ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS UNDER

ELEVATED TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS

By K. W. Poh l and I. D. Bennetts2

ABSTRACT: This paper presents a general numerical method to calculate the nonlinear
behavior of load-bearing members under elevated temperature conditions. The method,
although similar in concept to earlier approaches, differs with respect to both solution
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procedure and capability. The governing equations are formulated in a succinct format
and an innovative iteration procedure is used to obtain the solution. The method can
take into account the combined actions of axial force and biaxial bending, external
restraints, temperature variation over the cross section and along the member, material
nonlinearity, geometric nonlinearity, unloading and reloading, residual or initial stresses,
and initial "out-of-straightness" of the member. It applies to members of any cross-
sectional shape and with any elevated temperature stress-strain relationship for the ma-
terial, including one with zero or negative slope. The application of the method is illus-
trated using a practical design example in which the fire resistance of an unprotected
steel column of large cross-sectional area was evaluated.

INTRODUCTION
The analysis of the behavior of load-bearing members in buildings during a fire can be
complicated. Various factors that influence the behavior of the members need to be taken into
account, including:

Variation of member temperature with time

Variation of temperature over the cross section and along the member
Temperature effects on material properties (expansion, creep, and reduction in strength
and stiffness)
Material nonlinearity
Geometric nonlinearity
Combined actions (axial force and biaxial bending)
Possible unloading, reloading, and reversed loading of the material
Initial imperfections (residual stresses and member "out-of-straightness")
External restraints (usualIy at the ends of the member).

Because of the nonlinear nature of the problem, closed-form solutions usualIy cannot be found
and an iterative approach is required.
The nonlinear behavior of a member under elevated temperature conditions can, in principle,
be modeled using the finite-element method (Anderberg 1976; Okabe et al. 1991; Schleich
1987). Alternatively, as in the case of the methods described by Hass (1986), Jeyarupalingam
and Virdi (1991), Lie and Chabot (1993), and O'Meagher et al. (1991), moment-thrust-curvature
relationships for the member cross section can be used in conjunction with member equilibrium
and compatibility equations. Although not as general as the finite-element method, this latter
approach can, because of its inherent simplicity, alIow the nonlinear behavior of members to
be more closely modeled.
This paper presents a numerical procedure to determine the behavior of members at elevated
temperatures. It is similar, in concept, to the aforementioned moment-thrust-curvature ap-
proaches but differs with respect to solution procedure and capability.
The method is applicable to members of any cross-sectional shape and constructed of any
material as long as the elevated temperature stress-strain relationships of the material are known.
All the aforementioned factors influencing the behavior of a member at elevated temperatures
can be taken into account. The governing equations are formulated in a succinct format suitable
for incorporation into a computer program.

'Res. Engr., BHP Res.-Melbourne Laboratories. 245-273 Wellington Road. Mulgrave, Victoria. 3170, Aus-
tralia.
ORes. Assoc., BHP Res.-Melbourne Laboratories, 245-273 Wellington Road, Mulgrave, Victoria, 3170,
Australia.
Note. Associate Editor: Louis Geschwindner. Discussion open until September I, 1995. Separate discussions
should be submitted for the individual papers in this symposium. To extend the closing date one month, a written
request must be filed with the ASCE Manager of Journals. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for
review and possible publication on April 20, 1994. This paper is part of the Journal of Structural Engineering,
Vol. 121, No.4. April. 1995. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9445/95/0004-0664-0675/$2.00 + $.25 per page. Paper No.
8288.

664 JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

J. Struct. Eng., 1995, 121(4): 664-675

 METHOD OVERVIEW
Thermal and Structural Behavior
It is assumed that the thermal and structural behavior of a member in fire is uncoupled. For
the purpose of analysis, the thermal behavior of the member is obtained separately-either
from heat-transfer analysis or from test data-usually in the form of temperatures at a multitude
of member locations at discrete time steps. The structural behavior of the member is then
determined based on the time-temperature information.

