future maintenance, repair time at a minimum.
3.5.3.2 Spares
Most of the components in a bay are common, so generally keeping a spare bay onshore
will address most issues. Some suppliers, however, don't generally recommend to have any
spare parts as the components (and even bays) are very standardized and can quite quickly
be sourced from the supplier. It is recommended to discuss this thoroughly with the supplier
and then evaluate the need for a spare bay/spare parts. A breakdown service agreement
could also be considered.
Transport facilities to get the bay onto the platform and lifting must be thought out in
advance, including the loading procedures and transfer from platform landing gantry to the
HV hall. Lifting equipment and logistics on the platform need to be considered on the fully
commissioned offshore installation and not during construction.
It is not easy to recommend a general list of spare equipment, but the below can be used as
guidance.
Strategic spares
‐ Spare GIS bay incorporating CT, VT, CB disconnector and ES. (remember that all bays
on the platform may not have a similar configuration ‐ so 1:1 replacement may not
always be an option).
‐ Spare set of surge arresters
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- Mech box for each moving part
Routine spares
‐ Gas density monitors, breaker contacts. Flange sealant. Control cabinet heater
elements
End of life replacement.
The platform life is determined by the foundation which typically has a design life of 25‐40
years depending on the developer’s requirements. As such the whole platform will return to
shore for overhaul. Therefore end of life replacement offshore is not anticipated only in the
case of a fault. The lifetime of GIS will be in excess of 30 years. End of life replacement is not
often considered for GIS substations since in‐situ replacement is not really an option. If the
transformer and GIS lifetime can be aligned it may be better to refit the platform in port
rather than in‐situ.
41
IEC 62227‐203 “Seismic qualification of GIS assemblies”
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The question now is, how these vibrations/forces should be coped with when considering
the GIS.
The offshore shipping and oil/gas industry invented a so‐called "marine classification" that
switchgears can obtain if they (among other tests) can pass vibration tests with given
frequencies and accelerations. These switchgears, however, are up until now all air‐
insulated and only up to approx. 12 kV.
The same rigorous regime does not exist for high voltage GIS. The HV GIS IEC standard
62271‐203 [42]42 "HV GIS above 52 kV" refers to a vibration standard which "is not
applicable to metal enclosed circuit breakers". However, in 2007 an IEC standard was
published (IEC 62271‐207 [43]43 “Seismic qualification of GIS assemblies”) which stipulates
testing methodologies for seismic withstand capability and (maybe more importantly) a
vibration response investigation. The testing covers frequencies from 0.5 to 35 Hz and the
generation of an artificial earthquake wave.
There is an example known when a special base frame has been designed for a floating
offshore platform (oil/gas) with a HV GIS application installed ‐ with the one goal of limiting
vibration and impact forces. It is currently not known if this solution will be available in the
market in the future.
It is typically understood that GIS has a lower centre of gravity compared to AIS (air
insulated switchgears) at the same voltage level. Still the important measure which should
be taken into consideration is to take care of a very rigid connection between the GIS bays,
the GIL (Gas Insulated Line to transformer ‐ if that's applied) and the base frames of the
bays.
The source of high frequency dynamic vibrations will be the circuit breaker and all GIS
should have been tested by means of thousands of make/break cycles to prove the
mechanical endurance. These dynamic forces should also be taken into account when
designing the foundation/deck and structure under the GIS.
The local control panel of the GIS (which can be mounted on the GIS or separately) should
also take vibrations into account and self‐tightening cabling terminals, bolt solutions for
vibrating enviroments should be considered as standard.
Transport forces can typically only be minimized by the carrying vessel and offloading units.
The GIS will presumably have to be de‐gassed to atmospheric pressure, which will then
provide the GIS with a higher resistance to impacts. In any case, the complete substation
will have to be monitored with shock recorders and any impacts higher than accepted
should be discussed thoroughly with the supplier of the GIS.
The best a buyer can do is to closely discuss seismic withstand capabilities and vibration
responses of the GIS in question ‐ and compare with what the substation is thought to have
(can be very hard to assess). The coming years will tell us, if special measures should be
taken when placing GIS on offshore platforms.
42
IEC 62271‐203 “HV GIS above 52 ”
43
IEC 62271‐207 “Seismic qualification of GIS assemblies”
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offshore substation, SF6 gas circuit breaker (GCB) is normally used, because of excellent
interrupting performance and insulation performance.
All three phases in a common tank type GIS is widely used for 170 kV class and below.
Isolated phase type for feeder units is common for 245 kV and above. Either three phases
common or isolated phase is used for the main bus.
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z Any connected power cables will need to be electrically tested so provisions should be
included within the design for suitable bushings and/or cable test sockets.
Consideration should be given to testing the power cables through the switchgear as
the clearances required to an open terminal bushing may not be achievable.
z When positioning the power cable box the physical size of the cable termination,
external; to the box, should be noted and ideally the complete termination should be
within the GIS switchroom to make sealing of the cable penetrations more practical.
z All operating mechanisms which require maintenance or manual operation should be
accessible. If they are positioned at a high level then the design should consider the
necessity to fit suitable access platforms (either permanent or demountable). Also,
temporary/fixed provision for crane/lifting equipment in the room should be
considered.
The switchgear will generally be connected to the system via power cables or busducts and
due allowance needs to be made for these connections.
Generally these connections would approach the switchgear vertically from below and there
are factors which need to be considered in the design of the switchgear, typically:‐
z Disconnectable cable terminations would be preferred with the female portion of the
termination and insulator included in the switchgear cable chamber. This allows the
chamber to be conditioned and hermetically sealed in the manufacturer’s works with
no need to open the chamber to the elements during cable installation. This is of
particular importance for the sub‐sea export cables which will be installed offshore.
z The minimum bending radius for the cables need to be considered together with
working space adjacent to the switchgear bay for the cable installers. This can be
particularly important when the switchgear is mounted to the deck plates and the space
directly below is an open area exposed to the marine environment. The operatives in
this instance would be working from below the switchgear through access areas in the
deck plates. The position of the cable head on the switchgear will influence the
facilities which need to be built into the room/enclosure where the cable connections
enter.
z The switchgear design should take due note of the fact that the cable entries will
generally need to be effectively sealed, where they enter the room/enclosure, against
fire and possibly the marine environment. Again the position of the cable head on the
switchgear will influence the facilities which need to be built into the room/enclosure
where the cable connections enter.
z The physical locations of the sub‐sea export cable entries at the platform cable deck and
relative positions of connected plant items will generally dictate a preferred cable
route. The bays should be arranged to mitigate external cable crosses where possible.
The switchgear base will normally be fixed directly to steel floor plates or rails on the
platform and the switchgear support frames should be of a simple design to facilitate this
type of fixing. The footprint for the support frames and their static and dynamic loads must
be identified at an early stage as each of the support pads needs to sit on a section of
support steel, not simply the deck plate.
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Figure 3‐13. Example of cable entry to Figure 3‐14. Example of export cable
132 kV switchgear entry with transit sealed
As stated in section 3.2.3.2 the equipment will be subject to external forces due to the sea
transport and lifting. The switchgear design needs to allow for these and include any
necessary attachment points for fitting of external sea fastening straps.
Consideration needs to be given to the recommended SF6 pressure within the switchgear
during transport. For certain, simple switchgear arrangements it may be possible to
transport the platform on the barge with the switchgear at working pressure, however,
recommendations must be obtained from the switchgear designers before this is
considered. The switchgear designers should make every effort to provide an arrangement
which will be suitable for transportation at working pressure to mitigate the need to
pressurize and HV test offshore.
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z When GIS switchgear is used sufficient space must be allowed for a gas cart to be used
during filling and/or maintenance operations. A suitable electrical supply should be
included in the room to power the gas cart.
z Sufficient space must be allowed for any necessary fixed or temporary access platforms
required to access specific parts of the switchgear. This may result is separation of the
switchgear bays to permit access to all mechanisms. Separation may also be required to
comply with local operators requirements.
The switchgear base will normally be fixed directly to steel floor plates or rails on the
platform and the switchgear support frames should be of a simple design to facilitate this
type of fixing. The support points should be designed to accept the static and dynamic loads
imposed by the switchgear. With the agreement of the switchgear manufacturer it may be
acceptable to weld the support frames directly to the deck plates in preference to bolting.
The power cables may approach the switchgear vertically from below and if the cable head
is close to the floor level the space may need to be allowed below the floor level, This may
involve fitting a false floor some distance below the natural floor. Where the cables pass
through this false floor the penetration may need to be effectively sealed against the marine
environment and to limit the spread of fire.
Floor openings for the HV power cables may need to be of sufficient size to permit access
for installation of the cables and fitting of terminations where the operatives are working
from below the deck.
All penetrations through walls, floors and ceilings will be suitably sealed during installation
in the onshore fabricator’s yard, however, it must be remembered that the submarine
cable(s) will be installed and the penetration sealed offshore. Temporary seals would need
to be installed into the penetrations prior to sail out and these would be replaced by the
final seals after cable installation.
Suitable earth bosses should be welded to the steel deck plates at appropriate locations,
particularly local to the Export cable boxes. These earth points are required to fix bonding
leads from the cable terminations which will be installed offshore.
When dimensioning access doors into the room/enclosure they should consider equipment
access during initial installation and lifetime maintenance or repairs, together with
personnel access. Steel doors used offshore may become excessively heavy so
incorporation of removable panels in the enclosure may be an effective alternative to keep
the doors to an acceptable or standard size.
The switchroom should contain a fire detection/alarm system and the substation fire plan
will detail if the switchroom/enclosure is to be designed as a passive fire protection or
contain an automatic fire suppression system. Where a fire rating is assigned to the
switchroom wall then any access doors within the wall must be suitably fire rated to match
that of the wall.
The room/enclosure layout should consider emergency egress from the room in the event
of an incident. Consideration needs to be given to the room dimensions and positioning of
the switchgear to provide suitable escape routes and doors. For other than small rooms this
normally means there should be at least two points of access/egress. In certain
circumstances an escape hatch can be provided to replace a second full size door. All
hinged doors and escape hatches should include panic bars on the internal face.
During an internal fault, or failure of a gas zone within an SF6 switchboard, high pressure
gasses may be vented into the room/enclosure. The volume and pressure of these gasses
when vented into the room will cause an overpressure within the room. This overpressure
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needs to be evaluated and if necessary suitable pressure relief devices built into the room to
prevent mechanical damage to walls, doors etc and injury to people who may be in the
room at the time of the discharge.
It is common on offshore structures to identify areas which may be subject to an unplanned
release of gasses and to include in the design a gas detection system for identified areas.
Some use a SF6 gas detection system separate from the switchgear. This independent
detection system would typically initiate an alarm to a SCADA system and a warning beacon
with sounder external to the room.
Given the SF6 alarm systems integral to the switchgear the beacon & sounder could be
initiated from the switchgear negating the need for an independent scheme. This solution
should be investigated where practical.
The electrical equipment which will be housed in these rooms has been designed for indoor
use in Normal Service Conditions where:‐
a) The ambient air temperature does not exceed 40oC and its average value, measured
over a period of 24 hours, does not exceed 35oC
The minimum ambient air temperature is –5oC for class “minus 5 indoor” as defined in
clause 2 of IEC Standard 60694:1996
b) The conditions of humidity are as stated in clause 2 of IEC Standard 60694:1996
The heating system to these areas should maintain a minimum ambient air temperature of
+5oC
The ventilation system should incorporate maintainable salt filters
Requirements for the switchroom lighting, small power, heating and ventilation systems are
detailed elsewhere in these guidelines
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type for the GIS substations. Maximum temperatures at the sea‐bed, in the water and
ambient air are needed for proper dimensioning. Maximum temperature on the sunny side
of the J‐tube may not be that significant as the cables themselves are very good heat
conductors. But installation of J‐tubes on the south side is preferably avoided.
The design of the j‐tubes should meet the requirements of the cables inside them, mainly
regarding minimum internal diameter and bend radius of the bottom part. In this sense, the
minimum internal diameter of the j‐tube should be, at least, 2.5 times the overall diameter
of the submarine cable to avoid it getting stuck. On the other hand the j‐tube bow radius
should be substantially larger than the minimum bending radius of the cable, taking into
account that this value depends on the mechanical tension of the cable, and the cable will
be pulled into the j‐tube for installation.
The j‐tubes are normally made of carbon steel and protected against corrosion by means of
a suitable coating, although some models are manufactured with polymer material. Once
the cable has been pulled up to the platform, the bellmouth of the j‐tube is commonly
sealed in order to avoid water motion inside the tube, which would favour the corrosive
process. In this way, the bottom part of the j‐tube is filled with sea water while the upper
part remains filled with air. From a thermal point of view, the j‐tube may be one of the most
critical points for the cable design given that the heat flow between the cable and the
environment is hindered by the tube, the upper part of the tube being the most
unfavourable (air filled). The air circulation would be improved if two openings were
perforated in the j‐tube wall (chimney effect) but, on the other hand, the air current would
increase the oxygen content inside the tube and thus increase the corrosion risk. Therefore,
it is important to assess and consider the thermal reduction factor due to the j‐tube for the
design of the submarine cable.
Besides the j‐tubes, the other indispensable element to terminate a submarine cable
entering an offshore platform is the hang‐off. Any power cable needs to be solidly anchored
to a fixed structure in order to follow the designed route and to avoid any movement under
short‐circuit events. For a submarine cable accessing an offshore platform the concept is the
same, although the termination is separated in two parts: a mechanical termination and an
electrical termination. The mechanical termination (known as hang‐off) is located
immediately above the j‐tube, fixed to the deck of the platform, and it could be described a
sophisticated connection flange between the cable armour and the cable deck structure.
The metallic armour is the structural element of a submarine cable and therefore is the
element that provides anchoring of the power cable to the platform structure in order to
transfer all mechanical loads directly from the armour to the structure without endangering
any of the internal elements of the cable (conductor, insulation, and screen).
Given that the submarine power cables and umbilicals have been used for decades by the
offshore hydrocarbons industry, the hang‐offs are well known accessories improved along
many years and with multiple designs adapted to specific cable requirements of every
project. Anyway, the main structure of a cable hang‐off remains unchanged and could be
described essentially as two concentric metallic rings bolted to the structure by means of a
flange, acting as a clamp for the cable armour; the internal ring has an internal hole and a
conical external surface, while the external ring has an internal surface with the
complementary shape of the internal ring to fit with it. The wires of the cable armour are
bent (folded back) over the internal ring so they are trapped and fixed between the two
rings. From this basic design there have been several improvements in order to reduce the
stress on the wires, which sometimes caused their premature wear and rupture. In this
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sense the bending of the wires has been eliminated in some designs, making the internal
surfaces grooved in order to avoid movement of the wires once fixed.
In case of using several armour layers (like in dynamic cables), the hang‐off should have a
pair of rings for holding each one.
In the second image shown below, it can be observed that the hang‐off structure has two
parts: permanent and temporary. The temporary hang‐off is used as a clamp to fasten the
cable to the structure prior to clamping the armour wires (permanent clamping). This
temporary hang‐off works commonly by means of friction on the submarine cable
oversheath, while the permanent hang‐off works by fixing the armour wires. The
aforementioned is the typical arrangement of a hang‐off device for power cables commonly
used in offshore wind power plants, although in the hydrocarbon sector there are other
different mechanical terminations, although normally for smaller cables (for example to fix
the armour wires inside a chamber by means of epoxy resin injection).
For three‐core cables, the hang‐off devices include a chamber for trifurcating the cores that
will run for connection to the bushings of the switchgear. In any case the hang‐off should
seal the top of the j‐tube to avoid saline air circulation that would accelerate the corrosive
process (due to oxygen supply). The hang‐off itself should be protected against corrosion by
means of suitable coating. The hang‐off clamp should be adapted to the cable to be
anchored, in order that the armour wires and the anchoring device form a single block and
therefore all mechanical loading (static and dynamic) is transferred from the armour to the
platform without the conductors having to withstand any stress that could damage them
immediately or increase the possibility of a breakdown.
Single or double armouring of the cables is depending on water depth and cable weight. The
main differences between export and array cables are that the export cables have a metallic
sheath of e.g. lead for water tightness, while the array cables are of the wet design.
Many times the cables are pulled in through the J‐tubes ahead of the actual installation of
the terminations. All cables have a minimum bending radius which must never be violated.
During the cable installation in the j‐tube it is necessary to pull enough over‐length of cables
over the platform before anchoring in order that the cores, once trifurcated, can reach the
bushings of the switchgear without any additional joint, and that this is coordinated with the
substation and platform layout. ´It is important to design a suitable arrangement of the
equipment on the platform, trying to place the switchgear as close as possible to the vertical
over the hang‐off blocks (both for the medium voltage switchgear and for the high voltage
GIS). In this way, the cables can run easily from the hang‐off at the cable deck to the upper
deck on which the switchgear is located. The connection of the cores to the switchgear can
be performed with conventional connectors, as applicable for medium or high voltage
cables. In the same way, the connection between the switchgear and the power
transformers can be done by means of conventional insulated cables and connectors,
always looking for the most suitable routing.
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Figure 3‐15. Two types of cable hang‐offs, being the first a very simple design and the
second a more elaborated one, similar to that used in offshore wind power plants.
It may be beneficial to deliver the array cables coiled (or on a turntable), hooked up with
one another with e. g. Chinese fingers in order to reduce both number of laying trips and
waste/return handling of drums.
The export cable is delivered either coiled or on a turntable as the maximum length the
selected laying vessel can load, in order to reduce the number of joints. Special
consideration may be needed for the landfall which depends on the actual conditions like
shallow water, cliffs, distance to switchgear, etcetera. The termination may either be a
plug‐in type for GIS, or outdoor/indoor type with a polymeric/porcelain housing for
connection to a switchyard or over‐head lines. In other cases a land cable via a transition
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joint will be connected just at the landfall. Today there are also dynamic cables for floating
platforms available.
Figure 3‐16. Hang‐off block anchoring a high voltage three‐core cable (left) and entry for
connection to a GIS substation
3.6.2.1 Maintenance
Typically cables are maintenance free. However, it is possible to measure temperatures with
special fibre optic cables that indicate the conductor temperature of the cable with an
accuracy of around 5 degrees K. These DTS-systems may give an indication of overloading
risks or failure/problems of the cable. They must be installed together with the original
installation. For cables with separate FOC, these systems may have a somewhat worse
accuracy.
3.6.2.2 Spares
Normally spares ordered together with the delivery include one or two terminations, some
submarine repair joints, and spare cables of length for at least two repairs. These repair
joints should also include splice boxes for the FOC, if used. The spare cable length should
account for the double water depth plus a long enough replacement length to be laid. Spare
cables for the array cables should be of the largest core diameter used as there are joints
available that work for somewhat different core diameters so this works for any array cable
repair. The length of spare cables and number of repair joints may also depend on how busy
the cable route is with ships.
It is important that the spare cables are easily accessible for loading on to the repair ship.
Depending on the design they can either be stored coiled or on a turntable for larger export
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cables. A storage house with the possibility of lifting off the roof for crane access at a quay
makes this possible.
3.6.2.3 Replacement Strategy
The vast majority of submarine cable failures come from outside influences like anchoring or
fish trawling. First one needs a prelocation method to find the place of failure within several
hundred metres that can be done by sending a TDR‐signal (Time Delay Reflection) into the
cable from one end with an ECO‐meter or with measurement of a fault location bridge.
These equipments are portable and do not need any special installation. The final location
of the fault is through use of equipment measuring the magnetic flux close to the cable in
the vicinity of the prelocated fault when current pulses are injected at the end of the cable.
In some cases a high frequency current is injected at the end of the cable. In nearly all cases
you repair the existing cable by cutting away the faulty section and replace it with a length
of spare cable sufficient to allow jointing at the surface. In very few cases the faulty cable
may be replaced with a new spare cable. This will only be economical when you have very
short and small array cables.
Failure of the export cable should be attended to at the earliest possible time as this will
stop the production, but the time to repair will strongly depend on availability of a repair
vessel and spare cable. Failure of an array cable will lead to reduced power output. How
much depends on where the failure is and how the array cable layouts are configured.
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measures should be adopted to keep the integrity of this barrier by means of suitable
glands/transits that will maintain the isolation from the external environment too.
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d) A jack‐up type construction where a
separate cable tower is pre‐installed before
the substation is elevated into its final
position. In this design the cables may be
pulled into the separate tower before the
main platform is installed and link cables to
the substation are pulled in and laid
between the tower and substation after the
substation platform is installed into its final
position.
Arrangement a)
To meet constraints imposed by the heavy lift of a jacket foundation it may be specified that
the top of the J tubes only extend to the top level of the jacket.
Again to meet the constraints imposed by the heavy lift of the topside it may be specified
that there should effectively be no projections below the lowest deck construction.
In this case after positioning of the topside on the jacket there may need to be filler sections
installed for each J tube to bridge the gap between jacket and topside and complete the J
tube. Access facilities need to be considered to permit these J tube extension sections to be
installed offshore.
Figure 3‐17. Example of J tube filler sections being Figure 3‐18. Example of Completed J Tubes
installed between jacket & topside
Arrangement b)
With this arrangement the J tubes are fully installed to the cable deck. The three core sub‐
sea cables can be pulled into place and laid out on the cable deck prior to arrival of the
topside.
Temporary measures need to be designed for use at this stage to preserve the cable
minimum bending radius of the three core, armoured cables until their final installation
after the topside arrives.
Sealing of the cable ends and mechanical protection may be required during the period
between cable pulling and topside installation.
Arrangement c)
The sub‐sea cables would be installed after the self elevating platform is installed in its final
location with the cable hang‐off being made at the J tube top.
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If the self elevating platform is a four leg design then the J tubes may be able to be pre‐
installed into one, or more, of the legs.
Arrangement d)
The separate cable tower(s) would allow the sub‐sea cables to be installed prior to the
arrival of the self elevating platform. The aim would be to pull and terminate the sub‐sea
cables into a suitable cable box which would provide a through joint for the link cables to
the later installed substation platform.
Whilst self elevating platforms have been used in other areas of offshore activities they are
relatively new to the offshore substations and only limited experience is available to date.
The sub‐sea cable contains a fibre optic cable for use in the overall control and
communications scheme. It may be that a relatively short length of power cable is required,
typically 15‐20m, to route between the point of hang‐off on the cable deck and the point of
termination into the switchgear, however, the route length between the point of hang‐off
and the termination panel for the fibre optic may be typically 30‐40m. In this case a pre‐
installed interface panel may be required to be mounted close to the point of hang‐off.
The cable terminations should be a suitable for the marine environment
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This temporary steelwork must be sufficiently robust to withstand the environment, cable
deadweight and wind loads during the intervening period between pulling and arrival of the
topside. The temporary steelwork needs to be removable after installation of the topside to
permit final stripping, laying‐up and termination into the switchgear.
Sealing of the cable ends and mechanical protection may be required during the period
between cable pulling and topside installation.
As these pre‐installed cables will project above the level of the cable deck their presence will
have an impact upon the interface between the jacket and topside. Consideration needs to
be given to mitigate the possibility of cable damage during the final lift operations for the
topside.
After the topside is installed the cables need to be stripped and the support system
completed.
The topside design would need to consider the installation, or replacement, of any of the
sub‐sea cables after installation of the topside on its foundation. This would require suitable
padeyes, winch mountings and a detailed pull‐in procedure similar to that listed for the
topside inclusive of a cable deck.
Arrangements c) and d)
Similar considerations need to be included into the design of the platform as discussed for
arrangements a) and b).
The cable support system needs to make allowance for the planned laying arrangement for
the cable power cores, the minimum bending radius, cable deadweight, short circuit forces
etc.
The point of entry into the equipment deck needs to allow sufficient working space for the
operatives to feed cables through the penetrations.
As stated in earlier sections the penetrations would need to be sealed, after cable
installation, to resist the marine environment and/or fire.
Suitable earth bonding points need to exist local to each cable hang‐off.
The penetrations below each of the switchgear bays should be labelled to assist
identification from below on the cable deck.
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regard to equipment which has been thoroughly tested onshore then the testing to be
carried out on this equipment should be kept to the absolute minimum to ensure that the
equipment has not been damaged in transit and that it is functioning correctly.
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which can be repeated at chosen later occasions where changes in the FRA can indicate
winding damage or movement.
Switchgear
The pre‐commissioning of the switchgear will follow typical onshore practice with general
activities of (i) Inspection Schedule (checks on multi‐core cabling, insulation resistance tests,
panel checks), (ii) CT Mag curves, flick and loop burden checks, (iii) functional tests, (iv)
transducers, (v) interlocking, (vi) trip and control checks, (vii) alarm, indication, trip audit.
On SF6 Switchgear (typically at 132 kV) the performance of timing tests will require full
working pressure to be established on the switchgear. Consideration is required on the
requirements of the testing of the Export cable (i.e. components require to be removed
during test) and also the suitability of the equipment to be transportation at working
pressure requires to be considered otherwise the switchgear can be gassed and degassed an
unnecessary number of occasions resulting in a longer commissioning programme.
Building Services
Building Services can be completed as part of the pre‐commissioning on the dockside. The
equipment will typically be supplied from the LV switchboard which can be connected to
site supplies rather than supplied from the LV winding of the power transformer (as the
connection to an HV system is very unlikely to be available on the dockside).
The activities generally include the commissioning of:
• internal and external platform lighting,
• heating and ventilation systems,
• power sockets,
• security systems,
• fire and SF6 detection,
• CCTV systems,
• Navigational Aids,
• Oil and bund pump systems,
DC System
Battery systems can be commissioned dockside. These will be supported by the auxiliary
generator offshore until power is established. It is important that the running time of the
diesel generator and period until energisation is known. If the diesel generator is only
operated for short durations (to minimise the hours between re‐fueling) this will result in
the batteries discharging and charging to maintain supplies to equipment until a permanent
ac supply is available.
