Connective tissue

• One of the basic tissues of the

body
• Connects various tissues of
the body and gives them
support
• Develops from mesoderm or
mesenchyme
• Contains – cells, fibres and
ground substance
• Cells:
• Fibroblasts, adipose cells,
macrophages
• Plasma cells, mast cells,
mesenchymal cells
• Pigments cells, blood cells
• Fibroblasts:
• Responsible for production and maintenance of
fibres and ground substance
• Spindle shaped cells with basophilic cytoplasm,
large round nucleus and many processes
• They are known as fibrocytes in the resting stage
• Adipose cells (adipocytes):
• Specialized for synthesis and storage of fat
• Have large lipid vacuole
• Due to this nucleus is pushed to the periphery
and it is flat
• Cytoplasm is very thin
• Fat cells appear singly or more often in groups
• Macrophages:
• Also called histiocytes
• May be fusiform, stellate or spheroidal in shape
• Cytoplasm contains variety of granules and vacuoles
• Phagocytic in nature
• Plasma cells:
• Provide resistance to the body against diseases
• Specialized for the manufacture of antibodies against
antigens
• Found abundant in lamina propria of digestive tract
and respiratory tract
• Also found in the lymphoid tissue
• These cells have cart-wheel shaped nucleus
• Mast cells:
• Widely distributed in the connective tissue, also seen along
the course of blood vessels
• Contain large number of granules in the cytoplasm
• Secrete histamine, heparin, 5-hyodroxy tryptamine
(serotonin)
• Undifferentiated mesenchymal cells:
• Usually found along the blood vessels
• Can change into any type of cell under proper stimulus
• Precursors of all types of cells
• Pigment cells:
• Found in the epidermis of skin, also called melanocytes
• Protect skin from the harmful effects of sun rays
• Blood cells - Lymphocytes and neutrophils:
• Migrated from blood stream
• Fibres: are of 3 types
• Collagen, elastic and reticular
fibres
• Collagen fibres:
• They are inelastic and have
great tensile strength
• Seen in all types of connective
tissue
• Fibres run in bundles, the
bundles split in to branches
• Individual fibres are unbranched
• Synthesized by fibroblasts
• Each fibre contains fine subunits
called tropocollagen
• Fresh fibres appear colorless
• When stained with heamatoxylin
and eosin stain, they appear pink
• When the fibres are treated with dilute acetic
acid, they swell up and give rise to gelatin
• Depending on the chemical composition, there
are 4 types or grades of collagen fibres
• Type I collagen fibres – thickest fibres, seen in
bones, tendons, dermis of skin
• Type II collagen fibres – found in the cartilages
• Type III collagen fibres – seen in the walls of
blood vessels, digestive tract
• Type IV collagen fibres – thinnest and seen the
basement membrane, also called reticular fibres
• Elastic fibres:
• Highly elastic, can be stretched to 150% of their restring
length without breaking
• Found in ligamentum nuchae, ligamentum flavum and in
the walls of large arteries
• Synthesized by fibroblasts
• They appear yellowish when they are in groups
• Contain protein called elastin
• Fibres usually run individually, branch and anastomose
with each other
• When the fibre is broken, the ends retract or recoil
• When stained with heamatoxylin and eosin stain, they
appear pink
• Fibres show no change when boiled or treated with acids
• Reticular fibres:
• Type IV collagen fibres
• Seen in lymph node, spleen and
thymus
• Fine branching fibres, form
network
• Cannot be stained with
heamatoxylin and eosin stain
• Stained by silver staining methods
• Ground substance:
• Semisolid gel also know as
intercellular substance
• Cells and fibres are embedded in it
• Consists of water, carbohydrates
and proteins
• Carborhydrates in the form of
mucopolysaccharides
• Proteins in the form of glycoprotein
• Classification of connective tissue:
• Depending upon the type and proportion of cells,
fibres and ground substance it can classified into –
• Loose connective tissue
– Areolar tissue
– Adipose tissue
– Myxomatous tissue
– Reticular tissue
• Dense connective tissue
– Regular or ordinary dense connective tissue
– Specialized dense connective tissue
• Loose connective tissue: Areolar connective tissue
• Areolar tissue: e.g. superficial
fascia
• Contains bundles of collagen
fibres, and scattered individual
elastic fibres
• Most of the cells present are
fibroblast cells
• Adipose tissue: e.g.
mesentery
• Contains groups of adipose
cells with collagen fibres
• When adipose tissue is stained
with haematoxylin and eosin
stain the fat cells appear
empty, since the fat in the lipid
vacuole dissolved during
staining
• Cells have thin cytoplasm and
peripherally placed nucleus
Adipose tissue
• Myxomatous tissue: e.g. umbilical
cord, vitreous body of eyeball
• Fetal or embryonic type of connective
tissue
• Contains plenty of ground substance
with hydrated mucosubstances, fine
meshwork of collagen fibres, with
fibroblasts
• Reticular tissue: e.g. spleen, lymph
node, thymus, liver
• Contains network of reticular fibres
• Dense connective tissue:
• Regular dense connective tissue:
e.g. tendons of muscles
• Collagen fibres are arranged Reticular tissue with
regularly in bundles with fibroblast reticular fibres
cells (eg lymph node
• Specialized dense connective
tissue: e.g. bones, cartilages
 Functions of connective tissue

