White Paper

Accurate Level
Measurement Solutions for
Full Containment Tanks
LNG and Fractionated Gas Applications
Accurate Level Measurement Solutions for Full Containment Tanks White Paper

Abstract
The storage of liquefied natural gas (LNG) and heavier gaseous hydrocarbons such as
ethane presents certain challenges for inventory measurement technology. This white
paper looks at the need for accurate level measurement solutions to support inventory
management and safety functions in full containment storage tanks. It also reveals the
characteristics of the tanks, in which the liquefied gases are stored, and examines the
challenges these applications present to accurate level measurement. The drawbacks
of traditional measurement methods are explained before we describe the benefits of
the latest non-contacting radar technology and the most appropriate tank gauging
solution for these cryogenic applications.

Natural gas - the fastest growing energy source

Natural gas is a clean burning fossil fuel that is used for power generation, transport,
and heating.
Traditionally, gas is transported via pipelines to residential or industrial gas grids. With
new deposits around the world, natural gas is now a viable part of the world's energy
mix. When fractionated, it also provides heavier natural gas liquids (NGLs) such as
ethane, propane, butane, and pentanes. Ethane has quickly emerged as a valuable
alternative to naphtha as a petrochemical feedstock.
The liquefaction of natural gas into LNG allows it to be stored, transported and traded
across the world. Methane, which is natural gas in its purest form, occupies 600 times
less volume as a liquid compared to its gaseous state, which means it can be safely
transported in bulk quantities. As with methane, many of the NGLs mentioned are also
kept in liquid form for ease of storage and transportation.

Figure 1. LNG Liquefaction

The liquefaction of natural gas into LNG allows it to be stored, transported, and traded across the world.

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Accurate Level Measurement Solutions for Full Containment Tanks White Paper

Storage tanks
After processing and fractionation have taken place, the liquefied gases are stored in
cryogenic or refrigerated full containment tanks. From there, they can be transported
overseas in specially designed carriers or overland in road tankers or rail cars to areas
that are not served by pipelines. After being transported, the liquefied gas will be
regasified at the terminal or grid to which it is delivered. Full containment tanks
typically have a capacity of between 30,000 and 200,000 cubic meters with an inner
liquid containment steel tank, an outer concrete (or steel) tank for secondary
containment control, and thermal insulation between the two to minimize liquid
boil-off when stored.

Figure 2. LNG Distribution

LNG can be distributed via trailer and used as a clean energy alternative in industry processes.

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Accurate Level Measurement Solutions for Full Containment Tanks White Paper

Why measurements are important

Different gases require different inventory measurements. While LNG is valued for its
energy content - which can differ depending on the supplier and time stored - heavier,
constant gases like ethane or propane are similar to other hydrocarbons with inventory
being based on net volumes and mass.
Level and temperature measurement technology forms a key part of tank gauging
systems. Obtaining reliable and precise measurements of the liquid level inside each
vessel is essential for inventory management and custody transfer purposes. Level and
temperature are also measured for safety reasons, because filling a tank above its
capacity can cause an overfill, which presents a safety hazard. Monitoring levels and
insulation space to make sure tanks are not leaking is also important, especially when
hazardous materials are being stored. Preventing overfills and detecting leaks is also
important for meeting environmental regulations.
Full containment tanks use at least two but up to five level gauges for primary,
secondary level, and overfill duties. The safety system typically uses all these gauges.
LNG also calls for monitoring of the tank temperature and density profiles to detect
stratification. Stratification is when two separate layers of LNG are formed within a
tank. This can potentially lead to dangerous release of boil-off vapor called a roll-over.
Additional temperature measurements are made to monitor the cool-down process
and to add leak detection safety. Both functions are achieved by using multiple
temperature sensor elements. These are distributed along the inner tank wall and at
the tank bottom (for cool-down supervision) and within the insulation space between
the inner and outer tank walls (for leak detection).

Measurement challenges
Establishing the level and temperature of liquefied gas in full containment tanks
presents various challenges for measurement technology. These tanks are large
structures, which means the required measurement range can be 40 meters (131 feet)
or more. This makes accuracy difficult to achieve. Also, these closed tanks are not
opened during operation and are normally not accessed for maintenance purposes
during their entire life cycle. This means reliability is crucial, and redundancy is a vital
demand for level measurements in these applications. A further challenge is presented
by the inner structure of these tanks.
A standard storage tank has only one vapor space, but in full containment tanks there
are two different vapor spaces - one outside the tank's fixed suspended deck and one
inside it. These two large vapor spaces have different temperatures, and for inventory
purposes this needs to be considered when calculating the mass equivalent within the
vapor spaces.

