DRAWING
material and methods of manufacture to
Orthographic Projection Drawings- six
possible views: Front, top, bottom, rear,
right side, left side
Drawings may be divided into three
classes: Detail, assembly, installation
An installation drawing is one that
includes all necessary information for a
part or an assembly in the final installed
position in the aircraft
A section or sectional view is obtained by
cutting away part of an object to show the
shape and construction at the cutting
plane
A full section view is used when the
interior construction or hidden features of
an object cannot be shown clearly by
exterior views
In a half section, cutting plane extends
only halfway across the object, leaving the
other half of the object as an exterior view
A revolved section drawn directly on the
exterior view shows the shape of the cross
section of a part, such as the spoke of a
wheel
Detail drawing is a description of a single
part, describing by lines, notes and
symbols the specifications for size, shape,
(g/cm^3)
be used in making the part
Assembly drawing is a description of an
object made up of two or more parts. It
describes the object’s size and shape
PHYSICS
Mass- quantity of matter in an object
(weight/acceleration due to
gravity(32.2fps/s))
Weight- measure of the pull of gravity
acting on an object (mass x gravity)
Attraction- force acting mutually between
particles of matter, tending to draw them
together
Law of Universal gravitation- he showed
how each particle of matter attracts every
other particle
Porosity- means having pores or spaces
where smaller particles may fit when a
mixture takes place
Granula: small grains/ granules
Impenetrability- no two objects can
occupy the same place at the same time
Density- weight per unit volume (lb/ft^3)
- Increases as the pressure
increases
Specific Gravity- air- gases---- solid/liquid-
hydrogen
- Density of the substance/
density of the water
Hydrometer- measuring specific gravity of
liquids
Potential Energy- w x h (
Kinetic Energy – 1/2mv^2 (in-ft)
One pound of aviation gas= 18, 900 BTU
(British Thermal Unit)
1 BTU- 778 ft-lb of work
force is the intensity of an impetus, or the
intensity of an input
One pound of force is equal to 4.448
newtons
Force = Mass × Acceleration
Work, in the mechanical sense of the
term, is done when a resistance is
overcome by a force acting through a
measurable distance.
Work = Force (F) × distance (d)
foot-pounds or inch-pounds
FRICTION
Thus, the three kinds of friction may be
classified as:
(1) starting (static) friction,
(2) sliding friction
(3) rolling friction
The concept of power involves the
previously discussed topic of work, which
was a force being applied over a measured
distance, but adds one more consideration
—time.
Power = Force × distance ÷ time
1 hp = 550 ft-lb/s
1 hp = 33,000 ft-lb/min.
1 hp = 375 mile pounds per hour (mi-lb/hr)
1 hp = 746 watts (electricity conversion)
torque is described as a force acting along
a distance
Torque = Force × distance
1. Machines are used to transform energy,
as in the case of a generator transforming
mechanical energy into electrical energy.
2. Machines are used to transfer energy
from one place to another
3. Machines are used to multiply force
4. Machines can be used to multiply speed
5. Machines can be used to change the
direction of a force.
Mechanical Advantage = Distance Out ÷
Distance In
In the first class lever, the fulcrum is
located between the effort and the
resistance
Effort (E) × Effort Arm (L) = Resistance (R) ×
Resistance Arm (l)
The second class lever has the fulcrum at
one end and the effort is applied at the
other end. The resistance is somewhere
between these points.
Third Class Lever fulcrum is at one end of
the lever and the weight or resistance to
be overcome is at the other end, with the
effort applied at some point between
Pulleys are simple machines in the form of
a wheel mounted on a fixed axis and
supported by a frame.
A single fixed pulley is really a first class
lever with equal arms.
This single movable pulley acts like a
second class lever, with the effort arm (EF)
being the diameter of the pulley and the
resistance arm (FR) being the radius of the
pulley.
block and tackle is made up of four
pulleys, the top two being fixed and the
bottom two being movable.
The gear with the input force is called the
drive gear, and the other is called the
driven gear.
The inclined plane is a simple machine