• Providing structural support

• Compartmentalization

• Serving as a medium for exchange

• Aiding in the defense and protection of the body

• Forming the site for storage of fat

 Cartilages
• Cartilage is a specialized type of connective tissue
• Is a tissue that forms the skeletal basis of some parts of the
body e.g. auricle of ear, outer part of nose
• It can be bent, and returns to original form when the force is
removed
• Composition of the cartilage:
• Cartilage contains – cells and extracellular matrix
• Matrix is made up of ground substance and fibres
• Cartilage is covered by a covering called perichondrium
• The perichondrium contains 2 layers
• Outer fibrous layer which contains collagen fibres
• Inner cellular or chondrogenic layer which contains
chondroblast cells
• Cells:
• Cartilage cells are called chondrocytes
• They are situated in the spaces called lacunae
• Young cartilage cells are called chondroblasts,
situated in the perichondrium
• Matrix: made up of ground substance and fibres
• Ground substance:
• Semisolid gel
• Contains carbohydrates in the form of muco-
polysaccharides, proteins in the form glycoproteins
• Fibres:
• Collagen and elastic fibres
• Classification of cartilages:

• Based on the visibility and nature of fibres in the matrix,

they are classified into 3 types

• Hyaline cartilage

• Elastic cartilage

• Fibrocartilage
 Hyaline cartilage
• Has a covering called
perichondrium which
contains fibrous and
chondrogenic (cellular)
layers
• Hyaline cartilage contains
cartilage cells and matrix
• Cartilage cells are
chondrocytes
• Chondrocytes are situated Fibrous layer
in the spaces called Chondrogenic
Layer (with
lacunae
chondroblasts)
• Chondorcytes are found in
groups of 2-8 cells, which
is called cell nests
• Chondrocytes produce the
matrix
• Matrix:
• Is made up of ground substance and fibres
• Ground substance made up of
mucopolysaccharides, proteoglycans and
glycoproteins
• Ground substance appears homogeneous, has
affinity for basic dyes
• Freshly prepared matrix around chondrocytes
stains dark and called territorial matrix
• The remaining matrix looks lightly stained and
called interterritorial matrix
• Contains collagen fibres, but fibres are not seen
as a distinct entity since the refractive index of
ground substance and fibres is same
• E.g. costal cartilage, thyroid cartilage, trachea
Hyaline cartilage
• Elastic cartilage:
• This type of cartilage
has elasticity, comes
back to its natural size
after being stretched
• E.g. auricle of ear,
epiglottis
• Has a covering called
perichondrium which
contains fibrous and
cellular layers
• Chondrocytes are
present singly or in
small groups
• Matrix contains plenty
of branching elastic
fibres
Elastic cartilage
 Fibrocartilage
• Also known as white fibrocartilage
• E.g. intervertebral disc, pubic symphysis
• Perichondrium is absent
• Matrix contains bundles of collagen fibres
• Chondrocytes appear singly and arranged in rows between
bundles of collagen fibres
 Bones
• Bone is the hard form of connective tissue
• Highly vascular, living tissue which makes up
most of the skeleton
• The matrix is calcified by the deposition of
calcium phosphate
• Has the regenerative capacity
• Human skeleton contains 206 bones
• Functions of bone:
• Provides support and shape to the body
• Protects vital organs of the body (heart, brain)
• Help in transmission of the body weight
• Provide attachment to muscles and act as levers
of the joints helping in locomotion
• Storehouse for calcium salts
• Involved in erythropoiesis
• Classification of bones:
• According to their position:
• Axial bones:
• Bones forming the axis of the body e.g. skull,
vertebrae, sternum, ribs.
• Appendicular bones:
• Bones of the limbs e.g. scapula, humerus, femur
• According to size, shape and consistency:
• Long bones:
• Have three parts – upper end, lower end and
shaft
• Ends of the bones take part in forming joints
• e.g. humerus and femur
• Short bones:
• Small cuboid shaped bones
• e.g. carpal and tarsal bones
• Flat bones:
• These bones are expanded and flat
• e.g. sternum, scapula, ribs
• Irregular bones:
• Irregular shaped without proper outline
• E.g. vertebrae
• Pneumatic bones:
• Bones with hollow spaces which contain air
(sinuses)
• E.g. Maxilla, ethmoid bone
• Sesamoid bone:
• These develop within the tendons of some muscles
• They develop where the tendons cross the ends of
long bones
• They minimize the friction between the tendon and
the bone
• They do not have periosteum
• e.g. Patella (develops in the tendon of
quadriceps femoris muscle)
• e.g. Pisiform bone (in the tendon of flexor carpi
ulnaris muscle)
• According to development:
• Membranous bones:
• Bones develop from the membrane formed by
the mesenchymal tissue (connective tissue of
embryo)
• e.g. clavicle, most of the bones of skull