Geometric Discretization
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For the purpose of analysis, the member is divided into a series of segments of appropriate
lengths. Each segment is represented at its midlength by a cross section. The cross section, in
turn, is divided into a number of small subareas of appropriate shapes and sizes (Fig. 1).
Each subarea is referred to as a level 1 element, and the cross section and member are levels
2 and 3 elements, respectively.
Temperature variations over the cross section and along the member are incorporated through
the combination of the subarea temperatures, which are assumed uniform over each subarea.

Actions and Deformations

The structural behavior of each element level is characterized by appropriate actions (internal
or external) and deformations (including strains and curvatures) associated with the element.
The actions and deformations for the three element levels are:

I. Force and strain of the subarea.

2. Force and strain, and moment and curvature of the cross section.
3. Force and displacement, and moment and rotation of the member.

Analytical Formulation
Having defined the actions and deformations, succinct equations are formulated to relate the
actions and deformations of the three element levels. These actions and deformations are related
by material behavior, boundary conditions, compatibility, and requirements for static equilib-
rium (Fig. 2). To determine the structural behavior of the member, the solution sought is a set
of actions and deformations for the three levels such that all the requirements are satisfied.

Solution Approach
A simple iterative approach is adopted to obtain the solution, in which the actions and
deformations of the three levels are calculated successively in loops till the solution converges.
The procedure comprises two iterative loops (Fig. 2): the behavior of the cross section is
determined in the first loop (cross-section analysis) and the behavior of the member is determined
in the second loop (member analysis). While loop I iterates on material nonlinearity, loop 2
iterates on geometric nonlinearity.

Material Nonlinearity
One feature of the method is the treatment of material nonlinearity in the cross-section
analysis. To facilitate obtaining the solution, the subarea action is artificially separated into a
linear component (ignoring material nonlinearity) and a correction component to account for
material nonlinearity. By doing so, the behavior of the cross section can be easily determined

unIIarm
F?!
I I
I! ! ••
I
..:::=,.~.
tram ,, from

-i<t>I I . I
,,_~' •
tIle","",bot

!I i ~~I~~
Iii
W CNW_
'"
--
'/

ILAgend:
A~
DK
ocIion
deformatlon

FIG. 2. Action-Deformation Relationships and Solution Pro-

FIG. 1. Geometric Discretization cedure

JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 665

J. Struct. Eng., 1995, 121(4): 664-675

 using a simple linear equation, and it can be progressively corrected for the effects of material
nonlinearity in subsequent iterations.

ANALYTICAL FORMULATION
Mathematical relationships for the analysis are formulated such that the actions and defor-
mations for the three element levels can be readily calculated in continuous succession, with
each relationship using the results of the previous relationship.
In formulating the relationships, a Cartesian coordinate system is adopted. The coordinates
are oriented such that the x-axis and y-axis lie parallel to the plane of the cross section and the
z-axis lies in the longitudinal (axial) direction of the member. For convenience, the origin of
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the axes is placed to coincide with one of the end supports.

Based on the coordinates, the actions and deformations considered in the analysis are defined
for the three elements levels as they are in Table 1, in which f = axial force of the subarea; E
= axial strain of the subarea; p" m", m, = cross-section force along the z-axis (i.e., at x = 0,
y = 0) and bending moments about the y-axis and x-axis, respectively; E z , <p" <p, = cross-section
strain along the z axis and curvatures about the y-axis and x-axis, respectively; P z' P,., Pro M,.,
M, = member forces in the z, y, x directions and moments about the y-axis and x-axis, re-
spectively; and 0z' 0", 0" 6", 8, = member displacements in the z, y, x directions and rotations
about the y-axis and x-axis, respectively.
Only the effects of axial stress and strain are included in the analysis. Transverse stresses and
strains are considered to have little effect on the overall behavior of the member and are therefore
ignored.
It is also assumed that the member does not rotate about the longitudinal axis and, hence,
moment and rotation about the z-axis is not included.
Fig. 3 shows the relationships between the actions and deformations of the three levels, in
which the first four relationships (1-4) relate to the cross-section analysis and the last three
relationships (5-7) relate to the member analysis.