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Accurate Level Measurement Solutions for Full Containment Tanks White Paper

Figure 3. Inside a Full Containment Tank

Traditional level measurement methods

In cryogenic applications, tank gauging systems must be able to deliver reliable and
accurate level data throughout the entire service life of the tank. Level measurement
has traditionally been performed using either the float and tape method or via servo
technology. In the former, a large float inside the tank is connected to a spring motor
and a mechanical numeric indicator at the lower end of the outside of the tank through
a pulley system. For remote monitoring, the float gauge may be equipped with a
transmitter, which provides tank level values to the control room. When adopting the
servo method, the float is replaced by a small displacer, which has buoyancy but does
not float on the liquid. The displacer needs to be suspended by a thin wire, which is
connected to the servo gauge on top of the tank. A weighing system in the servo gauge
senses the tension in the wire, and signals from the weighing mechanism control an
electric motor in the servo unit and make the displacer follow the liquid level
movements. An electronic transmitter sends the level information using fieldbus
communication to the control room.
Although these methods are still widely used, they have major shortcomings. The
accuracy performance of a float gauge is often poor. There are plenty of error sources
such as buoyancy differences, dead-band, back-lash, and hysteresis in the mechanisms.
If anything goes wrong with the float, the tape or the guide wires, it is necessary to
carry out service work inside the tank. The float gauge is a relatively simple device but
has many moving parts that will require maintenance and repair over its lifetime. Servo
gauges generally perform better than float gauges, but they also have many moving
parts, and the displacer and the wire are in contact with the tank liquid. Hence servo
gauges need attention in the form of calibration, routine maintenance, and repair.

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Accurate Level Measurement Solutions for Full Containment Tanks White Paper

Non-contacting radar
Owners need to choose intelligent solutions that help maximize a tank's output while
minimizing operating and maintenance costs, to realize a quick return on investment.
The modern approach involves using non-contacting radar to provide precise level
measurement. This is the fastest growing tank gauging technology across the world in
cryogenic applications.
Non-contacting radar level gauges use microwaves to measure the liquid level. These
devices have no moving parts and do not touch the liquid, which helps to ensure
maintenance requirements are minimal. Most radar gauges cannot overcome the
difficulties associated with vapor spaces, dielectric constant, and long measuring
distance, which cryogenic applications present. However, the best technology gauges
can provide highly accurate measurements at distances of over 55 meters (180 feet),
and furthermore, measurements can be verified with the tank in operation. These
gauges use Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) technology for optimum
signal strength. A 4-inch still-pipe guides the radar signal, resulting in a strong,
undisturbed echo from the surface of the liquid. The radar sweep is controlled by a
crystal oscillator to achieve 0.5 millimeters (0.020 inches) level precision. Using a
precise radar level gauge can deliver a 180 percent reduction in volume uncertainty
over traditional methods.
These devices are suitable for use in cryogenic applications as their electronics are
housed within the transmitter head outside the tank, and there is a specific antenna
option for LNG/NGL usage that can function in such an extreme environment. These
gauges can boast impressive reliability and accuracy with mean time between failures
(MTBF) for critical parts measured in decades.

Figure 4. Redundancy for Critical Measurements

For a tank that may not be opened for years, reliability is critical. Radar technology is often preferred. In addition, to maximize
availability, a common solution is to have triple redundancy for all measurement instrumentation.

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Accurate Level Measurement Solutions for Full Containment Tanks White Paper

Devices used in a safety instrumented system (SIS) must be periodically proof-tested to

ensure that they work properly when there is a safety demand. These tests have
traditionally been carried out by technicians in the field and verified by a worker in the
control room. This method can involve workers having to climb tanks to access the
instruments, putting their safety at risk. It is also a time-consuming process, which can
lead to the tank being out of service for an extended period, affecting profitability.
However, the latest radar gauges enable proof tests to be performed remotely from the
control room, thereby making the procedure safer, faster, and more efficient.
Benefits such as these make the latest radar gauges a suitable choice for replacing
traditional level measurement methods in cryogenic applications.

Figure 5. Improved Safety with Remote Proof-Testing

Performing proof-tests from the control room is much quicker and safer compared to climbing high tanks.

Diverse and identical separation

Safety is of paramount importance for facilities where large volumes of hydrocarbons
are stored, so the safety functions provided by the tank gauging technology are critical
in these applications. It is common practice for applications involving full containment
tanks to install three level gauges — primary and secondary gauges supporting the
basic process control system (BPCS) and a third providing information for the overfill
prevention system (OPS) — with SIS alarms triggered on a two-out-of-three voting
scheme.

