THERMAL GAS EXPANSION

APPARATUS

THEORY:
Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in volume in response to a
change in temperature. All materials have this tendency.

When a substance is heated, its particles begin moving and become active thus maintaining a
greater average separation. Materials which contract with increasing temperature are rare; this
effect is limited in size, and only occurs within limited temperature ranges. The degree of
expansion divided by the change in temperature is called the material's coefficient of thermal
expansion and generally varies with temperature.

A thermodynamic process performed without heat entering or leaving the system (dQ = 0) is
defined as Adiabatic Process. A process is considered adiabatic if either the system is perfectly
thermally insulated or the process occurs so rapidly that there is no time for the system to
exchange heat with the environment.

Description of the Apparatus:

Two cylinder tanks made of 12mm clear acrylic are placed closed to each other. One is having a
capacity of 23 litres and the volume of other is 11 litres. Gas from one of the two can flow in to
the other and vice versa by means of Pneumatic SS pipe lines, these two has 10mm internal
diameter. The two cylinders are isolated from each other by means of a ball valve (V3) 15mm
internal diameter for fast response mounted in the 10mm and the Needle Valve (V2) 6mm V3
internal diameter for slow response. Air compressor is used to pressurize the cylinder and the
vaccum pump serves the purpose of evacuating the gas from the cylinder.

The Gas Pressure Sensor (GPS) used to measure gas pressure in the 23 litre vessel, has a range of
0 – 2.0 bar, an accuracy of 0.0005 bar, a precision of 4 bar and a response time is 20µs, whereas
the temperature in the cylinder is recorded by a pizeo resistive sensor. Safety valve is used to
prevent over pressurization. Data collection is performed using the serial-box interface connected
to computer.
OBJECTIVE:
Investigate adiabatic compression and expansion by performing the experiment slowly, in
increment steps

PROCEDURE:
Pressurizing 23 litre cylinder
• Air is used to pressurize 23 litre cylinder.
• All valves are kept fully shut before initiating pressurization of 23 litre cylinder.
• Turn the air compressor ON and fill the storage tank of the compressor with compressed
air. Keep air compressor ON till the pressure of the storage tank becomes at least 115 bar
above atmospheric pressure.
• Now turn pressure regulator from the compressor and set the pressure 5 psi after that
open the pressure control valve V1 gradually, keep taking note of reading of pressure in
23 liters cylinder by the gauges mounted on the cylinder and in the line. After that turn
pressure valve V1 fully shut when the pressure in the cylinder becomes at least 10 psi
above atm pressure.
• Turn the serial box and computer ON and record initial pressure and temperature of 23
liter cylinder.
Evacuating a gas from the 11 litre cylinder
• Keep fully shut (fast response Valve, Slow response valve and pressure relief Valve)
before evacuating a gas from 11 lit cylinder.
• Now open V4 (vacuum control valve) and switch ON the vacuum pump. Turn OFF
vacuum control valve, and pump off when the cylinder is sufficiently evacuated from air
and the guage shows vacuum of at least 200 torr (650 mmHg).
• Switch serial box and computer ON and record initial temperature and pressure of 11 litre
cylinder.
Achieving equilibrium pressure between the two cylinders
• Keep vacuum control valve V4 and pressure control valve V1 fully closed before allowing
air of 23 liters to mix with air of 11 lit cylinder.
• Now open isolated ball valve V3 for fast response (if equilibrium pressure between
thetwo cylinders is achieved in quick succession) and pressure and temperature plots
against time are recorded until the equilibrium pressure is achieved between the two
cylinders. Final temperature and pressure are recorded.
• If slow transfer of pressure from one cylinder to the other is desired, then open isolation
slow response valve V2 instead and repeat the above step.
• Now repeat this whole procedure to obtain at least three set of readings.