• Cartilaginous bones:
• Mesenchymal tissue first transformed into a
cartilage, which later becomes bone
• e.g. humerus, femur
• According to the structure:
• Compact bones (lamellar bones):
• Contains bony plates which are arranged
compactly e.g. shaft of long bones
• Spongy bones (cancellous bones):
• Made up bony plates which are arranged irregularly
• Plenty of spaces separate the bony plates which
gives a spongy appearance
• e.g. ends of long bones, flat bones
• Parts of a developing long bone
• Diaphysis:
• Part of the developing bone which forms the shaft
• It develops from the primary ossification centre
• Epiphysis:
• Part of the developing bone which forms ends of the bone
• It develops from secondary ossification centre
• Epiphysial cartilage:
• Plate of cartilage separating the epiphysis and diaphysis
• Metaphysis:
• Is a part of diaphysis adjacent to epiphysial plate
• Is the region of bone where active growth is seen
• Ossification of bones:
• The process of bone formation
• All bones develop from the mesenchymal tissue of
embryo
• Types of ossification:
• Membranous ossification:
• Mesenchyme of embryo directly transformed into
bone
• e.g. mandible, clavicle, and bones of roof of skull
• Cartilaginous ossification:
• The mesenchyme is first transformed into a
cartilage
• Later this cartilage is ossified to bone
• e. g. humerus
• Ossification of a long bone:
• Ossification begins in one or more areas of future long
bone model
• These areas are called centres of ossification
• Primary centre of ossification:
• Ossification centre which appears in the main part of the
bone
• The part which develops from this centre is called
diaphysis which later forms the shaft
• Primary centre of ossification usually appears before
birth
• Secondary centre of ossification:
• These centres appear at the ends of the bone usually
after birth
• The part of long bone which develops from the
secondary centre is called epiphysis
 Structure of Bone
• Bone is covered
externally by Periosteum
• Interior of the bone
contains a cavity –
called medullary cavity
which is filled with bone
marrow
• Solid outer part of bone
is known as compact
bone
• Inner part of bone is
known as spongy bone
which contains
interconnecting plates of
bone called trabeculae
• Periosteum
• Double-layered membrane covering
the external surface of the entire
bone except at the articular surfaces
• Richly supplied with nerve fibers,
lymphatic vessels and blood vessels
• Has 2 layers
• Outer fibrous layer made of dense
irregular connective tissue
• Inner cellular layer contains
osteoprogenitor cells and osteoblast
cells
• Endosteum:
– Lines the internal
surface of bone
– Its made up layer of flat
cells
– Also contains
osteoclasts and
osteoblast cells
• Bone contains bone cells
and intercellular bone
matrix
• Bone Matrix or osteiod :
• The bone matrix is
composed of organic and
inorganic matter
• Organic matter:
• Consisting collagen fibres which are produced by
the osteoblast cells
• Inorganic matter:
• Is formed by crystals of calcium phosphate –
Hydroxyapatite crystals
• Also contains smaller amounts of magnesium,
fluoride, and sodium
• Association of hydroxyapatite with collagen fibres
is responsible for the hardness of bone
• Bone cells: there are 3 types of bone cells
• Osteoblasts:
• These are bone forming cells, located on the
surfaces of bone
• Responsible for the synthesis of organic
components of the bone matrix
• Osteocytes:
• Inactive osteoblasts trapped within formed bone,
may assist in nutrition of bone
• These are mature bone cells occupying the
lacunae in the bone matrix
• They possess long thin cytoplasmic processes
which are located in the cylindrical canals in the
bone matrix called canaliculi
• Osteoclasts:
• Large, multi-nucleated bone
OL – Outer circumferential lamella
removing cells formed by fusion IL – Inner circumferential lamella
of monocytes HS – Haversian system
• Situated mainly at the endosteum HC- Haversian canal
• Structure of compact bone:
• Compact bone contains plates of
bone tissue called lamellae
Concentric
• There are spaces situated
lamella
between the lamellae called
lacunae Interstitial
lamella
• These lacunae contain
osteocytes
• Canaliculi extend from the
lacunae into the lamellae
• These canaliculi contain
processes of osteocytes
• There are four types of bony
lamellae
• Types of lamellae:
• Concentric lamellae
• Interstitial lamellae
• Outer and inner circumferential
lamellae
• Concentric lamellae:
• These are concentric plates of
bony tissue around the Haversian
canal
• Osteon (Haversian system):
• Haversian canal and concentric
lamellae surrounding it are known
as osteon
• These are cylindrical structures
which run parallel to long axis of
bone
• Osteons are separated from each
other by interstitial lamellae
Interstitial lamella
Osteocyte in the lacuna