Cross-Section Analysis: Relationships 1 to 4

The equations for the cross-section analysis are derived by considering an arbitrary cross
section that comprises n subareas of various shapes and sizes. Each subarea is defined by its
area ai and the coordinates of its centroid (Xi' Yi)' in which the subscript i denotes the subarea
number (i.e., i = 1,2, ... , n).
It is assumed that the stress and strain associated with each subarea are uniform over the
subarea. This allows the action and deformation of the subarea to be calculated at its centroid.
In defining the cross section, the boundaries of the subareas need not be specified. This allows
cross sections of any shape (regular or irregular) to be easily modeled by specifying the areas
and centroidal positions of the subareas and numbering them in any convenient order, from I
to n.

TABLE 1. Actions and Deformations

Level Action Deformation
(1 ) (2) (3)
1 f E
2 p" m,., m, E" <p,., <p,
3 P" P~., P" M,., M, 0" 0,.. 0" 6,., 6,

_n
u-+----+-=_+.....z..

mem.....

ActIon
----------1I-~-~>=--_+_--~SlIlIln
,,
,,,
,,
,"
,t>'
.. .'
'
LIDI..a
FIG. 3. Analytical Formulation FIG. 4. Material Stress-Strain Relationship

666 JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

J. Struct. Eng., 1995, 121(4): 664-675

 Cross-Section Compatibility Equation: Relationship 1
The deformation (axial strain) of each subarea is calculated from the cross-section defor-
mations assuming that plane sections remain plane during deformation. Using the equation of
a plane, the deformation at the centroid of the subarea can be expressed as

E, = E, + <!l"x, + <!l,Y, (I)

Constitutive Equations: Relationship 2

The action (axial force) of each subarea is simply calculated from the axial stress associated
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with the subarea, i.e.

f, (2a)
where U i = axial stress.
The axial stress u" in turn, is calculated from its stress-related strain and the relevant stress-
strain relationship. The stress-strain relationship may be different for each subarea, depending
on the material, temperature, and load path. For the purpose of general formulation, the stress-
strain relationship (Fig. 4) is expressed using arbitrary functions (to be specified by users) as

g(Ej', T,); loading

u, = En(Ej' - E~"); unloading and reloading (2b)
{
h( E j', T,); reversed loading

where g( E i', T,) = stress-strain function during loading; f j' = stress-related strain; Ti = tem-
perature; En = initial slope of the stress-strain curve during loading; f;" = irrecoverable plastic
strain; and h( f i', T i ) = stress-strain function during reversed loading, taking into account the
Bauschinger effect when appropriate.
The stress-related strain f i' is calculated from f i , by excluding all strain components that are
not directly related to stress, but including the initial strain, i.e.
(2(')

where f i' = strain components of fi that are not directly related to stress (which may include
free thermal strain f i", free creep strain fiT. free shrinkage strain f i", and so on depending on
the model and material used); and fi' = initial strain (i.e., strain prior to the application of
external actions or heating, e.g., residual effects associated with welding or rolling).
The influence of elevated temperature metallurgical processes such as the normalization on
fj' is ignored. In addition, as illustrated in Fig. 5, f;" is assumed to be unaffected by changes
in temperature (Franssen 1990).
Any stress-strain function may be specified, including one with a zero or negative slope. Since
stress is determined from strain, the uncertainty and ambiguity that often rises when determining
strain from stress are eliminated.
For the purpose of later formulation of the cross-section action-deformation relationship, the
subarea action is artificially separated into a linear component and a correction component. The
correction term is calculated as

stress equilibrium position member

segmentl
at time step 1 c:ross-sectIon defonned

"
curvature ¥" shape
stress-straln curve
at time step 1,
temperature T1

L
p-. . ._ _ stress-strain curve
at time step 2,
temperature T2

~----<~--------- __ strain c~ member

curvature deformation

FIG. 5. Assuming EPI Remains Constant with Temperature FIG. 6. Calculating Member Deformation from Cross-Section
Change Curvature

JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 667

J. Struct. Eng., 1995, 121(4): 664-675

 (2d)
where fi = correction term; and Si = elastic stiffness of the subarea ( = E Tia;).
Cross-Section Equilibrium Equations: Relationship 3
The cross-section actions are calculated from the subarea actions based on the cross section's
conditions of static equilibrium. By summing the subarea actions, the three cross-section actions
are

Po = L" f; m" = L" fixi; mx = L" fYi (3a-c)

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i= I i= I i= 1

The effects of initial strains (or stresses) have been included in (3). This does not affect the
equilibrium of the cross section since the initial stresses of the cross section are in the state of
static equilibrium.

