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Integrated photovoltaic-grid dc fast charging system for electric vehicle: A

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DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.245

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 Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 1243–1257

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Integrated photovoltaic-grid dc fast charging system for electric vehicle: A MARK

review of the architecture and control
⁎
Ratil H. Ashiquea,b, Zainal Salama,b,c, , Mohd Junaidi Bin Abdul Azizb,d, Abdul Rauf Bhattia,b,e
a
Centre of Electrical Energy Systems (CEES), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), 81300 Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
b
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), 81300 Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
c
Institute of Future Energy, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), 81300 Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
d
Power Electronics and Drives Research Group, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), 81300 Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
e
Department of Electrical Engineering, Government College University Faisalabad (GCUF), 38000 Faisalabad, Pakistan

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: The fast charger for electric vehicle (EV) is a complex system that incorporates numerous interconnected
EV charging subsystems. The interactions among these subsystems require a holistic understanding of the system
PV-grid charging architecture, control, power electronics, and their overall interaction with the electrical grid system. This
DC fast charging review paper presents important aspects of a PV-grid integrated dc fast charger—with a special focus on the
BMS
charging system components, architecture, operational modes, and control. These include the interaction
CMS
between the PV power source, grid electricity, energy storage unit (ESU) and power electronics for the chargers.
A considerable amount of discussion is also dedicated to battery management systems (BMS) and their mutual
interactions in the control processes. For the power electronics, the paper evaluates soft switching non-isolated
dc-to-dc power converter topologies that can be possibly used as future EV chargers. In addition to these, a brief
discussion on the impact of the PV-grid charging on the ac grid and distribution system and their remedial
measures are presented. Furthermore, the challenges in regard to the vehicle to grid (V2G) concept are also
described. It is envisaged that the information provided in this paper would be useful as a one-stop document
for engineers, researchers and others who require information related to the dc fast charging of EV that
incorporates a renewable energy source.

1. Introduction Recently, there are growing interests in utilizing Renewable Energy

The expected growth of electric vehicle market (EV) mandates a
corresponding development in the charging facilities [1,2]. Next to the
battery [3,4], the availability and reliability of chargers are of utmost
concern. Efforts are being made to enhance the charger efficiency, to
make it more versatile and to reduce the charging cost. Despite the
encouraging indicators, implementing high power, fast charging facil-
ities is not trivial. In [5–8], the authors describe the technological
challenges to integrating the electrical grid into the EV chargers. The
uncontrolled and random charging pattern may lead to voltage
deviation, distribution losses, and degradation in power quality.
Furthermore, the issue of reduced transformer lifetime due to overload
and instability need to be addressed.
(RE) as a secondary energy source for the charger. Most possible RE
sources include the wind, biomass and solar [9]. However, solar
photovoltaic is a more feasible solution, especially for day-time
charging. With the continuous downward trend in the price of the PV
modules, this proposal is becoming attractive—as evident from numer-
ous recent publications [2,10–13]. A PV system is easy to set-up, and is
almost maintenance free [14]. This prospect is further enhanced by the
improvement in power conversion technologies and installation prac-
tices [15–17]. Furthermore, since the charging is carried out during the
peak demand period (daytime)—where the tariff is normally at its
highest [18], the economic returns can be substantial [19]. M. Brenna
et. al.[20] evaluate the benefits of integrating PV into the charging
system, while in [11,13,21–24] its effectiveness in the smart grid

Abbreviations: BMS, Battery management system; CAN, Controller area network; CB, Circuit breaker; CC, Constant current; CCS, Central control system; CMS, Charger management
system; CV, Constant voltage; DSP, Digital signal processor; ESU, Energy storage unit; EV, Electric vehicle; EVMS, Electric vehicle management system; EVSE, Electric vehicle supply
equipment; GA, Genetic algorithm; MPP, Maximum power point; MPPT, Maximum power point tracking; PLC, Power line carrier; P & O, Perturb and observe; PQ, Power quality; RE,
Renewable energy; SAE, Society of automotive engineers; SG, Smart grid; SOC, State of charge; SOH, State of health; OCV, Open circuit voltage; V2G, Vehicle to grid; ZVS, Zero voltage
switching; ZCS, Zero current switching; ZVT, Zero voltage transition
⁎
Corresponding author at: Centre of Electrical Energy Systems (CEES), Universiti Teknology Malaysia (UTM), 81300 Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia.
E-mail addresses: ratil.eee05@gmail.com (R.H. Ashique), zainals@fke.utm.my (Z. Salam), junaidi@fke.utm.my (M.J. Bin Abdul Aziz), bhatti.abdulrauf@gmail.com (A.R. Bhatti).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.245
Received 2 May 2016; Received in revised form 4 October 2016; Accepted 21 November 2016
Available online 01 December 2016
1364-0321/ © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R.H. Ashique et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 1243–1257

Nomenclature imax Ampere (A) Max. charging current

S, M - Power switch
Symbol unit description C Farad (F) Capacitance
L Henry (H) Inductance
vPV Volt (V) PV voltage R Ohm (Ω) Resistance
iPV Ampere (A) PV current TS Degree celsius Safe operating temperature
vmax Volt (V) Max. charging voltage VS Volt (V) Safe operating voltage

