Factors Associated with Helmet Use among Motorcycle Users in Karachi, Pakistan

Imran Khan, MBBS, Abdullah Khan, Fatima Aziz, Muhammad Islam, MSc, Saad Shafqat,
MBBS, PhD
From the Department of Neurology, Aga Khan University Hospital (IK, AK, FA, MI, SS),
Karachi, Pakistan.
Address correspondence and reprints: Dr. Saad Shafqat, MBBS, PhD; e-mail:
saad.shafqat@aku.edu.
Copyright © 2008 Blackwell Publishing, Inc.
KEYWORDS
trauma • head injury • epidemiology
ACADEMIC EMERGENCY MEDICINE 2008; 15:384–387 © 2008 by the Society for
Academic Emergency Medicine

ABSTRACT
Objectives: Wearing a helmet is the single most effective measure for preventing head injuries in
motorcycle users. The authors undertook this study to estimate compliance and determine
reasons for noncompliance with helmet use among motorcyclists in their community.
Methods: This was a cross-sectional survey of motorcyclists in three large randomly selected
public-access parking spaces across Karachi, Pakistan's largest city. Questions covered personal
demographics, frequency of helmet use, reasons for use or nonuse, and knowledge of local
helmet laws. Analysis was based on frequencies and group comparisons using chi-square test or
independent sample t-test.
Results: Of the 300 (100% male) subjects, 169 (56%) reported using helmets regularly. Users
listed injury prevention (78%) as the major reason for compliance, while nonusers listed physical
discomfort (44%) and limited vision (25%) as the leading reasons for noncompliance. In
univariate analysis, helmet users were significantly better educated than nonusers and were more
likely to believe that helmets are protective (p = 0.002) and that passengers should also wear
helmets (p < 0.001). The significance of these variables persisted in multivariate analysis.
Several other variables (such as mean age, marital status, and knowledge of helmet laws) did not
differ between users and nonusers.
Conclusions: Helmets are underused by motorcyclists in the authors' community. This study
underscores the need for improved helmet design, public understanding, intense public
education, and rigorous law enforcement in raising compliance with helmet use and minimizing
the risk of preventable trauma.
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Biomedical waste
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

Biomedical waste consists of solids, liquids, sharps, and laboratory waste that are potentially
infectious or dangerous. It must be properly managed to protect the general public, specifically
healthcare and sanitation workers who are regularly exposed to biomedical waste as an
occupational hazard.
Biomedical waste differs from other types of hazardous waste, such as industrial waste, in that it
comes from biological sources or is used in the diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of diseases.
Common producers of biomedical waste include hospitals, health clinics, nursing homes,
medical research laboratories, offices of physicians, dentists, and veterinarians, home health care,
and funeral homes.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Components
 o 1.1 Solids

o 1.2 Liquids

o 1.3 Sharps

o 1.4 Laboratory waste

o 1.5 Exceptions

• 2 Management

• 3 See also

• 4 External links

• 5 References

[edit] Components
The following is a list of materials that are generally considered biomedical waste:

[edit] Solids
• Catheters and tubes[1]

• Disposable gowns, masks,[1] and scrubs

• Disposable tools, such as some scalpels and surgical staplers

• Medical gloves[1][2]

• Surgical sutures and staples

• Wound dressings[1]

[edit] Liquids
• Blood[1][2]

• Body fluids and tissues[1][2]

• Cell, organ,[1] and tissue[1] cultures

[edit] Sharps
• Blades, such as razor or scalpel blades[1][2]

• Lancets[1][3]

• Materials made of glass, such as cuvettes and slides[1][2]

 • Metal stylets

• Needles[1][2]

• Plastic pipettes and tips[1][2]

• Syringes[2]

[edit] Laboratory waste

• Animal carcasses[1][2]

• Hazardous chemicals with biological components[2]

• Media[2]

• Medicinal plants

• Radioactive material with biological components[2]

• Supernatants[2]

[edit] Exceptions
Cadavers, urine, faeces, and cytotoxic drugs are not considered biomedical waste.[1]

