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INFORMATION SYSTEMS
By: M Rafeeq
Chapter- II
I. Introduction: -
The primary role of Information Systems is to collect data and make it available to
managers throughout the company. Data collection is a fundamental step in transaction
processing.
Right information and right Information systems are the mantra for success in
modern day business. Every organization maintains the information it needs in any of the
following forms: By manual means, computer file structures and in the form of databases.
Information maintenance through manual means has practically disappeared and with
the advancements in computer hardware and soft ware, dependence on computer systems
has become so crucial
Data Management integrates the divisions of a company, supports team work and
helps to control the organization.
Strategy Strategy
Tactics Tactics
Databas
e
nn Data files DBMS
Operations
Operations
Without DBMS, data will be scattered through the company, making difficult to share
the information, due to this data inconsistency, duplication and errors occurs.
With DBMS, it maintains data through a common interface. So, data definition,
access, consistency and security are maintained by the DBMS.
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The concepts of Database and Database Management were developed to solve the
problems of file processing system.
A Database is an integrated collection of logically related records and files. It
consolidates all records previously stored in independent files, which serves as common
pool of data to be accessed by many different application programs.
DBMS are designed to deal with multiple users at the same time. DBMS are one of
the most important tools in Management Information Systems (MIS). The overall design
(structure and data) is maintained and controlled by the DBA (Database Administrator).
DBA
(Standards design
and control)
Programmer/ Data
Analyst
Database
Management Managers
System Ad hoc queries
Program Program and reports
Business
Data collection
needs
and transaction
processing
Computer
Computer
Business operations
Computer
Computer
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Disadvantages: - Several record numbers may generate the same address. Handling
this problem exits ----- but requires special processing, which slow down the storage
and retrieval of records.
3548 845528
3549 853658
3550 861788
Accessing Records: -
Records are stored to access in the following ways:
1) Adding new records to a file
2) Deleting record from a file
3) Modifying records in a file
4) Viewing records from a file on a screen.
5) Creating reports from records in a file.
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2) Data languages: -
DDL (Data Definition Language) -- This is to describe the characteristics of the
data elements. (Standard commands ---- uniform). These commands are part of DML
(Data Manipulation Language), where programmers use to retrieve and process data
from the database.
DML commands ---- Get, Find, Insert
3) Teleprocessing monitors: -
It is a communication software package, which manages communication
between database and remote terminals.
TPM handles order entry systems.
TPM can also be developed by DBMS software firm and offer a companion
packages to their db.
5) Security software: -
It is to protect the db from unauthorized access and from unauthorized viruses.
7) Report writers: -
It is used to design output reports without writing an application program in
programming language-COBOL.
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8) Query languages: -
It is to retrieve data from db.
It is a set of commands used to access data from a database. It allows to ask ad
hoc questions interactively.
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Children of Building
Room 1 Room 2 Parent of Equipment
Children of Room
Equipment 1 Equipment 2 Equipment 3 Parent of Vendor
Children of Equipment
Vendor 1 Vendor 2 Vendor 3 Parent of Repair
Equipment 1 Equipment 2
Fig.: - Network database model
3) Relational Database Model: -
In this model all data elements stored in the database are organized in tables.
Different data tables are linked up using common type of data items in a table. The
table is called relation. The columns of the table are called domains and the rows of
the table are called Tuple.
Tuple contains data items called data elements.
RELATION1 (PRIMARY KEY, ATTRIBUTES….)
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Object Class 1
Attributes
Object Class 1 Object Class 1
Attributes Attributes
Methods
Methods
Methods
Conceptual Conceptual
Schema view
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a) File locking – Only one sales person can sell product any time.
b) Record locking- Unavailable for use for another people.
c) Field locking- it allows only one person to make a change in data element.
Another method to solve concurrency:
Versioning - It permits every user to view a record and make updates in that record.
This system checks the record before updations is actually done.
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2) Resource Problems: -
DBMS requires Extra computing resources. Data must be stored online to
answer queries, which requires:
- Additional hard disk
- More communication devices
- Database
- Increase in size of CPU’s
3) Security Problems: -
Only authorized personnel should access data and only these persons can add,
update and delete in the database.
So for better security of data Login identification and Passwords are used
IX. Normalization: -
Normalization is an important technique to design databases. It is primarily a tool to
validate and improve a logical design, so that it satisfies certain constraints that avoid
unnecessary duplication of data.
DBMS is a powerful tool, with ability to present data in many ways. They are used by
managers to answer many different types of questions. This flexibility is not automatic so
databases need to be carefully designed. Poor design leads to unnecessary duplication of
data.
Normalization is the process of gathering data items (or properties) into smaller
well-structured relations. Normalization reduces the complexity of data structure and
makes it as simple as possible for effective management and manipulation.