environment is discussed. In [25], the authors investigate various
architectures for the PV-Grid system, incorporating of either ac or dc
buses. On the converters, the N. Naghizadeh and Y. Du et.al.[26,27]
present a review on the topologies suitable for integrated PV-grid
charger. The main focuses are the bi-directional dc-dc or dc-ac
converters, coupled with the maximum power point tracking algo-
rithms. The charger operational modes and its optimization are
discussed in [28–30]. In addition, the merits of employing energy
storage units (ESU) to reduce the negative effect on the grid are
discussed in [29,31,32]. The work is further enhanced and supported
with detailed system modeling, simulation and experimental evidence
presented in [30].
The brief overview above provides a flavor on the issues related to
the integration of PV into the conventional grid for the EV charging.
Evidently, it consists of several sub-systems that interact with each
other in a complex way. The literature that addresses these issues can
be grouped into several categories, namely 1) charger topologies, 2)
energy management and 3) system optimization. Although there exist
several excellent review papers [2,11,12,33] that summarize the recent
trends, they tend to focus on specific aspects of the system. For
example, in [2], the emphasis is on the isolated and non-isolated dc
chargers for PV-grid charging schemes. F. Mwasilu et. al.[12] review
the EV charging infrastructures in the smart grid context, while [33]
presents the optimization of the vehicle-to-grid (V2G) integration. On
the other hand, the work in [11] details the cost minimization,
efficiency maximization and emission reduction of the PV-grid system.
Despite these works, there appears to be an absence of compre-
hensive review papers that combine the stated issues relating to the PV-
grid integrated charging. Besides, so far there is no paper that covers
the issues relating to the PV-grid integrated dc fast charging system for
EV. Thus, this paper presents a review of the architecture of such a
system that incorporates the battery management system (BMS) and
charger management system (CMS) as part of the control. The
functions of BMS for the state of charge (SOC) estimation, battery
equalization, cell balancing and its inter-relation with the charging
management system (CMS) are covered. Besides, a short discussion on
renewable energy integration with the EV charging is presented. In
addition, the paper evaluates the dc charger module, focusing on the
soft switching bidirectional non-isolated topologies. For completeness,
the impact of charging on the distribution grid, system assets, and
power quality are discussed. An insight into the future of the vehicle-to-
grid (V2G) is also presented.
2. System of common use and the charging standards
of the battery pack, power rating of the charger, and the number of EV
that are connected to the charger at that instant. The ac Level 1 is an
on-board charging facility, derived from conventional 120 V ac outlets.
It requires no extra setup and thus the charging can be done
conveniently (normally overnight) at home. However, due to the size,
weight, and thermal constraints, the Level 1 charging current is very
much limited, hence the long charging time. The majority of public
charging stations in the US and elsewhere are the ac Level 2—powered
by a 240 V ac outlet. It requires a dedicated setup at charging sites due
to its voltage rating and higher power handling capability. The ac Level
3 has even higher power ratings to ensure fast, secure and convenient
charging as mostly preferred by EV owners. However, ac Level 3
charging is yet to be implemented. As the battery pack size and the
number of EV on the road is increasing day by day, the only feasible
way to reduce the charging time is to increase the power rating of the
chargers. The dc fast charger is the most promising candidate to fulfil
this requirement; hence the widespread installation, particularly at
commercial charging stations.
The dc fast charging is offered by the IEC CHAdeMO, SAE J1772
Combo and Tesla-S supercharger. The CHAdeMO is a conductive dc
fast charger that allows up to 200 A charging at 50 kW. To establish
secure communication between electric vehicle management system
(EVMS) and charger control units, controller area network (CAN)
protocol is applied. From the smart grid (SG) context, the CHAdeMO
supports bidirectional power flow for the future vehicle to grid (V2G) or
vehicle to home (V2H) applications. The SAE J1772 Combo 1 and 2 is a
combined charging standard developed by the Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE). It specifies the physical, electrical and functional
requirements to support the ac Level 1, 2, 3 and dc fast charging. The
Combo 1 (or alternatively known as IEC Type 1) is commonly used in
Table 1
EV charging standards.
Level Max power rating Max ampere rating (A)
(kW)
IEC Standard
AC Charging
ac Level 1 4 −7.5 16
ac Level 2 8 −15 32
ac Level 3 60 −120 250
DC Charging
dc Fast Charging 100 −200 400
SAE Standard

Large scale penetration of the EV into car market is highly AC Charging

dependent on the widespread and successful implementation of the ac Level 1 2 16
charging infrastructures [16]. Often, the selection of charging power ac Level 2 20 80
level is an optimization between the cost of infrastructure and the ac Level 3 Above 20 –

charging time. There are two main categories of the EV charger: the ac DC Charging
and dc types, as shown in Table 1 [1]. Furthermore, there are three dc Level 1 40 80
main worldwide bodies that are competing to become the de-facto dc Level 2 90 200
standard for the EV battery charging: they are the IEC, CHAdeMO, and dc Level 3 240) 400
SAE. In addition, Tesla Motor also proposes its own charging standard
CHAdeMO
for its EV. dc Fast Charging 62.5 125
The charging time for the EV depends on three factors, namely size

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the US, while Combo 2 (IEC Type 2) is more popular in Europe. The
power line communication (PLC) standard IEEE P1901 is utilized to
establish communication between EV, EVSE and other smart grid
equipment. The Tesla 135 kW Supercharger is a dedicated dc fast
charging utility for Tesla-S series, all-wheel drive (AWD) and Tesla-X
vehicles. It is standardized and installed only by Tesla itself. A
summary of power and current level comparison for electric vehicle
supply equipment (EVSE) charging schemes are listed in Table 1.

3. Grid-connected RE based charging systems

With the projected rapid increase in the number of EV, it is

inevitable that the electrical grid will be burdened. The integration of
RE sources into the grid is one way to alleviate the problem [9]. The
wind, solar and biomass energy are possible sources that can be
considered for this purpose. A number of studies are carried out to
examine the large-scale, long-term impact of wind energy to meet the
excess energy demand introduced by the EV charging [34–36].
However, it has to be noted that wind energy based systems require
suitable locations and wide premises for the installation of windmills.
In urban areas where large buildings are the major hurdles in the wind
pathways, the challenge is immense. Moreover, highly fluctuating
nature of wind speed makes it less attractive for the EV charging,
compared to other RE sources.
Biomass energy (i.e. bioelectricity from biomass) differs from the
wind energy in the sense that it can be stored conveniently and can be
utilized whenever necessary [9]. Although liquid biofuels are thought to
be a promising alternative vehicle fuel, bioelectricity has a number of
advantages for EV charging station. It can be produced using various
biomass feedstocks including, but not limited to forestry and agricul-
tural residues, woody energy crops, and whole tree harvesting. From a
financial point of view, bioelectricity has a higher energy return as
compared to biofuel processes. Several recent studies are published to
examine the possible application of biomass energy in electric trans-
port [37–39]. Despite these advantages, the production of bioelectricity
results in a high-polluting environment which makes it unsuitable for
densely populated areas.
The literature on solar energy for EV charging is much more
advanced and diverse. This is because the electricity from solar PV
provides more flexibility in integrating with the existing grid. One of
the main concepts is to charge the EV directly using the principle of
“charging-while-parking”, to replace the more commonly practiced
“charging-by-stopping” [40,41]. This gives rise the opportunity to
utilize the PV by fitting them at the roof of the car park [42,43].
Consequently, the EV can be conveniently charged by the integrated
PV-grid system while the EV owner engages with other activities [44].
P. J. Tulpule et. al.[45] have listed numerous benefits of the PV
powered charging station. Since the charging is done during the
daytime, where the load demand and electricity tariff are at their peak,
the cost savings is substantial. On top of that, the roofed-parking
facilities provides free shelters from the sun and rain, which is a
favorable feature in hot climate countries [46]. Due to these advan-
tages, the PV-grid based system is more preferred than other renewable
energy based systems. A. R. Bhatti et. al.[47] present the case study on
charging using a standard grid system, PV-grid system and PV-
standalone in the presence of energy storage unit (battery banks).
The study concludes that the PV-grid system is more profitable
compared to the PV-standalone and standard grid charging systems.
Furthermore, a large-scale deployment of EV chargers is analyzed in
[48], where solar car-ports are introduced over large parking lots in a
medium-sized Swiss city. The authors find that 14–50% of the city's
public transportation energy demand could be provided by solar
energy. S. Letendre et. al.[49] propose a simple method to estimate
the cumulative capacity that can be provided by a PV-grid and V2G
(vehicle to grid) stations for the California market. In another work, W.
Kempton et. al.[50] discuss the application of PV electricity and storage
Fig. 1. The generalized system architecture of a PV-grid dc fast charging system.
in EVs (i.e. V2G) to supply peak energy to the grid.
4. PV-grid dc fast charging system architecture
The existing PV-EV charging papers cover the technological
aspects, integration issues, optimization, environmental consequences
and its impact on the grid. Furthermore, combining the grid and
renewable energy sources is considered attractive within the context of
future smart grid framework [19,51–53]. To this end, the PV-grid dc
fast charger is investigated from different perspectives—either by
simulation or through small pilot projects. For example, L. Liu et. al.
[11] present a comprehensive review on PV-grid chargers that focuses
on reducing the operational cost of the charging infrastructure. A
comparison of different PV-grid integrated system architectures is
presented in [54]. While, several microgrid and smart grid based
architectural designs to reduce operational cost and to enhance the
profit for the system operators are presented in [23,55–60].
Furthermore, M. Gonzalez Vaya, C.-T. Li and J. Zhao et. al.
[24,61,62] propose generation cost reduction techniques through the
integration of PV and wind power sources. Besides, maximization of
renewables, minimization of power loss, optimization of energy
management, optimized energy dispatch-the truly major factors [11]
to the increment of the operating efficiency of the PV grid integrated
system are extensively covered in [21,22,63–66].
4.1. The power section
The general block diagram of the power section of the PV-grid dc
fast charging system is shown in Fig. 1. The main components of the
system include the PV array with dc-dc converter, energy storage unit
(ESU) and the EV charger module —tied together to an internal dc bus
through appropriate converting stages. A bidirectional converter stage
which links the dc bus with the grid controls the power flow in both
directions.
4.1.1. PV power converter with MPPT
The energy from the sun is converted to electricity using the PV
modules. The most widely used modules are based on poly- or
monocrystalline technology [67]. However, recently, the thin film has
made inroads into the market, especially for the large PV systems.
Despite their lower efficiency, the thin film is easier to manufacture,
more cost effective and exhibit better performance at higher tempera-
tures. More advanced technologies such as the heterojunction with