[edit] Management

Sorting of medical wastes in hospital

At the site where it is generated, biomedical waste is placed in specially-labelled bags and
containers for removal by biomedical waste transporters.[3] Other forms of waste should not be
mixed with biomedical waste as different rules apply to the treatment of different types of waste.
[1] Biomedical waste is treated by any or a combination of the following methods: incineration;

discharge through a sewer or septic system; and steam, chemical, or microwave sterilisation.[1]
Any tools or equipment that come into contact with potentially infectious material and are not
disposable or designed for single-use are sterilised in an autoclave.[3]
Household biomedical waste usually consists of needles and syringes from drugs administered at
home (such as insulin), soiled wound dressings, disposable gloves, and bedsheets or other cloths
that have come into contact with bodily fluids.[3] Disposing of these materials with regular
household garbage puts waste collectors at risk for injury and infection,[4] especially from sharps
as they can easily puncture a standard household garbage bag. Many communities have programs
in place for the disposal of household biomedical waste. Some waste treatment facilities also
have mail-in disposal programs.[5]
Biomedical waste treatment facilities are licensed by the local governing body which maintains
laws regarding the operation of these facilities. The laws ensure that the general public is
protected from contamination of air, soil, groundwater, or municipal water supply.[1]

[edit] See also

• Hazardous waste

• List of waste management topics

• List of waste types

• Medical waste

• Universal precautions

[edit] External links

• Mail-Back Sharps Disposal

• Medical Waste Disposal

[edit] References
1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Maine Department of Environmental Protection.
"Biomedical Waste Management Rules".
http://maine.gov/dep/rwm/rules/pdf/chapter900effectiveaugust_4_2008.pdf.
Retrieved 2008-12-21.

2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m MIT EHS. "Biomedical Waste".

http://web.mit.edu/environment/ehs/biomed.html. Retrieved 2008-12-21.

3. ^ a b c d Florida Division of Environmental Health. "Biomedical Waste".

http://www.doh.state.fl.us/environment/community/biomedical/index.html.
Retrieved 2008-12-21.

4. ^ Maine Department of Environmental Protection. "Household Biomedical

Waste". http://maine.gov/dep/rwm/biomedical/iphousehold.rtf. Retrieved
2008-12-21.

5. ^ United States Post Office. "Providers of Mail-In Disposal Services for

Needles and Syringes".
http://www.doh.state.fl.us/environment/community/biomedical/pdfs/providers
.pdf. Retrieved 2008-12-21.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_waste"
Categories: Biological waste | Medicine

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A
Hospital Waste Management
d
v
a
n

Training objectives:
c
e
d
On completion of the course, participants will:-
s
e
Knowledge
a
· Describe the sources, composition and characteristics of hospital wastes
r
c
and the likely health hazards from improper management of hospital wastes.
h

A
· Explain the techniques and practices for effective management of hospital
b
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waste, covering collection, segregation, minimisation, storage and handling,
u
transportation, treatment and disposal of hospital wastes.
t

· Explain the socio-economic dimensions and legal requirements in the

6
0
context of hospital waste.
,
0
0
Skill
0
,
· Initiate action for facilitating safe collection and disposal of hospital waste.
0
0
0
· Evaluate and streamline hospital waste management practices and
r
procedures.
e
s
u
· Identify factors relevant for planning and implementing hospital waste
l
t
management systems for a region.
s

(
0Attitude
.
2
· Consistently promote safe practices and systematic approaches for the
4collection, storage and handling, segregation, transportation, treatment and
sdisposal of hospital wastes.
e
c
o
n
d
Detailed Training Plan
s
)
Background and rationale of the course:

SIn India, urban solid wastes have traditionally been handled by the municipal
authorities in most cities and towns. This includes among other things,
ewastes emanating from hospitals and nursing homes, which generate both
aclinical and non-clinical wastes. Unfortunately, these two categories require
distinct waste management options. Non-clinical wastes can be handled by
rthe municipal authorities in the traditional manner similar to that of usual
cgarbage. Clinical wastes, however, deserve special attention for on-site
storage, handling, transportation, treatment and ultimate disposal.
hAt present, both clinical and non-clinical wastes are collected and disposed
together, without much effort being taken for separating them. In addition,