In this situation, if VRLA batteries are installed they are typically not designed for cycling
load. The extent of ampere hours removed and the available time to replenish the deficit
will impact on the battery life.
Similarly if the platform is left for a period without power the batteries will be discharged. In
this condition they will sulphate which will greatly reduce their charge current acceptance,
leading to a reduced capacity/autonomy.
Alternatively, if the philosophy is to leave the batteries initially disconnected offshore a
refreshing charger would be required typically every six months.
SCADA
The SCADA system can be tested to available points in the substation however a true end‐
to‐end test cannot be performed until the main export power cable (containing the fibre) is
installed to the offshore location. Typically on an offshore wind power plant there are two
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SCADA systems, one system will control the substation equipment and the other control the
Wind Turbines (refer to Section 5.4.1)
Typically the substation SCADA system will feature an onshore based server with offshore
client and RTUs / IEDs. The testing of alarms, indications, and controls can be tested to the
offshore RTU during pre‐commissioning. Similarly the testing of the onshore RTUs to the
main control server can be completed during the onshore pre‐commissioning. It is the
connection between both systems which cannot be commissioned prior to load‐out.
The option does however exist to connect the offshore system to the onshore system via
temporary connection (either by physical short fibre length and the onshore equipment
brought to the dockside or via establishment of a VPN connection). This can be used to pre‐
commission, in so far as is practical, a close resemblance of the final system however final
testing of the complete system will still be required.
Telecommunication
The telecommunication system provides the back‐bone for the SCADA system and voice
systems where the telecommunication to offshore will be via fibre optic and LAN topology
(refer to Section 5.7.).
The pre‐commissioning of the telecoms system at the dockside can typically include:
• internal and external multicore and coaxial cable installation tests,
• equipment tests between devices installed equipment on the platform,
• power supplies to panel to prove equipment operation,
• installed fibre optic cable from panels to junction boxes where the sub‐sea fibre
will terminate (For Insertion Loss of the cable cores and the Optical Time Domain
Reflectometer (OTDR)).
• CCTV cameras (viewing only typical as recording medium will be located onshore)
• LAN cables to the Telephone Kiosk and the Welfare facility,
• UHF and VHF Radio transceivers, antenna, and portable radios.
As noted with the SCADA system, the testing of the offshore equipment on a temporary set‐
up could be established to further prove connectivity to the onshore equipment and
offshore equipment. This is a risk based analysis as the test will require to be repeated
between the two systems with the final installation however a temporary connection
arrangement may highlight problems which can be corrected before the equipment is
located in the harder to access offshore location.
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early in the project to ensure that the equipment is specified to withstand this force, either
through permanent or temporary measures.
In addition to the acceleration forces, the positioning of the topside onto the substructure
can present an opportunity for shock forces to arise as contact is made between the two
structures. To measure the transportation and acceleration forces an impact recorder can
be installed on equipment prior to transportation. A data logging system for sampling the
acceleration in the X‐Y‐Z planes, the angle / tilt, and the vibration can be used. At pre‐
commissioning the result of a logging sequence will provide an initial assessment if the
transportation remained within the expected parameters during load out.
Prior to transportation offshore, the extent of the Test and Commissioning engineers which
require to be fully offshore trained should have been assessed. This includes consideration
of all parties who may realistically be required offshore. Once installed a Supplier of specific
equipment who is not offshore trained cannot simply be contacted to attend the
installation.
Once the substation is located offshore the location can very often represent different
ownership boundaries and responsibilities to that on the dockside. For example the
fabrication of the topside and installation of equipment can be contracted to a third party
however once installed on the offshore structure (or lifted from the dockside) the
ownership can become the responsibility of a different party (often the owner). Therefore
the works to under take final commissioning tests when the platform is installed offshore
must be clarified in advance. Activities undertaken on the dockside under one permit
system can be replaced over night by a new permit and operating system. After a visual
inspection is performed, an assessment of the safety systems should be undertaken. This is
required to ensure that any further persons who will be present on the platform are
protected from any SF6 leakage or fire situation.
The operation of the auxiliary generator during transportation should be considered.
Alternatively, the duration between leaving the dockside and running of the auxiliary
generator should be assessed for impact on equipment preservation requirements in
uncontrolled temperature environments.
The checks will also include inspection of any alarms on equipment or the SCADA system
and confirmation of the HVAC system operation.
The pre‐commissioning works offshore will then focus upon:
• securing any gratings which were lifted for transportation (for example gratings
lifted at padeyes),
• the removal of any transportation bracing or temporary supports,
• Removed door locking plates (or similar to ensure doors remain closed during
transportation) to provide access to rooms.
• Testing of platform and internal lighting,
• Erection of lightning masts and antenna (if fitted and lowered during sea
transportation),
• Fitting of any ventilation units removed during sea transportation.
• Operation check of the platform cranes.
(See also Section 4.5.10.1)
The electrical pre‐commissioning will then re‐check a number of items which were tested on
the dockside. This is required to ensure that no changes have occurred during the load‐out.
Items include:
• Commissioning the UHF and VHF radios,
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• Insulation resistance checks for primary equipment and main supplies to confirm
there was no change from transportation. This will include tightness checks on
terminal wiring,
• Functional and operational checks on the switchgear locally and from the SCADA
system,
• Tap changer operation and transformer auxiliaries (i.e. cooling fans).
In general a pressure test of the 36 kV and export cables, or the switchboards will only be
required offshore if there is evidence of damage to the equipment or changes in SF6 levels.
The project programme may facilitate the connection of the export and array power cables
on delivery of the topside. The power cables may have been installed and placed on the
cable installation deck prior to the topside delivery. Alternatively this activity may follow the
installation of the substation.
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recommendations, including IEC60840 for power cables with rated voltages above 30 kV up
to 150 kV.
The testing of the cable at 50 Hz provides the advantageous scenario where the cable
insulation, including accessories, is stressed comparable to the service condition. However
for an offshore wind power plant the inherent nature of the cable capacitance results in a
charging current which can be difficult to achieve the necessary values via a test set.
For the ac voltage test, applied between the conductor and the sheath, the cable can be
tested at Um for 1 hour. However due to the requirements (145 kV for an export cable)
typically the testing of the cable is achieved through 24 hours of service voltage (U0 ) can be
applied for 24 hours. This test utilising energisation from the electricity grid must be
discussed with the transmission system owner at an early stage in the design process. This
test is therefore achieved when the offshore platform is first energized.
The testing at 24 hours is also relevant where both ends of the cable are offshore as an HV‐
test set with higher voltages is difficult to achieve with handling and delivery of test
equipment to distant platform and/or wind‐turbine towers a costly activity.
The division of the contract placed by a wind power plant developer may influence the cable
testing procedure where the cable and switchgear spans different contracts. Coordination of
the cable testing and requirements / capability of the switchgear under the specified cable
tests must be performed. The HV‐test utilised may also need special equipment
configuration where, for example, it can be necessary that the switchgear voltage
transformers and surge arresters must be disconnected during the test. This would require
de‐gassing of SF6 compartments to allow components to be removed with vacuum and re‐
gassing required prior to test. However if testing is clearly known prior to load‐out the surge
arrestor, VT etc could be removed dockside to allow the cable test to be performed prior to
the equipment installation.
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7. Energisation of second transformer including tap changer and soak test
8. Energisation of 36 kV switchgear busbars and auxiliary transformer from HV system.
9. Energisation of WTG arrays and test.
10. Carry out final commissioning control schemes on the offshore platform.
11. Reconfigure power system to meet operational requirements
At each stage of energisation the equipment recently energised should be inspected for
signs of distress and whilst under load, various checks can be carried out. This includes
current/voltage transducers, remote indications of current differential scheme, phase
rotation checks, protection relay indications (V, A, f, MW, MVar) and power quality
monitoring systems. All checks performed should be recorded in a commissioning record.
During energisation the system must feature proven protection. When dealing with a long
length of ac cable the commissioning protection for the first energisation must be sensitive
to a fault in the subsea cable but be stable for the steady state charging current of the
subsea cable.
As noted in Section 3.4 the connection configuration of the earthing / auxiliary transformer
must be considered. In the situation where the auxiliary transformer is providing the earth
connection the installation of a commissioning overcurrent protection would not be
required as the auxiliary transformer provides an earthing path and must remain connected.
Until energisation the protection scheme at the onshore and offshore substations cannot be
proven. This includes as appropriate; busbar differential, subsea cable protection,
transformer differential, directional overcurrent, earth fault and circuit breaker fail
schemes.
3.7.4.2 Post-energisation
When the system has been energised for a few days, one should attend the substation to
inspect (see, hear, smell, touch) all equipment, cables and associated plant. In some cases,
the supplier of each equipment will have a clear instruction on post‐energisation checks ‐
but in most cases, one will have to use/invent their own checks. A few guidelines can be
found below.
3.7.4.3 Transformers
Following energisation, it will be necessary at some point (e.g. within one month of taking
load) to obtain a sample of transformer oil for dissolved gas analysis and other tests for
monitoring the condition of the transformer oil. Always observe and follow the
manufacturer's instructions. Provisions on the transformer (e.g. bleed valves etc.) for
drawing oil samples from the transformer tank should be made so that they are easy and
safe to access. This isn’t a problem when initial tests are carried out at the manufacturer’s
premises, but substation layout design should ensure that oil draw off facilities do not
become obstructed by other features when the transformer is installed.
3.7.4.4 Switchgear
Safe access by personnel to switch rooms is required for a visual inspection of the
switchgear following an initial period of energisation. Check the system and cable
connections for any signs or sounds of partial discharge.
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3.7.4.5 Export Cables
When load from the wind power plant is present, check all cables for any signs of
overloading ‐ visually and by infra‐red spectrum cameras (e.g. thermovision)
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Frequency control
Again, this is usually performed using software injection of frequency changes using
the master control system for the turbines. Monitoring of frequency response is
carried out throughout the range of tests that are conducted.
Harmonics
Harmonic analysis is based on voltage and current waveforms recorded over an
agreed period of time, typically a week or more.
Voltage fluctuation
Switching operations are performed on all circuits that are likely to produce voltage
fluctuations and the effect on voltage at the connection point is recorded.
Typical parameters to be monitored during load testing and connection compliance testing
are as follows:
MW – Active power
MVAr – Reactive power
System voltages
Frequency
Harmonics
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4 Physical Considerations
The main objective with Section 4 is to elucidate design considerations with respect to the
High Voltage AC Substation platforms and its associated substructures and foundations
including environmental impacts, remote location, maintenance issues, access
management, etc.
Section 4.1 provides an overview of the platforms and the different technologies used today
followed by a brief discussion of the most important parameters that need to be
considered. Section 4.2 discusses one of the most important subjects working for offshore,
i.e. Health Safety and Environment (HSE). HSE must in all parts and from the very beginning
permeate the thinking and be part of the fundamental design strategy.
Section 4.3 is to set the boundary conditions for the design. These are typically parameters
or inputs that are external to the design and cannot be easily changed, e.g. local and global
legislations, site location and ambient conditions such as temperature, currents, wave
heights, wind speed etc.
Unlike boundary conditions that are to be considered as more or less fixed, section 4.4
discusses parts or aspects of the transmission system that will have a significant influence
on the platform design but may be subject to discussion and/or iteration. Examples of such
equipment or parameters are electrical components and secondary systems, substructure
interface, cable installations and installation programme, commissioning tests, etc.
Having “set the scene” in the previous sections, section 4.5 discusses the actual design
philosophies, design parameters and issues within its own discipline that will have a major
influence on the final platform design. It considers aspects related to structural integrity,
what to consider for the general arrangement layout, primary access and egress systems,
emergency response and platform auxiliary systems. Furthermore, comparison of stressed
skin vs. clad truss braced design, corrosion protection, operation and installation and
commissioning of plant onshore are considered.
Section 4.6 discusses different types of platform concepts like container deck, semi enclosed
and fully enclosed topsides. To some extent it also discusses and compares pros and cons of
self installing concepts like floatover and jack‐up solutions.
Having thoroughly dealt with the topside, section 4.7 covers what is underneath, i.e. the
substructure. Different concepts will be compared and pros and cons discussed.
Section 4.8 will cover aspects of load out, transportation and installation and the
consequences these may imply on the overall design of the topside and substructure. A brief
overview of the available lifting vessels is included for information.
In conclusion, Section 4.9, assessment of fire and explosion design, together with fire
detection/alarm and passive/active fire suppression are discussed.
4.1 General
The main objective of Section 4.1 is to give an overview of the platform design and the
different technologies used today; also to discuss the most important parameters and
requirements that will need to be considered as a consequence of building platforms far out
on remote locations and being exposed to harsh and hostile environments.
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Det Norske Veritas (DNV), Offshore Standard DNV‐OS‐J201 “Offshore Substations”
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The approach must be to maintain a wide perspective considering many different aspects in
order to gain an optimized overall system performance – all the way from the turbines to
the mainland grid.
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fail in buckling when exposed to compression and in fatigue when exposed to pulsating axial
forces or bending.
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the design process and goals/limits. In order for the project to get through the
permit process, all relevant rules and regulations should be listed and impact
investigated.
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4.3.2 Environmental Conditions
The layout of the platform and the structural design should make sure the equipment is
adequately supported and protected for the duration of the design life. The fundamental
design parameters are the harsh environmental conditions offshore with waves, wind,
humidity, ice and fluctuating temperatures. There are several offshore design codes and
practices that will guide the designer in the consequences of the environmental parameters
to the platform design. It is however recommended that the parameters are thoroughly
checked, and additional investigations are made to find and select the correct conditions.
Water depths, wave data and ice conditions may have a significant impact on the platform
cost. Early investigations on these parameters are recommended as well as studies on their
impact on the platform's conceptual design.
Other aspects of the design related to environmental conditions and particularly with
relevance to fatigue are vibrations and oscillations. Vibrations from wind and waves as well
as oscillations from equipment such as the main transformers or diesel generators may
affect the long term withstand capability of both the mechanical structures and the
electrical equipment. The substructure stability may need to be strengthened and the
equipment could be mounted on special absorbing mounts if necessary.
When the first platform concept has been sketched, the foundation method and the
suitable platform concepts need to be assessed. The environmental conditions are again
major factors, particularly water depth and soil conditions. It will be necessary to make sea
bottom and soil condition surveys on site and the results should be used in the foundation
design.
It is common to use the Douglas Sea Scale to define the sea state for design and operational
purposes and typically a marine crane may be designed and rated to lift a specific load in a
specified sea state 3. In design specifications and calculations, however, significant wave
height is commonly used when describing waves.
The Douglas Scale has two codes, one code is for estimating the state of the sea, and the
other code is for describing the swell of the sea.
Degree Height (m) Description
0 No wave Calm (Glassy)
1 0 – 0.10 Calm (Rippled)
2 0.10 – 0.50 Smooth
3 0.50 – 1.25 Slight
4 1.25 – 2.5 Moderate
5 2.5 – 4.00 Rough
6 4.00 – 6.00 Very Rough
7 6.00 – 9.00 High
8 9.00 – 14.00 Very High
9 14.00+ Phenomenal
Table 4‐1. Wind Sea
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Degree Description
0 No Swell
1 Very Low (short and low wave)
2 Low (long and low wave)
3 Light (short and moderate wave)
4 Moderate (average and moderate wave)
5 Moderate rough (long and moderate wave)
6 Rough (short and heavy wave)
7 High (average and heavy wave)
8 Very high (long and heavy wave)
9 Confused (wave length and height indefinable)
Table 4-2. Swell
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rules and the range of certification chosen for the project will have significant influence of
the cost. Guidance on the certification possibilities and process is covered in Section 1.
4.3.4 Economics
Economics has a significant influence on the concept design and solutions because the
investors may have a stringent requirement for return on equity and investment. The
project schedule can change considerably in order to meet an earlier start up date, or a later
delivery date to meet the marked optimum. The financing and insurance can be influenced
by the magnitude of certification of the platform project. Insurance Companies are
dependent on the certification documentation in order to cover their risks appropriately.
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with the substructure design (monopile, jacket, gravity based, or self installing) which will
likely have been established prior to the topside design. See also Section 4.7 for further
details on the substructure.
Provided below is a general overview of typical equipment rooms which may be required
with key points for consideration with the design.
4.4.2.1 General
The location of equipment and rooms should consider which contain hazardous materials
and those which could be habited during normal operations. For example the situation of
the control room adjacent to transformer rooms may require blast and fire wall
considerations. The layout must also allow for the fundamental principle that escape routes
are designed to ensure that personnel can leave by at least one safe route to a designated
muster / evacuation area.
For a multi‐level platform, the location of equipment requires the designer to consider the
connections required between equipment. For example the HV side of the transformer(s)
will be connected to the HV switchgear by cabling or busduct. HV and MV cabling requires a
lot of space and hence, a more compact arrangement will be possible if there is a natural
connection flow between equipment.
The use of multi‐decks may introduce restrictions to the options available for removal of
equipment during either maintenance or change out. If equipment rooms are stacked above
one another it may impose difficulties to vertically remove equipment through the roof
using a platform crane. This will dictate that equipment is removed in a horizontal direction
from the room and then accessed from the crane, possibly via vertical access shafts or
outside the platform boundary.
The height required in each room will also impact upon the layout and choice of equipment
placed on each level, for example, an HV switchgear room will be higher than an MV
switchroom.
The safety assessment of equipment and room locations can also influence the design
where, for example, the location of a control room over a power transformer would
typically require consideration of blast and fire events if the transformer was to have a
catastrophic event.
Where cables and/or services pass through penetrations in walls/floor/ceilings between one
zone and another the penetrations should be effectively sealed against fire and/or the
environment as applicable.
The platform layout should also consider routine maintenance and how these tasks will be
achieved. The offshore platform is such that traditional methods for working at heights or
recognised access methods are not readily available. Therefore the layout of the equipment
on the platform should consider the tasks which are to be performed and to ensure that
measures are included in the initial layout which minimise any restrictions or difficulties in
performing tasks during the life of the platform.
4.4.2.2 HV Transformers
The power transformer can be located indoors, outdoors, or a combination (where radiators
are mounted externally and the tank internal).
The positioning of the transformer(s) on the platform is important as the units are likely to
be the heaviest items of plant on the offshore platform. The positioning will also be
influenced by the type of cooling system adopted for the transformer, tank mounted, air
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cooled radiators, separately mounted air cooled radiators, water cooled system etc and this
will determine how much of the transformer can be located indoors. (Refer to Section 3 for
more detail) Often transformers and other heavy items are located on the upper deck so
they can be accessed through roof hatches in the event of major works becoming necessary.
The positioning will impact on the centre of gravity as explained in detail in Section 4.5.2
below. The maintenance of the unit (including tap changers) and any oil processing through
the life of the unit can also influence the area required around the transformer in addition
to the extent of bunded areas and location of oil drain tanks.
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panels are front access only, however, due to type of equipment located within the panel,
very often the design is such that front and rear access is required.
The cabling to and from the panels must also consider if top or bottom access is possible.
This has a direct impact upon the extent and routing of cable tray/ladder and if bottom
entry the floor design.
4.4.2.8 LV Supplies
The location and number of LV transformers will largely be dictated by the system design.
However the units can be oil filled or dry‐type and this will impact upon the location
requirements on the platform and any system redundancy. The location of the main LV
distribution board(s) and their sub‐distribution boards should also be considered. (refer to
Section 5 for more detail)
Given the number of water, firewater and fuelling pumps that may be installed on the
platform, motor control and start up facilities must also be considered in the LVAC scheme.
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4.4.2.9 Workshop and Storage Rooms
The maintenance strategy will determine if a workshop is required offshore, however the
extent of the workshop and storage needs to be established. This can range from the
storage of simple maintenance activities (for example fuses and bulbs), to medium strategy
spares (for example air filters for HVAC, or protection relays), to significant items (for
example 36 kV circuit breaker).
Depending on the operational philosophy the platform may also provide the additional
function of a storage area for the WTGS (rather than the basic function as only a substation).
If the platform is to be the hub for the wind turbine maintenance activities additional
storage capacity for spare parts and consumables will require to be considered.
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system. A key factor is that the fire cylinders will require to be replaced in approximately
seven years and therefore provision for this activity will feature in the topside layout.
The fire systems are dealt with more fully in section 4.9.
4.4.2.14 Security
An offshore platform will be, by the nature of the location, inaccessible to a large number of
people. However security to prevent unauthorised access will be required. This will typically
feature security systems similar to an onshore substation. However legislation at sea
requires that the facility provide shelter from the sea for any distressed mariner. The design
of the platform should therefore be such to allow access from the sea however prevent
access to upper equipment levels. This is of relevance where multiple escape routes from
the platform are included in the design for safety however the route may provide access for
unauthorised personnel if suitable barriers cannot be easily installed.
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structure or lifting from the base of the structure. This lift may also feature spreader beams
or be a single hook lift.
The route and angle required for chains / slings during the lift should be considered to
ensure that the lift is not restricted by platform equipment.
The topside should also consider any areas around the lifting eyes to ensure hooks and
slings can be connected. This can also require sizable laydown areas for chain/slings and
should be included in the design. The lifting chains / slings for an offshore platform can be
substantial as the lift can easily be in excess of 1,000 tonnes.
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4.4.4 Ownership Boundaries and Separation
The ownership boundaries for equipment must be clearly established for the project as this
can have an impact on the layout. Equipment may need to be installed in an individual,
sometimes lockable, area due to the ownership of this equipment differing.
For example equipment owned by the TSO (such as protection and control cubicles for the
export cables), or tariff / settlement metering, may need to be housed in a completely
separate area/room from the equipment owned and operated by the WTG Owner.
This may lead to specific rules and technical requirements for this equipment and can
include specific AC / DC supply requirements, independent rooms, or dedicated access
requirements.
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platform (e. g. limiting of the wind power plant power infeed), and the necessary efforts for
the restoration of the fault will impact on the arrangement of the equipment on the
platform and its decks. If, for example the failure of a transformer is considered, the loss of
income can be equated against the additional costs associated with redundancy (i.e. the
costs associated with a redundant transformer, the extension of MV and HV switchgear, and
the additional maintenance).
The choice of the nominal power of the transformers installed may be influenced by the
time required to provide and install a spare transformer. The layout of the substation is
important as the location and accessibility of the equipment will have a major impact on the
efforts required to exchange the faulty equipment (i.e the necessity to shut down or
dismantle additional parts of the platform).
Section 3 provides further detail on the major replacement strategy and spares associated
with primary equipment offshore.
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The NORSOK safety standard highlights this design aspect as ‘the layout of an installation
should reduce probability and the consequences of accidents through location, separation
and orientation of areas, equipment and functions’ [47]47. It should however be noted that
the standard refers to the petrochemical industry and although safety is no less important
on an offshore electrical substation a number of the hazards (in particular the
hydrocarbons) are not present in a similar manner on an electrical installation. Whilst this
standard provides a good basis for design the extent to which it is applied will be subject to
agreement between the Operator and the Designer
In can be very easy to reduce the overall area of an offshore platform, and thus cost,
through the reduction in access areas around equipment and access routes. The minimum
area recommended by the Suppliers of equipment is discussed in detail in Section 3 of this
document and this will follow the basic standards in onshore applications, such as IEC
61936‐1, and present the fundamental requirements to the substation design for universally
accepted safety measures. In an offshore environment, the Designer needs to take into
account the space required to perform testing, commissioning and maintenance tasks.
The minimum dimension of escape routes also presents a fundamental design principle
which can impact upon the substation layout. An escape route with a minimum of 1 metre
in width and 2.3 metres in height is a dimension published in Safety Standards [46]. This
requirement increases with the number of persons present on the platform. The Designer
should also consider that all doors can be easily opened by one person and open in the
direction of escape. This could block the outside escape route if this route is only 1 metre
wide.
47
NORSOK STANDARD, ‘S‐001, ‘Technical Safety’. Edition 4, February 2008
212
▪ Feasibility Study ‐ evaluates the feasibility of a project or parts of it
▪ Concept Study ‐ evaluates different concepts and/or develops a preliminary design
(concept)
▪ Front end engineering and design (FEED) and Pre engineering design ‐ outlines a
design with a level of details somewhere between concept and detail design
▪ Detail Design ‐ Design of the elements that proves it can be built, and produces
detail design drawings used for fabrication
It is recommended to plan the stages based on what is required with respect to decisions,
budgets and contracts. The development of the design is closely linked to the contracting
philosophy described and gathered in the overall project execution plan.
213
industries ‐ Control and requirements and guidelines for the
mitigation of fires and control and mitigation of fires and
explosions on offshore explosions on offshore installations used
production installations ‐ for the development of hydrocarbon
Requirements and resources. Particularly useful:
guidelines Arrangements to mitigate explosion
effects.
ISO 15544 Petroleum and natural gas Guidelines on escape, refuge, evacuation
industries ‐ Offshore and rescue is consistent with ISO 13702
production installations ‐ but address in more detail how these
Requirements and aspects are built into development of
guidelines for emergency emergency response measures. Based
response on an approach where the selection of
measures is determined by the
evaluation of hazards.
SOLAS, Safety of life at sea Regulations applicable to ships of 300 to
consolidated 500 gross tonnage and above;
edition 2004 emergency power, fire protection, life‐
saving arrangement and
communications requirements.
MODU Code, Code for the construction Design and operational guideline for
consolidated and equipment of mobile mobile offshore drilling units of the
edition 2001 offshore drilling units semi‐submersible type.
NORSOK C‐001 Living quarters area Defines the requirements for the
architectural design and engineering of
the LQ area on offshore installations in
the petroleum industry.
NORSOK S‐001 Technical safety Describes the principles and
requirements for the development of
the safety design of offshore
installations for production of oil & gas.
DNV‐OS‐A101 Safety principles and Provides general safety and
arrangements arrangement principles for offshore
units and installations.
DNV‐OS‐J201 Offshore substations for General platform design guidance based
wind power plants on safety assessment principles.
