Language I

16/10/2019

Present Simple:
This grammatical tense is used for:

- Facts
- Routine
- Future (in case of schedules or timetables)

Look for Keywords: adverbs of routine.

Past Simple:
This grammatical tense is used for:

- Routine
- Fact
- Finished time

Routine and facts must be referring to the past

Present Perfect
There are multiple ways of using this tense.
We should compare it to the Past Simple

Present Perfect Past Simple

I have been in Turkey once, twice, and so on
We use Present Perfect in order to talk about
experiences in our lives that are unfinished.
IMPORTANT: NEVER put time at the
end
Instead of last, ago and so on, we use one,
twice, three times and so on in this tense
I visited Turkey last January
We use Past Simple in order to refer to an
experience that have already ended.
IMPORTANT: look for keywords
Last, ago, yesterday, 1998, January, before,
while
They are all hints of the use of Past Simple
tense
Language I

30/10/2019

PRESENT PERFECT PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

Subject + Have/has + Past Participle
It is used in order to talk about experiences in
our life.
An action of the past that leads until the
present.
For instance: I have had a tattoo.
You talk about an experience – to have a
tattoo – that took place in the past, and it is
still up to date since you have your tattoo.
Subject + have/has + been + verb “ing”
It is used in order to talk about an action that
is permanent.
For instance: I have been playing saw for 8
years since 2011.
In this case, we are talking about an action
that started in the past – that is 2011 – and is
still up to date since this person is still
playing saw.

Key words: Since and For IMPORTANT: keep in mind that

 Since: exact date. STATIVE verbs NEVER appear in
Ex: January, 2018, Tuesday, 12.00 progressive tenses
Statives verbs are related to:
 For: How long it has been going on - Emotions
Ex: Months, years, days, hours, seconds. - Sensorial verbs: taste, look
- Marry

There are exceptions:

- Have, as in having lunch
- See, as in seeing you, in case of a date
SUMMING UP
This tense responds to: This tense can be used for both, an act that is
- An act that is permanent in time, since it permanent in time and an act that is
started in the past and it leads to the temporary. An example that can be provided
present. is:
- Stative verbs can be used in this tense. - How long have you been waiting?
Be verb: am, is, are, was, were, been The waiter is not going to wait for his or her
Emotions: Love, like, hate whole life, so it is a temporary action.
Senses: Hear, taste, smell.
REMEMBER: STATIVE VERBS CAN
BE CAREFULL: NEVER BE USED IN PROGRESSIVE
- Since can never be used in Past Simple TENSES
- For can be used in Past Simple and
Future

Another use of the Present Simple tense is related to expectations. Consider the following case:

 Have you done your homework yet? 

 I have not done my homework yet.  We use it to emphasise that we expect something to
happen soon. At any time up to now. It is place at the end of negatives and questions.
 I have already done my homework.  We use it in order to emphasise that the act is done
earlier than expected. “Before now”. It is placed between the auxiliar and the main verb
 I have just done my homework.  We use it in order to refer to an act that have taken place
in a short time before the current situation. It is placed between the auxiliar and the main
verb
The keywords that we should look for in this case are already, yet and just.
Language I

ADJECTIVES
1) Prabha is shorter than I am
2) Prabha is older than I am
3) Prabha is more adventurous than I am
4) Prabha is more creative than I am
5) Prabha is more disciplined than I am
KEEP IN MIND: How to differentiate between this and that?
When we refer to “these” and “this”, those words imply to touch something, whereas “those”
and “that” imply to point at something.

Adjectives are used in order to describes nouns, to give an extra information about them.
REMEMBER: Nouns refers to things, people and places.
Regarding adjectives, let’s compare:

ADJECTIVE WITH 1 SYLLABLE ADJECTIVES WITH 2 OR MORE

SYLLABLES
Nicer Expensive
Bigger  Si tenemos una vocal antes de la Beautiful
última consonante, esta última se duplica. Interesting
Taller Handsome
Shorter Fascinating
Smaller
Poorer  A diferencia de Bigger, Poor tiene All of them use the words “more” or “less” in
dos vocales en lugar de una sola vocal previa order to form the comparative tense.
a la consonante final. Por tanto, no duplica.
Let’s consider some irregularities –
exceptions:
Funny  funnier
Crazy  crazier
Happy  happier
Lazy  Lazier
Comfy  comfier

All of them are adjectives that have two

syllables and they all end in -y

Exception  Shyer
KEEP IN MIND
- They both use as ____ as in order to refer “tan …. como” or “so …. wie”
- They are placed before nouns. Consider the following examples:
That is a tall building
She has a small cat
- Due to the fact that they are used in order to describe nouns, they often appear in be
verbs sentences.
She is hilarious.
Language I

20/11/2019
DEFFERENCE BETWEEN TO LEND AND TO BORROW

 Giver  Lender. Can you lend me your phone?