that facilitates the raising or lowering of
heavy objects by application of a small
force over a relatively long distance.
Whenever an external force is applied to
an object, a reaction will occur inside the
object which is known as stress.
Tension is a force that tries to pull an
object apart.
Compression is a force that tries to crush
an object.
Torsion is the stress an object experiences
when it is twisted, which is what happens
when torque is applied to a shaft.
Bending is the force of lift
When an object becomes distorted by an
applied force, the object is said to be
strained.
The study of the relationship between the
motion of bodies or objects and the forces
acting on them is often called the study of
“force and motion.” In a more specific
sense, the relationship between velocity,
acceleration, and distance is known as
kinematics
if the distance the object moves remains
the same for a given period of time, the
motion may be described as uniform
. Speed refers to how fast an object is
moving, or how far the object will travel in
a specific time.
Velocity is that quantity in physics which
denotes both the speed of an object and
the direction in which the object moves
Acceleration is defined as the rate of
change of velocity.
Circular motion is the motion of an object
along a curved path that has a constant
radius.
Centripetal force is inversely proportional
to the radius of the circle in which an
object travels.
Centripetal Force = Mass (Velocity2 ) ÷
Radius
Heat be defined as the total kinetic energy
of the molecules of any substance.
Mechanical Energy. This includes all
methods of producing increased motion of
molecules
Electrical Energy. Electrical energy is
converted to heat energy when an electric
current flows through any form of
resistance
Chemical Energy. Most forms of chemical
reaction convert stored potential energy
into heat.
Radiant Energy. Electromagnetic waves of
certain frequencies produce heat when
they are absorbed by the bodies
Nuclear Energy. Energy stored in the
nucleus of atoms is released during the
process of nuclear fission in a nuclear
reactor or atomic explosion.
The Sun. All heat energy can be directly or
indirectly traced to the nuclear reactions
occurring in the sun
According to this theory of heat as a form
of energy, the molecules, atoms, and
electrons in all bodies are in a continual
state of motion.
One calorie is equal to the amount of heat
required to change the temperature of 1
gram of water 1 degree Centigrade.
A device known as the calorimeter is used
to measure quantities of heat energy
One BTU of heat energy = 778 ft-lb of work
Thermal efficiency is the relationship
between the potential for power
contained in a specific heat source, and
how much usable power is actually
created when that heat source is used.
Thermal Efficiency = Horsepower
Produced ÷ Potential Horsepower in Fuel
conduction requires that there be physical
contact between an object that has a large
amount of heat energy and one that has a
smaller amount of heat energy.
Convection is the process by which heat is
transferred by movement of a heated fluid
“radiation” refers to the continual
emission of energy from the surface of all
bodies. This energy is known as radiant
energy
Each substance requires a quantity of heat
called its specific heat capacity, to
increase the temperature of a unit of its
mass 1°C. The specific heat of a substance
is the ratio of its specific heat capacity to
the specific heat capacity of water.
Temperature is a dominant factor
affecting the physical properties of fluids.
It is of particular concern when calculating
changes in the state of gases.
Degrees Fahrenheit = (1.8 × Degrees
Celsius) + 32
Degrees Celsius = (Degrees Fahrenheit –
32) × 5 ⁄ 9
Degrees Kelvin = Degrees Celsius + 273
Degrees Rankine = Degrees Fahrenheit +
460
- Dynamic process in which - Lack of feedback
thoughts and feelings to - Lack of motivation and
someone else training
- Receive through set of events - Language and vocabulary level
- Stimuli that the person is - Lack of self-awareness
expose to
Barriers “with the receiver”
Communication is a series of:
- Selective perception
- Hearing - Unwillingness to change
- Touching - Lock of interest in the
- Tasting topic/subject
- Seeing - Prejudice and belief system
- Smelling - Rebuttal instincts
- Personal value system
- Here-and-now-interest and
Total Communication Process external factors