PRECAUTIONS:
• Never pressurize the cylinder over 14 psi (above atm pressure). Pressure above this can
damage the cylinder.
 TABLE:
Time (Sec) Pressure. P1 (PSI) Pressure. P2(PSI) Temperature. T2 (OC) Temperature. T1 (OC)

1 0.295 0.721 21.2452 21.1202

2 0.295 0.295 21.2452 21.1202

3 0.295 0.437 21.2452 21.1822

4 0.295 0.877 21.2452 21.1822

5 0.437 0.145 21.2452 21.1822

6 0.295 0.437 21.2452 21.1202

7 0.721 0.145 21.2452 21.1202

8 0.295 0.145 21.2452 21.1202

9 0.437 0.437 21.2452 21.1822

10 0.295 0.145 21.2452 21.1202

30 0.295 -5.654 21.2452 20.8072

40 0.295 -7.974 21.2452 20.8702

50 0.295 -8.841 21.2452 20.9322

60 0.437 -9.573 21.2452 20.9952

70 0.295 -9.573 21.2452 20.9952

80 0.437 -9.573 21.2452 21.0572

90 0.295 -9.423 21.2452 21.0572

100 0.295 -9.719 21.2452 21.1202

110 0.295 -9.719 21.2452 21.1202

120 0.721 -9.573 21.2452 21.1202

130 0 -9.573 21.3072 21.1202

140 0.295 -9.719 21.3072 21.1202

150 0.145 -9.423 21.3072 21.1202

160 0 -9.573 21.3072 21.1202

170 0.295 -9.719 21.2452 21.1822

180 -0.585 -9.573 21.3072 21.1202

190 0.295 -9.573 21.3072 21.1822

200 2.612 -9.423 21.3702 21.1822

210 10.298 -9.573 22.3072 21.1822

220 10.879 -9.281 22.5572 21.1822

230 10.152 -9.573 22.3702 21.1822

240 10.152 -9.573 22.1202 21.1822

250 10.298 -9.137 21.9952 21.1822

260 10.298 -9.573 21.8702 21.1822

270 9.423 -8.415 21.7452 21.2452

280 4.06 -0.295 21.3702 22.2452

290 2.462 2.905 21.2452 22.4322

300 2.462 2.612 21.3072 22.1822

310 2.612 2.758 21.3702 21.9322

320 2.462 2.462 21.3702 21.8072

330 2.612 3.19 21.4322 21.6822

340 3.626 2.462 21.4322 21.6202

350 2.462 2.612 21.4322 21.6202

360 2.612 2.462 21.4322 21.5572

370 1.598 2.612 21.3702 21.4952

380 2.462 1.881 21.3702 21.4952

390 2.612 2.612 21.3702 21.4952

400 2.612 2.462 21.4322 21.4322

410 2.612 2.758 21.3702 21.4322

420 2.758 2.612 21.3702 21.4322

430 2.758 1.881 21.3702 21.4322

440 2.612 2.462 21.3702 21.4322

450 2.905 2.612 21.4322 21.4322

460 2.612 2.905 21.4322 21.3702

470 2.462 2.758 21.4322 21.4322

480 3.626 3.19 21.4322 21.3702

490 2.462 3.19 21.4322 21.3702

500 2.462 2.462 21.4322 21.3702

510 2.758 2.612 21.3702 21.3702

520 2.758 2.758 21.4322 21.3702

530 2.758 2.32 21.4322 21.3702

540 2.612 2.32 21.4322 21.3702

550 2.612 2.612 21.4322 21.3702

560 2.462 2.612 21.4322 21.4322

570 2.758 3.045 21.4322 21.3702

580 2.462 2.462 21.4322 21.3702

590 2.462 2.462 21.4322 21.3702

600 2.905 2.758 21.4322 21.3702

610 2.905 2.905 21.4322 21.3702

620 2.758 2.462 21.4322 21.3702

630 3.045 2.758 21.4322 21.3702

640 2.462 2.612 21.4322 21.3702

650 2.758 2.462 21.4322 21.4322

660 2.905 2.612 21.4322 21.4322

670 2.758 2.612 21.4322 21.4322

680 2.758 2.612 21.4322 21.4322

690 2.758 2.612 21.4952 21.5572

700 2.905 2.175 21.4322 21.4322

 SOLAR ENERGY DEMONSTRATOR
APPARATUS:
• Solar Water Heating Apparatus.