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R.H. Ashique et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 1243–1257

Fig. 2. The basic MPPT for PV system with converter connected to the dc bus.

intrinsic thin layer (HIT) [68] and multi-junction cells [69] are size of ϕ is crucial; if ϕ is large, the convergence is fast but it results in
available, but they are less popular, owing to higher cost. A typical large fluctuations in P and vice versa.
commercial module is rated between 200 and 300 W with an open
circuit voltage of about 20–30 V. For the PV-grid charging system, the 4.1.2. Bidirectional dc-ac Converters
modules are arranged in series-parallel strings to achieve the required The bidirectional inverter for EV charging has a dual function: if the
working voltage and power. A unidirectional dc-dc converter is power on the dc bus is to be fed back to the grid, it operates as a dc–ac
connected as an interface between the PV array and the dc bus as converter (i.e. in inversion mode). On the other hand, if power needs to
shown in Fig. 2. be drawn from the grid to charge the dc bus, it has to be configured as
The variation in solar irradiance (G) and temperature (T) results in an ac–dc converter (rectification mode). Thus it must be capable of
nonlinear I–V and P–V characteristic curves. At any time, there exists a operating in all four quadrants of the voltage/current regime.
unique maximum power point (MPP) that fluctuates continuously as G Furthermore, it is desirable to operate the inversion mode at a
or T varies. Due to this dynamic, a maximum power point tracker controllable power factor [78]. A typical converter should be able to
(MPPT) is needed to ensure maximum power is extracted by the dc-dc convert the voltage levels with proper synchronization with the grid
converter under any environmental condition [70,71]. To achieve this and maintain the grid power quality. The two most popular bidirec-
objective, the MPPT algorithm is designed to match the MPP with the
converter operating voltage and current. A basic block diagram of a
typical PV system with an MPPT is shown in Fig. 2. First, the current
and the voltage of the PV array are measured by the current and voltage
sensors, respectively. These values are fed into an MPPT block that
computes the MPP at that particular sampling cycle. Once found, the
MPPT block delivers the reference values for the current (I*) or voltage
(V*). Then, the measured power value is compared to the present value
of the MPP. If there is a difference between the two, the operating
voltage of the converter is adjusted such that it is brought closer
towards the MPP.
Over the years, numerous MPPT strategies have been proposed
[72]. They can be categorized as conventional and non-conventional
types. The work in [73] reviews the conventional MPPT methods,
which include the perturb and observed (P & O), hill climbing (HC) and
incremental conductance methods. The non-conventional MPP meth-
ods are based on soft computing, which relies mainly on the search and
optimization approach and they have been reviewed by several authors
[74,75].
Among the non-conventional MPPTs, the P & O method is the most
popular [76,77] due to its simplicity and fast response. The goal of the
P & O algorithm is to position the operating point as close as possible to
the MPP by climbing the slope of the P–V curve, as illustrated in Fig. 3.
First, it calculates the power (P) by sensing the voltage (V) of the PV
array, then it provides a perturbation (ϕ) in V, based on the change of
power, i.e.:

Xnew = Xold + ϕ × slope (if P > Pold ) [where, X = V orI orD]

Xnew = Xold − ϕ × slope (if P < Pold ) (1)
Fig. 3. (a) The movement of operating point in P & O tracking for large perturbation, (b)
where, the slope indicates the direction of the perturbation. Clearly, the The movement of operating point in P & O tracking for small perturbation.

