University of Kirkuk

College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Name: Mustafa Hisham Salahaddin & Yousif Ayoob Ibrahim

Stage : Third
Topic Name Report: Engineering Analysis
Supervisor : Prof.Dr.Tahseen Ahmed Tahseen
Differential Equation: -
A differential equation is an equation which contains one or more
terms which involve the derivatives of one variable (i.e., dependent
variable) with respect to the other variable (i.e., independent variable)
dy /dx=f (x ) here “x” is an independent variable and “y” is a dependent
variable.

Differential Equation Types:

1- Ordinary differential equation.
2- Partial differential equations.
3- Linear differential equations.
4- Non-linear differential equations.
5- Homogeneous Differential Equations.
6- Non-homogenous Differential Equations.

General and Particular Solutions of a Differential Equation.

Differential Equations Solutions: A solution of a differential equation
is a relation between the variables (independent and dependent),
which is free of derivatives of any order, and which satisfies the
differential equation identically.
First Order Differential Equation:-
first- order differential equation is an equation. in which ƒ(x, y) is a
function of two variables defined on a region in the x y -plane. The
equation is of first order because it involves only the first derivative
dy dx (and not higher-order derivatives).

d
ý=f ( x , y) and dx
y=f ( x , y )

Types of the first order differential equation:-

 Separable Equations.
 Homogeneous Equations.
 Exact Equations.
 Linear Equations.
 Bernoulli Equations.

 Separable Differential Equation: -

A first order differential equation y=¿ f ´( x , y ) ¿ is called a separable
equation if the function f (x , y ) can be factored into the product of two
functions of x and y.
 Procedure to solve a separable first order differential equation: -

1- Write the equation in the form:

A ( x ) dx + B ( y ) dy=0

2- Integrate A(x) with respect to x and B(y) with respect to y to

obtain an equation that relates y and x .

 Homogeneous Differential Equations: -

dy
A first order differential equation dx
=f ( x , y) is called homogeneous

equation, if the right side satisfies the condition, the right side is a
homogeneous function (with respect to the variables ( x and y ) of the
zero order.

A homogeneous differential equation can be also written in the form:

dy
N (x, y) =M (x , y)
dx

Where N and M are function of both x and y of the same degree

throughout, is said to be homogenous in y and x .
A first order differential equation is homogenous if it can be in the
form: -

dy y
dx
=f
x ( )
… … … … … … … …1

dy x
dx
=f
y( )
… … … … … … … ….2

y x
Let v= x → y=vx let u= y → x=uy

dy dv dx du
∴ =v + x ∴ =u+ y
dx dx dy dy

dy y dx x
∵
dx
=f
x()
=f (v) ∵ f
dy y()
=f (u)

dv
∴v+x
dx
=f (v ) ∴ u+ y ( dudy )=f (u)
dx dv dy du
∴∫ ∴∫
x ∫ v−f (v ) y ∫ u−f (u)
+ =0 +

dv du
∫ v −f ( v ) =C−ln x ∫ u−f (u) =C−ln x

Procedure to solve a homogenous first order differential equation:

dy dy M (x , y)
1- Rewrite N (x, y)
dx
=M (x , y) into the form dx N ( x , y ) .
=

y
2- Make the substitution v=
x .
M ( x , y)
3- Rewrite N (x , y ) into the form f ( xy )=f ( v ).
dv
4- Solve ∫ v −f (v ) =C−ln x .
y
5- Rewrite the solution in to the form of x and y ( v= ).
x
 Exact Differential Equations: -
A first‐order differential equation is one containing a firstbut no
higher derivative of the unknown function. For virtually every such
equation encountered in practice, the general solution will contain
one arbitrary constant, that is, one parameter, so a first‐order IVP will
contain one initial condition. There is no general method that solves
every first‐order equation, but there are methods to solve.

The equation f (x , y )=c gives the family of integral curves (that is, the
solutions) of the differential equation.

df =0

Therefore, if a differential equation has the form:

δf δf
dx+ dy=0 … … … … …∗¿
δx δy

for some function f (x , y ), then it is automatically of the form df =0 so

the general solution is immediately given
by f ( x , y)=c . In this case.

δf δf
dx+ dy
δx δy
 Is called an exact differential, and the differential equation (*) is
called an exact equation , To determine whether a given differential
equation.
M ( x , y ) dx+ N ( x , y ) dy=0

Is exact, use the Test for Exactness: A differential equation

Mdx+ Ndy=0 is exact if and only if.