Structural design
ISO 19900 Petroleum and natural gas Specifies general principles for the
industries ‐ General design and assessment of structures
requirements for offshore (bottom‐founded and floating) subjected
structures to known or foreseeable types of
actions. Applicable to the design of
complete structures including
substructures, topsides structures,
vessel hulls, foundations and mooring
systems.
ISO 19902 Petroleum and natural gas Contains requirements for planning and
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industries ‐ Fixed steel engineering of the following tasks:
offshore structures a) design, fabrication, transportation and
installation of new structures as well as
their future removal;
b) in‐service inspection and integrity
management of both new and existing
structures;
c) assessment of existing structures;
d) evaluation of structures for reuse at
different locations.
Specific guidance on actions, structural
analysis, foundation design, corrosion
control, welding, QA, sea transportation,
etc.
ISO 19903 Petroleum and natural gas Specifies requirements and provides
industries ‐ Fixed concrete recommendations applicable to fixed
offshore structures concrete offshore structures and
specifically addresses
a) the design, construction,
transportation and installation of new
structures, including requirements for
in‐service inspection and possible
removal of structures,
b) the assessment of structures in
service, and
c) the assessment of structures for reuse
at other locations.
ISO 19905 Petroleum and natural gas Part 1: Jack‐ups
industries ‐ Site‐specific Part 2: Jack‐ups commentary
assessment of mobile
offshore units
NORSOK N‐004 Design of steel structures Specifies guidelines and requirements
for design and documentation of
offshore steel structures
NORSOK M‐501 Surface preparation and Gives the requirements for the selection
protective coating of coating materials, surface
preparation, application procedures and
inspection for protective coatings.
NORSOK Cathodic protection Gives requirements for CP design of
submerged installations and seawater
containing compartments, and
manufacturing and installation of
sacrificial anodes.
DNV‐OS‐C101 Design of offshore steel General guidance for design of offshore
structures, general (LRFD steel structures by load and resistance
method) factor design method.
DNV‐OS‐C401 Fabrication and Provide a standard to ensure the quality
215
construction of offshore of all welding operations used in
structures offshore fabrication, through identifying
appropriate welding procedures, welder
qualifications and test methods.
DNV‐OS‐C502 Offshore concrete General guidance for design of offshore
structures concrete structures by load and
resistance factor design method.
Access and transfer
CAP 437 Offshore helicopter landing Guidance on CAA criteria in assessing
areas ‐ Guidance on offshore helicopter landing areas for
standards world‐wide use by helicopters registered
in the UK. Accepted as de‐facto standard
in many countries.
NORSOK C‐004 Helicopter deck on offshore Defines the basic requirements for
installations design, arrangement and engineering of
helicopter decks on offshore
installations.
DNV‐OS‐E401 Helicopter decks Design loads, load combinations,
strength requirements, safety
requirements.
Fire protection
ISO 13702 Petroleum and natural gas Describes the objectives, performance
industries ‐ Control and requirements and guidelines for the
mitigation of fires and control and mitigation of fires and
explosions on offshore explosions on offshore installations used
production installations ‐ for the development of hydrocarbon
Requirements and resources.
guidelines
SOLAS, Safety of life at sea Regulations applicable to ships of 300 to
consolidated 500 gross tonnage and above.
edition 2004
MODU Code, Code for the construction Design and operational guideline for
consolidated and equipment of mobile mobile offshore drilling units of the
edition 2001 offshore drilling units semi‐submersible type.
NORSOK S‐001 Technical safety Safety design of offshore installations
incl. fire detection, active and passive
protection.
DNV‐OS‐D301 Fire protection Fire protection for offshore structures,
drawing from both SOLAS and MODU
Code.
IEEE Guide for Substation Fire Fire protection for electrical equipment
Protection (based on onshore installations)
NPFA Fire protection Fire protection for electrical equipment
(based on onshore installations)
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4.5.2 Structural Integrity
For the establishment of an offshore substation the same basics are needed to be met as in
an onshore substation, i.e. there has to be area for the location of the substation equipment
to be installed in the electrical system as well as auxiliary systems. The areas needed for
equipment and auxiliary systems are different from substation to substation depending on
the actual electrical equipment and location of the station. The floor areas will be
established on a topside structure which will be supported on a substructure standing on
the sea bed. In section 4.7 different types of substructure concepts are described.
Regardless of the type of concept chosen the substructure and topside has to be seen as
one installation which has to withstand the loads from equipment as well as the natural
forces of wind, waves and unforeseen accidental scenarios. The selected design codes (see
4.5.1) will define the structural calculations and inputs for the design.
As the final structural design is an outcome of the design codes to be followed,
considerations should be made for several different inputs into the design.
For optimization of the structures, and their integrity, two parameters are to be considered:
▪ Centre of gravity
▪ Fail safe design
For an optimal utilization of the structural steel a well placed centre of gravity is most
important. A centre of gravity not placed ideally can result in an oversized substructure
compared to what could be achieved, resulting in unnecessary costs for material and
fabrication.
The physical location of heavy components on the topside will impact both on the topside
structure and the substructure. Ideally located equipment and the following load
distribution in the topside structure with respect to the substructure interface will result in
an optimal utilization of the structural steel. In other words, uneven load distribution may
result in an oversized topside structure as well as resulting in an unfavourable location of
the centre of gravity.
The main objective with the fail safe design is that the structural integrity should respond in
such a way that it will not cause a collapse of the structure or that a limited damage will not
lead to a total collapse should a failure like e.g. overstress occur.
A basic input for structural design and integrity is the overall lifetime for the substation in
respect of fatigue calculations.
Centre of Gravity and Load distribution (covering: Integral or separate decks (i.e. separately
transported)
It is necessary already in the overall project planning, evaluating conceptual design together
with Purchase philosophy of the different part of the platform, to evaluate and define the
first go at COG and load distribution. As mentioned above, the weight and COG of each
platform part is essential for the feasibility and cost of the transformer platform project. It
is recommended to put in a shift of centre of gravity for the topside module in a radius of
1.5m in the initial calculations.
The COG and load distribution design is closely related to the project overall philosophy for
design, operation and maintenance. A layout starting point can be tested for compliance
with these philosophies, whereas the ability for safe construction, maintenance and
replacement of large component will play a significant role regarding COG and optimum
load distribution. The platform must also be designed for change out of heavy equipment
e.g. the power transformers. It may be necessary to confirm that the design can withstand a
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displacement of the COG by running a complete worst case load design calculation without
one of the main transformers.
Collision withstanding capability
The design requirement for collision of vessels in the vicinity of the platform will be deduced
partly from vessel traffic pattern from the platform's own service vessels, vessels servicing
other offshore installations, or other merchant ships sailing pattern.
Systematic ways of establishing the collision impact criteria, is by an engineering study
investigating the vessels expected in the area with all the planned installations taken into
consideration, and decide what vessel and risk should be the design criteria. Clearly, there
is a practical limit to what kind of ship impact a platform can survive. For instance, no
platform will withstand the impact of a drifting tanker. Local maritime and coastguards
agencies would possibly have design criteria for ship impact design and evaluations and
must be investigated. Scenarios for ship impacts and possible consequential environmental
hazards to be investigated may differ from one country to the other. An example of such
local requirements is the requirement to choose a structural design which is less likely to
damage the hull of a tanker (e.g. in Germany)
Typically a collision analysis consists of two steps; collision and post analysis. E.g. members
experiencing plastic strains between 5% and 15% during ship impact will be omitted in the
post damage analysis. The post damage analysis typically has a return period of 1 year, i.e. 1
year to repair.
Weight and size of components
The weight control is an important part of the platform design and requires a systematic
approach already from the very beginning. The main objective is to have control over the
weight and its impact and to ensure that all the necessary consequences from the
components weights to other parts of the platform with regard to local reinforcements as
well as global structural design and lifting design is considered. Another way to use the
weight controlling is to establish bonus or penalty tools in the component purchase orders
and include requirement for certified (2nd or 3rd part) weight certificates upon delivery.
It is also recommended to develop a "material handling study". This study systematically
analyses the operations involving handling of materials (not only mechanical). The study
should take all component maintenance and change out operations into consideration.
The most important design process involving COG and size evaluation is the layout study.
The study purpose is to evaluate the interaction of components and room functions, and
from different layouts proposals choose the optimum solution.
Oscillations and accelerations
The design of structures may have a major effect on platform equipment in terms of
oscillations and accelerations. The structures are exposed to forces that unavoidably will
introduce stresses that the equipment on the platform will have to withstand. This may
have consequences on the overall concept of the structural foundation and design.
Generally all offshore structures are analysed for their stiffness and period for 1st eigen
mode for evaluation of human wellbeing and structure fatigue loads. As a recommended
threshold value for human beings 2.5s as 1st eigen mode period is widely used and for
avoiding unnecessary fatigue loading the period value should not exceed 3‐4s. As a
substation will be manned during crew visits (or with permanent manning) a low value
should be preferred but must also in the design phase be weighted against fabrication and
installation costs. The stiffer the structure, the higher the total fabrication weight, and cost,
possibly resulting in higher costs for offshore installation. Regarding acceptable
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accelerations for equipment has shown that up until today it could be difficult to find a
specific value.
Experiences from some operating substations/wind power plants have shown problems
with equipment needing replacement due to induced loading leading to operating faults
due to accelerations.
Dynamic loads
Dynamic loads include wind‐, wave‐, current‐, fatigue‐ and ice loads.
International design standards cater for proper care of the wind, wave, and current loading.
One should be aware that the consequences from these condition parameters depend on
decision on platform position, orientation, layout and structural initial design.
The design of structures with regard to ice is often based on insufficient data, but has a
significant influence on the design and cost. The cooperation with other disciplines may
possibly avoid problems and cost.
Before deciding on the design requirements with respect to ice loads, a thorough analysis of
the ice frequency should be conducted and the result analysed and evaluated. Worst case
scenarios based on loose facts may result in cost going up unnecessarily.
When the right unavoidable amount and frequency of ice is decided, then the way to handle
it should be decided. Two factors can be mentioned, structural main members and boat
landing.
The main structural member design will meet the ice, and should be optimized with this fact
taken into account. Cost can be reduced by the right size, form and not least elevation.
Furthermore, the value of a permanent boat landing must be evaluated. There are ships
that can be designed to service a platform without a boat landing arrangement.
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Function Stressed skin solution Cladded truss braced
solution
Barrier The plate between 5‐10 mm Corrugated panels are
is welded all around to a attached to the truss by
robust and tight box. screw or rivets. May require
maintenance to remain
tight.
Local support functions Each deck is a platform with Each deck is a platform with
strong girders. strong girders.
Shear force distribution and Side walls and bulkheads Special arrangement is
force transmission both divide the platform needed with truss structure
volume into separate rooms and separating walls. No
and provide shear force synergy.
stiffness for heavy
equipment and transmission
to support pillars.
Stiffness to reduce The stress skin is inherently Stiffness does not benefit
vibrations stiff around all side walls and from the synergy between
bulkheads by synergy the barrier function and the
between the barrier function stiffness provided by the
and structural function. truss.
Easy installation on site. Installation benefit from Less robust and less flexible
light weight and small in case of late design
dimensions, and provides changes.
better robustness. The
design is also more flexible
for late changes.
Robustness. The stressed skin is more Less damage tolerant.
robust than the truss as it is
more damage tolerant.
Provide space. Non significant difference Non significant difference
Manufacturing process. Ship yards may utilise their Manufacturing includes
robotized welding systems complex joints with expert
for stiffened panels welding.
Table 4‐3. Comparison Stressed skin vs. Truss braced solution
From manufacturing point of view the stressed skin can be produced at many ship yards at
reasonable cost. One can assume that a truss structure would be rather complex to handle
for a ship yard used to doing a lot of the welding with robots running in straight lines for
stiffeners on flat plates. The robotized production is an effective way of making large thin
walled steel boxes.
On the other hand the platform yard is usually not in possession of robotized welding
system meaning that there is a risk that they are not as efficient as ship yard producing
stress skin solutions.
The most important difference is of course how shear load is handled by the structural
elements involved in the configuration. Specific parametric studies on shear behaviour show
that the stressed skin is not superior in transmitting shear. The conclusion is that truss
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structure is specialized in taking shear and good at it. When the thickness is motivated by
external lateral load on a structure (hydrostatic pressure) the stressed skin, i.e. the shell
structure, is obviously advantageous.
From an application point of view, i.e. the location of apparatus in separate rooms with
rather large free spans and few penetrations of bulkheads/decks the stressed skin can be
advantageous as the separation walls have synergies with structural functions, providing
stiffness and strength all along the bulkheads and side walls without extra cost of material.
The lifting during the installation on top of the pile structure may give the highest stresses
and strains if there are special requirements, such as ability to carry all of the loads over a
diagonal of the structure. Then of course the shear loads will double and thicknesses will
increase for both the truss structure and the shell structure.
An alternative to transportation on barge is to float out the platform itself for simple
transport on own displacement and installation without “heavy lifters”. Then there is also a
demand for the “box” to take lateral pressure on the skin and the stressed skin is then the
preferred solution. In such case the corrugated panel on a truss structure is simply not
useful.
From an installation point of view a stressed skin solution could possibly give higher
flexibility as there may be more ways to carry out the installation due to robustness and
easy adaptation to a floating body.
As the installation includes lifting operations low weight is of interest. Considering platforms
of significant size, neither of the two structural arrangements could beat the other on
weight saving. Studies based on parametric evaluation of the structural steel weight
concludes that unless lateral load (water pressure against side walls and bottom or liquid
pressures in tanks) are significant the competition between truss structures and stressed
skin can not be judged easily without a thorough design comparison. However, there may
be other aspects influencing the preferred solution.
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Platform space (room)
Transformer Rooms
Emergency Generator Room
Wind Park Control room
Control & Protection room
Air Lock
Crew Lockers
Toilet
Kitchen and Staff room
Emergency Shelters
HV GIS room
Auxiliary transformer room
MV switchgear room
Emergency food & water store
HVAC room
WTG spares storage
Filter banks (if applicable)
LV switchgear room
Fire fighting room
Lay down areas
Staircases
Life raft with davit
Fuel tank emergency generator
AC/DC distribution room
Battery room
Table 4‐4. List of platform rooms
But first and foremost the HSE perspective must permeate the design in all its aspects; the
location of accommodation and/or emergency shelters and muster points in relation to
access and egress provisions must be carefully considered. Furthermore, fire and explosion,
evacuation plans and escape routes must be planned in an adequate way.
From a structural integrity point of view the GA will need to allow for mechanical load
distribution down to the supporting structure. An important consequence of the GA is the
location of Centre of Gravity. A low and centralized position is preferable. This can however
be in opposition to the requirement that heavy equipment such as power transformers
should be replaceable by heavy lift vessel and may therefore be located on upper, or at least
on an intermediate deck.
The GA will also need to take into account the operability and maintainability of the
platform; walkways and stairs must be located in such a way that they will render it
practically possible for the personnel to move around on the platform not only in case of an
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emergency situation but also under normal circumstances. Special measures may have to be
taken to facilitate inspections and maintenance.
As the main transformer (and in some cases the GIS unit) is a very large piece of equipment
normally with a height of 6.5 to 7.5m, a layout with multi storey buildings, 2 or 3 storeys in
height is a way of optimizing total outline of the topside. The multi storey buildings will
include the secondary and utility systems and be either of containerized type or purpose
designed incorporated into the topside structure.
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the lifting of the complete transformer unit via a heavy lift crane to a support vessel or
removal of the transformer through an innovative project specific solution.
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4.5.4.4 Manual Handling
As with work related tasks on an onshore substation, a clear understanding of the
limitations of manual handling must be known. In general mechanical handling aids are
required for all activities that require a lift / movement of components in excess of 25kg.
This is shown in Figure 4‐4.
One method of assessing work tasks is via the ‘TILE’ principle. This relates to consideration
of:
1. T ‐ Task involved
2. I ‐ Individual/s involved in task
3. L ‐ Load to be moved
4. E ‐ Environment in which the operation will be conducted.
The ‘Task’, ‘Individual’ and ‘Load’ are undertaken on an activity by activity basis with the
significant difference on an offshore substation being the environment which the activity
will be conducted. The introduction of additional equipment or the movement of equipment
to an alterative location for loading / lifting does not have the flexibility in an offshore
substation.
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A dropped object analysis should be carried out for the switchgear room to pre‐
determine the consequences of damage resulting from this un‐planned event.
(iii) Pedestal Cranes. The design consideration of the pedestal crane is of great
importance. As this crane would be used to lift loads directly from a vessel it
must be rated for use in an agreed sea state. This sea state will vary dependent
upon where the platform is located and under which significant sea state it is
practicable to lift in. This crane may be called upon to lower a stretcher casualty
to a service vessel and as such would need to be rated for this man‐riding
emergency descent. This is covered in more detail in the Section 4.2.
(iv) Davit and Davit Crane There are numerous techniques available for lowering life‐
rafts from the platform to water level and one of the most common is the davit
lowered design. This davit would be designed for the liferaft duty but it could be
adapted to provide an anchorage point for man‐riding emergency descent. For
this evacuation technique the receiving vessel would not be moored at the boat
landing but would be held in position by the master.
Rather than constantly use the main pedestal crane to access the deck of a
transfer vessel moored against the fender system of the boat landing it may be
practical to locate a davit crane on the platform suitably positioned to access the
vessel. This davit crane can be utilized to lift relatively small packages, tool‐bags
etc direct to the platform.
Typically this davit crane would have a rating around 1.0 Tonne and be suitable
for use in the specified sea state. Davit cranes are now available for the offshore
environment, which provide features making them more flexible for regular use,
typically:
▪ Worm driven manual slew mechanism for rotation
▪ Low voltage pendant or radio controlled hoist unit
▪ Suitability for man‐riding emergency descent (to BS EN 50308)
▪ Safety systems inclusive of manual and automatic overload protection
systems
▪ Testing and Certification to European Standards
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(ii) transferring equipment and supplies from the laydown area to areas inboard, for
example the Lloyds Register of Shipping code for Lifting Applications in a Marine
Environment, 2003.
A range of pedestal cranes are available which include (i) fixed boom, (ii) knuckle boom, (iii)
telescopic boom.
227
As discussed in section 4.2.3, this crane may be used for man‐riding emergency descent.
This design feature would need to be specified at the time of ordering.
4.5.4.8 Decommissioning
The material handling at the end of the project life will follow a reversal of the installation
procedure. For example if the substation is loaded to sea as a complete unit it is likely,
subject to condition assessment, to be returned to shore as a complete unit.
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4.5.4.9 Storage Areas
The storage areas required on an offshore platform requires an early philosophy to be
developed on the materials that should be stored on the platform and those which will be
carried to the platform by transportation vessel as, and when, required. Input to ascertain
this information will come from the maintenance programme including the frequency of
activity and equipment required to perform the task.
The cost of the offshore platform in relation to the size and the importance of optimisation
of the layout is obvious. Storage of equipment, tools and spares may have a significant
impact on this as, although storage offshore minimises the issues associated with
transportation, the cost of the platform can easily escalate if storage is not considered. The
reverse can also be true whereby storage requirements are ignored and the operation cost
escalates if equipment is not available offshore.
As with an onshore substation, the positioning of the storage area must follow a risk based
approach and ensure the segregation of high risk areas to hazardous materials. This includes
the transfer of personnel to and from the offshore platform with consideration of the access
routes (by boat or helicopter) used.
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commonly require storage in the form of a number of pressurised water and gas
cylinders to provide the extinguishing medium. Consideration of this storage area
must take into account that once operated the cylinders (in excess of 100 kg
when full) will require to be replaced and that the cylinders are pressure vessels
(in excess of 40 bar pressure).
(vi) Transformer oil bund dump tank. In the event of a mineral oil filled transformer
failure the recognised onshore philosophy must remain where the oil must be
captured to prevent impact to the environment. To also minimise fire risk the
transformer oil is normally drained to a ‘dump’ tank rather than remain within a
bunded area. To achieve a rapid emptying of the bund the dump tank will be
located such that oil drain is gravity fed and sized to capture in excess of the full
oil content of a single or multiple units dependent upon the risk assessment
results and/or client specification. This oil should be stored until mechanisms are
in place to remove the contents to shore.
(vii) Transformer bund rain water tank. In the situation that the power transformers
are located outdoors any rainwater in contact with the unit must be assessed for
oil content. An option exists to capture this rainwater in a storage tank with
transportation to shore at required intervals. Alternatively, an oil‐water
separator can be used to capture the oil content and the uncontaminated water
passed into the sea. This significantly reduces the volume stored offshore.
(viii) Platform wash‐down storage. Due to the harsh environment the life of the
platform can be assisted through the washing down of exposed items with ‘fresh’
water to reduce the salt content and corrosion. If a helicopter landing deck is
fitted the removal and washing of bird excrement can be via stored wash down.
The effectiveness of this should be assessed at the design stage as significant
water storage could be required through the life of the project and associated
transport requirements. The issue of stagnant water and bacteria must also be
considered.
(ix) Spares and Workshop. Within the offshore platform an area will be assigned to
perform minor repair functions. This could be within a combined store and
workshop area. A wide range of spares could be stored on the offshore platform
to undertake ‘simple’ repairs to equipment. The purpose of this document is not
to provide an exhaustive list as this extent will be dependent upon the
equipment installed and the maintenance arrangements. Typical examples of
equipment which could be stored include transducers, test blocks, protection
relays, local/remote switches, push buttons, lamps, resistors, push buttons, fuses
and links, and terminal blocks.
(x) Platform Welfare. Suitable dry storage may be required for food, blankets etc
associated with the platform welfare facilities. The extent of the storage will be
dependent upon the status of the facility (manned or unmanned) and the
number of people to be catered for together with the planned duration of their
stay. An unmanned platform will require considerably less storage areas for food
and water, drying areas, food preparation, survival suits etc than a manned
platform.
(xi) Design and Operation Documentation. In addition to the above, documentation
must be available offshore to allow operators access to equipment instructions
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and details. This may take the form of electronic information with supporting
hard copies of key systems.
231
and removal of the facility with each visit. Alternatively additional chemicals
could be stored offshore for replacement subject to usage.
(viii) Aviation Fuel: As the offshore platforms become more remote from the shore
there may be a requirement to store aviation fuel on the platform. Storage of
aviation fuel on the platform introduces an extreme hazard and has to be
evaluated carefully. In the offshore oil & gas industry, aviation fuel storage is only
used in a few locations, e.g. due to the remoteness of the installation. There are
no requirements to have spare fuel on the platform, but once introduced, there
are a range of safety regulations to be complied with, e.g. related to zoning, fire
and explosion protection.
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have a heli‐hoist area onto which personnel can be lowered or from which they can be
winched up. Local requirements exist in most countries, but standard CAP 437 is an
internationally applied guidance document.
Helicopter decks and heli‐hoist decks used for transfer of personnel and cargo by helicopter
must be fit for purpose. Decks have to be located with a view to minimising hazards from
obstructions, turbulence or vents, whilst providing a good approach path during prevailing
weather conditions. The helicopter should not be required to cross the platform during such
approaches.
For transport by helicopter the prevailing wind patterns need to be considered and the
helideck positioned so that the helicopter approach for landing is into the wind. Data
relating to wind speeds, direction and time frequency should be collected to assist with
determination of the optimum positioning of the helideck. This information is often
displayed graphically in the form of a wind rose.
The location of the helideck on the platform must also consider the position of any heat
sources such as diesel generators, transformer cooler fans etc.
Specifically, helicopter decks should
▪ be placed at or above the highest point of the main structure
▪ be preferably located in a corner of the installation with as large overhang as
possible
▪ have an obstacle free approach and take‐off sector with 210° / 1,000 m being
normally required
▪ be reachable by the installation’s main crane
▪ have an air gap under the deck encouraging a relatively linear and clean air flow
▪ have a minimum of 2 access/egress routes
▪ be located above accommodation or emergency shelter area to guarantee shortest
escape times
▪ conform with local requirements regarding equipment, marking and lighting
Specific concerns in wind power plants include the turbulence caused by multi‐turbine wake
effects; a potential requirement to shut‐down adjacent turbines to allow safe helicopter
transfer; grounding of the helicopter to avoid electric shock during winching; low
visibility/fog flying limits and “good prospect of recovery” for helicopter passengers and
crew in the event of ditching in the wind power plant as well as worsening weather
conditions preventing recovery of maintenance technicians.
The helicopter deck size and strength depends on the helicopter(s) which will use it.
Helicopters are characterised by a dimensional “D” value and their weight which serve as
input for the structural design of the deck. Common D values for helicopters used in
offshore service range from 12 m to 23 m and the weights range from 2.4 tons to well above
10 tons. The helicopter deck adds significant weight to the topside structure, therefore the
deck should not be oversized without reason. Refuelling facilities are used on some far
offshore oil & gas installations but, to date, not on any offshore substation. Introducing
refuelling facilities has a massive impact on zoning, fire fighting, etc. and should be avoided
where possible. Helicopter decks require fire fighting equipment with foam‐based deck
integrated fire fighting systems (DIFFS) being very common. Commissioning activities
related to the helicopter deck include a test of the lighting and the fire fighting system. The
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latter may have to be carried out offshore as such test may not be allowed in the
construction yard / onshore.
While helicopter decks are highly regulated, little guidance exists for heli‐hoist areas. CAP
437 provides only some guidance. Consequently, some current designs do not facilitate
emergency operations. Generally, winching should not be used as a normal means of
transfer (but rather for emergency purposes). The main difficulty in wind power plant
maintenance is hovering for some 2.5 minutes when lowering one technician carrying tools
onto the heli‐hoist area. Besides few limitations to helicopter operation, a design criterion
for heli‐hoist areas should be whether a stretcher casualty can easily be brought to the
winching area.