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Accurate Level Measurement Solutions for Full Containment Tanks White Paper

There is a misconception that standards require the technology used for the OPS to be
different from the technology used for the BPCS. This is typically referred to as diverse
separation or diverse redundancy. It is in fact legitimate to use the same technology for
both. This is known as identical separation, and non-contacting radar level gauges are
increasingly becoming the preferred technology.
IEC 61511-2, which provides best safety practices for the implementation of a modern
SIS, reads: “Separation between the SIS and the BPCS may use identical or diverse
separation.” Identical separation would mean using the same technology for both the
BPCS and SIS whereas diverse separation would mean using different technologies
from the same or different manufacturer. Compared with identical separation, which
helps against random failures, diverse separation offers the additional benefit of
reducing the probability of systematic faults affecting multiple channels at the same
time and/or from the same cause and hence reduces correlated failure of multiple
channels. Identical separation between the SIS and BPCS may have some advantages in
design and maintenance because it reduces the likelihood of maintenance errors. This
is particularly the case if diverse devices are to be selected which have not been used
before within the user's organization.
In other words, diverse and identical separation are both valid options, but they provide
different benefits. There is a growing insight that reducing maintenance and similar
“handling errors” is critical — by some estimates, 75 percent of accidents in industry are
traceable to organizational and human factors. In this context, the Buncefield incident
provides a case in point. Buncefield had redundant and diverse technology for overfill
protection, but the high-level alarm was inoperable due to human error. It had been
taken offline for testing and had not been reinstalled properly — it was no longer
functioning. It can be argued that diverse separation introduces extra complexity and
increases the likelihood of human error, as personnel need to learn about installing,
configuring, and proof-testing two different technologies rather than just one.

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Accurate Level Measurement Solutions for Full Containment Tanks White Paper

Radar-based tank gauging solutions

Figure 6. A Typical Radar-Based LNG Tank Gauging System

In cryogenic applications, a typical radar-based tank gauging solution with a

configuration focusing on high reliability combined with high measuring performance
have the following main components:
 One primary high-precision radar gauge for level measurement
 One secondary high-precision radar gauge for level measurement
 Two temperature transmitters, each with up to 16-spot temperature sensors to
cover the entire tank height for average liquid temperature measurement and
online redundant temperature stratification monitoring
 A third radar gauge allocated for high-level alarm
 Transmitters with separate temperature elements for skin/cool-down temperature
and leak detection measurement
 A separate device for temperature and density profiling (LTD)
 Optional graphical field displays
 Communication devices for data collection from field instruments, data
transmission to the control room area, and SIL-rated HH and pump control alarms
 Data concentrators in the control room area for providing data to DCS systems, HMI
systems and communication with general IT systems
 Inventory management software for operator interface and reports

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Accurate Level Measurement Solutions for Full Containment Tanks White Paper

Reliable system solution

With identical separation considered a valid option, this solution uses radar gauges to
provide both level measurement and the independent or voted high-level alarm. All
tank gauging components, including cool-down and leak detection, use the same tank
communication infrastructure.

Figure 7. Radar Level Gauge with LNG Antenna

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Accurate Level Measurement Solutions for Full Containment Tanks White Paper

To provide the supporting temperature measurements, advanced temperature

transmitters can be used with multiple spot temperature sensors, specifically designed
for cryogenic applications. These sensors can be enhanced with calibrated spot
elements. Transmitters can also be combined with highly reliable temperature sensors
for measuring the tank wall temperature to provide cool-down control and leak
detection.

Figure 8. Multi-Input Temperature Transmitter with Sensors

Multi-input temperature transmitter with a 4-wire calibrated Multi-input temperature transmitter with a temperature
multiple spot temperature sensor sensor for cool-down and leak detection

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Accurate Level Measurement Solutions for Full Containment Tanks White Paper

A level, temperature, and density (LTD) gauge that potentially samples hundreds of
data points will provide a detailed and accurate temperature and density profile. Such
profiling makes it possible to detect stratification in an LNG tank and help to prevent
roll-over incidents. By monitoring all relevant data, the potential development of
stratification can be controlled, and action taken to avoid a roll-over.

Figure 9. Level, Temperature, and Density (LTD) Gauge

To collect this data and power the field devices, tank gauging systems are connected to
a tank hub. The hub also sends measured data to the control room via a field
communication unit.

Figure 10. Tank Hub Field Communication Unit

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Accurate Level Measurement Solutions for Full Containment Tanks White Paper

Inventory management software facilitates straightforward configuration of field

devices, and enables inventory calculations, batch handling, report handling, alarm
handling, history sampling, and remote proof-testing. Advanced inventory
management software incorporates support for full containment tanks and handles
calculation of mass and vapor mass equivalent within the two vapor spaces.

Figure 11. Inventory Management Software for Operator Interface and Reports

Conclusion
With cryogenic liquids stored in huge full containment tanks, which may not be
opened for years, tank gauging systems must be able to deliver reliable and accurate
level measurement throughout the entire service life of the tank. Solutions based on
the latest non-contacting radar technology offer a range of benefits compared to
traditional methods, including highly accurate measurements at long range, remote
proof-testing capability, and the ability to overcome the difficulties associated with
vapor spaces and dielectric constant. Therefore, it is little wonder that non-contacting
radar has become the fastest growing level measurement technology in cryogenic tank
gauging applications.

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 White Paper

For more information on Emerson's tank gauging solutions for cryogenic applications, visit
Emerson.com/RosemountLNG.

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