THEORY:
Solar water heating has been around for many years because it is the easiest way to use
the sun to save energy and money. The first solar water heater that resembles the concept still in
use today was a metal tank that was painted black and placed on the roof where it was tilted
toward the sun. The concept worked but it usually took all day for water to heat, then, as soon as
the sun went down, it cooled off quickly because the tank was not insulated.
The water heating systems include storage tanks and solar collectors. There are two types
solar water heating systems: active, which have circulating pumps and controls, and passive,
which don’t.
Most water heaters require a well-insulated storage tank. Solar storage tanks have an
additional outlet and inlet connected to and from the collector. In two-tank systems, the solar
water heater preheats water before it enters the conventional water heater. In one-tank system,
the backup heater is combined with the solar storage in one tank.
There are several factors upon which the affect solar thermal systems. These are
described below:
Insolation is the amount of sun’s electromagnetic energy that “falls” on any given object.
Simply put, when we are talking about solar radiation, we are referring to insolation.
Atmosphere absorbs certain wavelengths of light more than others. The exact spectral
distribution of light reaching the earth’s surface depends on how much light passes through, as
well as the humidity of the atmosphere. In the morning and evening, the sun is low on the sky
and light waves pass through more atmosphere than at noon. The winter sunlight also passes
more through atmosphere versus summer. In addition, different latitudes on earth have different
average “thickness” of atmosphere that sunlight must penetrate. Clouds, smoke and dust reflect
some solar insolation back up into the atmosphere, allowing less solar energy to fall on a
terrestrial object. These conditions also diffuse or scatter the amount of solar energy that does
pass through.
Angle of Incidence the sun’s electromagnetic energy travels in straight line. The angle at
which these rays fall on an object is called “angle of incidence.” A flat surface receives more
solar energy when the angle of incidence is closer to zero (normal, perpendicular) and therefore
receives significantly less in early morning and late evening. Because the angle of incidence is so
large in the morning and evening on earth, about six hours of “usable” solar energy is available
daily. This is called “solar window.”
Absorptance vs. Reflectance:
Certain materials absorb more insolation than others. More absorptive materials are
generally dark with a matte finish, while more-reflective materials are generally lighter with a
smooth or shiny finish. The materials used to absorb sun’s energy are selected for their ability to
absorb a high percentage and to reflect a minimum amount of energy. The solar collector’s
absorber and absorber coating efficiency are determined by the rate of absorption versus the rate
of reflectance. This in turn, affects the absorber and absorber coating’s ability to retain heat and
minimize emissivity and re-radiation. High absorptivity and low reflectivity improves the
potential for collecting solar energy.

OBJECTIVE:
• To measure solar energy used to raise the temperature of water at ambient temperature to
a given temperature.
• To estimate the efficiency of solar water heater.

PROCEDURE:

• Open inlet water valve to allow cold water into overhead tank through Electronic valve
(normally closed) controlled by instrument microprocessor by pressing the water filling
button, and subsequently into collector tubes. Fill tank in accordance to the experimental
requirement. Thus the amount of water enters into the collector tubes and tank can be
estimated from flow sensor mounted on the pipe inlet. If there is no water in the system
storage tank microprocessor give alarm indications. The microcontroller indicates the
water level and when the tanks are full the controller closed to the Electronic valve. The
cold water flow rate and temperature sensor which is mounted on the vertical pipe line to
monitor the input cold water condition, the other hot water flow rate and temperature
sensor on the horizontal pipe line to measure the hot water condition.
• Note the initial temperature of the water before it is being irradiated to sun with initial
time.
• Note the intensity of sunshine from the light meter in Watts / sq. m after interval of every
5 minute or so.
• Note the change in temperature of the water in the tank every 5 minute or so.
• Leaving the system exposed to sun for a reasonable span of time if the temperature of
water becomes 70 degree Celsius.
• Note the final temperature of the water.
• After completion of the experiment water should be in the system otherwise in case of
empty tubes, it may damage the glass tubes.