Volkmann’s canal

Haversian canal

Concentric lamella
• Haversian (central) canals:
• Run in the centre of cylinders
of concentric lamellae
• Run in longitudinal direction
• Contain blood vessels,
nerves and lymphatics of
bone
• Each Haversian canal of a
osteon communicates with
the marrow cavity, the
periosteum and with each
other through transverse or
Periosteum
oblique canals called
Volkmann’s (perforating)
canals
• Interstitial
lamellae:
• Irregular lamellae
situated between
the concentric
lamellae
• Outer
circumferential
lamellae:
• Lamellae parallel
to periosteum
• Inner
circumferential
lamellae:
• Lamellae parallel
to endosteum
 Structure of spongy bone
• Consists of a series of
interconnecting plates of
bone — the trabeculae
• The spaces between the
trabeculae are filled with
bone marrow
• Trabeculae are lined by
endosteum
• The lamellae are not
arranged concentrically
around a central canal, but
run parallel to one another
• Osteocytes sit in lacunae
between lamellae
Spongy bone
SPONGY BONE TS Bone marrow
• Bone marrow:
• Vascular connective tissue present in the
medullary cavity and spaces of spongy bone
• Two types of bone marrow – red and yellow bone
marrow
• At birth red bone marrow is present throughout
the skeleton
• After 5 years the red bone marrow is gradually
replaced in the long bones by the yellow bone
marrow
• Red bone marrow is actively involved in
production of blood cells
• Yellow bone marrow contains large quantity of fat
cells
 Structure of ligaments
• Ligaments are dense band of collagenous
tissues
• Ligaments connect bone to bone
• Ligaments are covered by a covering called
epiligament
• Ligaments contain
– Bundles of collagen fibres which are arranged
parallely
– Matrix made up of proteoglycans, elastin
– Fibroblasts, the cells which produce