Helicopter operations require that communication is established between helicopter and
substation. Some maintenance has to be planned for the helicopter deck. Bird fouling can
be a serious problem and regular cleaning may be required. Consideration should be given
to a deck wash system, possibly part of the overall deck cleaning arrangement.
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ladder must always be supported by trained vessel crew. Site‐specific procedures will
specify that a technician should only transfer if he / she feels safe to do so. Opinions are
divided on whether people transferring are allowed to carry any tools or equipment when
stepping over. One or more davit cranes are standard on platform installations. These can
be used to transfer any cargo, light or heavy. Sea‐state limitations, however, apply for the
use of davits as well and care has to be taken not to overload the crane due to vessel
movement (snag load) or create a hazard through swinging loads.
Gangway systems (e.g. ‘Ampelmann’) are now being used on some oil & gas installations,
increasing the access window to a significant wave height of 3 m. Some systems require a
locking pin on the platform installation while a heave compensating gangway is located on
the vessel which is equipped with a dynamic positioning (DP) system. This implies larger
vessels compared to the transfer boats used in today’s near‐shore wind power plants.
However, access using such systems is deemed to be safer than the fendering technique and
is expected to become more common in offshore wind applications.
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▪ Mustering and temporary safe areas
▪ Evacuation procedure and facilities e.g. helicopters, life boats, life rafts, and other
rescue arrangements such as stand‐by and other vessels
▪ Man over board rescue
The various systems are assessed regarding their adequacy, availability and survivability in
the chosen emergency situation scenarios. Redundancy of systems is taken into account.
When using qualitative analysis, the shortcomings can be identified and improvements can
be implemented. For instance, a smoke‐ingress analysis is frequently carried out to ensure
that a temporary refuge can remain smoke‐free for an adequate period in the case of a fire.
A cost‐benefit analysis can show the viability of any proposed improvement.
Simple and unambiguous communication and alarm systems must be provided to alert all
persons on the installation, at any location, of an emergency. External communication
arrangements and systems should remain effective in an emergency. With electrical
isolation of the substation certain functions must remain available on the platform for some
time. In general, the uninterruptible power supplies should be capable of e.g. 1 hour of
continuous operation. Certain features like navigation aids should be powered for longer
periods as determined by local regulations or the safety assessment.
Safe, direct and unobstructed exits, access, and escape routes must be provided from all
normally manned areas of the installation to muster areas and embarkation or evacuation
points. When an installation is unmanned, such escape routes must still be available for all
those areas where maintenance personnel may be in case of an emergency.
Muster areas must be located close to the embarkation stations (or helicopter deck /
helihoist area) with direct and ready access to survival craft or other life saving appliances to
enable a safe and efficient evacuation or escape from the installation if required. A primary
muster area should provide protection from hazards to allow controlled muster, emergency
assessment, incident evaluation, and implementation of control emergency procedures and
evacuation. The primary muster area should be provided with adequate command
communication facilities to address an emergency and organise safe evacuation if
necessary. Such an area should be suitably arranged for persons to don PPE and to enable
movement of stretchers. Muster areas, embarkation areas, launching arrangements and the
sea below life saving appliances must be adequately illuminated by emergency lighting.
To the extent necessary, arrangements must be made for provisions on the offshore
substation (or with suitable persons beyond) which will ensure, as far as is reasonably
practicable, the safe evacuation of all persons and transfer to a place of safety. All offshore
substations should have at least one launchable life raft which can take the maximum
number of persons on the installation. Various types are in use, e.g. davit‐launchable (rigid
or inflatable), free‐fall, and additional, self‐inflating rafts. When choosing the location of the
life raft(s) or boat(s), prevailing winds, waves and tidal currents must be taken into
consideration (i.e. to have a high likelihood of moving the raft / boat away from the
platform). The potential of a stretcher casualty has to be given particular attention, i.e. such
a stretcher must be recoverable by helicopter or, for transfer to a vessel, a crane with “man‐
riding capability” is required
Arrangements should be made to rescue persons from the sea or near the installation such
as persons falling overboard or being involved in a helicopter incident. Such arrangements
include rescue facilities on the installation, e.g. fast rescue or man‐overboard craft as well as
facilities and external to the installation, e.g. vessels and public sector and commercially
provided search services.
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Common types of liferaft and means of lowering them to the sea are:
• Self‐inflating liferaft – Davit‐launched
This design of liferaft would be stored in a container on deck and be connected to
the davit, inflated, boarded and then lowered to the water level
• Self‐inflating – Throw‐overboard
This design of liferaft would be stored in a container on deck and would inflate in the
water when the painter line is pulled. A descent system would be required to lower
the people to the water level/liferaft.
• Enclosed, rigid boat or totally enclosed motor propelled survival craft (TEMPSC)
The rigid boat would normally be suspended over the side of the deck and lowered
to the water level via davits, whilst a TEMPSC could be “drop” launched free fall or
“skid” launched free fall.
As the inflatable designs of liferaft do not have any power the location on the platform
should be selected with due cognizance to the prevailing winds and tidal patterns such that
the craft when launched will be naturally carried away from the structure.
Muster areas should be suitably sized for the planned maximum number of people likely to
be on the platform (SOLAS, Chapter III, Regulation 25 recommends a minimum of 0.35m2
per person)
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4.5.7.1 Diesel Generators
The inclusion of the standby generator on the platform is a key design consideration and
must consider a number of different scenarios. A standby generator would be used to
provide longer duration power supply to the auxiliary systems on the platform.
This occurs in the scenario when there is no wind generation and/or a supply from shore is
lost. The standby generator should not be confused with battery and UPS systems which
provide a secure supply but limited in energy storage durations.
The rating of a standby generator will depend upon a number of factors. These are covered
briefly below.
Platform Auxiliary Supply
Section 5 provides comprehensive details on the LV loads which will require to be supported
on the platform. This ranges from platform lighting to safety critical systems.
On the loss of generator or connection to shore (i.e. the export cable) the standby generator
will be required to support the platform load. Usually the fire water pump or the platform
crane will set the maximum design limit for of the Diesel Generator. The LV (typically 400 V)
system design, the seawater pump design, and the Diesel Generator system are primary
auxiliary designs.
In general the standby generation will commence on the loss of the LV supply and
consideration must be given to the size of the generator (kVA / MVA rating) and also the
size of the fuel tank required. The size of the fuel tank must reflect the duration with which
the standby generator could be expected to operate before supplies are restored or would
be acceptable to re‐fill the fuel tank.
An over‐sizing of the generator and its fuel storage will have an immediate impact on the
physical platform area required. In addition, if the generator capability significantly exceeds
the load this will have a negative operational impact as generators do not operate efficiently
and may be damaged when lightly loaded.
Wind Turbine auxiliary supply
In the scenario where the connection to shore is lost the platform design may also consider
the auxiliary supply to the wind turbines. Wind turbines may not be able to suitably operate
if there is no auxiliary supply available over a long period of time.
This power can be provided by a number of different sources, including via a small diesel‐
generator housed in each turbine. However the amount of diesel fuel which can be stored in
the turbine and the practicalities of refuelling each turbine diesel tank, especially in case of
severe weather conditions, would need to be evaluated.
An alternative to an individual visit to each wind turbine may result in a strategy where a
centralized supply is preferred. This could be achieved through a standby generator set
(gen‐set) on the platform. Such an approach may also provide advantages for the
maintenance activities associated with the gen‐set as well as for the cyclical exchange of
aged diesel fuel.
Provided that the Gen‐sets for both the platform and the wind turbines, henceforth called
the loads, are located on the platform two alternative solutions can be explored. Either a
solution with a common gen‐set for both loads, or two separate gen‐sets each rated for its
purpose. There is also a third option, i.e. to go for a permanent installed generator for the
platform and make provisions for a re‐locatable standby generator for the wind turbines
that can be installed with limited efforts should a longer outage occur.
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To define the power of the gen‐sets the consumption of the wind turbines must be known,
typically the different auxiliary modes of the turbines which are possible. It is known that
the maximum power consumption occurs during the yawing of the turbine.
To economically size the gen‐sets the wind power plant control system should ensure
sequential yawing of the turbines when running on the auxiliary supply source. This
sequence must be coordinated with the turbines ability to withstand stormy winds for a
certain time.
Depending on the construction and the operational strategy of the platform the total power
of a typical wind power plant consisting of about 80 WGT’s (of 5‐MW size) can be in range of
2 to 4 MW.
Generator set sizing
Network studies should be carried out to find the optimum solution for such a large cable
network which features a number of transformers connected and fed by a comparably small
apparent power of the gen‐sets.
Initially load flow studies will assess the power required to compensate for the capacitive
reactive power of the cable network. This can typically be in the range of 7 to 10 MVar. The
studies will assess the stability of the grid under all load flow situations.
An option to energise the whole array cable network is to only energise one array string
(feeder) at a time. The will significantly reduce the requirements on the gen‐sets.
As noted earlier, where a centralized supply of auxiliary power is deployed, it is essential to
supply the wind turbines on a N‐1‐principle design (e.g. the number of gen‐sets should be
chosen based on the N‐1‐principle). This is a requirement as maintenance requirements
increase with the running hours of the gen‐sets and over a long running period the system
will require to be able to cope with the outage of one of the gen‐sets. The partial outage of
the equipment for reactive power compensation must be considered as well.
The short circuit level must also be observed when the gen‐sets are operating on the LV‐
busbar. This is important if parallel operation of the gen‐sets is possible or if a gen‐set is
operating in parallel to the power grid (e.g. when the gen‐set have to be tested regularly
(e.g. monthly) under load conditions). If parallel operation is required the gen‐sets will
require to include measures to achieve synchronization and load balancing. Alternatively the
gen‐set can be exercised against a load bank which does not require synchronizing to the
electricity network.
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4.5.7.3 Electrical Design i.e. Lighting and Small Power
The general platform lighting should be switched on when the platform is manned during
visits, with on/off push buttons lighting control and indication lamp for switching off the
lighting placed at the boat landing and on the Heli‐deck (and possibility of remotely control)
Luminaries and floodlights should either be supplied from the normal power supply with
UPS supplied power for evacuation lights in emergency situations or when normal power
supply is down.
Power supply for indoor socket outlet rated at normal domestic power on land.
Power supply for outdoor socket outlet assemblies is higher voltage (for example 400VAC),
these sockets should be used for maintenance equipment on the platform. The electrical
design issues are covered in detail in section 5.
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comprehensive system, both controls and the mechanical parts. The channel system should
be able to withstand a release of inert gas, and react correctly in case of pressure increase
from the GIS.
Monitoring of the HVAC status and individual important room temperature is
recommended. Status monitoring should target a failure beyond a "General System failure"
indication, for example filter block and cooling circuit failure. With remotely set point
adjustments one can avoid unnecessary visits offshore. HVAC material selection is important
to reduce maintenance of the mechanical parts as well as small electrical components.
Equipment suitable for high temperature could be an economical solution, to reduce
capacity of cooling and risk if it is lost.
The following equipment/rooms are recommended to be climate controlled:
▪ 36 kV (from the wind power plant) switchgear rooms
▪ LV Switch panels
▪ Emergency shelter rooms
▪ SCADA rooms
▪ HVAC unit rooms.
▪ Workshop and storage room.
▪ Kitchen and staff room.
▪ Emergency switchgear room.
▪ Diesel generator room.
▪ Battery rooms, with separate exhaust
Rooms/ areas that can be natural ventilated:
▪ Main transformer
▪ Auxiliary transformer
▪ Reactor
▪ Water handling; fresh water, sea water
▪ Gas insulated switchgear (GIS) room.
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4.5.7.8 Drainage for Grey and Black Water
Drain from toilets and sinks/showers should be directed overboard to the sea or a sewage
treatment unit according to the legislation in the area. The option for overboard dumping of
waste for small vessels and commercial ships is regulated by Marpol rules. Marpol rules are
recommended as a minimum where no national rules apply. Chemical toilet types are
options but only low maintenance types similar to WC is recommended.
The system should be designed to comply with the regulations, (usually a grinder will be
required for grey waste water).
4.5.7.10 Public Address, Navigation & Aviation Aids, SCADA, UPS, Fire Detection &
Alarm
Fire safety systems are described in this section while the detection & alarm is discussed in
section 5 which also covers the public address, navigation Scada and UPS system.
Aviation aids are required when helicopter platforms are installed.
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4.5.8 Corrosion Protection System
4.5.8.1 General
Corrosion is the disintegration of an engineered material (typically steel for substructure)
into its constituent atoms due to chemical reactions with its surroundings. It means that if a
construction is not protected, corrosion will occur.
Generally an offshore substation is exposed to extreme environmental conditions which
include saline and moist air, extreme winds and waves tearing on the surfaces of the
structures (topside and substructure). As a result of this and to minimize maintenance for
touch‐up painting or repair/replacement of structural parts, piping systems and components
after long time wear and tear different types of corrosion protection can be used depending
on structure/substation part in mind.
4.5.8.2 Topside
For the topside, normally all exposed surfaces are protected by coating (paint) systems
developed and thoroughly tested during many years in offshore oil and gas installations
worldwide. Different types of coating systems are specified and coating procedures are
described in several codes and standards, e.g. in the North Sea area where the NORSOK M‐
501 is widely used.
For specific building related items such as stair treads and walkway grating, HVAC ducting
etc., galvanized products are normally used. Another approach to protect the topside is to
select non‐corrosive materials resulting in virtually no maintenance at all throughout the
lifetime of the substation. This may however be an expensive alternative. The non‐corrosive
material solution can be used for external piping system and components (valves etc.) but
can also be an adequate solution for external wall areas minimizing amount of coating at
fabrication. An initial material and fabrication cost has to be weighted against annual
maintenance.
Another alternative could be to use a design with a corrosion allowance corresponding to
the installations design lifetime. However, this is normally not used for topside structures
and it will most probably limit the possibilities for future life extension of the installation.
4.5.8.3 Substructure
Corrosion on the substructure can be dealt with in two ways; either corrosion control
and/or corrosion allowance.
Corrosion control is a technique and method to prevent or reduce corrosion damage
(corrosion protection), while corrosion allowance means adding extra steel during design
(typically 3‐10mm) to compensate for any expected reduction in wall thickness during
operation. The amount of extra steel can be reduced by a corrosion protection system
The corrosion protection system can further be divided into two systems;
▪ Painting
▪ Anodes (cathodic protection)
For the substructure of the substation installation a combination of coating systems and a
cathodic protection system is normally used. The cathodic protection may be a galvanic
system consisting of several sacrificial anodes installed on the structure below sea level
resulting in minimal corrosion on the structure members. The anode system has to be
carefully calculated and size and amount of anodes depends mainly on water salinity,
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protected surface area and water temperature. A correctly designed anode system lasts
over the installation lifetime without maintenance.
An alternative system is the so called Impressed Current Cathodic Crotection (ICCP) systems
which use anodes connected to a DC power source. This arrangement will however require
control systems and maintenance and is not very often seen offshore.
Coating of substructures is normally limited to structure above sea level and just below the
zone where water is in wave motion (splash zone) and coating systems is described in the
same way as for the topside structure in several codes and standards. The painting system
will typically be epoxy based or polyurethane.
In the design of a combined system different alternatives have to be weighted towards
fabrication costs. One extreme is to coat the complete substructure to minimize the number
of anodes (can not be avoided completely though). To partly avoid coating system a
corrosion allowance for the structure lifetime may also be considered.
The corrosion of the substructure is normally divided into zones:
▪ Splash Zone: Vertical extension of substructure being alternately in and out of
the water due to the influence of tides and waves
▪ Atmospheric zone: Vertical extension of offshore structure located above the
‘splash zone’
▪ Submerged zone: Vertical extension of offshore structure located below the
‘splash zone’
In the North Sea it can generally be assumed that the corrosion rate in the splash zone will
be in the range 0.3 to 0.5 mm per year, where it is approximately 0.1mm per year near sea
bed and in the range 0.1mm to 0.3mm per year in atmospheric zone.
The cathodic protection system should be designed to protect substructure and J‐tubes
(including future) as well as caissons. It should be ensured that an electrical connection
is established between jacket and all installed items that are to be protected by the
protection system.
It is recommended to combine all three above ‘solutions’ for corrosion protection. This
means that depending on the area, parts of the substructure will be painted, anodes may be
attached, further extra steel thickness may be added.
4.5.9 Operation
4.5.9.1 Operational Modes
With input from the operations crew, the modes of operation and the maintenance
operations are set up and used as design basis for the control and remote operation of the
platform systems. The finally commissioned control system and remote intervention
features are designed to enable the platform systems to operate as specified. The onshore
and offshore platform control personnel should be trained to follow the operational
procedures defined in the Platform Operation Manual. The Platform Operation Manual will
describe the platform and grid connection operation modes, the alarm system, alarm
functions and the recommended actions necessary following an alarm.
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The mode of operation may change over time if the platform will later be modified, and
used as a hub for other wind parks, or intercontinental connections. The proper initial
design can reduce modification cost, as thorough controls/operations commissioning and
simulations onshore is a significant cost saver.
The operator's safety officer will ensure that work operational procedures are followed
onboard the platform, and that the control centre onshore is kept informed of all personnel
activities offshore, a Work Permit system. Work Permits are necessary even on a "cold"
platform isolated from the Grid. The transfer of goods to and from the platform is also
thoroughly planned, and includes diesel bunkering, fresh water bunkering, other
consumables and waste transfer, equipment hoist, heavy hoist, personnel transfer from
boat, and helicopter operations.
For the planning of hook up and commissioning phase, input from experienced operations
personnel is important in order to design and plan for the work offshore. The requirement
for communication, transport, resting areas, toilet, shower and catering service will be much
more important during hook up and commissioning than in remote operation mode, and
good planning gives saving as well as good quality work.
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The question of how the accommodation is integrated into the platform depends on the
platform layout and size of accommodation. For safety reasons it is preferred to keep it
sheltered from fire areas, mainly the transformer. On the other hand it is usually cost
effective to integrate it into the transformer platform. One possible solution is to design the
accommodation and the helicopter landing platform on the same side of the substation
platform, and in that way the landing approach sector for the helicopter, and access to and
from accommodation, can be kept separated from the "hot" side of the platform. The
accommodation part can also be kept separated from the other "hot" side of the platform
by a firewall.
4.5.9.6 Workshops
It is emphasized that minimal work should be planned to be carried out offshore. However
several issues as mentioned in this paper can argue otherwise. Required hook up and
commissioning work can be chosen to be done offshore, or contingency plans can make
such arrangements necessary. It is recommended that as a minimum a small workshop is
designed, and that some storage space is reserved for mechanical and electrical spare parts.
Due care should be taken to envisage contingency situations, redundancy requirements, and
possible request for work facilities from other operators with service work being done in the
vicinity, for example the wind park.
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Prior to transportation offshore, the extent of the engineers which could require to be fully
offshore trained should have been assessed. This includes consideration of all parties who
may realistically be required offshore for final pre‐commissioning and energisation works. A
Supplier of specific equipment, test engineers and commissioning engineers can relatively
easily visit the onshore production areas to resolve any installation issues and complete final
checks. However if they are not offshore trained they cannot simply be contacted to attend
the installation once at sea.
Once the substation is located offshore the location can very often represent different
ownership boundaries and responsibilities to that on the dockside. For example the
fabrication of the topside and installation of equipment can be contracted to third party
however once installed on the offshore structure (or lifted from the dockside) the
ownership can become the responsibility of a different party (often the owner). Therefore
the works to under take final commissioning tests when the platform is installed offshore
must be clarified in advance. Activities undertaken on the dockside under one permit
system can be replaced over night by a new permit and operating system.
The following sections outline typical works which require to be completed offshore after
installation and the issues which can be faced.
4.5.10.1.2Initial Works
Auxiliary generator
During transportation of the topside to the final location it is unlikely that the auxiliary
generator will continue to operate due to the risk associated with transporting a platform
with a live electrical system and rotating plant. Consequently the duration between leaving
the dockside and gaining first access to the installed platform is likely to be such that all
auxiliary systems are depleted. The design should consider the impact on equipment
preservation requirements in uncontrolled temperature environments for this duration.
The principal activity, after checks to ensure that it is safe to do so, is the re‐establishment
of the auxiliary generator. This then provides platform LV supplies for lighting, heating,
safety systems, and operation of the platform crane.
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Safety systems
After a visual inspection is performed, an assessment of the safety systems should be
undertaken. This is required to ensure that any further persons who will be present on the
platform are protected from any SF6 leakage, fire detection, evacuation/warning systems
are in place, and that radio communication on the platform and to the vessel is established.
Building Services
Once an LV supply is established the basic building services will be established (heating,
lighting etc). Checks can then be performed on this system and also inspection of any alarms
on equipment , indication to the local SCADA system and confirmation of the HVAC system
operation.
Platform Crane
The platform crane is essential to allow supplies and equipment to be loaded to the offshore
platform. Checks will be required to ensure that there has been no damage during the
transportation and that any actions are taken to ensure that the crane certification for
carrying load remains valid. This may require a repeat of the load test on the crane.
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Figure 4‐10. Transportation bracing or temporary supports to be removed
4.5.10.1.4Pre-Commissioning
The electrical pre‐commissioning will then re‐check a number of items which were tested on
the dockside. This is required to ensure that no changes have occurred during the load‐out.
Items include:
▪ Commissioning the UHF and VHF radios,
▪ Insulation resistance checks for primary equipment and main supplies to confirm
there was no change from transportation. This will include tightness checks on
terminal wiring,
▪ Functional and operational checks on the switchgear locally and from the SCADA
system,
▪ Tap changer operation and transformer auxiliaries (i.e. cooling fans).
In general a pressure test of the MV and Export cables, or the switchboards will only be
required offshore if there is evidence of damage to the equipment or changes in SF6 levels.
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▪ The operation and operation of the CCTV (if fitted),
▪ Confirm communication for the protection system (i.e. cable differential), and
▪ Confirm inter‐tripping between offshore and onshore switchgear / protection.
However if a micro‐wave or satellite link is fitted to provide back‐up communications, for
example during a fault on the export cable, this system would provide the opportunity to
commission this aspect of the communication system at an early stage.
4.5.10.1.6Heli Deck
If a helicopter deck is fitted to the platform this will require to have the fire system verified
before flight operations can commence.
The design standards generally agree that foam systems are currently the best methods to
be installed for helicopter decks. However due to the nature of a fire associated with the
helicopter and aviation fuel the system can be very extensive on discharge. This may
prohibit testing of the system onshore at the deck fabricators and would be require to be
performed offshore.
Once the helideck is in the final location and ready for operation the necessary certification
body (for example British Helicopter Advisory Board in the UK) will undertake an initial
inspection of the helideck and its systems prior to the commencement of flight operations.
4.5.10.2 Energisation
As with all onshore facilities, the HV energisation procedure should adopt a sequential and
time spaced switching of individual circuits. This will include onshore assets, reactors,
capacitor banks, subsea cables, offshore HV switchboards, transformers, MV and LV‐
switchboards, array cables and then WTGs. The switching programme will be project specific
and dependent upon the arrangement and equipment configuration.
However in all programmes the aim is to minimise voltage fluctuations on the system. This
is particularly relevant in the switching of wind turbine array circuits where multiple turbine
transformers may be energised together. Therefore, switchgear interlocking should be
capable of facilitating individual switching of circuits.
Typical stages through the switching and energisation for a single cable and two transformer
system could be as listed below. This does not include details of proving the protection
systems at the various stages.
(i) Confirm all wind power plant equipment is ready for energisation
(ii) First energisation of the new connection assets located onshore.
(iii) Energisation of the subsea cable. The charging current of the cable can be
used to prove the stability of the onshore upstream protection.
(iv) Perform Export cable test (refer to Section 3.7.3.1)
(v) Energisation of first transformer including tap changer and soak test.
(vi) Energisation of MV switchboard busbars and auxiliary transformer from HV
system.
(vii) Energisation of second transformer including tap changer and soak test.
(viii) Energisation of first WTG array.
(ix) Energisation of remaining WTG arrays.
(x) Carry out final commissioning control schemes on the offshore platform.
(xi) Reconfigure power system to meet operational requirements
At each stage of energisation the equipment recently energised should be inspected for
signs of distress and whilst under load checks can be carried out. This includes
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current/voltage transducers, remote indications of current differential scheme, phase
rotations checks.
During energisation the system must feature proven protection. When dealing with a long
length of ac cable the commissioning protection for the first energisation must be sensitive
to a fault in the subsea cable but be stable for the steady state charging current of the
subsea cable.
As noted in Section 3.4 the connection configuration of the earthing/auxiliary transformer
must be considered in the switching programme. In the situation where the auxiliary
transformer is providing the earth connection this must be present during energisation of
the MV switchboards as this provides the earth path.
Until energisation the protection scheme at the onshore and offshore substations cannot be
proven. This includes as appropriate, busbar differential, subsea cable protection,
transformer differential, directional overcurrent, earth fault and circuit breaker fail
schemes.
Figure 4-11. Topside with 2 Container Decks, Source: ALSTOM Grid GmbH
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freestanding, on the support topside structure they have to be designed to withstand wind
forces as well as excess forces in relation to sea transport and installation on site.
4.6.1.3 Interfaces
As the containers can be outfitted at different locations (suppliers) and should be delivered
with all components such as ventilation, heating panels, lights etc. installed a large number
of different sub‐contractors and several different manufacturers of materials may be
involved. Consequently there may be a large number of interfaces to coordinate.
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supporting the structure integrity. All areas are purpose sized for equipment and systems
and the whole topside is fabricated with indoor areas for all equipment. The indoor areas
could either be natural ventilated or controlled by air conditioning.
4.7 Substructure
4.7.1 General
Today the best known substructure types are the monopile, jacket, gravity based and self
elevation. Besides these four (4) “basic” substructures there are also combinations of them
such as e.g. tripods, suction bucket, etc.