CALCULATION:
External Diameter of Collector Tube = 58mm
Length of collector tube = L = 1800mm
Surface Area = A= 2πrL = 0.2657m2
Total surface area of 16 tubes = 16 × 0.284m2 = 4.25m2
Lighting area (Ac) = 4.25m22 = 2.126m2

Serial No. Time (min) General Relativity (W/m2)

1 0 488
2 5 450
3 10 350
4 15 738
5 20 488
Average GR = 502.8 W/m2

QR = solar heat going into the collector tubes

QR = 2.126m2× 502.8Wm2× 20min × 60sec
QR = 1282882.077 J
Flow Rate = 10 litre/min
Let water falling time = 5 min, then 10×5 = 50litres = 50×1m21000 = 0.05 m2
Water density = ρ = 1000 kg/m3

Mass = ρV = 1000 × 0.05 = 50 kg

Cp (25oC) = 4.181 J/kg.K

ΔT= 6oK

Qw = mCpΔT = 50 × 4.181 × 6

Qw=1254.3 J

Efficiency =
=
=
 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF
LIQUIDS & GASES UNIT

THEORY:
The Thermal Conductivity of Liquids and Gases Unit has been designed for students to
determine the thermal conductivity of various liquids and gases. Thermal conductivity data is of
prime importance in designing heat exchangers. The thermal conductivity measurement unit for
liquids and gases has been designed for student to determine the thermal conductivity of
various liquids and gases by injecting the test fluid to the unit.

The basis of conduction heat transfer is Fourier’s Law. This law involves the idea that the
Heat flux, q, is proportional to the temperature gradient, ∂T in any direction, ∂n. Thermal
Conductivity, k, is the constant of proportionality; a property of materials that is temperature
dependent, and A is the cross-sectional area normal to the heat flow.
Conductivity is the ability of the given substance to transfer energy, in this case the thermal
energy. Basically, the thermal conductivity can be measured by knowing the temperature
difference between two known points of which heat flow is known. Thermal conductivity has the
unit of watts per meter per Celsius degree whereas the heat flow is expressed in watts.
Therefore, the numerical value of the thermal conductivity indicates how fast heat will flow in a
material.

Influence of Temperature and Pressure on Thermal Conductivity, k :

The conductivity of solids may either increase or decrease with temperature and in some
instances may even reverse their rate of change from a decrease to an increase. The conductivity
of most liquids decreases with increasing temperature, although water is a notable exception. For
all common gases and vapour, the conductivity increases with increasing temperature.
DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS:
The Thermal Conductivity of Liquids and Gases Unit consists two coaxial concentric cylindrical
plugs with a thin radial clearance in between. The clearance is made extremely small which is
0.3 mm to reduce the natural heat convection. The heat sourced from the centre of the coaxial
concentric cylindrical plugs.
The plug is made of copper and has two ports for introducing and venting the test fluid. The
plug is placed in the middle of the water jacket. The jacket has water inlet and drain connections.
Three thermocouples are positioned in the heating and cooling cylindrical
plugs, respectively.
OBJECTIVE::
Determination of thermal conductivity k, of various liquids and gases

PROCEDURE:
• Use air as the sample of the experiment.
• Make sure that the temperature controller is set to 1000C
• Make sure there is cooling water supply to the water jacket.
• Turn on the main switch and the heater switch, and then adjust the power regulator to
about 25 watt.
• Record the power and temperature readings (T1 to T2) when all readings stabilized for
about ten minutes.
• Calculate the thermal conductivity of the air by applying the Fourier’s Equation. Use the
incidental heat loss correction value for accurate thermal conductivity determination.
• Repeat the experiment by substituting the air with the acetone with the heating power of
100 watt.

PRECAUTIONS:
• The unit must be operated under the supervision of trained personnel.
• All operating instructions supplied with the unit must be carefully read and understood
before attempting to operate the unit.
• Avoid water splash on the control panel, as this may cause body injury and damage to
the equipment.
• Never use your bare hand to test the AC Power Supply. It may cause hazardous injury.

CALCULATIONS:
qlost= qgen-qc=Q- k∆T(2πL)lnR2R1

Where, qlost = Incidental Heat Transfer

k= lnR2R1T1- T2×2π×L×qc

%Error= Theoretical-ExperimentalTheoretical×100
TABLE:

Parameters Values

Outer radius of the inner cylinder, R1 (m) 0.01665

Inner radius of the outer cylinder, R2 (m) 0.01695

Length of the cylinder, L (m) 0.10

Theoretical thermal conductivity, k (W/mK) of Air 0.026

Theoretical thermal conductivity, k (W/mK) of 0.16

Acetone

Sample Power T1 T2 ΔT Qgen Qlost Qc k Error

(°C) (°C) (°C) (W) (W) (W) (W/mK) (%)
Supply

(W)