 Receiver  Borrower. Can I borrow your phone?
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

First Conditional Second Conditional Third Conditional

If I go to school, I will have a
higher chance to get a job
Specific situation that must
be possible and realistic.
Reference to the future
Will/ might
If I went to school, I would If I had gone to school, I
have a higher chance to get a would have gotten a higher
job chance to get a job
Specific situation that must Specific situation that must
be (im)possible and – or be impossible and
unrealistic. unrealistic.
Reference to the present or Reference to the past.
the future
Would/ could/ should Would/ could/ might
 Would: si sabemos al
100% lo que
haríamos
 Could: si valoramos
varias opciones en
mente
 Should: para
sugerencias

OJO: if I were you 

advices
SOLO EN 2ND
CONDITIONAL

KEEP IN MIND: REASONS TO USE CONDITIONALS

1) Regret: if I hadn’t drunk so much last night, I wouldn’t have had a headache this
morning
2) Another options: If I hadn’t been accepted in Bonn University, I would have applied for
Newcastle University.

OJO: ESPECIAL CONDITIONAL: se caracteriza por la suma de la segunda y tercera

condicional

 If I had known what I know now, I would be a smarter person right now.
It is used in order to talk about experiences that took place in the past and has an impact on the
present.
Language I

HOW TO USE WILL AS OPPOSED TO BE GOING TO

WILL BE GOING TO
 Spontaneous decisions: they are  Decisions: we have already a plan; it
decisions that we take at the moment. is not spontaneous.
Consider the case that someone asks  Predictions and forecasts: based on
you for plans and you make a what we perceived with our own
decision at that concrete moment. sight
Keyword: Maybe – Perhaps.
 Predictions and forecast: In case
we cannot perceive with our own
sight.
 Facts for the future
 Offers to people
 Promise
 First Conditional

28/11/2019

QUANTIFIERS

MANY A LOT OF MUCH

Used for countable nouns: Used for uncountable/
countable nouns:
 Positive: I have KEEP IN MIND:
many mobile phones We cannot use “a” for
 Negative: I do not uncountable. Instead, we use
have many mobile “the”.
phones
 Interrogative: How  Positive: I have a lot
many mobiles of chock on my
phones do you have? clothes
 Negative: I don’t
have a lot of chock
on my clothes
 Interrogative: Do I
have a lot of chuck
on my clothes?
Used for uncountable
 Interrogative: How
much money do you
have?
 Negative: I don’t
have much money
Positive? We CANNOT use
“much” for positive sentence.
However, consider this
example:
I have so/too much money
So and too allow to use much
in positive sentences

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A COUPLE AND A FEW

 A couple: it means “two”. Therefore, it implies a concrete number of participants.

 A few: it means more than “two”, but we cannot determine a concrete number of
objects. We could consider that amount of quantity is between three and ten, but it
could be higher.
Language I

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FEW AND A FEW

FEW A FEW
They are used with countable nouns and describes how big or small the number of something is.
It is also used with positive and negative sentences
It means “not enough”. Therefore, we speak It is used for a request or question and is
about the quantity of something which is normally small.
small.
Ex: Can I have a few minutes to think about my
Ex: There are few things that I wouldn’t eat decision?

KEEP IN MIND:
A few normally means 3, but that is quite
vague; meaning if there are 5 or 6 people in my
classe, we can use a few.

They both describes numbers

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A LITTLE AND LITTLE

A LITTLE LITTLE
They are used with uncountable nouns and therefore cannot really determine the number of
something but in quantity.
It means a small amount/ quantity It means not enough
I would like a little sugar in my coffee I have little time to do my homework
They both describes quantities and they are already negative.
I have not little time??  I have little time

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOME AND ANY

SOME ANY
They are used when the speaker cannot specify or does not want to specify a number or an
exact amount.
It is used in positive sentences It is used in negative sentences and questions
(countable/noncount nouns): (countable/ noncount nouns):
 I got some nice presents for  I didn’t get any nice presents for
Christmas this year. Christmas this year.
 If you are hungry, there are some  Did you have any brothers or sisters?
biscuits in the cupboard.
EXCEPTIONS: EXCEPTIONS
We can use some in questions when offering We can use any in positive sentences when
or requesting: we mean “it doesn’t matter which, who,
 Would you like some more tea? when…”.
 Could I have some milk, please?  You can ask for my help any time.
 Any one of you can go. It’s up to you

KEEP IN MIND: The preceding rules apply also to words containing some and any:
somebody – anybody; something – anything.
Language I

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EACH AND EVERY

 Each: It is used in order to refers to the individuals.

o Each artist sees things differently.
 Every: It is used in order to refers to groups as a whole.
o Every artist is sensitive.

Direct speech vs indirect speech

- Direct speech: She said: “We are going to get married”

- Indirect speech: She said that they were going to get married.

Next week: Modals

IMPORTANT RULE: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COULD AND BE ABLE TO.
When we are talking about a repetitive action, we can used both. For instance, when I was
young, I could/ was able to swim very fast.
However, when we talk about a specific situation in positive sentences, we cannot use could. An
example could be: Last Saturday I was able to go to Maria’s party.

11/12/2019
EITHER AND NEITHER
One way to use them is the usage either and neither when we have to choose between two
possibility or when there is no option.