The aim of this section is to describe the four (4) basic substructures, to give guidelines for
the preliminary selection of the substructure and to discuss issues which may require
specific attention during the design. The decision on which type of substructure to be used
in the end must be based on further detailed studies.
The evaluation starts with an overall economical evaluation combined with the technical
solution found feasible with respect to platform type and site conditions. The economy
should be evaluated from a life‐cycle cost perspective of the different concepts including
CAPEX (capital expenditure), OPEX (operational expenditure) and ABEX (abandonment
expenditure). Furthermore, it is recommended to evaluate a full life cycle risk analyses.
The main purpose of the substructure is to transfer loads from the topside and support
structure to the seabed. The type of substructure is primarily selected based on the ability
to support the topside while meeting the environmental and seabed conditions at the
specific site. There are also several other functional requirements e.g. supporting of J‐tubes
and pull‐up equipment that needs to be considered.
The Fundamental Design Parameters are explained generally in section 4.3. Information of
site specific conditions like meteorological and oceanographic conditions (often called
metocean) as well as the geophysical and geotechnical data is especially important.
Environmental loads
The environmental conditions should at least cover the following issues:
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▪ Geophysical conditions
The geophysical conditions describe the distribution of soil layers and seabed conditions.
Before deciding the exact location of an installation it is important to make thorough
surveys in order to locate possible objects e.g. boulders, wrecks, unexploded mines, bombs
or the like. Examples of methods to do the surveys are magnetometer survey and/or multi
beam, side scan, seismic and bore holes.
The geotechnical survey describes the conditions necessary for the design of the
substructure and should describe at least the following:
▪ Sea bed and soil description
▪ Characteristic data
▪ Stability, initial and long‐term settlements and inclination, subsidence
▪ Driveability
▪ Scouring requirements
Operational loads
The substructure must be designed to withstand loads during transport, installation and
operation. For the substructure, the operation phase will typically size the major parts of the
structure.
The substructure must be designed to withstand the maximum load‐carrying resistance
(ultimate limit state – ULS) further failures due to the effect of cyclic loading (fatigue limit
state).
Serviceability limit state (SLS) corresponds to tolerance criteria applicable to intended use or
durability. It is recommended to minimise the critical frequency of the structure. “Rule of
thumb” is that T (s) structure < T (s) for smallest waves. The critical frequency has an
influence on the dynamic amplification further vibrations could damage the equipment and
give bad operating conditions.
Accidental loads
Accidental limit state (ALS) corresponds to (1) maximum load‐carrying resistance for (rare)
accidental loads or (2) post‐accident integrity for damaged structures. The structural
integrity has an influence on the accidental limit state. Rare loads can involve ship collision
damage. The ship size and loads are usually extracted from a designated ship impact report
which include both operational loads from the normal support vessels and collision risk from
these or merchant ships sailing in the area.
Table provides a comparison of the substructure concepts. The concepts are compared by
the following:
▪ Fabrication: Simple or complex structure
▪ Vibration issue: Issues due to dynamic, equipment and operational conditions
▪ Wind park interface: Poor, medium or good interface to wind park.
▪ Life extension: Possibility of life extension
▪ Water depth: Water depth
▪ Soil: Requirements to seabed conditions
▪ Topside weight: Operational weight of topside
▪ CAPEX: Fabrication and installation cost
▪ OPEX: Operational cost
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The comparison is based on a basic/typical construction. All concepts can be improved to
achieve better results (higher water depth, more heavy topside, etc) which typically will
result in higher CAPEX; therefore, the values are typical values.
To be confirmed Monopile# Jacket Gravity Gravity Self elevation
caisson
Fabrication Simple Complex Simple Complex Complex
Vibration issue Yes No No No Yes
Wind park Medium/poor Good Medium Good Medium/good
interface
Life extension No Yes No Not on No
bottom
Water depth <20m <60m <20 Yard limit <50m
Soil No No Yes ‐ Hard Yes ‐ Hard No
requirements soil soil
Topside weight <1200 tonnes <4000 <2000 Inst. range <4000 tonnes
tonnes tonnes limit
CAPEX* 1 3 1 3 3
OPEX* 2 3 1 3 4
Table 4‐6. Comparison of substructure concepts ‐ typical values
*The economic assessment is given by a number between 1 and 5 – 1 is lowest budget and 5
is highest.
# It should be noted for monopiles that normally "drivability" is a requirement, as drilling
would be more expensive.
In the sections below the concepts are presented in details
4.7.2 Monopile
The monopile is the simplest substructure which essentially is a single large pile made of
steel that is driven into the seabed. The topside is supported by the monopile through a
transition piece.
The topside is either supported directly on the lower transition piece (yellow in the picture
below) or by four (4) so called cow horns. The cow horns are a part of the upper transition
piece (grey in picture below) that is bolted to the lower transition piece. The transition piece
is jointed to the monopile through a grouted connection with shear keys.
The monopile is ideal in terms of installation and manufacture, but has the drawback that it
may become heavy as the amount of steel increases when used in waters with great depths.
Focus areas
This section will highlight areas/items which should be given extra attention during design:
▪ Connection between pile and transition piece (grout connection, suggest to have a
failsafe solution)
▪ Dynamic fatigue analysis (time and frequency domain)
▪ Reliable metocean data (extreme data and scatter diagram)
▪ Critical frequency (normally overestimated (inherent in method), to be measured
after installation, monitoring throughout service life)
▪ Dynamic amplification (sensitive to small changes in critical frequency and damping,
sensitivity study suggested)
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▪ Substructure‐soil connection (good estimate of stiffness important, suggest to
investigate upper and lower bound)
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Installation
The installation time for a monopile is approximately one(1) day. Monopile and transition
piece are transported to site on a barge.
Depending on the subsurface conditions, the pile is typically driven into the seabed by either
large impact or vibratory hammers, or the piles are grouted into sockets drilled into rock.
Afterwards, the transition piece is installed by crane vessel. The transition piece is
supported by brackets until the grout has sufficient strength.
Typically, the lower part of the topside (topside transition piece ‐ grey) is bolted to transition
piece (yellow), see figure below.
Vibration
Operational experience has revealed vibration issues due to wave interaction, leading to
failure of electrical equipment. The structural design of a monopile‐based solution must be
carefully evaluated with site‐specific marine condition data in order to verify the suitability
of this foundation concept
4.7.3 Jacket
The jacket typically consists of four strong legs – supported by piles driven into the seabed –
interconnected by cross bracings, all made in tubular pipe sections and welded together.
The location where one or more braces are welded to a leg is called a joint. Such a welded
joint has a number of weaknesses when it comes to fatigue loading as the stress
concentrations become very high. However for a substation structure fatigue is relatively
benign and hence there is a good balance between fatigue and ultimate resistance in the
welded jacket.
The ease and speed of fabrication is essential for the price of the jacket. Where the price
split between materials and fabrication on a Monopile is approximately 60/40 a jacket has a
split round 30/70 due the complexity and manual work to be done.
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Figure 4‐14. Walney 1, source: DONG Energy
The meaning of this section is to highlight areas/items, which should have extra attention
during design:
▪ Reliable metocean data (extreme data and scatter diagram)
▪ Hydrodynamic factors (J‐tubes and legs closely located)
▪ Substructure‐soil connection (good estimate of stiffness important, suggest to
investigate upper and lower bound)
Geotechnical conditions
Like the monopile, the jacket concept is versatile in terms of seabed conditions, as it can be
applied in almost all circumstances. Since four (4) piles must be driven, an installation in
hard soils where drilling is required will have a price‐increase.
The four (4) legged jacket is sensitive to an irregular seabed. The irregularity can be taken
either by preparation of seabed before installation or by jacking systems through
installation.
Metocean conditions
This concept is very flexible due to water depth < 60m and topsides and topside weight <
5000 tonnes. The concept can be extended by adding more legs to the structure.
Structural integrity
The jacket has good structure integrity. It is possible to reinforce the structure by adding
extra braces or change part of the structure; therefore, life extension is not an issue either.
Typically, the jacket is designed for removal of damaged sections from a ship collision and
still be able to withstand loads from a 1‐year event.
Inter Array cable interfaces
Since the jacket has four (4) sides, the substructure has a good interface to the wind park
cables. The array and export cables could preferably be located inside the jacket frame in J‐
tubes for protection against ship collision. Typically, the J‐tubes are to be located as close to
jacket legs as possible in order to minimise the loads on the bracing system.
Alternative array cable to be located in one (1) or two (2) caissons – this solution must be
investigated due to heat problems. It is recommended to locate the caisson inside jacket
frame too.
Generally it is recommended to install an extra J‐tube for future cables (array or
communication) or in case of a failure during cable pulling.
Installation
The jacket can either be installed on pre‐installed piles or piles through pile sleeves.
Installation time for a typical 4 legged jacket without template and with 4 piles is
approximately 2‐3 days including pile driving and grouting operation.
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Jacket, piles and template, if necessary, are transported to site on barge.
Figure 4‐15. Transportation and installation of jacket with pile sleeve, source: DONG
Energy.
Pre‐installed piles; a template with footprint analogue to the jacket is placed on the seabed
and piles are driven through. Afterwards, the template is removed and the piles are cut in
order to obtain the same level on all four (4) piles. Afterwards, the jacket is located above
and connection between piles and jacket leg is grouted. Smaller uncertainties can be taken
either by jacks between pile and jacket or in the interface between jacket and topside.
Pile sleeves; jacket is placed directly on the seabed (mud mats are installed on jacket), piles
are driven through the pile sleeve and the connection is grouted. The jacket is levelled by
jacks located above the pile sleeves; the jacket is to be levelled before grouting. The
levelling system is removed after grouting has sufficient strength.
The solution with pre‐installed piles gives a simpler jacket by avoiding the pile sleeves, but
will be more costly due to fabrication of template for driving of piles. The solution is more
beneficial, if the template can be reused. The installation can further be divided into two (2)
steps, whereas the piles must be driven through pile sleeves after the jacket has been
located on seabed.
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Figure 4‐16. Rødsand 2, source: Energinet.dk
The meaning of this section is to highlight areas/items, which should have extra attention
during design:
− Reliable metocean data (extreme data and scatter diagram)
− Substructure‐soil connection (good estimate of stiffness important, suggest to
investigate upper and lower bound)
Geotechnical conditions
A strong soil condition is required for installation of gravity based foundation. Site
preparation and placement required for gravity caissons typically involves dredging several
metres of generally loose, soft seabed sediment and replacing it with compacted, crushed
stone in a level bed. Furthermore, the seabed must be smooth before installation.
The seabed around the base of the foundation will normally have to be protected against
erosion by placing boulders or rocks around the edges of the base in order to minimise
scour and to retain bearing capacity of soil. This makes the foundation type relatively costly
in areas with significant erosion.
Metocean conditions
The single tower gravity based foundation fits best for smaller water depths <20m. The
structure is very stiff and is typically installed in shallow water; therefore,
vibration/acceleration induced by wave loads is most probably not an issue.
Structural integrity
The structural integrity and possibilities for life extension are minimal. The substructure
consists of one piece which is not easy to reinforce or change a part of. Therefore, a correct
design life is important. On the other hand, since the substructure is located in shallow
water, the probability for ship collision is very low.
Wind park cable interfaces
The interface to the wind park cables is similar to the monopile. The space for cable
installation is very limited by the diameter of concrete column. For the transition piece one
can increase the diameter or have J tubes on the outside.
The J‐tubes for array and export cables will typically be located inside the substructure. It is
recommended to have sufficient distance between J‐tubes in order to minimise heat
problems.
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Generally it is recommended to install extra J‐tube. The J‐tubes can be used for future
connections to shore, array cable or in case of refusal during cable pulling.
Installation
The installation time is very sensitive to the time for preparation of seabed. After seabed is
prepared, the installation time is approximately one day.
The seabed must be prepared. The structure is transported to site on barges and installed
by crane. The advantage of choosing the steel structure is that a lightweight crane can be
used for installation. The drawback is that ballast weight and scour protection must be
placed afterwards, hereby requiring two (2) operations. Scour protection may be required
by monopile and jackets as well.
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The seabed must be thoroughly prepared and the cost is significant. The structure is floated
to site and installed assisted by a crane vessel that ensures complete installation operation
control.
Topside
Steeljacket
Transition
Concrete
Caisson
Cable J-tubes
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Figure 4‐19. Global Tech 1 Source: Overdick GmbH & Co. KG
Figure 4‐20. Central Lifting Self Elevating structure Source: tkb. Technologiekontor
Bremerhaven GmbH
By choosing the self elevating concept, some of the installation costs are moved to the
fabrication and operation. One of the main advantages of the concept is the independence
of heavy lift contractors resulting in fewer dependencies in the overall installation
programme.
A self elevating structure with a base frame requires that the topside is located within the
leg matrix. This implies that the substructure will be large which in turn results in large
topside consisting of the air ballast volume creating the complete structures buoyancy. The
self elevating structure is compared to the other known concepts the heaviest with respect
to structural steel.
The connection of the substructure to the topsides should be designed taking into account
the same rule and regulation as for those in other concepts. Wear and tear may have an
influence on the jacking system, meaning that support conditions between hull and
substructure could change by time. Focus on the jacking system and a relevant redundancy
requirement is essential during all engineering phases.
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Focus areas
The meaning of this section is to highlight areas/items, which should have extra attention
during design:
Load pattern (to be transparent)
Dynamic fatigue analysis (time and frequency domain)
▪ Reliable metocean data (extreme data and scatter diagram)
▪ Eigen frequency (normally overestimated (inherent in method), to be measured after
installation, monitoring throughout service life)
▪ Dynamic amplification (sensitive to small changes in eigenfrequency and damping,
sensitivity study suggested)
▪ Leg‐hull connection (good estimate of stiffness important, suggested to investigate
upper and lower bound, changing stiffness due to wear and tear)
▪ Substructure‐soil connection (good estimate of stiffness important, suggest to
investigate upper and lower bound)
Geotechnical conditions
The self elevating substructure is versatile in terms of seabed conditions, as it can be applied
in almost all circumstances depending on the design.
By choosing the system without base frame, the advantage is that no preparations of the
seabed are necessary.
Metocean conditions
This concept is very flexible due to water depth <50m and topsides and topside weight
<5000 tonnes.
Structural integrity
The main parts of the self elevation concepts are the four (4) legs and the central jacking
structure. Reinforcement may turn out difficult, since the leg is fabricated as one piece and
connected to the jacking system. Maintenance requirements are similar to those of a jacket
structure.
Wind park cable interfaces
The cables are typically routed inside one (1) or two (2) caissons. It is recommended to have
at least two (2), in order to obtain a better interface to the wind power plant. For protection
against ship collision, it is recommended to locate caissons inside footprint of substructure.
Since the cables are located inside caissons, heat from cables could lead to power loss.
When the numbers of cables increase, the size of caisson will increase too. It means that the
caisson can achieve same size or even bigger than the legs. Such a system has a number of
weaknesses; the caisson will attract loads and act as 'leg', meaning that overloads could
arise on unforeseen location and lead to damages. Therefore, focus must be on the support
system between caisson and leg/hull structure.
Generally it is recommended to install extra J‐tube. The J‐tubes can be used for future
connections to shore, array cable or in case of refusal during cable pulling.
Installation
The installation time is depended on the jacking system and hence, a fast and reliable
jacking system should be employed.
The installation time for the self elevating concept depends on whether the base frame is
pre‐installed or a part of the legs. If the base frame is a part of the legs, the estimated
installation time is one (1) to two (2) days.
The self‐elevation concept is positioned by tugs. After final position is achieved, legs are
lowered.
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Once positioned, no cranes or lifting devices are required to install or raise the platform
above sea level to its design‐specified height.
Separate installation vessels are required, if base frame is not a part of the substructure and
if piles must be driven. Similar with caisson in case of post‐installed.
Figure 4-21. Self elevating installation, Source: Overdick GmbH & Co. KG.
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Vessel Capacity (mT) Type
Table 4‐7. Lifting vessels and their capacity. (Unverified data from internet)
266
Barge grillage designs would be prepared and the grillage manufactured and welded to the
barge deck prior to load‐out. The load‐out procedure would be planned and fully
documented in advance and it is common practice to weigh the structure prior to
commencement of load‐out.
With the barge moored against the quay the heavy lift must be transferred from the quay to
the barge. For a heavy structure, such as the substation topside, the weight of the module
would be taken on multi‐axle trailers installed at suitable points below the module. The
module would then be gradually moved from the quay to the barge under tightly controlled
conditions. As the weight of the module is slowly transferred to the barge the water filled
barge ballast tanks would be sequentially emptied to maintain the trim.
Once the topside has been located and lowered onto the grillage the module can be welded
to the grillage to positively secure the load for transport. The barge would be finally
trimmed using the water ballast and any remaining sea fastenings attached. Any necessary
temporary access stairs/ladders and temporary navigation lighting etc would be completed
prior to transport.
The complete structure, including all topside equipment, needs to be designed to withstand
these conditions hence the conditions need to be identified during the design phase of the
works. If neither a motions study nor model tests have been performed then for standard
configurations the motion criteria contained in Noble Denton 0030/ND – Guidelines for
Marine Transportations may be acceptable.
A typical unrestricted default motion for a common barge with dimension 140m x 30m
would be 20o Roll 10o Pitch with a full cycle period of 10 seconds and a Heave of 0.6g.
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Agreement needs to be reached at an early stage in the design process to allow all design
parties to consider the effects upon their products, particularly items like transformers &
gas insulated switchgear. The products may need to have additional padeyes/fixing points
added to their housings for the fitting of sea fastening restraints.
Should any component of the complete assembly not be suitable for the specified motion
criteria then weather restricted operations may need to be considered.
The transportation period would be generally planned to match the sea state trends for the
particular time of year and availability, where required, of a suitable heavy lift vessel with
the actual transportation being dependent upon an acceptable weather window.
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Figure 4‐23. Lifting arrangements
A heavy lift vessel dual lifting jibs (typically the Rambiz) can influence the physical
arrangement of topside structure to avoid clashes with the inner sections of the jibs.
The spacing of the lifting points can influence the sling arrangement, rigging angles and the
need for spreader bars. Generally if multiple spreader bars are incorporated in the lift
arrangement the vertical height required for the rigging may be increased and this in turn
would impact on the design of the structure.
In some instances a multi‐deck topside structure may need to include an integral lifting
frame so the structure will withstand the lift forces and negate the need for separate
spreader bars.
It is common practice for the Heavy Lift contractor to deliver the rigging to the fabricator’s
yard prior to sail‐out together with a laydown design to allow the fabricator to install the
rigging on the structure. Obviously the structure needs to be designed to accept the weight
of this rigging.
Where a jacket foundation includes a cable deck this deck may be suitable for use as a
rigging laydown platform, however, where a cable deck is not included in the jacket design a
temporary platform may need to be fitted.
As with the transport the heavy lift operation is weather dependent and requires the same
level of forecasting and planning.
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structures have been installed already in the vicinity of the transformer substation a local
positioning control system could be arranged which provides better accuracy of the
platform position. Marker buoys could also be pre‐installed to indicate the installation site.
The decision on the spread to be used for positioning the self‐erecting substation depends
on the wind, wave and current situation and on the required installation tolerances. If the
legs of the self‐erecting platform have to meet the contact points of a pre‐installed base
frame the installation tolerances are smaller compared to the installation with seabed
suction buckets. If required, a mooring spread consisting of pre‐laid anchors and mooring
barges may have to be used.
When the self‐erecting platform is correctly positioned the legs will be lowered down by the
leg jacking system. The most critical phase during the installation process occurs when the
legs of the floating platform have first contact with the seabed or with the pre‐installed base
structure. Due to the relatively small size and mass of the platform movements like pitch
and heave can lead to large leg contact forces as long as the platform is in the transitional
situation from the floating to the fixed condition. A proper motion analysis should therefore
be carried out to simulate the behaviour of the substation during this phase of the
installation and to determine the limiting environmental conditions under which this
operation can be performed. Especially the wave height is a sensitive parameter for the
motion behaviour of the floating substation. A significant wave height of only 0.5 m has
been specified for the installation of some of the self‐erecting substations. Depending on
the sea area where the platform should be installed the waiting time for a suitable weather
window with the specified limiting wave conditions can be considerable and represents a
major risk and cost factor of this platform concept.
In order to reduce the time period of the transitional situation from the floating to the fixed
platform condition technical systems have been suggested allowing quick lowering of the
platform during the critical phase of first contact with the seabed or pre‐installed base
structure. When the legs are almost in contact with the fixed support the buoyancy forces of
the floating platform could be quickly reduced by e.g. releasing air from buoyancy
chambers. This means, the substation is partly floating on an air cushion and the air during
the quick lowering process is suddenly released under controlled condition.
A substation design that allows such quick lowering is shown in Figure 4‐24..
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Figure 4‐24. Self installing, self floating platform (source: IMPAC GmbH)
271
installed on the platform to (self) elevate the platform after offloading onto the
substructure, similar to the self installing platforms.
▪ The float over operation is normally done by a vessel entering the site located
substructure between the supporting legs, this demands a substructure designed
and sized to suit the installation vessel. In practical terms this means that the
substructure will be in the larger end of structures as offshore transport barges
needs 20m and upwards free span for manouvering.
For the design work of substructure and topside, decisions have to be made early in the
process to define parameters for the installation procedure.
Economical consideration has to be made and alternatives have to be weighed against
each other in the overall project development.
As offshore substations up until today have been of a moderate size (HVDC converter
stations are not considered in this guideline) the float over operation has not been
considered.
Hook Lift Float Over Remark
Substructure optimized size Smaller Larger Optimized towards
installation concept
Substructure Installation ‐ ‐ Considered equal
Topside optimized size Yes No Optimized towards topside
equipment
Heavy lift vessel needed Yes No
Semisubmersible vessel ship No Possible As alternative
Semisubmersible barge No Possible As alternative
Topside weight <14000 t <40000 t
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instance, eliminate the heat source. Other risk reducing measures include elimination of the
fuel (e.g. by using non‐combustible materials) and limitation or elimination of oxygen (e.g.
use of enclosures). Fire prevention measures include lightning protection, temperature
sensing and condition (e.g. insulation) monitoring. Considering the remoteness of an (often
unmanned) offshore substation, the need for a fully automatic fire detection system
through sensors possibly supplemented by CCTV should be considered. Once ignited, active
and passive protection can control and limit the fire. The selection of system(s) must take
the object / area to protect into account. A combination of various measures is frequently
used.
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criteria cannot be met, modifications will be necessary. The finalised design should be well
documented.
Minimum requirements on offshore substations, independent of manning and geographical
area, include fire detection & alarm, portable fire extinguishers and possibly some passive
protection for a refuge area.
Fire and explosion protection design is aided by a number of standards (see section 4.5.1)
originally designed for maritime as well as oil & gas applications while dedicated guidelines
for offshore wind have yet to emerge. For instance, current offshore codes do not provide
clear guidance on the various substation areas, rooms and enclosures. Considered
interpretations are therefore required.
Manual call points (MCP) at exits from all areas, along escape MCP
route, muster points, fire stations
Table 4‐9. Detection Principles
Above table simply refers to “smoke detectors”. Consideration should be given to the
preferable type (e.g. defined in NORSOK S‐001) as detectors have to be suitable for the
anticipated smoke particle size, i.e. high energy fires with “small” particles and smouldering
fires with “large” particles.
275
4.9.5 Active Fire Protection
Active fire protection (AFP) systems are used to control or extinguish a fire. Many different
systems exist which are suitable to protect different types of areas, rooms and equipment.
Examples of active fire fighting are foam, deluge, sprinkler, water mist and inert gas system.
System options and best practice are listed in DNV‐OS‐J201. Rules for the length of time to
release exist for fire extinguishing media such as CO2 and other gases with lethal
concentrations. Also, such systems may have to be disabled when certain (maintenance)
activities take place on the installation.
The disabling of the suppression system becomes unnecessary if inert gasses (typically
InergenTM), as opposed to CO2, are used. These inert gasses whilst reducing the oxygen
content in the room will still support human life.
The areas defined in the table below are general and require interpretation for the
particular design. For instance, main transformers may be provided with tank mounted or
separate radiators. If the radiators are tank mounted, the AFP will cover the transformer
tank, pipes and radiators. If the radiators are separately mounted then, besides AFP for the
transformer tank, consideration should be given to active protection of pipes and radiators,
although the transformer tank is the significant fire hazard.
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Area Suitable Active Protection System
277
withstand a fire for a certain time period and that the integrity of the steel structure is
maintained. Often, the choice of PFP system is based on the type of area to be protected.
Passive fire protection is classified according to (a) the temperature rise of the unexposed
side within a specified time (e.g. 60 minutes, class “A”) and (b) its capability of preventing
the passage of smoke and flame to the end of the standard fire test (e.g. 60 minutes). This
example fire wall is then denoted “A‐60”.
Selection tables for PFP are contained, for instance, in SOLAS and the MODU Code.
However, the main transformers with some 40,000 litres of mineral oil constitute a major
fire hazard and require case‐by‐case assessment which must take into consideration their
design, arrangement, AFP and PFP. NORSOK S‐001 and DNV‐OS‐J201 imply that at least A‐0
fire divisions are required to separate the transformer from other areas that could be
adversely impacted by a transformer fire. The heat flux may, however, easily exceed 100
kW/ m2, which points to the application of H‐rated divisions. For platform designs with
multiple main transformers, such H‐rated divisions would for instance be used as wall
between two transformers.
Where possible, the severity of an explosion should be lowered by reducing the degree of
congestion and by increasing the availability of venting. For some areas, blast walls could be
an appropriate measure.
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5. Substation Secondary Systems
The substation secondary systems are those systems which provide the functionality
necessary to
ensure safety of personnel engaged in operation of the substation and associated
systems
permit operation of the substation primary circuits.
monitor the performance of the installation
detect and manage abnormal conditions on the system and in primary equipment.
manage the environment in which the equipment operates.