Air 25 62.1 36.6 25.5 25 1.836 23.164 0.025818 0.7

Acetone 50 42.5 31.5 11.0 50 0.792 49.208 0.127 20.6

Thermal conductivity of air, k

qgen= 25.0 W

∆T = 25.5 °C

From graph of Incidental Heat Transfer ,

qlost = 0.072 × ( ∆T )

= 0.072× (25.5)

= 1.836 W

q c = q gen − qlost

qc = 25.0 − 1.836

qc = 23.164 W

ln(R2 )
k= R1 × q
c
(∆T)× 2π × L

ln(0.01695 )
= .01665 × 23.164
(25.5)(2π )(0.1)

= 0.025818 W/mK
% Error,

Theoretical − Experimental
= × 100%
Theoretical

0.026 − 0.025818
= × 100%
0.026
= 0.701275 %
Thermal conductivity of acetone, k

=50.0 W
qgen
0

=11.0 C
∆T

From graph of Incidental Heat Transfer ,

qlost = 0.072 × ( ∆T )

=0.072 x(11.0)

=0.792 W

q c = q gen − qlost

. =50.0-0.792

=49.208

ln(R2 )
k= R1 × q
c
(∆T)× 2π × L

=ln0.016950.0166511.0×2π×0.10×49.208
= 0.127 W/mK
% Error,

Theoretical − Experimental
= × 100%
Theoretical

0.16-0.1270.16×100

=20.6%
 MECHANCAL HEAT PUMP
THEORY:
A heat pump is a mechanism that absorbs heat from waste source or surrounding to
produce valuable heat on a higher temperature level than that of the heat source. The
fundamental idea of all heat pump is that heat is absorbed by a medium, which releases the heat
at a required temperature which is higher after a physical or chemical transformation.
Heat pump technology has attracted increasing attention as one of the most promising
technologies to save energy. Applications of heat pump are in heating of buildings, recovery of
industrial waste heat for steam production and heating of process water for e.g. cleaning,
sanitation.
Generally, there are three types of heat pump systems:
1. Closed cycle vapor compression heat pumps (electric and engine driven)
2. Heat transformers (a type of absorption heat pump) and
3. Mechanical vapor recompression heat pumps operating at about at 200°C

Closed Cycle Vapor Compression Heat Pump

 Most of the heat pump operates on the principle of the vapor compression cycle. In this
cycle, the circulating substance is physically separated from the heat source and heat delivery,
and is cycling in a close stream, therefore called ‘closed cycle’. In the heat pump process, the
following processes take place:
1. In the evaporator the heat is extracted from the heat source to boil the circulating
substance;
2. The circulating substance is compressed by the compressor, raising its pressure and
temperature;
3. The heat is delivered to the condenser;
4. The pressure of the circulating substance (working fluid) is reduced back to the
evaporator condition in the throttling valve.

Vapor Compression Heat Pump System Principles

The labeled components are:
1. Condenser
2. Compressor
3. Expansion Valve
4. Evaporator
Four basic processes or changes in the condition of the refrigerant occur in a Vapor Compression
Heat Pump Cycle. These four processes are illustrated as follows:

Compression Process (t1 - t2)

The refrigerant at the pump suction is in gas at low temperature and low Pressure. In
order to be able to use it to achieve the heat pump effect continuously, it must be brought to the
liquid form at a high pressure. The first step in this process is to increase the pressure of the
refrigerant gas by using a compressor. Compressing the gas also results in increasing its
temperature.

Condensing Process (t2 - t3)

The refrigerant leaves the compressor as a gas at high temperature and pressure. In order
to change it to a liquid, heat must be removed from it. This is accomplished in a heat exchanger
called the condenser. The refrigerant flows through one circuit in the condenser. In the other
circuit, a cooling fluid flows (normally air or water), at a temperature lower than the refrigerant.
Heat is therefore transferred from the Refrigerant to the Cooling fluid and as a result, the
refrigerant condenses to a liquid state (3). This is where the heating takes place.

Expansion Process (t3 - t4)

At Point (3), the refrigerant is in liquid state at a relatively high pressure and temperature.
It flows to (4) through a restriction called the flow control device or expansion valve. The
refrigerant loses pressure going through the restriction. The Pressure at (4) is so low that a small
portion of the refrigerant flashes vaporizes) into a gaseous. In order to vaporize, it must gain heat
(which it takes from that portion of the refrigerant that did not vaporize).