Normalization is the process of converting a relation to a standard form.
A table is said to be in a particular normal form if it obeys the rules of that normal
form.
The process of normalization starts with the normalized data.
1) First Normal Form (1NF): -
The process of 1NF is to be done as follows:
1. The unnormalized data is converted into a tabular form.
2. All the columns and rows in the table are filled.
3. Repeated occurrences of data items are removed.
4. The keys to the entire table are identified.
In writing a database repeating section should not be present. So, that space can
be saved. When a table contains no repeating sections, we say that it is a first
normal form. [Or a relation, which contains no multivalued attributes]
TransID Rentdate CustID Name Phone Address VideoID Copyno Title Rent
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Rent(TransID, Rentdate, CustID, Name, Phone, Address, (VideoID, Copyno, Title, Rent))
Rent1
TransID Rentdate CustID Name Phone Address
Rent2
TransID VideoID Copyno Title Rent
1 3 1 PTKK 20
1 4 2 KNPH 20
2 3 2 PTKK 20
2 6 1 HSSH 20
2 2 1 MKKH 20
3 1 1 KKHH 20
3 9 1 KMKK 20
1 3 1 1 KKHH 20
1 4 2 2 MKKH 20
2 8 2 3 PTKK 20
2 6 1 4 KNPH 20
2 2 1 6 HSSH 20
3 1 1 9 KMKK 20
3 9 1
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Rentals
TransID
Rentdate Videosrented
CustID
TransID
Customers
VideoID
Copyno Video
Name VideoID
Phone Title
Address Rent
X. Specialized databases: -
In addition to traditional databases many organizations have developed specialized
databases.
1) Intranet and Hypermedia database
2) On line database
3) Data warehousing
4) Data Marts
5) Online Analytical processing
6) Image databases
7) Document database.
Decision makers to make decisions require internal and external data to reduce risk
and increase competitiveness.
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2) On-Line databases: -
Managers can access information directly from on-line databases through on-
line information services such as Microsoft Network (MSN), America Online
(AOL), etc.
On-line databases are essentially electronic libraries, where different types of
information can be available when connected to World Wide Web.
Major components:
1) Data
2) Hardware and network infrastructure that provides storage and
access.
3) Software to extract data
4) Graphical query tools
5) A user guide (Help)
6) Warehouse Management soft ware for Information system
personnel to maintain and upgrade the warehouse.
7) It is a generation of technologies that provide multidimensional
views of database, so refers to as multidimensional analysis.
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4) Data Marts: -
Data marts are formed to meet data needed for one department in an
organization.
These are built faster and easier than data warehouse because they focus on the
subset of an organization’s data needs.
Data Mining: It helps business to find meaning in data lying idle. It helps in drawing
inferences from the data and in understanding the customer, products and markets
better.
Data Mining employs a host of techniques, i.e., statistical techniques like linear
programming, data analysis, machine learning and online analytical processing.
6) Image databases: -
Image management software is used to store images in an image database in
order to find and access the data quickly.
Multimedia, CAD/CAM, presentation graphics etc are used to create images.
7) Document databases: -
Document databases consist of data in the form of letters, memos, reports and other
documents in an organization. Document management software allows easy access,
and manipulates the documents wherever they are located.
The document databases can be compressed in order to reduce the disk space.
Distributed processing: -
It is defined as a system in which both computer power and data occur at more than
one site, and application programs are run at more than one site.
It is associated with all types of network.
E.g.: -LAN’s, WAN’s, and even Internet – Geographically distributed.
Networ Router
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Workstations Workstations
Distributed databases: -
When organizations need to decentralize their computer processing, they also need to
decentralize their databases, called distributed database systems.
1) Replicated db’s: -
This provides duplicates of all data at all sites, but at every location same data will
be accessed.
Networ
k
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db
db
(Copy 2)
(Copy 1)
Workstations Workstations
(Chennai) (Banglore)
Network
db db
db
Copy 2
Copy 1
Client/Server computing: -
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Server Client PC
Communication media
1) SQL servers: -
Common application of client /server computing is use of relational database
software called SQL server. This package usually runs on a network. These are
more reliable than LAN based.
2) Downsizing: -
It reduces equipment cost, development cost, purchasing, hardware and
software maintenance.
Data Dictionary: -
The data dictionary is the heart of the database, which holds all information
about the data stored in the database. Both Management and System people
extensively use data dictionary for various functions. It acts as a catalogue providing
information on the following:
1. The way data is defined
2. Types of data that are present
3. Relationship among various data entities.
4. The representation format.
5. Keys for the database.
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Primary key:
An attribute (or combination of attributes) that uniquely identifies each row in
a relation.
Secondary key:
One field or a combination of fields for which more than one record may have
the same combination of values.
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