The detailed functionality will depend on the specific installation and the way in which it is
operated. The guidelines set out below assume that the offshore substation is classified as a
normally unmanned (unattended) installation but allows for the use of the substation as a
marshalling point for staff involved in maintenance of the substation and associated
systems.
Many of the functions listed above have been performed by systems selected as self
contained, engineered packages from manufacturer’s standard production ranges. Whilst
this ensures that a proven solution is employed for each of the functions it does not
necessarily offer the most effective integrated solution as there may be several dedicated
systems instead of a single multi‐function solution
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on the “integrated” design rather than treating the auxiliary power system as an “add‐on”.
Selecting main equipment with a lower auxiliary power / energy demand but which has
other drawbacks (size, weight or cost for example) may be overall the right choice if it
supports a smaller, safer auxiliary power system design. Similarly, when considering the
auxiliary power and energy needs of personnel the same “integrated” approach is required,
for example with improved thermal insulation heating energy can be reduced.
This is particularly true when considering the use of sub‐systems provided with specific,
dedicated supplies such as uninterruptible power supplies (UPS). Whilst the discrete
package approach may simplify procurement and avoid issues relating to performance
guarantees it is not necessarily the most cost or space effective solution.
In common with any other substation there is a need for both LVAC and DC power supplies
and the detailed requirements and suitability of the LVAC and LVDC systems depend on a
number of factors which are listed below:
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particular that many of these “building services” loads will be fed from distribution boards
directly from the “essential bus” of the main LVAC board. These sub distribution boards
must provide for the segregation of the “essential” load category from the “non‐essential”
load category. The items listed below are for guidance and are not exhaustive.
Fire protection supplies
The fire detection and suppression systems applied to the substation must be
supported by auxiliary supplies to ensure operation at all times and remain in service
until the fire is extinguished and / or evacuation of the personnel is completed.
Typically the fire protection systems would consist of:
‐ A water based fire systems for the suppression of fires in large oil containing
equipment such as transformers and reactors
‐ Gaseous systems for other enclosed areas containing equipment such as
switchgear, control and communication systems.
(For more details see Section 4.9)
Battery charger supplies
The LVAC supplies to the battery charger under normal operation are continuously
available and sized to allow the charger to recharge a depleted battery within the
agreed time. The rating of the supply is closely coordinated with the design of the
LVDC system and large batteries and short re‐charge times drive up the power and
energy demands on the LVAC system.
The LVDC system is designed to provide secure supplies for a designated period using
the energy stored in the battery. During this period it is assumed that LVAC supplies
are unavailable. In the event that LVAC power supplies are restored quickly (diesel
start) the battery discharge will be minimal and the load on the LVAC system will
remain low (float charge & standing load). Alternatively, in the event of loss of LVAC
supplies, the restoration of LVAC supply may be delayed, should the diesel fail to start,
possibly until the battery capacity has been used.
Switchgear supplies
The LVAC supplies required to the switchgear under abnormal conditions are limited.
The supplies help maintain the switchgear in good operational condition and support
the remote operation of the switchgear; it may not be essential for the heating and
lighting supplies to be continuously available, provided the performance of the
switchgear is unaffected but careful consideration is required.
However, as it may be necessary to reconfigure the switchgear to assist with
restoration of supplies the operational supplies are required. The systems supported
may include:
‐ Anti‐condensation heating – normally on (may be thermostat or humidistat
controlled)
‐ Cubicle lighting (normally off)
‐ CB mechanism spring charging (DC motors are an alternative)
‐ Disconnector drives (DC motors are an alternative)
Transformers
The LVAC supplies to the transformers may be considered as split between essential
and non‐essential. The essential supplies are required to ensure that the equipment
remains in serviceable condition when switched off and are not related directly to the
on‐load function of the transformer. The systems supported may include:
‐ Mechanism and control kiosk anti‐condensation heating
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‐ Cubicle lighting
Environmental control
The environmental management of the substation accommodation is critical if the
substation equipment is to be maintained in serviceable condition awaiting
restoration of normal supplies.
The LVAC supplies required for the environmental management systems under
abnormal conditions are limited to protecting the equipment and personnel. The
cooling load is limited to managing heat output from fixed loss sources such as battery
chargers and relay panels such that the maximum operating temperature is not
exceeded. Hence ventilation for systems which have load‐related losses may be
stopped. Other systems which maintain clean dry conditions for equipment to
prevent deterioration and unavailability for re‐connection should be supported. The
systems supported may include:
‐ Air pressurisation and ventilation systems
‐ Limited heating for anti‐condensation purposes
‐ Drainage pumps
Emergency accommodation
In the potentially harsh environment associated with the offshore substation the
safety and welfare of people must be paramount so heating and domestic services
for the refuge area must be maintained under abnormal conditions. The load and
duration will be determined by the number of people to be supported and the
maximum duration of stay within the refuge. A typical duration is 18 hours but this
may vary with the ruling statutory requirement, individual location and the
operator’s preferences.
Emergency and access lighting
In order to provide for the safe movement of personnel a place of safety within the
substation in abnormal conditions and to facilitate evacuation of the personnel from
the platform dedicated emergency lighting is required. The control system, light
levels, location and duration of the lighting will be determined by the safety
assessments and may need to be considered in the overall LVAC demands depending
on the particular system selected (stand alone self‐contained or centrally supported).
Operational /repair
The cause of loss of the normal LVAC supply may be related to the failure of a
substation component but with properly designed redundant systems the probability
of this being the case is low. However, it is considered prudent to ensure that items
such as the substation crane and davit crane will need to remain operational to
enable repair equipment and spares to be brought onto the platform.
For installations having a single transmission connection, the probability of repair
being required with depleted LVAC supplies is increased.
Safety systems
The majority of safety systems for offshore substations are derived from the systems
used on other offshore installations and are well proven. The system performance
requirements are dealt with in other sections of the document but from LVAC supply
point of view the main issue is how the systems are supported under abnormal
conditions. For systems which are self‐contained and incorporate their own back‐up
power supply (battery / charger / inverter) the impact on the LVAC system
(particularly energy storage) is small. Such systems include:
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‐ Public address system
‐ Navigation systems power supplies
‐ Video surveillance systems
‐ Communication systems
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5.1.3.2 Source of Auxiliary Supply
In order to provide this 400V supply, auxiliary transformers are required to step the voltage
down from the (typically) 36 kV voltage used for the connection of the WTGs by inter array
cables. The accommodation of large equipment on the offshore platform is expensive so
the design, location and connection of these auxiliary transformers from both physical and
functional aspects need to be considered when designing the auxiliary supply system.
The 36 kV system interconnecting the main transformers and the WTG step‐up transformers
is usually connected in delta and hence there is a need to provide facilities to provide a
reference earth for the system. (Refer to Section 3.4.1)
It will generally be found that sourcing the LVAC supplies from earthing auxiliary
transformers (EAT) will provide the optimum solution in terms of space and weight. The
number and connection of the earthing transformers required will depend on the substation
connection arrangements and for larger installations it may not be practicable to parallel the
secondary windings of the main transformers. In general one earthing transformer will be
required associated with each secondary winding of the main transformers. This will usually
provide sufficient redundancy in the source of supplies for the LVAC system.
The transformer will normally have to be capable of supplying the normal (essential and the
non essential) load of the substation. One solution frequently adopted is to ensure that
there is an EAT rated to carry 100% of the normal load connected to the secondary side of
each main transformer. For other configurations, where for operational reasons, more
than two EATs are required the individual units may be rated such that N‐1 security is
achieved. This will ensure that if at least one of the main transformers is in service then the
auxiliary loads can be supported.
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offshore substations this option is unavailable and the back‐up generator needs to be rated
to supply the whole of the “essential” load from within the substation. The changeover and
starting arrangements used for the back‐up supply system must be robust and monitored to
provide indication advance warning of any condition which may prevent its immediate start‐
up and loading in the event of a main supply failure. In each case both the power and
energy storage system must be considered.
The back‐up source may be selected from a number of options, for example:
Diesel
Diesel generators are usually only rated to be able to supply approximately 60% of
their rated load immediately after starting. In order to avoid oversizing the diesel
generator a control system which sequences the connection of loads after loss of
supply may have to be considered. Furthermore, diesels normally will only run
effectively if the load is above a certain minimum value typically 30% of the rated
value of the generator and this must be to be taken into account in the design of the
system.
The quantity of diesel fuel which will be required depends upon the duration for which
the “essential” loads have to be maintained. The typical guideline in the DNV safety
standard seems to indicate 18 hours as a minimum but individual operators may
specify longer periods to meet their requirements, whilst still remembering the
importance of keeping the space and weight down.
Gas turbine
Gas turbine generators are a direct alternative to diesel engine driven generators and
whilst they offer an improved power to weight ratio, their specific fuel consumption,
sensitivity to fuel quality and maintenance requirements need to be considered
Wave generator
A small wave generator system could be used as the back‐up energy supply which may
save weight and space on the platform and reduce the fire risk from diesel storage by
reducing the volume required. Care would be needed in assessing the available
energy to ensure that the total available energy met the abnormal operational needs
of the substation.
Fuel cell
This is a relatively new and unproven technology which may offer advantages in the
future when reliability, fuel characteristic and fuel storage issues are well developed.
Inverter backed AC supplies
This would require energy storage in the form of batteries, which offer significantly
lower energy densities than hydrocarbon fuels. Limiting reliance on inverter / battery
systems should be considered.
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‐ Bus section or interconnector
‐ Automation
LVAC board – physical construction
‐ Separate boards for “essential “and “non‐essential” loads
‐ Segregation of the Bus section
‐ Construction class
‐ Degree of internal separation
‐ Access for cable connection
‐ Use of MCCB or fuse‐switches
Supplies segregation
‐ Duplicate feeders to each essential load
‐ Provide a full “system 1” / “system 2” supply system
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The operational information provided, should be supplemented by a remote engineering /
maintenance investigation facility to allow additional information to be collected and used
to target support and maintenance tasks.
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Figure 5‐1. LVAC derived from collection system busbars
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Figure 5‐2. LVAC derived from Main transformer LV connections
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Figure 5‐3. Centralised UPS from essential services boards
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5.2 DC Supplies
5.2.1 LVDC Supplies
In order to operate the equipment within the substation a suitably rated Low Voltage Direct
Current (LVDC) supply is required, distributed throughout the substation to feed the
associated loads. Typically this would be a secure 125V DC supply using a combination of
storage batteries and chargers. The LVDC system is required to deliver the power under a
range of operating modes and have the ability to store the energy required by the
substation to provide for the operational needs of the substation both whilst LVAC supplies
are available and during the “changeover period” when LVAC supplies may be disrupted.
The energy stored can be considered a consumable with a limited storage capacity
determined by the battery capacity and this capacity needs to be carefully selected based
on the loads, the duration of “standby” operation and the performance of the LVAC system.
Typically, the system would be designed such that if the substation LVAC supplies were
available, all steady state LVDC requirements would be supplied from the charging system
and the batteries would be maintained in a fully charged condition. Transient or short term
temporary LVDC loads such as tripping of circuit breakers in excess of the charger rated
output would be supplied from the battery.
In the operational condition when the LVAC supply (from any source) was unavailable it
would be necessary to consider the energy storage capacity required. To minimise the
required battery capacity it is possible to consider the segregation of LVDC loads required
for safety systems from purely operational LVDC loads.
The capacity of the system and its energy storage requirements are determined by the loads
served by the LVDC system and the dependability of the LVAC system which are discussed in
the following sections.
Typically, for onshore substations, the LVDC supply system consists of one or two batteries
connected to one or two battery chargers which are connected to the load centres. Several
voltage levels can be used for the battery such as 220V, 125V, 110V, 48V or 30 V depending
on factors such as space available, interference and voltage regulation permitted.
The DC system configuration used depends on the reliability requirements from the DC
system. Several factors dictate the reliability requirements of a DC power supply in an
offshore substation; these factors include the important role the offshore substation
performs in delivering the generated power from the offshore generators to the system, the
remote location of the substation, the high cost investment of the substation equipment
and the high level of protection required for the equipment. A failure of the DC supplies
during a fault condition in the substation or out on the connecting lines can result in a
catastrophic failure and a possible loss of the substation.
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be maintained when the LVAC supply is lost (essential loads), i.e. under abnormal or
emergency conditions. This approach would allow the extended standby periods to be
supported with significantly smaller battery capacity. The following sections set out the
requirements for “essential” loads and “non‐essential” loads, with the “normal” load being
the sum of both.
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from LVDC supply point of view the main issue is how the systems are supported under
abnormal conditions. For systems which are self‐contained and incorporate their own back‐
up power supply (battery / charger / inverter) the impact on the LVDC system (particularly
energy storage) is small. Such systems include:
Public address system
Navigation systems power supplies
Video surveillance systems
However, consideration may be given to providing energy storage capacity for these
systems from the central battery system rather than from dedicated individual batteries if
this increases availability and simplifies and reduces the accommodation requirements.
‐ Tripping systems
‐ Indicating lights,
‐ Auxiliary relays,
‐ Annunciator
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5.2.3 LVDC System Operation
5.2.3.1 Normal LVDC Operation
Under normal operating conditions the substation will be connected to the onshore
transmission system by means of one or more export cables which provide a source of AC
auxiliary power. Alternatively the LVAC back‐up systems also provide a power source which
allows the LVDC system to remain in normal operation.
The LVDC system normally supplies all of the direct current auxiliaries on the substation
platform.
There is usually no provision to support any direct current auxiliary power loads associated
with the wind turbine generators (WTG). In normal operation these derive their DC auxiliary
power requirements from their main power connections to the substation (the array
cables); however on loss of the connection to the grid substation or loss of the transmission
connection to the main substation the WTG does not have a source of DC auxiliary power
other than that which is stored in the WTG local LVDC system.
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‐ Restoration of LVAC supplies
‐ Time taken to mobilize and access the substation
‐ Spares availability
Storage batteries ‐ Type
‐ Plante cells ‐ high maintenance, long life, additional costs for explosion proof lighting,
acid spillage containment, etc.
‐ Valve Regulated Sealed Lead Acid – low maintenance but limited life (15 years)
‐ Nickel – Cadmium – high maintenance, robust, long life, high cost
Storage batteries Location
‐ Segregated from other equipment
‐ Ease of access for replacement
‐ Incorporated with Protection and control
Voltages
‐ 220V
‐ 125V
‐ 110V ‐ may be derived from, higher voltage by DC/DC converters
‐ 48V ‐ may be derived from, higher voltage by DC/DC converters
‐ 30V ‐ may be derived from, higher voltage by DC/DC converters
Other energy storage devices
Relationship between DC and LVAC system
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5.2.4.2 LVDC Cable Systems and Routing
The complexity, length and installation details for cable systems are driven by the supply
system required and the physical relationships between the elements of the systems and
the equipment the system supports. Wherever practicable, auxiliary power supplies
supporting “redundant” functions should be segregated, using diverse cable routes to avoid
a single incident taking out both supplies. For example, where there are duplicate relay
panel supplies the DC cables feeding them should be run on segregated routes.
The design must also consider the provision of facilities for repair or replacement of cables
in the event of a failure, particularly where routing results in restricted access.
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Figure 5‐4. Fully redundant LVAC / LVDC system
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5.3 Protection
5.3.1 Statement of Requirements
The protection arrangements must be considered in the context of the cost and
inconvenience of primary plant replacement in offshore substations and consideration given
to systems which act to minimize the damage caused by faults. Traditionally the systems
have reacted to a primary fault and disconnected the affected item, with the primary
objective of protecting the remaining healthy equipment and the system from the effects of
the fault. Taking into account the cost of replacement it may be beneficial to consider an
increase in condition monitoring or “predictive systems” to minimize major repairs.
The harsh environmental conditions experienced offshore must also be taken into account
when selecting the protection equipment, its mounting and housing and the micro‐climate
into which it is to be installed. It may be that equipment designed for use in on‐shore
locations is not suitable for offshore applications, irrespective of the installation
arrangements and additional protection or design changes to the protection equipment may
be required.
Where the protection system interfaces with the onshore substation, the relevant Grid Code
needs to be considered to ensure that fault clearance times are compliant.
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5.3.4 Operation with Degraded Communications
Consideration needs to be given to the type of communication links that are available, the
redundancy and the distance involved, which are considered under another section 5.7,
when identifying protection systems. The protection will need to achieve fast clearance
times and correct discrimination for faults, which will require the use of communications
channels to the onshore substation. Should these communication channels become
degraded or lost completely the protection will still need to operate correctly, and not trip
unnecessarily, and clear local faults as necessary. Modern multi functional unit protection
relays can introduce an impedance protection scheme, following the loss of
communications channels, which allows for fault clearance, but may have limited system
discrimination.
‐ Loss of communications channel(s)
‐ Operational actions
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relays provide the option to utilise developed logic functions to help overcome the
challenges presented by the setting problems with offshore wind power plants.
The main numerical relays should offer instrumentation, disturbance recording and event
logging functions in addition to providing protection. Routine test requirements should be
limited to basic function testing only, through the provision of comprehensive, continuous
self‐monitoring with alarm and diagnostic functions.
Numerical relays have the facility for connection to a communications network often
referred to as the station bus, to allow the complete relay scheme to be interfaced to a
central computer or laptop. This facility enables the remote interrogation of all numerical
relays and schemes connected to the station bus to monitor and extract recorded data
(including settings, measurement parameters, and disturbance records). It also allows for
the remote adjustment of relay settings if required.
When selecting protection relays, it is recommended that consideration be given to the
minimum service life, which is typically 15 years and that variations in model types are
reduced to avoid the need to manage strategic spares for various hardware and software
versions over the stated minimum service life.
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Numerical relays usually include continuous self‐monitoring and supervision of all parts of
the relay hardware, firmware and software. An alarm should be given for any detected
failure.
Adequate facilities need to be provided, preferably at the front of each protection
equipment panel, to isolate all DC and AC incoming and outgoing circuits so that work may
be carried out on the equipment with complete safety for personnel and without loss of
security in the operation of the switching station.
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5.3.6.1 Main Protections
The protection systems for the primary EHV transmission system must provide fast and
highly dependable clearance of any electrical fault in order to minimise the duration of
severe voltage dips and to avoid loss of transmission system capacity due to back‐up
tripping of any other circuits. A forced shutdown of any circuit for a single item of protection
equipment failure should not be required. For a limited period, it should be possible to
operate the EHV circuit with only one group of protection in service, while the other group
is out of service for testing or while it is awaiting repair. During this period any fault must
still be cleared quickly and the plant must still be protected against damage if exposed to
abnormal operating conditions. To meet these dependability and redundancy requirements,
all EHV plant and circuits should be provided with two fully independent, high‐speed
protection systems for detecting and clearing electrical faults.
Each independent protection group should also be driven from independent current
transformers and independent VT secondary circuits.
In general the main protections within the wind power plant network will be differential
protections. For example the 132 kV Feeders will normally use numerical differential
protection with fibre optic communications. 132 kV busbar or connections protection may
use conventional high or low impedance protection or directional blocking. The Main Power
Transformers will typically have biased differential protection.
For onshore protection systems, it is normal practice to provide only one Main protection at
sub‐transmission voltages however due to the remote location and difficult access two fully
independent Main protection systems should be considered, operating in one out of two
mode.
However, for some plant differential protection is not practical for the main protection. For
example it is not practical or economic to provide differential protection for the WTG step
up transformers located in the transition piece, 36 kV collection array cables and sometimes
for the 36 kV busbar protection. For these circuits overcurrent and earth fault which may be
either directional or non directional as required will be used as the Main protection.
The protection systems should provide comprehensive records for trip and alarm
conditions, with local indications of which element has initiated a trip or alarm and of
voltage and current vector parameters at the time of trip initiation.
Voltage and current waveform disturbance recording and event‐logging should be included
as part of the protection system.
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Each set of feeder protection should include remote back‐up protection for busbars to
ensure that, in the event of busbar protection failure, a remote‐end busbar fault will be
cleared within the switchgear internal arcing fault withstand time.
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5.3.7.6 Turbine Transformer Protection
The protection of the wind turbine generator is usually specified and set by the Turbine
Manufacturer and will usually include overcurrent, earth fault, overload, under voltage, over
voltage, under frequency and over frequency. The Transition Piece LV will often also feed an
auxiliary transformer which will typically be protected by an MCCB
This protection is designed specifically to look after the WTG and its converters.
Each Individual WTG is connected to the collection array by a small step‐up transformer.
These transformers are typically 3‐5MVA and 500‐1000V/33 kV with HV delta connected
and LV star connected. On the HV side there is a circuit breaker. In many schemes the
purpose of this 36 kV CB is purely to protect for step up transformer faults and it may have
no remote control facilities. It is not usual to have CBs in the cable connections often there
may be only disconnectors or even only cable plugs. The main protection for the
transformer is provided by overcurrent and earth fault using a definite time characteristic.
This protection will also provide back up for un‐cleared LV faults.
The delta winding acts as a zero sequence trap –hence LV earth faults can only be detected
by HV overcurrent. If the LV Earth Fault Levels are low it may be necessary to add an
additional earth fault element in the LV star point neutral
Usually, the 36 kV system has delta connected transformers on each wind turbine
generator; also, the main in‐feed transformers from the grid also have delta windings on the
33 kV side. The 36 kV system is usually earthed through an earthing transformer which will
be arranged to limit the earth fault current to approximately 750 – 1000A
Hence the values of earth fault current on the 36 kV system are low.
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VA VA
IA
IA
=VBC =VBC
Figure 5‐5. Real Power Flow towards circuit Figure 5‐6. Reactive power away
from circuit
VA
VA
IA-Reactive
IA
= VBC
=VBC
IA-Total
IA-Real
Figure 5‐7. Reactive power towards circuit Figure 5‐8. Load flow looks like fault
However for long strings the fault current at the far end may be low and for back up
purposes for LV faults it will often require directional overcurrent and earth fault relays.
However, the use of directional relays may not provide the answer to all of the problems.
Depending on the compensation design for the wind power plant the flow of reactive
current may be towards the WTGs making it difficult to differentiate between low fault
currents and load currents making it necessary to use other techniques. (See diagrams 5‐5
to 5‐8)
Depending upon the string configuration, See Section 2.1.2.1, a number of techniques can
be used to energise the string. Each WTG CB could be closed in turn, or groups of WTG’s
could be energised together. Usually the HV circuit breakers at each WTG will be closed
when the string is energised. This means that up to ten transformers will be energised
simultaneously. Consequently 2nd harmonic blocking has to be employed on the relays to
avoid tripping on these transformer inrush currents. The protection relay for the Individual
String is located in the Platform 36 kV Boards. Each relay is responsible for clearing faults
located on its own string using a definite time characteristic. The relay also provides back‐up
protection to the Transition Piece relays which must cover for the most remote WTG
The protection provided may be either directional or non directional over current together
with either directional or non directional earth fault.
In order to be able to provide back‐up protection for faults on the LV side of the WTG
transformers certain special features have to be employed. As explained in the preceding
paragraphs it is not possible to set the directional overcurrent relays to very low settings.
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Consequently for unbalanced faults use is made of the negative sequence protection
feature in the relays to enable settings sensitive enough for these faults to be detected.
However for balanced three phase faults this solution will not work. In this case the relay is
equipped with some custom designed logic to make it act as a voltage controlled
overcurrent. This enables it to distinguish between a low level fault current and a load
current
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Incomer Incomer
H04 H08
BB1 BB2
H01 H06
H05
String String
Bus Section
Fig 5.3.6 ‐ Operation for a feeder fault – H01 trips after time delay
Incomer Incomer
H04 H08
BB1 BB2
H01 H06
H05
String String
Bus Section
Figure 5‐10. Operation for a Feeder fault – H01 trips after a time delay
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Incomer Incomer
H04 H08
BB1 BB2
H01 H06
H05
String String
Bus Section
Figure 5‐11. Operation for a busbar fault – H04 trips after very short time delay and
intertrips other CBs connected to busbar
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in the submarine cables. For the normal operating condition the relay uses fibres in an
adjacent cable (assuming at least two export cables are used). If the normal channel is not
available then the back‐up channel using fibres in the protected cable is activated. This
latter situation would be the normal case for a wind power plant with a single export cable.
Alternatively a distance scheme could be utilised if an alternative fibre connection is not
available. This could be a default operating mode provided by the differential protection
following a loss of communications.
The back‐up protection is provided by overcurrent and earth fault. Only one relay is applied
per cable – located at the on shore end. This is due to the general approach of grading
protections back from machines to the Grid. Back‐up earth fault does not need to
discriminate with any other devices as the earth fault reach is limited by the star/delta
transformer connections. This enables short clearance times to be achieved which
minimises the fault duration on cable sheaths. The back‐up overcurrent must grade with
the transformer HV back‐up. An IDMT characteristic may be applied. To minimise operation
time a curve graded at HVBU Characteristic transition from IDMT to HSOC should be used.
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network to assist with voltage control. The intertripping can again be achieved using the
facility in the differential relay.
An alternative approach is to provide fast curtailment of generation by interfacing directly
to the WTG SCADA. This technique avoids the need for the tripping of CB’s.
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modifications can be done independently without any undue effects in the availability and
information in the other system.
For each of the above mentioned systems, secure SCADA systems with high availability are
required for all of the reasons discussed earlier, but as it is the communication and SCADA
system which enables the remote management and operation of the wind power plant
complex, the need for high availability here is paramount. Often the SCADA system will
have duplicated servers, communications, power supplies and will have I/O segregated
and/or duplicated so that the loss of any I/O card has a minimal effect on the wind power
plant operability or availability.
The required level of information about the various systems offshore is an order of
magnitude higher than that for onshore installations where even the most remote
installations are usually accessible within a few hours by any number of different transport
systems; allowing maintenance staff to go and take a look at the installation. In offshore
applications the ability to “take a look” may be very restricted and much more emphasis is
needed on the remote collection of data to take operational decisions, identify failures,
decide on repair strategies and select replacement components to be taken by the correct
repair team, when access can be arranged.