Vaporizing Process (t4 - t1)

The refrigerant flows through a heat exchanger called the evaporator. The heat source is
at a slightly higher temperature than the refrigerant, therefore heat is transferred from it to the
refrigerant. The refrigerant boils because of the heat it receives in the evaporator. By the time it
leaves the evaporator (4) it is completely vaporized. The refrigerant has thus returned to its initial
state and is now ready to repeat the cycle, in a continuous manner.

OBJECTIVE # 1:
To determine the power input, heat output and COP for the given Heat Pump

PROCEDURE:
• Perform the general start-up procedures.
• Adjust the cooling water flow rate to 2.0 LPM.
• Allow the system to run for 15 minutes.
• Record all necessary readings into the experimental data sheet.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:

Power Input= 1kWh375 rev×t

Heat Output=mcp∆T

COP= Heat OutputPower Input

Serial Time Power Water Flow Inlet Outlet Heat COP

No. Rate Temperature Temperature Generated Q
(sec) (W)
(kg/min) (oC) (oC) (W)

1 22.56 425.53 0.4 19.2 44.9 716.17 1.683

2 23.43 410.28 0.8 19.7 35.5 880.53 2.14

3 24.25 395.87 1.2 20.1 31.5 953.04 2.40

4 24.57 390.72 1.5 19.1 28.4 971.85 2.487

GRAPHS:

OBJECTIVE # 2:
To produce the performance of heat pump over a range of source and delivery temperatures
PROCEDURE:
• Perform the general start-up procedures.
• Adjust the cooling water flow rate to 4.0 LPM.
• Allow the system to run for 15 minutes.
• Record all necessary readings into the experimental data sheet.
• Repeat the experiment with reducing water flow rate so that the cooling water
• Outlet temperature increases by about 3°C.
• Repeat similar steps until the compressor delivery pressure reaches around 14.0 bar.
• The experiment may be repeated at different ambient temperature

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Test 1 2 3

Cooling water 0.9 0.8 0.6

flow rate, FI2

Cooling water inlet 22.6 22.6 22.6

temperature, TT5

Cooling water 36.6 38.7 42.3

outlet temperature,

TT6

Time/rev of energy 24.37 23.90 23.03

meter, t

Performance 2.35 2.23 1.975

GRAPH:

OBJECTIVE # 3:
• To plot the vapor compression cycle on the p-h diagram and compare with the ideal
cycle.
• To perform energy balances for the condenser and compressor

PROCEDURES:
• Perform the general start-up procedures.
• Adjust the cooling water flow rate to 2.0 LPM and allow the system to run for 15
minutes.
 • Record all necessary readings into the experimental data sheet.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Refrigerant flow rate, cm3/min 180

FI1

Refrigerant Pressure Bar(g) 2.92

(Low), P1

Refrigerant Pressure Bar(g) 7.62

(High), P2

Refrigerant °C 13.5

Temperature, TT1

Refrigerant °C 55.4

Temperature, TT2

Refrigerant °C 32.1

Temperature, TT3

Refrigerant °C 6.8

Temperature, TT4

Time/rev of energy S 23.97

meter, t

Cooling water LPM 1.2

flow rate, FI2

Cooling water inlet °C 22.6

temperature, TT5

Cooling water outlet °C 33.8

temperature, TT6
ENERGY BALANCE:

Density of refrigerant = 1146.8 Kg/m3

Flow rate = 180 cm3/min = 0.000003 m3/s
Mass flow rate of refrigerant = 0.00344 Kg/s
Mass flow rate of water = 0.02 Kg/s

CONDENSER:

Heat delivered by the refrigerant = MRCPR(TT2-TT3) = 0.00344*1000*(440-240) = 688 W

Heat gained by water = MwCpw(TT6-TT5) = 0.02*4180*(38.3—22.6) = 1312.52 J
Heat Loss = 624.52 J

COMPRESSOR:

Energy given to compressor = Power input = 400 W

Energy gained by refrigerant = 0.0034*1000*(440-400) = 136 W
Heat loss = 400-136 = 264 W