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R.H. Ashique et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 1243–1257

tional dc-ac converter configurations include the isolated or non-
isolated type half-bridge and full bridge topologies. For PV-grid
charging, isolated or flyback configurations are preferred as they
provide galvanic isolation between the ac and dc systems and capable
of providing a wide range of voltage level conversion in both directions.
Besides, for safety purpose, these converters are required to be
equipped with anti-islanding protection schemes as imposed by the
international standards [79,80].
4.1.3. Energy storage unit (ESU)
The main function of ESU is to compensate for the intermittent
nature of the PV, thus contributing to the stabilization of the bus
voltage and increasing the overall system reliability [81]. Typically,
each charging station can be equipped with a dedicated ESU; alter-
natively, a single large ESU can be installed to support multiple
stations [31]. In [82], a comprehensive and comparative analysis of
the ESU relating to the different power storage techniques, their
capabilities, efficiencies and induced investment/maintenance costs is
presented. It concludes that for large power applications (≥100 kW),
lead acid battery based ESU is most efficient, highly cost-effective and
consequently more preferred. On the other side, the determination of
the optimal size of the ESU that can store adequate energy at a reduced
cost is another fundamental problem addressed in [32,83–86]. For the
PV-grid integrated system, a study [30] shows that an ESU with
approximately 4 to 7% of the maximum power rating of the PV array
can help reducing the output power fluctuations to below 10%. Yet the
necessity of integrating the ESU can be debated upon for a number of
other reasons—primarily regarding the higher capital and inflated
maintenance cost.
4.1.4. DC charger module
The dc charger module comprises of parallel off-board converters
that interface the internal bus voltage to the output charging bus in the
charger module. The output bus voltage is then regulated according to
the EV battery pack terminal voltage to charge or discharge the battery
pack.
The maximum charging current can also be controlled for this
purpose. The non-isolated dc-dc converter topologies are more suitable
to serve as dc chargers due to their compactness and higher reliability
[85]. Fig. 4 shows the general structure of a typical charger module. As
mentioned, it is based on a set of modular bidirectional converters,
along with their individual protective circuit breakers (CB). The
required number of converter units (Unit-1 to Unit-n) is governed by
the power rating of the module. The converter needs to be highly
efficient to reduce the loss in the process of power transfer to the
battery pack. For this purpose, soft switching converters are mostly
desired. Additionally, charging voltage and current ripple can be
minimized using interleaved configuration to prevent the possible
damage to the battery pack.
4.2. Control and protection section
The EV charging is controlled by the hierarchy operation of the
battery management system (BMS), the charger management system
(CMS) and the central control system (CCS), as depicted in Fig. 1. The
BMS is normally fitted on-board the vehicle. It carries out many
functions: 1) to help the charger module to maintain the accurate
charging current and terminal voltage, 2) to estimate the state-of-
charge (SOC) and state-of-health (SOH) of the battery in order to
protect against deep discharging/overcharging, 3) to perform cell
equalization for safe operation and 4) thermal management of the
battery pack [69]. The charger module is controlled by the CMS to
maintain the appropriate charging voltage and to avoid unusual
dynamic behavior at the output dc bus [91]. For security and integrity
of the system, the regular communication between the CMS and the
BMS is maintained via the CAN or the PLC protocol [12]. In addition,
the CMS also maintains perpetual communication with the CCS for
overall system maintenance, optimization, billing and coordination
with other charging stations that are scattered in different locations
[12].
The anti-islanding protection schemes for the converters at the ac-
dc coupling point can be categorized into two types, i.e. the remote and
the local methods. The remote method is realized by establishing the
PLC communication between the converter and the remote control
station. The goal is to observe any unusual phenomena at the coupling
point that calls for protection. Despite being efficient and reliable, the
implementation is expensive due to the additional communication
hardware. On the other hand, the local methods are simpler and
cheaper but they exhibit lower efficiency. The local method can be
further subdivided into passive and active methods. The former is
based on the detection of the voltage, frequency/phase perturbations

4.1.5. The dc bus

With regard to the dc bus, its application is first reported in [28]. In
this work, the dc bus is proposed to interface the PV array, the ESU and
the EV battery pack combining other dc powered electronics. The
implementation of the dc bus in general leads to higher efficiency and
greater system reliability. As obvious, it reduces the necessary power
conversion stages. This in return, reduces the loss in the power
conversion process and simplifies the control algorithm [87–89].
Furthermore, the dc bus provides seamless power management and
increases the prospect of integrating other types of renewable power
sources. Despite these advantages, the dc bus and its associated
components (e.g. switches, relays, circuit breakers etc.) are more
expensive than the ac counterparts, particularly if the bus voltage is
very high [90]. Fig. 4. The dc charger module.

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R.H. Ashique et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 1243–1257

and harmonic distortions at the point of coupling. Over and under
voltage, over and under-frequency relays are the standard anti-island-
ing protection requirements and they are generally realized by the
software control [92]. However, these methods lack the wider detection
zone and need to be assisted by other methods to ensure comprehen-
sive anti-islanding protection. Active anti-islanding methods include
power shift, frequency shift, phase shift, current magnitude variation or
Sandia voltage shift methods. Although the active methods are more
effective than their passive counterparts, the power quality may
degrade because of the alteration of the current or frequency output
of the converter. For detail evaluation of the remote and the local anti-
islanding methods, the work in [79] is referred.
4.3. The dc charging modes
Charging modes are related to the direction of power flow through

Fig. 5. Charging mode scenarios, (a) Supporting grid in peak demand by the PV array (Mode 1), (b) The ESU charging by PV array (Mode 2), (c) Charging the EV by the PV array (Mode
3), (d) The EV charging by the grid and the PV array jointly (Mode 4), (e) Charging the EV and the ESU by the grid and the PV array jointly (Mode 5), (f) The EV charging solely by the
grid (Mode 6), (g) The EV and the ESU charging by the grid (Mode 7), (h) The V2G operation (Mode 8), (i) The termination of EV charging (Mode 9).