Thermal expansion takes place in solids, 9% - Writing

liquids, and gases when they are heated
30% - Speaking The External Barriers
Expansion = (coefficient) × (length) × (rise
45% - Listening - Environment – The venue. The
in temperature)
effect of noise. Temperature
16% - Reading
Pressure is the amount of force acting on
a specific amount of surface area. - Other People Status
- Education
Barriers in Communication “With the - Time
communicator”

- Disagreement between verbal

BASIC COMMUNICATION SKILLS 7% words – listener put their own
and non-verbal messages
Communication - Negative self-image interpretation on speaker’s words
38% paralinguistic – way in which
something is said
55% body language – speakers looks while
delivering a message
Levels of Communication
1. Verbal – produce sounds
A. Intra-verbal – intonation of the
words and sounds
B. extra Verbal – implication of
words and phrases
2. non-verbal – “body language”
- gesture
- posture
- movement
3. Symbols
Verbal Communication- message is
transmitted verbally—to have people
understand what are we trying to say
*Oral Comm- spoken words-face to face
convo
Influence by pitch, volume, speed and
clarity of speaking
*Written Comm- written signs or
symbols/ printed or handwritten
Importance of Non Verbal Comm
50 %- Body Language
40%- tone of voice
10%- words
Types of NV Comm
Kinesics- body language
*Facial Expression- face is the index of
mind
*Head- understanding and
acknowledgement
*Eye Gaze- indicate a range of emotions
Gestures and postures
Shape of body
Personal Appearance Adornment- indicate
profession/ nature, interest & taste
Haptics- touch language
Proxemics- space language
Artifacts Environmental
Chronemics- time language
Silence
Signs
Paralanguage/ Vocalic
Communication Process
Sender(communicator/generates the
message)-Message(idea/info/view)-
Encoding(message is encoded)-
Media(medium decided)-
Decoding(converting symbols encoded)-
Receiver(whom the message was sent)-
noise (obstruction )
Public Speaking- communicating
information to an audience
1. Begin with end in mind
2. Simplify your messages
3. Avoid the perils of powerpoint
4. Connect with your audience
5. Tell your personal stories
6. Prepare and practice
7. Watch yourself
8. Avoid sameness
9. Message your body
10. Let your passion show
11. De-risk the logistics
Effective Comm
1. Completeness
2. Concreteness
3. Courtesy
4. Correctness
5. Clarity
6. Consideration
7. Conciseness
Reading skills lead a person to interact and
gain meaning from written language
Reading-cognitive process of decoding
symbols to derive meaning from a text
Three components:
Decoding refers to the process of
translating a printed word into a sound
(Identification and Word attack Skill)
Retention is retraining something that
could be short/long term memory
Required Skills in Reading
1. Skills related to eye movement
2. Abilities related to Visual Discrimination
3.Association Skills
4. Interpretation Abilities
Reading Problems
Reading Deficiency- mild to severe
retardation in learning to read
Reading Retardation- reading was
significantly below age and grade norm
Reading Disability- retarded readers
whose mental ability enable them to read
considerably
Underachiever in Reading- reading
performance is not below age and grade
standards but who are functioning
significantly below their own potential
level
Dyslexia- loss of competency following
brain injury or degeneration or
development failure
Primary Reading Retardation- sense
impairment of capacity to learn to read
Secondary Reading Retardation- reading
disability on which the causation is
environmental or external
Reading Skills
Skimming – quick reading to get the
general idea ex: newspaper, magazine,
business and travel brochure
Scanning- specific information
Intensive Reading- roles of the teacher--
the vocabulary question (Organiser,
observer, feedback organizer, prompter)
Extensive Reading- teachers encourages
students to choose for themselves what
they read and to do so pleasure and
general language improvement
Speaking act of making vocal sounds (why
how what to speak)
Speaking skills help us to communicate
effectively--- assures the listener’s
misunderstanding
Verbal 7%-words spoken
Vocal 38%- tone range appeal
Visual 55%- physical appearance, gestures,
eye contact
What to speak:
Individual Brain Storming – process of
getting your ideas out of paper
IBC format
Being confident and passionate Comprehension Listening- attaching
meaning to what is listened to.
Clarity thoughts
Evaluative listening- judging the
How to speak:
acceptability of what is said
Situation
Hearing- act of perceiving sound by the
Task ear, with or without consent

Attitude Listening- actively concentrate on what

Result
3 E’s
Entertainingly-Effectively-Enthusiastically
Listening Skills
Hearing- listening enough to catch what
the speaker is saying
Understanding- take what you heard
Judging- think if it makes sense
Effective Listening – process of analyzing
sounds organizing. Interpreting
you hear, process the info into knowledge
Not Communicating- 30%
Communicating-70%
Types of CommunicIation
Interpersonal- between two person
Intra-personal- communicate with
themselves
Extra-personal- communication between
human beings and non-human entities
Goodels Grace skill ladder- identify,
explain, explore, analyze, evaluate

Types of Listening

Discriminative Listening- identifying the

difference with various sounds