These factors will have a major impact on the architecture and complexity of the
communications and SCADA equipment installed on offshore platforms, which in turn
impacts on the power and accommodation required for the systems.
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‐ Remote diagnosis of fault conditions by the maintenance staff to enable a more rapid
and accurate response to site problems.
Different levels of redundancy can be selected and some typical possibilities are illustrated
in Figures 5‐15 to 5‐17.
The key features of any SCADA system communication system for an offshore wind power
plant can be summarised as follows:‐
‐ A single local Area Network (LAN) will be established across the wind power plant
‐ The Offshore to Onshore communications will be provided by single mode fibre optic
cables embedded in the export power cable.
‐ If required, the offshore platform to wind turbines can be connected with either single
mode or multi mode fibres embedded in the inter array power cables.
‐ Usually there will be sufficient fibres embedded in the cables to enable different
networks to be established for different equipment e.g. CCTV can have an independent
network from the SCADA system.
‐ The multiple networks can also co‐exist on a single physical LAN infrastructure with the
use of Virtual Local Area Networks (VLANs)
‐ The use of fibre cables avoids the need for wireless or radio systems which ensures that
the links are less prone to failure or losses in poor environmental/weather conditions.
‐ It also allows the use of higher speed networks
‐ The use of embedded fibres also has the advantage that it can be used to provide
distributed temperature sensing (DTS) monitoring equipment which is particularly
advantageous to minimize the capital expenditure on the cable system and take
advantage of the fluctuating power availability of the wind by not putting fixed ratings
on the cables without the risk of causing damage to the cable due to excessive
temperatures.
‐ The SCADA systems can be accessed by broadband connections from remote control
centres, mobile work places or from the operator’s home. Alarm signals can even be
addressed to an operator’s mobile phone.
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Communication protocol
based interface
e.g. IEC 61850 over fibre
SCADA Protection
signals hardwired
via volt free
Controller
contacts or using a
communication
protocol
Protection scope
SCADA scope
314
Figure 5‐14. Example of combined control and protection solution for a transition piece
315
Figure 5‐15. Redundant All in One System
316
Figure 5‐16. Partially Redundant Server System
317
Figure 5‐17. Redundant and Distributed Server System Server System
318
5.4.3 Functionality of Each System
5.4.3.1 Wind Turbine SCADA
The wind turbine SCADA system is not the subject of this document; however this SCADA
usually covers all aspects of the control of all of the wind turbines within the wind power
plant. This will cover the control of the real power and reactive power as well as the status
indications and alarms from all of the WTGs. If it is possible to interface the HV SCADA
system to the WTG SCADA system information such as voltage control and plant status
signals should be provided.
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‐ transformer is already at maximum or minimum tap
‐ network must be isolated before it can be earthed
‐ device is in local control mode
‐ disconnectors cannot be operated on load
Many other interlock conditions may be built in if it is felt to be effective.
The SCADA system should also be designed to allow operation locally and remotely.
Remote could be at the onshore substation adjacent to the onshore server or remotely at
the customer’s operating centre or even from other locations by broadband access. Each of
these accesses can be controlled to limit who has authority to effect control.
Other functions which may be built into the SCADA are:‐
Data processing examples being
‐ Status data such as normal/abnormal states and sequence of events
‐ Analogue data processing such as limit checks, threshold adaptation, max/min/average
values
‐ Counting such as operating hours or number of operations
‐ Data calculation
‐ Disturbance data processing such as snapshot, triggers and disturbance analysis
Event and Alarm Processing examples being
‐ Event/Alarm administration allocating alarms to alarm classes by technological area,
responsibility, local/remote state
‐ Event/alarm presentation acoustical annunciation and visual annunciation
‐ Event/alarm handling and control, single and/or multiple acknowledgement or
suppression
‐ Alarm forwarding to remote locations or specific operators
An example of these features is shown in Figure 5‐18.
Use of SCADA for Maintenance Information
The designer of the SCADA system should also make allowance for how the SCADA system
may be most effectively used as part of the maintenance regime of the wind power plant.
The SCADA system will effectively provide a means for continuous remote condition
monitoring. It can also provide the vehicle for remote fault analysis and error correction.
The data collected by the SCADA system can give the maintenance team information on
sequence of events, analogue fault record charts, trend graphs etc to enable the
maintenance team either to intervene remotely or to ensure that they have the personnel
with the required skills and tools dispatched to the substation to deal with the problem.
The SCADA system can have the capability to support predictive maintenance, preventive
maintenance and corrective maintenance.
320
Figure 5‐18. Alarm Processing Example
321
occurrence of such a loss of control may have severe financial and commercial
consequences.
322
allowing early intervention by alerting other staff in other areas of the substation or by
initiating emergency procedures.
323
supplies should be such that a fire, a fault or mechanical damage at any one point will not
render both systems inoperative.
The supply system is to include automatic switch‐over between these two supplies in case
of failure of one of them and any fault on any of the power supplies is required to initiate an
alarm on the supervisory control system. To monitor the system and demonstrate that the
required availability is provided, the supervisory control system is required to record the
duration of any supply malfunctions.
5.6.3 Lamps
The construction and installation of the navigation lights used in the system should be
suitable for the application taking into account the required availability and the limited
maintenance opportunities and should comply with the appropriate legislation. All lamps
should be individually supplied by a discrete circuit from a dedicated navigation lighting
panel designed to provide secure supplies and lighting circuit monitoring / alarms. Main and
standby lamps of identical type (usage) may be supplied via a single cable with two
independent circuits provided that individual lamp isolation is provided.
The location and mounting of lamps must be carefully considered to ensure that blinding of
personal working on the platform is avoided and that safe maintenance access is possible.
The selection of the type of lamp, its operating duty and installation design should minimise
the maintenance required.
Lights panel
The navigation lights are to be controlled and supervised from a dedicated navigation lights
panel and no other systems may take supplies from the panel. For every lamp the panel is to
be fitted with a device which indicates or signals the extinction of a lamp. Where the
indicating device is connected in series with the lamp, it must be ensured that a failure of
the indicating device does not cause the navigation light to be extinguished. Provision
should be made for testing the function of the panel supplied from either of the two power
sources. All alarms originating at the navigation lights panel monitoring systems are to be
repeated to the supervisory control system and recorded.
5.6.4 Foghorn
When required by the local authorities an audible warning device “foghorn” is to be
provided for the substation platform complying with appropriate legislation. The warning
system is required to have fully duplicated supplies with automatic changeover to the
second supply and fault monitoring / alarm facilities giving local and supervisory alarms.
5.7 Communications
5.7.1 Statement of Requirements
The remote location and dependency of many systems on the correct operation of the
communications system places a very high performance requirement both in terms of
capacity and availability. There are two main communications systems which may be
considered suitable to provide the required bandwidth IP/ SDH fibre optic communications
and IP/SDH satellite communications.
Depending on the overall structure of the power supply system it may be that a fully
redundant fibre system or a combination of fibre, microwave radio and satellite is used. For
example for an offshore substation with two power cable installations to shore, each with
an associated fibre cable, the fully fibre based solution is the most attractive. For a single
324
power cable solution, the use of one fibre cable in the power cable plus a separately
installed fibre cable may be used with microwave radio or satellite used to provide the
second channel.
Microwave radio is limited by range i.e. line of site required for reasonable data rates.
Satellite communication has large latency delays and therefore cannot support polled data
exchanges e.g. IEC 60870‐5 protocols or multiple TCP/IP socket connections required by
SCADA systems.
In the single power cable case it will be necessary to assess the probability of the optical
communication cable being completely lost without the loss of the power connection.
If such a situation is considered unlikely, then the bandwidth required from the satellite
system will be relatively small, limited to providing restricted data and voice
communications; real time operational data from the substation may not be required. If the
loss of the fibre optic cable in the power cable without loss of the power cable is considered
a real possibility the second separate fibre cable will be required.
In addition to substation to shore communications, the substation will require radio
communication for use with supply boats, helicopters and rescue services which are fully
compliant with the statutory requirements for the jurisdiction in which the substation
platform is located.
5.7.2.1 Routes
‐ Substation to shore – for voice and data communications into on shore corporate and
public networks
‐ Substation to shore – for connection to onshore protection systems
‐ Substation to wind turbines – for voice and data communications into the substation
systems for use at the substation or onward transmission to shore
‐ Internal within the substation – between locations on the platform for operation
‐ General “public address” broadcast system covering the entire substation
‐ Substation to supply or maintenance vessels for coordination
‐ Substation to emergency services and rescue teams – secure system
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‐ Communications to emergency services and rescue teams capable of providing
independent channels in the event that systems integrated into the platform system are
compromised.
5.7.3 Interfaces
The communication system will be required to interface to a number of equipments
‐ Direct optical connection for protection relays, typically to IEEE C37.94 TM ‐ (IEEE
C37.94 is an optical standard for interfacing to PDH/SDH equipment. This would only
be required if the protection relay data was multiplexed with other data on the same
fibre)
‐ ITU – T G821 V.35, G703, X21
‐ IEC 60870‐5‐10x
‐ DNP 3.0
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5.7.4 Communications Technology
5.7.4.1 SDH Communications using Optical Fibre Links
Main connection
‐ multiple fibre optical cable installed with each of the main connections to the MITS
cables, normally incorporated into the power cable and terminated into an Optical Fibre
terminal box on the platform. Breakout of the fibre cable from the main cable is
arranged as part of the trifurcation installation for three core cables. The optical cable
characteristics will have to be coordinated with the optical terminal equipment to
ensure the required data transfer performance is achieved.
Terminal equipment
‐ optical termination equipment providing an interface to electrical or optical inputs from
devices on the platform is required. This equipment should be suitably “hardened” for
operation in a harsh electromagnetic environment and protected against adverse
climatic conditions. The equipment output should be coordinated with the
transmission distances required to avoid the use of intermediate repeaters.
Multiplexing
‐ the architecture of the communications system and the mix of direct fibre connections
and multiplexed connections will need to be designed to support the required
performance and availability of the systems which utilise the communications links.
Platform distribution
‐ may be using optical cables or copper connections to individual subsystems. Ideally the
direct connection using optical cables will minimise the risk of degraded performance
due to interference but may not be justified for low bandwidth connections.
The system is capable of providing the highest availability both inherently and by the use of
redundancy within the system. The performance is generally unaffected by environmental
or atmospheric conditions as all system components are protected.
327
exposed to all atmospheric conditions most noticeably heavy rain and high winds. The
availability is also determined by the operating mode selected which may be “point to
point” or “shared”. The “point to point” option provides allocated bandwidth to a
single user whereas the shared mode uses multiplexing techniques to share bandwidth,
possibly resulting in reduced availability due to third party interactions.
328
established a satellite telephone system or mobile phone system may be used. The choice
will be largely influenced by the availability of mobile network coverage at the platform
location.
329
Figure 5‐19. Typical communications two fibre routes
330
FO terminal equipment and multiplexer FO terminal equipment and multiplexer
Figure 5‐20. Typical communications one fibre route, one satellite route
FO cable termination FO cable termination
331
FO cable termination Satellite communication interface
FO terminal equipment and multiplexer FO terminal equipment and multiplexer
Figure 5‐21. Communications configurations, two fibres routes associated with power
cables
332
Figure 5‐23. Communications configurations, one fibre route to each sub, with
microwave interconnection
Figure 5‐24. Communications configurations, one fibre route to each sub, with
microwave interconnection to shore
333
5.8 Equipment Accommodation and Environmental Management
5.8.1 Statement of Requirements
Unless special requirements are specified, secondary systems are designed to operate over
a well defined but limited range of environmental conditions. If standard equipment,
without special design or protective treatments, is to be used the installation environment
will need to be managed to provide the conditions required.
The locations in which the majority of secondary systems are to be installed will be required
to provide a managed environment which ensures that the equipment operates only within
its design parameters. This controlled environment must be incorporated with the
structural design of the substation platform so that adequate protection from the following
is provided
Extremes of temperature and humidity
Corrosive atmospheres and deposits
Exposure to water ingress
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- Corrosion resistant connectors and terminals
- Tracking resistant terminal blocks
- Cable glanding and sealing of gland plates
5.10 Metering
The wind power plant generation networks are connected through the offshore substation
to supply power to the main transmission system. To measure the power delivered to the
system it is necessary to install tariff metering. The exact location for the metering will be
dependent upon the location of the ownership boundary. In many countries an Offshore
Transmission System Operator has been established and consequently this has led to the
installation of tariff metering at the offshore substation.
The exact location for this metering may vary from one system to another. The common
locations are at 36 kV on each array cable, at 36 kV on the LV side of the step up
transformers to the transmission voltage or at the HV side of the step up transformers.
If the metering is installed on the array cables then this requires a large number of meters
and current transformers to be installed. However the current and voltage transformer
performance requirements tend to be less onerous.
Tariff metering normally requires two sets of metering known as main and check. Typically
at load levels less than 100 MW the main and check meters can be connected to the same
high accuracy CT core and the same high accuracy VT winding.
If the metering is connected to the LV or HV side of the step up transformer then this will
require fewer meters than for the arrays but the current and voltage transformer
performance requirements are more onerous. At higher load levels the main metering must
be connected to a dedicated high accuracy CT core and VT winding. The check metering can
be connected to a second high accuracy CT core and VT winding but in this case other loads
can be connected to these windings.
335
It should be noted however that if the metering is connected on the LV side of the step up
transformer and two circuit breakers are connected in parallel to achieve the rating then
each circuit breaker will need to be equipped with its own set of tariff meters as the
summation of the CT signals will not be acceptable to meet the high accuracy requirements.
336
6. Areas for Further Consideration
This Working Group intentionally limited its scope to AC connected wind power plants.
Naturally, the majority of the work of this working group will also be applicable for AC
substations to be used as collector substations for HVDC connected wind power plants but
there are a number of factors to be considered which are quite different. This section will
try to set out what these fundamental differences are that need to be considered such that
Terms of Reference for a follow on working group can be derived. Many countries are
currently looking at connections using HVDC but at present the detail of how these
connections will be made is far from clear other than very high level thinking and the
majority of the thought is being focussed on the HVDC part and we are not aware of any
real thought being given to the AC collector systems.
Some of the issues that will need to be considered are :‐
- What frequency should the offshore network operate at? As the HVDC link
provides a distinct separation from the onshore network serious consideration
should be given to advantages of using an optimum frequency.
- What voltage should the collector AC network operate at? Again it does not need
to be related to the onshore voltage.
- How is fault ride through of the WTGs achieved compared to an AC connected
system? As the HVDC system basically decouples the AC offshore from the AC
onshore they cannot inject maximum reactive current but they must return to at
least 90% of the active power available before the fault within 500ms of the fault
being cleared.
- How many collector stations should be used? How many cable radials can be
accommodated on one platform? Will AC and HVDC be combined on one
platform? What ratio of AC stations to HVDC offshore substations?
- What are the reactive compensation requirements on this offshore AC network
and how will they be met?
- What is the most suitable control strategy at the offshore AC network, and its
interaction with the HVDC converter? Wind turbines can contribute to the
reactive power control strategy of the AC offshore network (e.g. Voltage control,
power factor control, Q control), which is the most appropriate control option for
the AC offshore networks.
- For the AC transformers on the AC offshore substations how to optimise the
impedance required? For AC connection the impedance choice was heavily
dominated by controlling the fault level as the major fault infeed came from the
AC system onshore. With a HVDC link high fault current is not a problem but low
fault current may be.
- The protection on AC connected wind power plants has been heavily focussed on
current operated protections and grading. With a fault infeed from the HVDC
converters of about 1.2pu load current maximum the protection philosophy of
the substation will need to be totally reconsidered. Particularly for the protection
of the array cables.
- How will the communications systems work.
- What interconnection will be needed using AC either between collector
substations or between HVDC hubs?
- Auxiliary power during island operation. During commissioning stages and HVDC
outage, auxiliary power has to be provided to the wind turbines and platform.
337
Diesel generators have to be correctly sized, in case of a DC connection, since for
AC connections to shore it is generally assumed that one export cable will always
be available to supply auxiliary power for WTGs/platform.
A set of Terms of Reference needs to be created to define the task of the designer of these
AC collector systems such that these issues can be clearly identified and set the scene for
tackling these issues in a controlled and disciplined manner within a new Working Group.
In preparing this Technical Brochure some other areas requiring further investigation were
identified as follows:‐
• Insulation Co‐ordination
At present the IEC standard does not identify switching impulse levels for equipment at
voltages below 245 kV. For offshore wind power plants it is the switching impulse
conditions which are most critical, perhaps specifying switching impulse withstand levels
for equipment at lower voltage levels would be appropriate.
Furthermore, the waveforms experienced within an offshore wind power plant can be
significantly different to the test waveforms specified by the IEC. This raises the
question as to whether the standard waveforms are appropriate. CIGRE WG C54‐142
“Electrical Environment for Transformers” is currently looking at this issue and will be
including recommendations on standards for waveforms. The work of CIGRE WG A2/C4‐
309 “Electrical Transient Interaction between Transformers and the Power System” may
also be relevant.
It is very difficult, if not impossible, to obtain models of wind turbines from
manufacturers for transient studies. It has been suggested to form a new CIGRE working
group with the aim to produce a ‘benchmark’ transient model for DFIG and full
converter wind turbines.
• Vibration
It is recognised that some standards for switchgear (e.g. IEC) do not include any
dedicated provisions for specification or type testing to demonstrate insensitivity to
prospective mechanical impacts to be seen by electrical apparatus on offshore
platforms, such as wind gusts or wave loads. Requirements published in IEC switchgear
standards tend to be limited to localised impact tests, and are applicable only when
specifically agreed between the purchaser and the manufacturer. They only refer to
points of suspected weakness in the structure of the switchgear (e.g. ref. IEC 60694 and
62271‐1). These requirements are not adequate for the case in question when
vibrations to the entire switchgear structure could be expected on a long term basis.
With the planned pan‐European growth in offshore generation and transmission, it is
suggested that the vibration topic should be an area for more thorough investigation.
Consideration should be made for the feasibility and merit of defining a series of
dedicated type test criteria. This could be similar to the rigorous "marine classification"
regime for other offshore air‐insulated switchgears for mobile offshore units and
vessels.
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• Supply Chain
The present offshore platforms are generally driven by existing and proven onshore
equipment ranges and types with minor modifications or enhancements to be installed
offshore. However to fully evolve the offshore substation and wind power plants
consideration may need to be given to developing special ranges of equipment adapted
to deal with the conditions experienced on offshore substations.
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7. Concluding Remarks
This brochure provides a set of guidelines to assist Utilities, Developers and Contractors who
are involved in designing and constructing offshore AC substations associated with wind
power plants.
The document, which is not intended to be design standards, has identified the key issues
which have been encountered to date within the industry and are likely to be faced, in
conjunction with others, in the future. As there is no unique solution which will be
appropriate to all offshore wind power plants, it presents some of the possible solutions to
be considered to assist in developing the correct solution for any particular offshore
substation.
The document has divided the subject matter up into major headings to enable an
organised approach to the design to be achieved. As every aspect of an offshore substation
requires different thinking to what power engineers are used to when designing onshore
substations, the brochure commences with the fundamental considerations of risk
management (including deriving the correct redundancy policy), maintenance aspects and
certification.
When the fundamental policy decisions in this area are established the task of defining the
single line diagram and establishing the key plant parameters can be started. For virtually all
offshore wind power plants this will involve a comprehensive set of system studies. These
system aspects are covered in the next main chapter.
When considering the primary plant for the substation most people are aware of the
considerations associated with the harsh environment, however there are many other
aspects which impact upon the choice of the correct primary plant to be included in the
substation and these are covered in Chapter 3.
Chapter 4 deals with the physical aspects of combining all of this plant, establishing a
workable layout which can then be built onto a suitable platform which can be constructed,
transported and installed onto a foundation some kilometres out at sea, This platform must
also take account of the cabling requirements and the ongoing lifetime aspects of
maintenance and replacement and the required access requirements to achieve all of this.
This introduces power engineers to a whole new area of expertise not encountered onshore
such as designing steel structures with weights of some 2‐3 thousand tonnes including heli‐
decks, boat landings etc.
Chapter 5 then looks at the secondary equipment requirements and how they differ from
what we are all familiar with in onshore substations. This includes how the normal aspects
such as protection, control and metering are addressed as well as those new items such as
CCTV , navigation aids, aeronautical aids which are not normally associated with onshore
substations.
The final Chapter briefly summarises the work which is now required, from a new Working
Group, to address the aspects associated with AC collector substations for wind power
plants which will be connected by HVDC links which was expressly excluded from the
content of this brochure. It also identifies some other areas worthy of further investigation.
It is sincerely hoped by the whole team involved in the preparation of this brochure that this
document will assist all Utilities, Developers and Contractors to achieve satisfactory
solutions for the offshore substations required for their wind power plants.
340
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343
Appendix 1 Example of the Use of Weibull Distribution
The assessment of the duration of generation at different levels over a year, can best be
done by estimating the probability of the wind speed using the 2‐parameter Weibull
distribution where k>0 is the shape parameter and λ > 0 is the scale parameter.
k −1 x
kx − k
fWeibull (x ; k , λ ) = e λ
λλ
Weilbull Characteristics: ‐
Table 1 shows the power park curve (PPC), number of hours per year with respect to the
wind speed x (m/s) using the probability function of Weibull distribution. Number of
hours per year with respect to the wind speed = number of hours per year x the
estimated probability value from the Weibull Distribution.
Having known the number of hours per year associated with varying wind speed, the
annual electrical generation can be calculated. Table 2 presents the annual electrical
generation and also presents losses for a particular 800mm2 submarine cable. whereas
Table 3 presents the losses for a 1000mm2 submarine cable. Due to smaller conductor
size, the cost of the losses in the 800mm2 cable is (€722,495.13 ‐ €654,471.28) =
€68023.85 higher than the 1000mm2 cable.
344
Wind speed (m/s) Probability No. of hours / year Park Output
m/s MW
0.5 0.00 40 0.0
1.5 0.02 157 0.0
2.5 0.03 291 0.0
3.5 0.05 425 3.7
4.5 0.06 548 11.3
5.5 0.07 650 21.8
6.5 0.08 723 37.1
7.5 0.09 763 57.8
8.5 0.09 770 84.6
9.5 0.09 745 114.8
10.5 0.08 693 143.1
11.5 0.07 622 169.8
12.5 0.06 539 195.5
13.5 0.05 451 208.7
14.5 0.04 365 212.4
15.5 0.03 285 212.4
16.5 0.02 216 212.4
17.5 0.02 158 212.4
18.5 0.01 112 212.4
19.5 0.01 77 212.4
20.5 0.01 51 212.4
21.5 0.00 33 212.4
22.5 0.00 20 212.4
23.5 0.00 12 212.4
24.5 0.00 7 212.4
Table A1‐1. Probability estimate of wind speed and number of hours in operation using
Weibull distribution
345
Hours Wind speed Park Output % full output Loss Loss Loss Cost of Losses
Hrs m/s MW MW kW kWh Euros
40 0.5 0.00 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.00 € 0.00
157 1.5 0.00 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.00 € 0.00
291 2.5 0.00 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.00 € 0.00
425 3.5 3.70 1.74 0.0806 80.62 34,281.60 € 1,714.08
548 4.5 11.30 5.32 0.0905 90.46 49,602.92 € 2,480.15
650 5.5 21.80 10.26 0.1227 122.71 79,772.21 € 3,988.61
723 6.5 37.10 17.47 0.2056 205.64 148,720.63 € 7,436.03
763 7.5 57.80 27.21 0.3854 385.38 294,220.44 € 14,711.02
770 8.5 84.60 39.83 0.7309 730.86 562,703.32 € 28,135.17
745 9.5 114.80 54.05 1.3195 1,319.48 982,910.82 € 49,145.54
693 10.5 143.10 67.37 1.9614 1,961.41 1,360,121.14 € 68,006.06
622 11.5 169.80 79.94 2.7386 2,738.62 1,704,115.02 € 85,205.75
539 12.5 195.50 92.04 3.5440 3,544.02 1,910,071.20 € 95,503.56
451 13.5 208.70 98.26 3.9983 3,998.31 1,803,188.20 € 90,159.41
365 14.5 212.40 100.00 4.1305 4,130.48 1,506,849.72 € 75,342.49
285 15.5 212.40 100.00 4.1305 4,130.48 1,178,831.63 € 58,941.58
216 16.5 212.40 100.00 4.1305 4,130.48 892,130.47 € 44,606.52
158 17.5 212.40 100.00 4.1305 4,130.48 653,235.40 € 32,661.77
112 18.5 212.40 100.00 4.1305 4,130.48 462,817.42 € 23,140.87
77 19.5 212.40 100.00 4.1305 4,130.48 317,288.77 € 15,864.44
51 20.5 212.40 100.00 4.1305 4,130.48 210,469.88 € 10,523.49
33 21.5 212.40 100.00 4.1305 4,130.48 135,077.90 € 6,753.89
20 22.5 212.40 100.00 4.1305 4,130.48 83,867.52 € 4,193.38
12 23.5 212.40 100.00 4.1305 4,130.48 50,369.15 € 2,518.46
7 24.5 212.40 100.00 4.1305 4,130.48 29,257.35 € 1,462.87
TOTAL € 722,495.13
Table A1‐2. Calculation of Electrical Generation and Annual Losses for 3c x 800mm2 Submarine Cable
346
Hours Wind speed Park Output full output Loss Loss Loss Cost of Losses
Hrs m/s MW %age MW kW kWh Euros
40 0.5 0.00 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.00 € 0.00
157 1.5 0.00 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.00 € 0.00
291 2.5 0.00 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.00 € 0.00
425 3.5 3.70 1.74 0.0647 64.73 27,525.46 € 1,376.27
548 4.5 11.30 5.32 0.0741 74.13 40,648.61 € 2,032.43
650 5.5 21.80 10.26 0.1028 102.79 66,823.02 € 3,341.15
723 6.5 37.10 17.47 0.1775 177.51 128,378.35 € 6,418.92
763 7.5 57.80 27.21 0.3394 339.45 259,152.46 € 12,957.62
770 8.5 84.60 39.83 0.6508 650.76 501,033.83 € 25,051.69
745 9.5 114.80 54.05 1.1977 1,197.72 892,208.18 € 44,610.41
693 10.5 143.10 67.37 1.7769 1,776.89 1,232,168.23 € 61,608.41
622 11.5 169.80 79.94 2.4946 2,494.63 1,552,287.93 € 77,614.40
539 12.5 195.50 92.04 3.2220 3,222.05 1,736,544.42 € 86,827.22
451 13.5 208.70 98.26 3.6326 3,632.63 1,638,271.29 € 81,913.56
365 14.5 212.40 100.00 3.7520 3,752.01 1,368,778.21 € 68,438.91
285 15.5 212.40 100.00 3.7520 3,752.01 1,070,816.17 € 53,540.81
216 16.5 212.40 100.00 3.7520 3,752.01 810,385.22 € 40,519.26
158 17.5 212.40 100.00 3.7520 3,752.01 593,379.93 € 29,669.00
112 18.5 212.40 100.00 3.7520 3,752.01 420,409.80 € 21,020.49
77 19.5 212.40 100.00 3.7520 3,752.01 288,215.83 € 14,410.79
51 20.5 212.40 100.00 3.7520 3,752.01 191,184.68 € 9,559.23
33 21.5 212.40 100.00 3.7520 3,752.01 122,700.81 € 6,135.04
20 22.5 212.40 100.00 3.7520 3,752.01 76,182.80 € 3,809.14
12 23.5 212.40 100.00 3.7520 3,752.01 45,753.86 € 2,287.69
7 24.5 212.40 100.00 3.7520 3,752.01 26,576.52 € 1,328.83
TOTAL € 654,471.28
Table A1‐3. Calculation of Electrical Generation and Annual Losses for 3c x 1000mm2 Submarine Cable
347
If the lifecycle costs of the cables are of particular interest then this can be calculated
using the total Net Present Value (NPV) of the cable as follows:
N
Ct
NPV = ∑ + C0
t =1 (1 + r )
t
With:
C0 : Investment costs [€]
Ct : Yearly costs due to electrical losses cabling [€]
R : Discount rate [7%]
T : Year [‐]
N : Period over which return has to be achieved in years [15 years in this example]
Table A1‐4 shows the NPV calculation for 3c x 800mm2 submarine cable throughout the
15 years subsidy period of the project. The total value of the losses part of the NPV is
€6,580,423.56. The capital cost value has not been added in this example.