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the system. In each mode, the power flow direction is determined to
balance the power demand and generation throughout the system. To
achieve this purpose, a set of predetermined voltage and current
thresholds are required to switch the modes as demonstrated in [93].
For the convenience of notation, let the voltage references for dc bus to
be Vdc_bus_1, Vdc_bus_2 and Vdc_bus_3. The load at the distribution
transformer is iTR and the maximum load is defined by iTR_max. The EV
battery voltage and the threshold for terminating the charging are VB
and VB_THR, respectively. That is, when VB reaches VB_TH, the charging
is turned off by the switched converter. Besides, the ESU voltage and
the low threshold are defined by VESU and VESU_TH. When VESU is
greater than VESU_TH, the ESU is charged by the system.
For the PV-grid charging system that employs ESU, there are nine
possible charging modes stated below and illustrated in Fig. 5 [2,94].
• In Mode 1, when no EV is connected to the charger and the ESU is
fully charged, the entire PV power is sold to the grid. This situation
is shown in Fig. 5(a). Here,
Vdc bus 3 > VDC BUS > Vdc bus 2, VB = 0, VESU > VESU THR
• In Mode 2, when no EV is connected and the ESU is partially or
completely depleted, the PV power is drained to charge the ESU as
shown in Fig. 5(b). As the ESU becomes fully charged, the system
returns to mode 1. In this mode,
Vdc bus 3 > VDC BUS > Vdc bus 2, VB = 0, VESU < VESU THR, iTR ≠ iTR max
• If the EV is connected and the PV array is generating sufficient
power, the EV is charged solely by the PV array as shown in Fig. 5(c).
This situation is depicted as mode 3 charging where the ESU
remains fully charged. Here,
Vdc bus 3 > VDC BUS > Vdc bus 2, 0 < VB < VB THR, VESU > VESU THR
• If there is a shortage of PV array power, the excess power is drawn
from the grid and the system enters into Mode 4. Consequently, the
EV is charged by both the grid and the PV array as shown in
Fig. 5(d). If the grid is at the peak demand, the system enters into
mode 9. The load sharing function is implemented through the
switch mode converters. The ESU is assumed to remain in fully
charged condition. Similarly,
Vdc bus 2 > VDC BUS > Vdc bus 1, 0 < VB < VB THR, iTR ≠ iTR max
• However, if the ESU is partially or completely depleted, the system
executes Mode 5. In this mode, both the ESU and the EV are charged
by the PV array and the grid jointly as shown in Fig. 5(e). Hence,
Vdc bus 2 > VDC BUS > Vdc bus 1, 0 < VB < VB THR, VESU < VESU THR,
iTR ≠ iTR max
• When the PV power becomes unavailable and the ESU is fully
charged, the charging of the EV is executed solely by the grid in
Mode 6 as shown in Fig. 5(f). Here,
VDC BUS < Vdc bus 1, VESU > VESU THR, iTR ≠ iTR max
• Mode 7 depicts the situation when both the ESU and the EV are
charged simultaneously as the ESU is partially or fully depleted. In
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this case, as shown in Fig. 5(g), the grid supports the charging
singlehandedly as the PV array power is unavailable.
VDC BUS < Vdc bus 1, VESU < VESU THR, iTR ≠ iTR max
• At peak demand situations in Mode 8, the EV battery pack feeds
back the grid in V2G scheme. It is also possible to multiply the
reverse power flow by utilizing the available power from the PV
array and the fully charged ESU. This is shown in Fig. 5 (h).
Vdc bus 3 > VDC BUS > Vdc bus 2, 0 < VB < VB THR, VESU > VESU THR,
iTR = iTR max
• Finally, in Mode 9, when the PV power is not sufficient and the grid
is at peak demand, the EV charging operation is terminated as
shown in Fig. 5(i). That is,
VDC BUS < Vdc bus 1, 0 < VB < VB THR, iTR = iTR max
However, if no ESU is installed to stabilize the internal bus, six
modes are possible [2,94]. This situation is very much similar to the
previous one except for the disconnected ESU.
• In Mode 1, when no EV is connected to the dc charger, the PV power
is transferred to the grid. Hence,
Vdc bus 3 > VDC BUS > Vdc bus 2, VB = 0
• When the EV is connected, the system enters into Mode 2. In this
mode, the PV array is generating sufficient power and consequently
the EV is charged solely by the PV array. If the power generation
surpasses the demand, excess power is fed back to the grid. Here,
Vdc bus 3 > VDC BUS > Vdc bus 2, 0 < VB < VB THR
• However, if the PV array is not generating sufficient power to charge
the EV, the system operates in Mode 3. In this mode, the grid
provides the remaining power to balance the charging power
demand.
Vdc bus 2 > VDC BUS > Vdc bus 1, 0 < VB < VB THR, iTR ≠ iTR max
• If the PV power is not available for technical or any unfavorable
weather conditions, Mode 4 is executed and the EV is charged solely
by the grid. Similarly,
VDC BUS < Vdc bus 1, VESU < VESU THR, iTR ≠ iTR max
• Mode 5 depicts the situation where the EV is operated in the V2G
scheme to support the grid at peak demand.
Vdc bus 3 > VDC BUS > Vdc bus 2, 0 < VB < VB THR, iTR = iTR max
• Finally, in Mode 6, when the PV power when PV power is not
sufficient and the grid is at the peak demand, the EV charging
operation is terminated. That is,
VDC BUS < Vdc bus 1, 0 < VB < VB THR, iTR = iTR max
4.4. Charging profiles
The over or under charging can cause permanent damage to the EV
battery pack; hence the need for precision control of the charging
R.H. Ashique et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 1243–1257

around 98.5–99% of the original value [101]. Additionally, the thermal

state of the battery is maintained with the help of temperature sensors
and thermal management module. The module executes heating or
cooling mechanism to control the battery temperature. Besides, the cell
equalization and interaction with the CMS is also performed by the
BMS.

5.1. Methods to estimate SOC

Fig. 6. Voltage and current profile in three level safe charging of EV battery bank.
voltage and current profiles [95,96]. Generally, the charging can be
done independently in any of the three distinct charging profiles [95]:
the constant-voltage (CV) charging, the constant-current (CC) charging
or a combination of both. In CC charging, the system draws excessive
power at the beginning of the charging operation. If not properly
controlled, the high current injection at low charging state might
reduce the lifecycle of the battery pack. This situation can be avoided in
CV charging. Additionally, there is no risk of overcharging the battery
as it draws a small amount of current throughout the charging state.
However, in doing so the charging time is sacrificed to a great extent.
Hence, to overcome these inherent drawbacks and facilitates fast and
safe charging, T. Kang et. al.[97] combine the CC and the CV charging
by introducing the charging profiles as shown in Fig. 6. They are
defined as an initial pre-charging stage, followed by the intermediate
CC stage and the CV charging stage at the end. During the pre-charging
period, the current is increased in small steps to slowly raise the battery
voltage to a certain level, known as the constant current threshold. This
ensures controlled power injection at the beginning and protects the
battery from damaging. Beyond this point, the charger is controlled to
provide a high value of constant current. Subsequently, the battery is
charged very quickly and reaches 80% of its SOC. At this point, the
charger is forced to move into the CV stage to limit the current and
safeguard the battery from overcharging.
The coulomb counting is the most widely used method for SOC
estimation [102]. It calculates the SOC by observing the total charge
transferred to or from the battery. Despite its simplicity, the accuracy
highly depends on the correct measurement of the current and the
initial charging state of the battery. Furthermore, errors from self-
charging and discharging losses are prominent. The enhanced coulomb
counting methods proposed in [102] are designed to estimate and
compensate for these losses. The Kalman filtering (KF) is another
popular real-time estimation method. However, it requires the knowl-
edge of the electric model of the cell and an extensive computation of
their parameters. The extended Kalman filtering (EKF) is the non-
linearization of the Kalman filter to adapt the non-linear behavior due
to the changes in the battery characteristics. In [103] the authors
reduce the order of the EKF by simplifying the battery model as an
effort to reduce the calculation time. More accurate SOC estimation can
be achieved by applying sigma point Kalman filtering (SPKF) presented
in [104] without significant increment in the computational complexity
and cost.
The OCV based SOC estimation methods provide high precision
measurement. However, the battery needs to be in a long idle period to
reach the balance state. Additionally, the non-uniformity of the OCV-
SOC relationship makes it less reliable for diverse applications.[105]
Consequently, the OCV-SOC curve needs to be calibrated for individual
batteries, resulting in a time-consuming process. To overcome these
issues, OCV method is generally combined with other estimation
methods. For example, P. J. Tulpule and S. Lee et. al.[18,105]
formulate a unique OCV-SOC relationship that combines the EKF