- Either: Keyword: or
- Neither: Keyword: nor
o Examples: Either we stay in or go to the party.

Either we do X, or we do Y.
We have to choose one of those things.

I have neither the time nor the energy

In this case, you have not got any of the two possibilities.
Another way to use is agreement in negative.
Positive: I love your hair! Me too!
Negative: I don’t like your hair! Two possibilities:
a) Me neither!
b) I don’t like it either!
Keep in mind: Neither in positive sentences is the equivalent of either in negative sentences,
that is “don’t …. Either”.
Language I

MODAL VERBS
They have several functions.

REGARDING THE PAST

1) Levels of possibilities

COULD ABLE TO COULD HAVE/MIGHT

HAVE
Repetitive possible actions in Possible positive for It basically means, something
positives sentences: repetitive was possible, but you didn’t do
- When I was younger, I When I was young, I was it.
could run very fast. able to run very fast.
DIFFERENCE: TYPE 3 CONDITIONAL:
We use “able to” to refer to one specific incident. If I hadn’t chosen the University
Ex: Last week, I was able to go to the party. of Bonn, I could have attended
DO NEVER use could to Köln University

SIMILARITIES:
In negative sentences, we can use both, couldn’t or
wasn’t able to.

2) Supposed to vs Should have

SUPPOSED TO SHOULD HAVE

We use “be supposed to” for expectations or
intention to do sth, agreements.
Examples:
- Brandon was supposed to be here.
- I was supposed to do my homework, but
I forgot.
We use “should have” for advices that wasn’t
done and regrets.
Examples:
- I should have bought more stock in
google.
KEEP IN MIND:
Should have CAN NEVER be use in
Conditional 3.
However, regret can be expressed in
Conditional 3, but using “would have”.

“If I had bought more stock in google, I

would have been rich”.
Language I

REGARDING THE PRESENT

1) Levels of possibility

COULD, MAY AND MUST SHOULD

MIGHT
Highest level of possibility. Minimal level of possibility Neutral. We know that there
There are many possibilities There is just one possibility.is just one possibility, but
there are external factors that
conditionate this possibility.
Consider the following example. In a class, Clara, Paloma, Ana and Luis are missing, and
someone knocks the door. That person may be anyone. Thus, the correct modal will be:

- He/she could, may or might be Clara, Paloma, Ana, Luis, the director, etc (many
possibilities)
Now consider that Luis is the only one missing in the class and, again, someone knocks the
door. As the possibilities have been reduced, this person could be Luis, but it may also be a
director, another professor or student. Therefore, the correct modal verb in this case is:

- He should be Luis.

Finally, consider this case. Paloma is going to celebrate a party and she invites Ana, but she
says: One know something Paloma? I will be late there, likely at 10 p.m. It is 10 p.m and
someone knocks the door. In this case, there is just one possibility, so the correct modal is:

- She must be Ana

2) Type 2 Conditional
- If I had ten million euros, I could buy a new car, quit my job instantly …

In this case, could refers to endless alternatives.

However, in case there is just one option, and we know we want to take it, we must use “would”
because we know what choice we’re going to take.

- If I had ten million euros, I would buy a new car.

3) Permission
Depending on formality, we can use

- May: highest polite

- Could: neutral
- Can: lowest polite

Might is even more polite than may. It is rather old-fashioned.

We can use “to be allowed to” to express permission.
Language I

REGARDING FUTURE
1) Levels of Necessity
Must vs have to
Must: it refers to a higher rule that if you don’t follow it, you will suffer the consequences.
When in a document it is speaking about the rule (If you want to travel to China you
need to get your visa card), we use must:
You must get your visa card to travel to China.

Have to: It does not refer to a rule, nothing is going to happen if you don’t do something.
It usually involves a second person that tells you something:
Hey man! Don’t forget you have to get your visa card in order to travel to China.

There are some cases in which people can make rules for themselves. Consider the following
case: Luis has gone out with Paloma and Ana Belén, and Luis have a flight to Las Bahamas the
following day at 8 a.m. He has to arrive early at home in order to rest and get up early, so that
he won’t miss his flight. In this case, the correct way of use these modal verbs is:

- I must go home

If Luis doesn’t do that, he could suffer the consequences – to miss his flight-.

KEEP IN MIND: We can use must to refer to present time when we are dealing with
emergencies:
We must operate this man right now.

SHOULD COULD – MAY – MIGHT WOULD

Best possible advice We are dealing with many It is used in Conditional 2
alternatives
2) Suggestions

Must can be used as a suggestion when someone really loves something, and he thinks you’d
love it too.

Can: ability for now or the future

Could: it can refer to future in conditionals.
Language I

Du sollest lieber mehr Obst essen = You have better eat more fruits.
HAD BETTER VS SHOULD
First of all, they can be used for repetitive actions

- You’d better/ should eat more fruits from now on.

However, Had better is also used for single incidents, which are life-threatened.

- You had better get out of there right now.

Should: single or repetitive suggestions

Had better: warning

Shall  interrogative sentences

Ought to  positive sentences