348
Table A1‐5 shows the NPV calculation for 3c x 1000mm2 submarine cable throughout the
15 years subsidy period of the project. The total value of the losses part of the NPV is
€5,960,868.14. The capital cost value has not been added in this example.
349
Appendix 2 Failure Modes, Effects and Criticality Analysis
(FMECA)
1. Introduction
Failure modes effects and criticality analysis (FMECA) (also called failure modes and effects
analysis (FMEA)), is one of the most widely used and most effective design reliability analysis
methods. The principle of FMECA is to consider each mode of failure of every component of
a system and to ascertain the effects on system operation of each failure mode in turn.
Failure effects may be considered at more than one level, for example at subsystem and at
overall system level. Failure modes are classified in relation to the severity of their effects.
FMECA may be based on a hardware or a functional approach. In the hardware approach
actual hardware failure modes are considered (e.g. resistor short‐circuited, valve seized,
etc.). The functional approach is used when hardware items cannot be uniquely identified or
in early design stages when hardware is not fully defined. In this approach function failures
are considered (e.g. no voltage output, memory wiped, etc.). FMECA can also be performed
using a combination of hardware and functional approaches.
FMEA is a non‐quantitative method, which serves to highlight failure modes whose effects
would be considered important in relation to severity, detectability, maintainability or
safety. Table A2‐1 shows a part of a simple example (in this case hardware based) which
includes the rating of the severity of each failure mode for prioritisation of work.
FMECA includes all of the elements of a FMEA as well as consideration of failure rate or
probability, failure mode ratio and a quantitative assessment of criticality, in order to
provide a quantitative criticality rating for the component or function.
350
2. Performing a FMECA Study
FMECA is not a trivial task, and can involve many hours or weeks of work. An effective
FMECA can be performed only by an engineer or team of engineers that have a thorough
knowledge of the system's design and application. The first step therefore is to obtain all the
information available on the design. This includes specifications, drawings, computer‐aided
design data, stress analysis, test results, etc., to the extent they are available at the time. For
a criticality analysis, the reliability prediction information must also be available or it might
be generated simultaneously.
A system functional block diagram and reliability block diagram should be prepared as these
are the basis for preparing the FMECA and for understanding the completed analysis. If the
system operates in more than one phase in which different functional relationships or item
operating modes exist, these must be considered separately in the analysis. The effects of
redundancy must also be considered by evaluating the effects of failure modes assuming
that the redundant subsystem is or is not available.
A FMECA can be performed from different perspectives, such as safety, availability, repair
costs, etc. It is necessary to decide, and to state, the perspective or perspectives being
considered in the analysis. For example, a safety‐related FMECA might give a low criticality
number to an item whose reliability seriously affects availability, but which is not safety
critical.
The FMECA is then prepared, using the appropriate worksheet, and working to the item or
sub‐assembly level considered appropriate, bearing in mind the design data available and
the objectives of the analysis. For a new design, particularly when the effects of failures are
serious (high warranty costs, reliability reputation, safety, etc.) the analysis should take
account of all failure modes of all components. However, it might be appropriate to
consider functional failure modes of subassemblies when these are based upon existing
designs, e.g. modular power supplies in electronic systems, particularly if the design details
are not known.
The FMECA should be started as soon as initial design information is available. It should be
performed iteratively as the design evolves, so that the analysis can be used to influence the
design and to provide documentation of the eventually completed design. Design options
should be separately analysed, so that reliability implications can be considered in deciding
on which option to choose. Test results should be used to update the analysis. It is
important to coordinate the design activities, so that the most effective use can be made of
the FMECAs in all of them, and to ensure that FMECAs are available at the right time and to
the right people.
It can be difficult to trace the effects of low‐level failures correctly through complex
systems. If the system has been designed or modelled using engineering design software,
this can be used to assist in the analysis where it supports such functionality, thus aiding the
task of working out the effects of component‐level failures on the operation of complex
systems. Even with aids such as these, FMECA can be an inappropriate method for some
designs, such as digital electronic systems in which low level failures (e.g. of transistors
within integrated circuits) are very, but uniformly, unlikely, and the effects are dynamic in
the sense that they could differ widely depending up on the state of the system.
FMECA has been, and continues to be, widely used in many industries, particularly in those
for which failures can have serious consequences, such as military, aerospace, automotive,
medical equipment, etc. Some industries have established standardized approaches (the US
Military Standard is MIL‐Handbook‐1629, and the US automotive companies have also
351
produced a guidance document). However, these are valid approaches for their respective
technologies, but often are inappropriate for other technology types.
4. Computerized FMECA
Computer programs have been developed for performance of FMECA. Using a computer
program instead of FMECA worksheets allows FMECAs to be produced more quickly and
accurately, and greatly increases the ease of editing and updating to take account of design
changes, design options, different viewpoints, and different input assumptions. Like any
other computer‐aided design technique, computerized FMECA frees engineers to
concentrate on engineering, rather than on tedious compilation, so that for the same total
effort designs can be more thoroughly investigated or less effort can be expended for the
same depth of analysis. Also, by eliminating the more tedious and time‐consuming aspects
of the work, engineers' motivation and effectiveness is increased.
Computerized FMECA enables more perceptive analysis to be performed. Failure effects can
be ranked in criticality order, at different system levels, in different phases of system
operation and from different viewpoints. Report preparation can be partly automated and
sensitivity analyses quickly performed.
It is also possible, and effective, to use a spreadsheet to create a FMECA. This method has
the advantage that the format and type of analysis can be designed to suit the particular
design and methods of analysis. Modern integrated software also allows a wide range of
graphic presentations to be created, databases to be used for reliability information, and for
the analysis to be incorporated into word processors for report preparation.
Computer‐aided engineering (CAE) software, when used to create and analyse designs, can
be used to perform FMECAs. Use of CAE permits very detailed, objective analyses to be
made, covering transient and dynamic conditions, which can be very difficult to analyse
manually. For example, some electronic design software can be used to determine the
effects on circuit operation of component failure modes, by running the simulation with
parameter values set at the failure conditions. Mechanical design CAE software can be
similarly used in some cases, for example finite element analysis (FEA) software can be used
to analyse the effects of mechanical or thermal stress. The SABER™ (Avanti Corp.) program
enables FMECAs of mixed‐technology designs to be created and for the FMECA to be
automated using a database of component failure modes.
352
5. Benefits of a FMECA study
FMECA can be used very effectively for several purposes, in addition to the prime one of
identifying safety or reliability critical failure modes and effects. These include:
1. Identifying features to be included in the test programme.
2. Preparation of diagnostic routines such as flowcharts or fault‐finding tables. FMECA
provides a convenient listing of the failure modes which produce particular failure effects or
symptoms, and the relative likelihoods of occurrence.
3. Preparation of preventive maintenance requirements. The effects and likelihood of
failures can be considered in relation to the need for scheduled inspection, servicing or
replacement. For example, if a failure mode has an insignificant effect on safety or operating
success, the item could be replaced only on failure rather than at scheduled intervals, to
reduce the probability of failure.
4. Formal records of the safety and reliability analysis, to be used as evidence if required in
reports to customers or in litigation.
353
APPENDIX 3 Power Transmission with Long A.C. Submarine
Cables
1. Definitions
1.1. Signs of Variables and Definition of Voltages
Directions of currents and powers are according Figure A3‐1. At the sending end have
powers positive sign when fed into the line. At the receiving end have powers positive sign
when taken out of the line.
Index 1 means variables at the sending end and index 2 means variables at the receiving
end.
354
1.5. Maximum Length of Cable
The maximum continuous current IN of a cable is limited by the maximum temperature of
the conductor. The maximum current IN is the rated current of the cable and calculated at
the conductor temperature 90 °C.
The maximum length of the cable is defined according:
1. The powers P2 and Q2 are adjusted to give absolute values of the currents at cable
ends below or equal to the rated current of the cable:
I1 = I 2 ≤ I N
Shunt reactors at both ends are designed to compensate for Q1 and Q2.
2. When the load P2 at receiving end is disconnected must not any of the currents |I1|
or |I2| be greater than the rated current IN. The shunt reactors are still connected to
the cable.
2. Selection of cable design
Maximum transmission capacities are calculated for 150 kV and 220 kV 3‐core cables buried
in sea bed and used for transmission of power over long distances.
The design and transmission capacity of a buried cable depends on:
1. Conductor cross‐section
2. Conductor material
3. Burial depth in ground
4. Ambient temperature at burial depth
5. Thermal resistivity of ground
6. Maximum voltage drop compensated cable
7. Maximum voltage rise no load <Um
3. Cable Design
Cable designs with voltages 110 kV, 132 kV, 150 kV and 220 kV and equal conductor cross‐
section copper 630 mm2 are analyzed.
355
4. Electrical Data Cables
U Um Ac λ1 λ2 R1 L1 C1 In
kV kV mm2 p.u. p.u. ohm/km mH/km µF/km A
110 123 630 0,1096 0,4632 0,064 0,366 0,239 738
132 145 630 0,2083 0,4687 0,065 0,377 0,215 738
150 170 630 0,2302 0,4719 0,066 0,389 0,196 736
220 245 630 0,3064 0,4685 0,068 0,427 0,161 731
5. 110 kV Cable
5.1. Absolute Values
d U1 I1 P1 Q1 ∆P ∆U U2 I2 P2 ∆P1) Q2
km kV A MW MVAr MW % kV A MW % MVAr
20 110 739 140,6 ‐7,1 2,1 1,5 108,4 739 138,5 1,5 7,0
40 | 739 140,1 ‐14,0 4,2 3,0 106,7 | 135,9 3,0 13,9
60 | 739 139,2 ‐20,7 6,2 4,4 105,1 | 133,0 4,4 20,6
80 | 739 137,8 ‐27,3 8,2 5,9 103,5 | 129,7 5,9 27,2
100 | 736 136,0 ‐33,8 10,0 7,3 102,0 | 126,1 7,3 33,8
120 | 733 133,7 ‐40,4 11,6 8,7 100,5 | 122,1 8,7 40,3
140 | 730 130,8 ‐47,2 13,1 10,0 99,0 | 117,7 10,0 47,1
160 | 725 127,1 ‐54,1 14,3 11,2 97,7 | 112,7 11,2 54,1
180 | 719 122,1 ‐61,6 15,3 12,3 96,5 | 107,2 12,3 61,5
1) Losses in percent of P2
Voltage drop limits length of cable
356
5.2. Normalised Values
Ub = 110 kV
Ib = 739 A
Sb = 141 MVA
d I1 P1 Q1 ∆P ∆U U2 P2 ∆P1) Q2
km A MW MVAr MW % kV MW % MVAr
20 1,000 0,997 ‐0,050 0,015 0,015 0,985 0,982 0,011 0,050
40 1,000 0,994 ‐0,099 0,030 0,030 0,970 0,964 0,021 0,099
60 1,000 0,987 ‐0,147 0,044 0,044 0,955 0,943 0,031 0,146
80 1,000 0,977 ‐0,194 0,058 0,059 0,941 0,920 0,042 0,193
100 0,996 0,965 ‐0,240 0,071 0,073 0,927 0,894 0,052 0,240
120 0,992 0,948 ‐0,287 0,082 0,087 0,914 0,866 0,062 0,286
140 0,988 0,928 ‐0,335 0,093 0,100 0,900 0,835 0,071 0,334
160 0,981 0,901 ‐0,384 0,101 0,112 0,888 0,799 0,079 0,384
180 0,973 0,866 ‐0,437 0,109 0,123 0,877 0,760 0,087 0,436
357
6. Export Cable
6.1. Absolute Values
d U1 I1 P1 Q1 ∆P ∆U U2 I2 P2 ∆P1) Q2
km kV A MW MVAr MW % kV A MW % MVAr
20 132 739 168,7 ‐9,7 2,1 1,3 130,3 739 166,5 1,3 9,6
40 | 739 167,9 ‐19,2 4,3 2,5 128,7 | 163,6 2,6 19,1
60 | 739 166,4 ‐28,5 6,3 3,7 127,1 | 160,1 3,9 28,4
80 | 738 164,4 ‐37,7 8,2 4,9 125,5 | 156,1 5,3 37,6
100 | 736 161,6 ‐46,9 10,0 6,1 123,9 | 151,5 6,6 46,9
120 | 733 157,9 ‐56,3 11,6 7,2 122,5 | 146,3 7,9 56,2
140 | 730 153,4 ‐65,9 13,0 8,2 121,1 | 140,4 9,3 65,8
160 | 726 147,6 ‐75,9 14,0 9,1 120,0 | 133,5 10,5 75,8
180 | 720 140,2 ‐86,4 14,7 9,8 119,0 | 125,4 11,7 86,4
200 | 714 130,7 ‐98,0 15,0 10,3 118,4 | 115,7 13,0 97,9
220 | 708 118,1 ‐110,8 14,7 10,3 118,4 | 103,4 14,2 110,7
240 | 704 100,3 ‐125,8 13,7 9,6 119,3 | 86,6 15,8 125,7
260 | 706 71,2 ‐145,0 11,9 7,3 122,3 | 59,3 20,1 144,9
1) Losses in percent of P2
Reactive power generation limits length of cable.
358
359
7. 150 kV Cable
7.1. Absolute Values
d U1 I1 P1 Q1 ∆P ∆U U2 I2 P2 ∆P1) Q2
km kV A MW MVAr MW % kV A MW % MVAr
20 150 737 191,1 ‐11,7 2,2 1,1 148,3 737 188,9 1,2 11,7
40 | 737 190,1 ‐23,2 4,3 2,2 146,6 | 185,7 2,3 23,2
60 | 737 188,2 ‐34,6 6,4 3,3 145,0 | 181,9 3,5 34,5
80 | 736 185,5 ‐45,8 8,3 4,4 143,4 | 177,2 4,7 45,8
100 | 734 182,0 ‐57,1 10,1 5,4 141,9 | 171,9 5,9 57,1
120 | 732 177,3 ‐68,6 11,6 6,4 140,5 | 165,7 7,0 68,5
140 | 729 171,4 ‐80,4 12,9 7,2 139,2 | 158,4 8,1 80,3
160 | 725 163,9 ‐92,7 13,9 7,9 138,1 | 150,0 9,3 92,6
180 | 720 154,3 ‐105,7 14,4 8,5 137,3 | 139,9 10,3 105,6
200 | 715 141,8 ‐119,8 14,5 8,7 136,9 | 127,3 11,4 119,7
220 | 710 124,9 ‐135,5 14,0 8,5 137,2 | 111,0 12,6 135,5
240 | 708 100,3 ‐154,1 12,8 7,5 138,8 | 87,6 14,6 154,0
260 | 718 52,3 ‐179,1 10,6 4,0 143,9 | 41,5 25,5 179,0
1) Losses in percent of P2
Reactive power generation limits length of cable.
360
361
8. 220 kV Cable
8.1. Absolute Values
d U1 I1 P1 Q1 ∆P ∆U U2 I2 P2 ∆P1) Q2
km kV A MW MVAr MW % kV A MW % MVAr
20 220 732 278,0 ‐22,2 2,2 0,8 218,3 732 275,8 0,8 22,2
40 | 732 275,4 ‐44,1 4,4 1,6 216,6 | 271,0 1,6 44,1
60 | 732 270,9 ‐65,9 6,4 2,3 215,5 | 264,5 2,4 65,8
80 | 731 264,3 ‐87,7 8,3 3,0 213,4 | 256,0 3,2 87,6
100 | 729 255,2 ‐109,8 9,9 3,6 212,0 | 245,4 3,9 109,7
120 | 727 243,4 ‐132,4 11,1 4,2 210,8 | 232,3 4,8 132,3
140 | 724 227,9 ‐155,7 11,9 4,6 209,9 | 215,9 5,5 155,7
160 | 721 207,4 ‐180,2 12,3 4,8 209,5 | 195,1 6,3 180,2
180 | 718 209,7 ‐206,5 12,0 4,7 209,7 | 165,7 7,2 206,5
200 | 717 138,0 235,7 10,9 4,0 211,2 | 127,1 8,6 235,7
220 | 726 46,8 ‐272,5 8,9 1,4 216,9 | 37,9 23,5 272,4
1) Losses in percent of P2
Reactive power generation limits length of cable.
d I1 P1 Q1 ∆P ∆U U2 P2 ∆P1) Q2
km A MW MVAr MW % kV MW % MVAr
20 1,000 0,996 ‐0,080 0,008 0,008 0,992 0,989 0,003 0,080
40 1,000 0,987 ‐0,158 0,016 0,016 0,985 0,971 0,006 0,158
60 1,000 0,971 ‐0,236 0,023 0,023 0,980 0,948 0,009 0,236
80 0,999 0,947 ‐0,314 0,030 0,030 0,970 0,918 0,011 0,314
100 0,996 0,915 ‐0,394 0,035 0,036 0,964 0,880 0,014 0,393
120 0,993 0,872 ‐0,475 0,040 0,042 0,958 0,833 0,017 0,474
140 0,989 0,817 ‐0,558 0,043 0,046 0,954 0,774 0,020 0,558
160 0,985 0,743 ‐0,646 0,044 0,048 0,952 0,699 0,023 0,646
180 0,981 0,752 ‐0,740 0,043 0,047 0,953 0,594 0,026 0,740
200 0,980 0,495 0,845 0,039 0,040 0,960 0,456 0,031 0,845
220 0,992 0,168 ‐0,977 0,032 0,014 0,986 0,136 0,084 0,976
362
Comments to Figures
The figures show that the voltage drop is the limiting factor at low rated voltages and that
the influence of the reactive power generation limits the transmitted power at higher
voltages. It is also obvious according the transmission line equations where per unit voltage
and current are introduced:
∂u ( x) I ( x)
∂x = − Z ⋅ U
b
∂i ( x ) U ( x)
= − jω C ⋅
∂x Ib
Ub and Ib are base values for expression of per unit values.
The first equations shows decreased relative voltage drop at increased voltage.
The second equations shows increased generated capacitive current at increased voltage.
In second equation are the conductive losses neglected.
363
APPENDIX 4 Codes and Standards per Discipline
HV Transformer
HV & MV Switchgear
364
• EN 50181 Plug‐in type bushings above 1 up to 36 kV and from 250
A to 1,25 kA for equipment other than liquid filled
transformers
• EN 50052 Cast aluminium alloy enclosures for gas‐filled high‐
voltage switchgear and controlgear
• EN 60694 Common specifications for high‐voltage switchgear and
controlgear standards (Amendment A1 & A2 to IEC
60694)
• IEC 60044‐1 Instrument transformers – Current transformers
• IEC 60044‐2 Instrument transformers – Inductive voltage
transformers
• IEC 60071‐1 Insulation co‐ordination – Definitions, principles and
rules
• IEC 60071‐2 Insulation co‐ordination – Application guide
• IEC 60099‐4 Surge arresters – Metal‐oxide surge arresters without
gaps for a.c. systems
• IEC 60137 Insulated bushings for alternating voltages above 1000 V
• IEC 60270 High‐voltage test techniques – Partial discharge
measurements
• IEC 60376 Specification of technical grade sulphur hexafluoride
(SF6) for use in electrical equipment
• IEC 60417 Graphical symbols for use on equipment
• IEC 60439‐1 Low‐voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies –
Type‐tested and partially type‐tested assemblies
• IEC 60480 Guideline for the checking and treatment of sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6) taken from electrical equipment and
specification for its re‐use
• IEC 60529 Degrees of protection provided by enclosure (IP Code)
• IEC 60694 Common specifications for high‐voltage switchgear and
controlgear standards (phased out, but remains
reference to IEC 62271‐200 and IEC 62271‐203)
• IEC 61000‐5‐1 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) – Installation and
mitigation guidelines – General considerations
• IEC 61000‐5‐1 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) – Installation and
mitigation guidelines – Earthing and cabling
• IEC 61634 High‐voltage switchgear and controlgear – Use and
handling of sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) in high‐voltage
switchgear and controlgear
• IEC 62271‐100 High‐voltage switchgear and controlgear – High‐voltage
alternating‐current circuit‐breakers
• IEC 62271‐102 High‐voltage switchgear and controlgear – High‐voltage
alternating‐current disconnectors andearthing switches
• IEC 62271‐200 High‐voltage switchgear and controlgear – AC metal‐
enclosed switchgear and controlgear for rated voltages
above 1kV and up to and including 52 kV
365
• IEC 62271‐203 High‐voltage switchgear and controlgear – Gas‐insulated
metal‐enclosed switchgear for rated voltages above 52
kV
• IEC 62271‐209 High‐voltage switchgear and controlgear – Cable
connections for gas‐insulated metal‐enclosed switchgear
for rated voltages above 52 kV – Fluid‐filled and extruded
insulation cables‐ Fluid‐filled and dry‐type cable‐
terminations
366
• IEC 62067 Power cables with extruded insulation and their accessories for
rated voltages above 150 kV
• IEC/TR 62095 Electric cables – Calculation for current ratings – Finite element
method
Electrical Equipment and Installation of lightning, small Power and Navigation Aids
367
• IEC 60354 Loading guide for oil‐immersed power transformers
• IEC 60439 Low‐voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies
• IEC 60909‐0 Short‐circuit currents in three‐phase a.c. systems, Part 0:
Calculations of currents
• IEC 60529 Degrees of protection provided by enclosures
• (IP Code)
• IEC 60947 Low‐voltage switchgear and controlgear
• IEC 61363‐1 Electrical installations in ships and mobile and fixed offshore
units, Part 1: Procedures for calculating short‐circuit currents in
three‐phase a.c.
• IEC 61000 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
• IEC 61660‐1 Short‐circuit currents in d.c. auxiliary installations in power plants
and substations.
• Part 1: Calculation of short‐circuit currents
• IEC 61892 Mobile and fixed offshore units – Electrical installations
• ISO 8528 Reciprocating internal combustion engine driven alternating
current generating sets
• NFPA 20 Installation of Stationary Pumps for Fire Protection
• NFPA 25 Standard for the Inspection, Testing and Maintenance of Water‐
Based Fire Protection Systems
• NFPA 70 National Electrical Code
Ventilation System
368
DS 474 Code for Indoor Thermal Climate
Eurovent 2/2 Air leakage rate in sheet metal air distribution systems
369
EN 1418 Welding personnel – Approval testing of welding personnel
for fully mechanized and automatic welding of metallic
materials
ISO 1461 Hot dip galvanized coatings on fabricated iron and steel
articles – Specifications and test methods
370
ISO 3690 Welding and allied processes. Determination of hydrogen
content in ferritic arc weld metal
371
DNV‐OS‐C101 Design of offshore steel structures (LRFD method)
(DNV standard)
372
their alloys
ISO 1461 Hot dip galvanized coatings on fabricated iron and steel
articles – Specifications and test methods
373
DNV‐RP‐B401 DNV Recommended Practice, Cathodic Protection Design
ISO 8044 Corrosion of Metals and Alloys; Basic Terms and Definitions
374
ISO 8503 Preparation of steel substrates before application of
paints and related products ‐
Surface roughness characteristics of blast cleaned
substrates.
375