5. Functions of the battery management system (BMS)

The functional building block of BMS is shown in Fig. 7 which

provides an insight into the BMS functions. Besides providing the
feedback for required charging current and voltage [98], the BMS is
deployed to protect against deep discharging or overcharging by
estimating the state-of-charge (SOC) and state-of-health (SOH) of the
battery. Estimating the SOC is extremely important as erroneous
estimation may lead to severe damage to the battery pack due to
overcharging or deep discharging. Overcharging is dangerous for Li-ion
batteries for several reasons: lowering life-time and safety, decomposi-
tion of electrolytes and formation of lithium dendrites [99].
Furthermore, extremely low charging state can oxidize the negative
electrode copper and dissolve in the electrolyte [99].
To avoid this situation, precise measurement of cell voltages and
battery current is required. As the open circuit voltage (OCV) OCV-SOC
curve is relatively flat around the operating range of the battery, the
voltage measurement has to be very accurate. For the LiFePO4 battery,
the precision is expected to be 1–2 mV [100]. For other types, the
tolerance is higher due to the more slanting nature of the OCV-SOC
curves. In general, the acceptable current measurement accuracy is Fig. 7. The BMS key functional building blocks.

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and coulomb counting method along with a measurement noise model.
The temperature dependence issue of the OCV-SOC curve is addressed
in [106] where the authors propose a temperature based internal
resistance battery (Rint) model. The parameters are determined
through a dynamic stress test (DST) and federal urban driving schedule
(FUDS) at different temperatures. Several artificial neural networks
(ANN) and fuzzy logic based SOC estimation methods are proposed in
[107–110]. The ANN methods can be adaptive or non-adaptive and
have the advantage of being independent of the battery model used for
SOC estimation. This enables the ANN methods to be applied for all
kind of batteries in all situations. However one of the disadvantages of
the ANN algorithm is that it has to be well-trained before implementa-
tion.
A comparative analysis is presented in [111] for four major model
based SOC estimation methods namely Luenberger observer, sliding
mode observer, EKF and SPKF. The algorithms are analyzed for voltage
disturbances, current disturbances and current sensor drifts.
Furthermore, to estimate the comparative speed of the algorithms,
the dynamic convergence time to the SOC are measured. Other
comparative and detailed analysis on SOC estimation methods can be
found in [98,112,113]. However, for pure EV, the coulomb counting
method supported by OCV-SOC look up table should provide sufficient
and satisfactory SOC estimation due to the large size of the battery pack
[99].
5.2. Battery equalization/cell balancing
completely disconnecting the battery from the charging module in case
of emergencies.
The thermal controller module incorporates temperature sensors
along with cooling and heating mechanisms controlled by the thermal
management module. The gate driver module is directly controlled by
the master DSP to control the converter units for a specific voltage and
current. The number of gate drivers is restricted by the number of
available PWM channels from the master DSP controller. Hence
multiple numbers of slave DSPs’ in gate driver module might be
required to handle a higher number of converter units.
The I/O controller module in the CMS characterized by a slave DSP
is liable for handling the display of information and input from the user
interface. The necessary charging information on the display is to be
provided by a joint action of the master DSP in the BMS, CMS, and
CCS. A dedicated V2G controller is also installed for efficient manage-
ment of the V2G operation. Communication with the BMS and the CCS
are established with the help of communication module through a CAN
bus or a PLC [123]. If necessary, the CMS can further relay the
operational data to the CCS through a CAN bus. This data is used by the
CCS for demand side management, smart metering, and V2G operation
control. The thermal state of the module is also sent back to the CCS for
constant observation and safety of the overall system. The CCS, in
particular, is liable for overall system control, communication with the
other station controllers, handling external requests along with the
control of the voltage and current output of the charger.

6. The dc charger module

The voltage imbalance in the series-connected battery cell is due to
the difference in temperature, internal resistance, overcharging and
6.1. The soft switching dc-dc converter
low discharging state of the individual battery cells. Furthermore, aging
of the battery worsens the voltage imbalance during charging and
The primary function of a dc charger module is to match the dc bus
discharging periods. Particularly, for the Li-ion cell [114], it needs to be
voltage to the EV battery so that the charging can be effectively
operated within a safe operating region defined by the temperature
controlled. As depicted in the system architecture, the charger module
(−20 °C to 60 °C) and the voltage limits (1.8–4 V), as shown in Fig. 8.
comprises of several units of the bidirectional dc-dc converter. The
Outside the desired window, the battery is considered overcharged,
bidirectional topology is used because of the future expectation that the
leading to the formation of lithium dendrites or damaged through
EV charger will include the V2G function. As the converter is operated
decomposition and dissolution.
at the high switching frequency (75–250 kHz), switching losses (turn-
Hence, the cell voltages are scrutinized by the BMS at a regular
on and turn-off) are dominant. Hence, soft switching converters are
interval to ascertain if overcharging or low charging state occurs. The
preferred [124]. Soft switching techniques significantly reduce the EMI
measurement facilitates the voltage balancing of the individual cell.
The voltage equalization methods can be classified into active and
passive methods. The active methods can be further subdivided into
dissipative and non-dissipative techniques. A general discussion on cell
equalization methods is presented in [115], while a more comprehen-
sive review of the balancing methods can be found in [116]. MATLAB
simulation-based comparison of cell balancing methods is presented in
[117]. In [118], an effective battery equalizing method based on Cuk
dc-dc bidirectional converter is proposed. The converter is controlled
by a PWM integrated microprocessor module embedded with a fuzzy
logic based control algorithm which makes the equalization process
fast, adaptive and independent of battery model. Other highly efficient
charge equalization methods for series packed Li-ion EV battery cells
can be found in [119–122].

5.3. BMS functional interaction with the CMS

A generalized framework for the possible functional blocks of a

CMS is shown in Fig. 9. The digital signal processor (DSP) is the core
and functional center in the CMS. Each building block module may
include a DSP/microcontroller in slave configuration assisting the
central master DSP increasing its functional capability. The computa-
tion load can be distributed among the slave DSP modules to protect
the master DSP from overloading and slowing down. Using the
information feedback from the BMS, the CMS precisely controls the
charging of the EV battery pack. The voltage and current monitoring
modules are used for this purpose. Besides, the CMS is capable of Fig. 8. The safe operating window of Li ion batteries.