δM δN
=
δy δx

Procedure to solve a exact differential equation: -

1- Rewrite the equation in the form:

M ( x , y ) dx+ N ( x , y ) dy=0

2- Integrate M (x , y ) with respect to x , writing the constant of

integration as k ( y)
f ( x , y )=∫ M ( x , y ) dx +k ( y)

3-Differential with respect to y , and set result equal N ( x , y) to find

k (´ y)
❑
1
N ( x , y )=
δy ( ∫
yconstant
)
M (x , y )dx + k (´y)

4-Integrate to find k ( x , y ) and substituted , then writing the solution

of exact equation as
 General solution:-

δR
R=∫ Mdx (
K=∫ n−
δy
dy )
R+ K =c

 Liner Differential Equation: -

A differential equation of type:

dy
+ p ( x ) y =Q( x)
dx

Where a P( x ) and Q(x )are continuous functions of x is called a

linear nonhomogeneous differential equation of first order.

we can be written a liner first order equation in the form:

dx
+ p ( x ) y =Q( y )
dy

Procedure to solve a liner first order differential Equation: -

1- Rewrite the equation in standard form:

dy
+ p ( x ) y =Q( x)
dx
 2- Find ρ( x ):
p ( x ) dx
ρ ( x )=e∫

3- Find y (x ):

1
y ( x) = ∫ ρ ( x ) Q ( x ) dx
ρ(x)

 Bernoulli Differential Equations: -

is called a Bernoulli differential equation where n is any real
number other than 0 or 1 Bernoulli equations are special because
they are nonlinear differential equations with known exact
solutions.

A Bernoulli differential equation has form:

ý 1
ý + p ( x ) y=Q( x) y n n
+ p( x ) n−1
y y

1 dz ý
Let z= y n−1 dx
=(1−n) n
y
dz
+ ( 1−n ) P ( x ) z =( 1−n ) Q(x)
dx

Fourier series:-
A graph of periodic function f(x) that has period L exhibits the same
pattern every L units along the x-axis, so that f (x+ L)=f (x ) for every
value of x. If we know what the function looks like over one complete
period, we can thus sketch a graph of the function over a wider
interval of x (that may contain many periods)

This property of repetition defines a fundamental spatial frequency

2π
k=
L
that can be used to give a first approximation to

the periodic pattern f(x):

f ( x ) ≅ C 1 sin ( kx +α 1 )=a1 cos ( kx )+ b1 sin ( kx ) ,

where symbols with subscript 1 are constants that determine the

amplitude and phase of this first approximation

A much better approximation of the periodic pattern f(x) can

be built up by adding an appropriate combination of harmonics to
this fundamental (sine-wave) pattern. For example, adding

c 2 sin ( 2 kx+ α 2 )=a2 cos ( 2 kx )+ b2 sin ⁡(2 kx )

c 3 sin ( 3 kx+ α 3 ) =a3 cos ( 3 kx ) +b 3 sin ⁡(3 kx)

Here, symbols with subscripts are constants that determine the

amplitude and phase of each harmonic contribution

One can even approximate a square-wave pattern with a suitable sum

that involves a fundamental sine-wave plus a combination of
harmonics of this fundamental frequency. This sum is called a Fourier
series
In this Tutorial, we consider working out Fourier series for functions
f (x) with period L=2 π .and Their fundamental frequency is then
2π
k= =1 and their Fourier series representations involve terms like
L
a 1 cos x , b1 sin x
a 2 cos 2 x , b 2 sin 2 x
a 3 cos 3 x , b3 sin 3 x

We also include a constant term a0/2 in the Fourier series. This

allows us to represent functions that are, for example, entirely above
the x−axis. With a sufficient number of harmonics included, our
approximate series can exactly represent a given function f(x)

f (x)=a0 /2+a1 cos x +a2 cos 2 x+ a3 cos 3 x +…

+b 1 sin x +b2 sin 2 x +b3 sin 3 x+ …

A more compact way of writing the Fourier series of a function f ( x),

with period 2, uses the variable subscript n = 1, 2, 3, . . .

a0 ∞
f ( x )= + ∑ ¿ ¿
2 n=1

We need to work out the Fourier coefficients (a0, an and bn) for
given functions f(x). This process is broken down into three steps

L
1
 a 0= ∫ f (x )dx
2 L −L
 L
1
 a n= ∫ f (x)cos nx dx
L −L

L
1
 b n= ∫ f ( x ) sin nx dx
L −L

where integrations are over a single interval in x of L = 2 π

Finally, specifying a particular value of x = x1 in a Fourier series,

gives a series of constants that should equal f ( x 1 ). However, if f (x)

is discontinuous at this value of x, then the series converges to a value

that is half-way between the two possible function values.

Laplace Transform: -

The Laplace transform can be used to solve differential equations.

Besides being a different and efficient alternative to variation of
parameters and undetermined coefficients, the Laplace method is
particularly advantageous for input terms that are piecewise-defined,
periodic or impulsive. The direct Laplace transform or the Laplace
integral of a function f(t) defined for 0 ≤ t < ∞ is the ordinary calculus
integration problem

∫ f (t )e−st dt ,
0
succinctly denoted L(f (t)) in science and engineering literature. The L–
notation recognizes that integration always proceeds over t=0 to t=∞
and that the integral involves an integrator e−st dt instead of the usual dt .
These minor dierences distinguish Laplace integrals from the ordinary
integrals found on the inside covers of calculus texts

A table of several important one-sided Laplace transforms is given

below: -

f Lt [ f ( t ) ]
a (constant) a
s
e at 1
s−a
sin at a
s + a2
2

cos at s
s + a2
2

sinh at a
s −a2
2

cosh at s
s −a2
2

tn n!
s n+1