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Fig. 9. The CMS key functional building blocks.
by eliminating large variations of di / dt and dv / dt . Additionally, to
ensure the battery is efficiently charged, the input current ripple and
the output voltage ripple of the converters should be minimum. To
achieve this, the interleaved design can be adopted. Furthermore, due
to cost factor, the non-isolated bidirectional topology is preferable.
In the non-isolated zero voltage transient (ZVT) topologies, the
auxiliary resonant networks are used for soft switching operation at the
commutation points. The auxiliary network consists of resonant
inductors and capacitors, arranged in a series or parallel formation.
Zero voltage turn on (ZVS) and turn off conditions are achieved
through the resonance among the inductors and capacitors. Other soft
switching arrangements include resonant networks, different types of
active and passive snubber cells.
6.2. Review of selected soft-switching topologies
A high voltage conversion ratio bidirectional dc-dc converter
(Fig. 10) is proposed in [125]. Its main feature is the ability to operate
in a wide voltage range. The soft ZVS is implemented using a resonant
circuit consisting of an inductor (La), a capacitor (Ca) and two high
power auxiliary switches. The mode of operation of the converter
depends on the direction of the inductor current. Interleaved design
can be adopted for reduced ripple voltage. However, this circuit is
prone to high conduction loss as the inductor La and Ca is positioned
in the power flow path for a significant portion of the operation cycle.
The circuit in [126] (Fig. 11) applies soft switching technique by
using an auxiliary resonant circuit consisting one resonant inductor
(Lr), two capacitors (Csa & Csb) and two switches (Sc & Sd). The
circuit is operated in CCM mode to limit the peak inductor current and
to reduce the conduction loss. In order to minimize the input current
ripple and the size of the inductors, interleaved design is adopted.
However, the increasing loss at high power applications due to the
reverse recovery loss of the body diodes thus lowering the efficiency
could be sighted as a disadvantage.
The bidirectional converter in [127] (Fig. 12) utilizes an LCL
auxiliary resonant network characterized by the inductors- Lr1, Lr2
and capacitor- CP. Due to high step up and step down ratio, the circuit
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can be operated at moderate duty cycle ratio (D) leading to the lower
EMI and voltage/current stress on the power switches. The disadvan-
tage could be the conduction loss at high frequencies because of the
higher number of components and the longer conduction path.
Moreover, half bridge configuration of the circuit could introduce
trapped energy problem lowering of the expected efficiency. The soft
switching range of operation is also limited by the size of the capacitor
(CP). However, the circuit is attractive for its compactness and
relatively simple control.
In [128], the authors propose a half bridge bidirectional topology,
as shown in Fig. 13 which is designed to operate in the discontinuous
mode (DCM) for minimization of the inductor size. However, unlike
pure DCM mode, the inductor current goes towards negative before it
starts to rise again. Soft switching turn on is achieved by using a gate
signal complementary control scheme to divert the current through the
anti-paralleled diode of the inactive switch. For soft switching turn off,
a lossless snubber circuit is added across the switches. Interleaved
technique is adopted to reduce the inductor size as well to decrease the
input current ripple. The complimentary switching scheme facilitates
the high switching frequency operation of the circuit by reducing the
heat sink size. Sophisticated and subtle parametric design of the
inductor and snubber capacitors are required for optimization of turn
on and turns off losses. Failure to find the correct values for inductor
and capacitors would create charging and discharging imbalance
situation in the circuit. Additionally, at higher switching frequencies,
the soft switching turn on would be difficult for a narrow range of
discharging time for the snubber capacitors.
The three level ZVT topology in [129] (Fig. 14) applies two auxiliary
resonant networks to execute zero voltage switching (ZVS) for all power
switches (i.e. S1, S2, S3, S4). Each resonant network consists of a set of
two resonant inductors (Lr1, Lr2 & Lr3, Lr4), one resonant capacitor
(Cr1 & Cr2) and one auxiliary switch (Sa1 & Sa2). The ‘three level’
configuration reduces the voltage stress on the power switches sig-
nificantly for medium and very high power applications. The presence
of multiple resonant circuits increases the probability of losing soft
switching condition due to the charging and discharging imbalance.
The conduction loss at light loads may be significant. Due to a large
number of components including the inductors and capacitors, the size
and the volume of the circuit are large. Additionally, the adjustable
dead-time to compensate step up or step down voltage ratio would
introduce higher control complexity.
7. Impact of fast EV charging
7.1. Impact on the grid and distribution system
A considerable number of studies are carried out [8,130–135] to
address the effect of EV charging on the existing power system. The
rapid, uncontrolled and random charging pattern may lead to voltage
deviation, distribution losses, and degradation in the power quality.
The transformer and power lines lifetime may be shortened due to the
overloading, and system instability can occur. Furthermore, the
harmonic currents, voltage deviations, phase imbalance, dc offset,
phantom loading and stray flux problems are the major issues
Fig. 10. The ZVT circuit with single inductor and a capacitor in auxiliary network.
R.H. Ashique et al.
Fig. 11. The ZVT circuit with single inductor and two capacitors in the auxiliary
network.
Fig. 12. The ZVT circuit with LCL auxiliary network.
Fig. 13. The Interleaved design of BDC.
contributing to the degradation of the power quality (PQ). In [134], the
authors show that the higher harmonic current introduced by the non-
linear EV charger has an adverse effect on the PQ. Obviously, these
problems affect the performance and longevity of the distribution
equipment. Harmonic current components induce an additional i2R
loss in the power transformer windings and cables. Additionally, the
eddy current loss in the transformer core results in an abnormal
temperature rise, thus reducing the power transfer efficiency. It also
affects other distribution equipment such as the capacitors, meters,
relays, switch gears, current and voltage transformers.
A comprehensive case study on the effect of the EV charging on
thermal limitations of system components and network assets is found
in [136]. The study incorporates systems in a densely populated urban
area with high load density as well as in a rural area with highly
dispersed loads. It considers the slow charging points (i.e. ac level 1)
connected to LV distribution system as well as the fast charging
stations with several points connected to a medium voltage distribution
network. Further, the study also covers the V2G operation. It concludes
that the required network reinforcement cost can be increased up to
19% in peak hours. However, it also suggests that a significant
reduction of the above cost is achievable if smart charging scheme is
applied. In addition, due to intermittent nature of the renewables, the
power utilities are constantly facing the challenge to stabilize the grid
that incorporates a large amount of RE resources. The fast-responding
power electronic interface of the charger and the ESU provides effective
ways to deal with source intermittency [135]. However, if the vehicle
charging is unconstrained [9], the effect on the performance, stability
and efficiency of the electric grid can be substantial. Network assets
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Fig. 14. Two auxiliary resonant circuit based ZVT BDC.
overloading due to the EV integration purely depends on the situation
of the network. One part of the network can accommodate 100% of the
EV integration, while another part may not due to the insufficient
capacities of the individual components. Hence, micro level analysis to
identify system sensitive points is recommended to avoid adverse
network conditions.
A number of studies can be found in the literature which discusses
the impact of EV charging on the supply and demand balance. In [137]
the study assumes that all vehicles in Perth metropolitan area are EVs
and subsequent analysis is carried out to find the impact of charging on
the existing grid. It reveals that the peak demand is shifted to a new
point on the demand curve. This point is featured as the home arrival
time of the electric vehicles when the EVs are connected to the grid for
charging. The work suggests that to maintain the demand-supply
balance, 93% of the vehicle fleet should be charged during the off-
peak time. Besides, on a day with average demand (i.e. week holidays),
at least 41% of EV load should be shifted to the off-peak. However, this
study considers only Level 1 and Level 2 charging schemes. Thus, the
results suggest that for high power dc fast charging systems, the effect
on the demand-supply balance could be more impactful. Consequently,
larger PV and ESU are required to balance the system, as suggested in
Section 4.1.3.
7.2. Remedial measures
The IEEE Standards 519–1992, IEC 61000-3-12/2–4 or EN
50160:2000 describe the recommended practices and requirements
for harmonics control in the power system [138]. A recent compre-
hensive study presented in [6] discusses the impact of the harmonic
components on the grid for fast charging of multiple electric vehicles. It
is reported that the commercial on-board charger still has poor PQ as it
pollutes the system through harmonics [139]. The effect of harmonics
alone might be considered as the reason to terminate the power
transfer between the EV and the utility grid. Furthermore, the effect
of an increase in load and low power factor on the distribution grid
should be considered. As the load increases with the number of
R.H. Ashique et al.
vehicles, the harmonic distortion worsens. This raises safety and
economic concern, as transformers and feeders are prone to degrade
the PQ. A remedy to the injection of high harmonic current in the
distribution system is proposed in [140]. The input current quality is
improved by modifying the charger control system by introducing an
interim voltage source inverter (VSI) that restricts the harmonic
components of the current to be fed back into the feeder.
Additionally, current control of the inverters (i.e. coupling point
inverters or the ac-dc stage of the dc charger) is more feasible than
voltage control as it ensures improved power factor and robust
suppression of the transient currents [80]. Level 3 chargers with higher
efficiencies are expected to alleviate power quality issues and reduce
charging time [139].
S. Rahman et. al.[141] claim that uncontrolled charging poses
immense voltage deviations and the PQ issues in such a degree that
even 10% of additional penetration cannot be absorbed. Hence, a valley
filling approach of the system load curve is introduced. This approach
releases the stress on the transmission lines and no replacement of
components is required. Moreover, the coordinated charging scheme
reduces the power loss, voltage deviations, and subsequently improves
the PQ. Hence, the demand curve is flattened and the peak demand
situation can be entertained. Besides these, K. Clement et. al.[142]
suggest a smart multiagent metering system to achieve above targets.
The demand peaks raised by the EV load can be partially met by means
of the ESU. G. Joos et. al.[143] propose a flywheel and a super
capacitor energy storage devices to bridge the gap between the charging
station demand and the power grid. However, the lead acid battery
storage is more suitable and cost efficient as already mentioned in
Section 4.1.3. Besides, the development of smart grid environment and
implementing the V2G concepts would certainly help to resolve many
of the prevailing grid problems.
7.3. Future directions on V2G
The V2G scheme provides an alternative solution to the need for the
ESU. By utilizing the EV battery as a storage, an energy buffer is
created. During excessive power flow from the PV, the EV battery acts
as the storage for the excess energy. Further, when the power from the
PV is inadequate, the EV battery compensates for the energy shortage
by discharging its energy back to the grid. Besides, the energy transfer
from the EV to the grid can be considered when the price of grid
electricity is high enough to make a profit.
Despite this attractive feature, a number of issues have to be
resolved [12]. First, most of the EVs from diverse car manufacturers
are not capable of adopting the V2G because the chargers are
unidirectional. Furthermore, most charging systems lack the advanced
communication modules required for the protocols that ensure safe
and reliable V2G operation. They need to be equipped with smart
meter and communication modules to safely relay the information in
between the CMS and the CCS. Second, the combined battery capacity
of the EV fleet on the road, in the aggregate, must be sufficient to
function as an energy buffer to the PV-grid charging system. The EV
fleet can be considered as a dynamic distributed energy storage for the
grid. However, currently, the number of EV are far too few for a
successful V2G implementation. Third, the charging and discharging of
the EV has to be programmed to meet the power demand of the grid.
This requires an advanced scheduling technique, which is quite
challenging due to the random mobility of the EV fleet. However, the
major concern of the EV owners is the impact of the V2G on the EV
battery pack itself, as discussed in [144]. The paper concludes that the
EV battery degradation is severe in the case of bulk energy service and
high depth of discharge. Therefore, until the battery technology is
matured, the V2G may yet be a viable option. For now, the ESU is
needed to stabilize the internal bus voltage. The presence of the ESU
leads to a less complex control of the intermittent PV power and
increases the overall system reliability [81]. Despite these temporary
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setbacks, the long-term future of the V2G remains optimistic.
8. Conclusions
This paper discusses the integration of RE sources into the EV
charging system. In particular, the architecture and configuration of
the PV-grid integrated dc fast charging are investigated. Several aspects
of the control and the protection of the system components are
explained. More specifically, two important parts of the control, namely
the battery management system (BMS) and the charger management
system (CMS) are discussed and their interactions are highlighted. The
paper also recommends the installation of the ESU to assist in
balancing the electrical grid. Furthermore, the possible bidirectional
non-isolated dc-dc converter topologies that can be adopted as the dc
chargers are proposed. On the grid side, the EV charging impacts on
the distribution system and their remedies are briefly discussed. In
addition, the future of the V2G and its prospects are mentioned.
Based on this discussion, it can be deduced that it is high time to
unify the fast charging standards worldwide for the benefits of the users
and the manufacturers. Besides, to provide the EV owners with the
similar experience as filling the fuel for the ICE vehicles, the charging
time needs to be reduced. With the expected growth in the EV fleet, the
fast charger network should be extended, while their power rating
needs to be increased. This would remove the driving range anxiety,
which is of concern to most EV users. In parallel, the performance of
EV battery requires improvement, along with the BMS. Furthermore,
there is a need to develop more efficient smart energy management
schemes to accommodate the proliferation of the EV into the existing
electrical grid structure. There are numerous prospects of work in this
aspect, particularly using rule-based algorithms like deterministic and
fuzzy logic, and optimization-based algorithms like genetic and particle
swarm. The rule-based algorithms support online operation that helps
to improve the overall efficiency, control, flexibility and security of the
system. This aspect, which is not fully covered in this paper, constitutes
an important feature—if the EV charging is to be part of the future
smart grid systems. These scopes should provide interesting topics for
future research in this area.
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