Cross-Section Action-Deformation Equations: Relationship 4

To relate the cross-section actions to the cross-section deformations, (l )-(3) are combined
into a single matrix equation, which

L"
;= I
s, L
i= I
"
S'Xi L
i= I
"
SiYi L
"
i=' I
(E jJ - E;')5;
"
Lfi
i= I

[::J L"
i= 1
SiX, L"
i= 1
s,X~
"
2: SiXiY;
i= I [;:J<P,
+ L
"
i= 1
(E jJ - E j')s"x i +
"
Lf:x,
i= I
(4a)

" " " " "

L
i= I
S'Yi L
i= I
SiXiY' L
i= J
SiY~ L
i= I
(E ~.) - Ej')SiYi Lf;Y,
i= 1

or simply
{A} = [S]{D} + {B} + {C} (4b)
where {A} = cross-section action; [S] = elastic stiffness matrix for the cross section; {D} =
cross-section deformation; {B} = cross-section action due to £j' and £;'; and {C} = cross-section
action due to fe, correction terms (material nonlinearity).
When analyzing the behavior of a member, {A} is usually treated as known and {D} as
unknown. In this case, it is more convenient to invert [S] and express {D} in terms of {A}, i.e.
{D} = [S]-'({A} - {B} - {C}) (4c)
Both [S] and {B} can be calculated once the geometry, material properties, and temperature
of the subareas are known. However, {C} is dependent on {D}. Thus, when {D} is unknown,
an iterative approach must be adopted by which {D} and {C} are alternatively calculated in
successive iterations.
Using the preceding approach, the behavior of the cross section under combined actions of
axial force and biaxial bending can be readily determined. Further, this formulation allows the
determination of any combination of three unknowns (cross-section actions or deformations),
as illustrated in Appendix 1.

Member Analysis: Relationships 5 to 7

The equations for member analysis are derived by considering an arbitrary simply supported
member of length L, which comprises m segments of various lengths. Each segment is defined
by its length lj and the longitudinal coordinate of its midlength position i j , in which the subscript
j denotes the segment number (i.e., j = 1,2, ... , m). The cross-section actions (PZ)' m,'i' m 9 )
and deformations (£Zj' <Pyj, <Pxj) associated with each segment are assumed uniform along its
length and are taken as the values calculated at the midlength position.
However, the member actions (P zb P vk ' Pxb M vk , M xk ) and deformations (Ozb OVb o.'b a'k'
axk ) along the member are defined at node points, which are located at the junctions of adjacent
segments and at the ends of the member (a total of m + 1 nodes). To distinguish the nodal
positions against the segment positions, the longitudinal coordinate of each node is written as
Zb in which the subscript k denotes the node number (i.e., k = 1,2, ... , m + 1).
Loads on the member, including its weight, are taken as applied actions at the nodes.
The segments and nodes are numbered sequentially from one end of the member to the other.

Member Compatibility Equations: Relationship 5

The member deformations are calculated by integrating the segment (cross section) defor-
mations along the member (Fig. 6). Assuming that one end of the member (node 1) is restrained

668 JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

J. Struct. Eng., 1995, 121(4): 664-675

 from all translational movements (in the x, y, and z directions), and the other end (node m +
I) is restrained from lateral movements (in the x and y directions), the five deformation com-
ponents of the member can be simply written for each node as

(5a,b)

(5c,d)

(5e)
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W:
where &':b &~k' k , 6~k = nodal displacements in the x, y directions and nodal rotations about
the x-axis an'd y-axis, 'respectively, due to the member's initial out-of-straightness; and C~i and
CZi = geometric terms
Z,l;; when j < k
q,= { -(L - z;)!;; when j 2:: k
(5f)

(L - Zk)Z,l,; whenj < k

{ (L - zJzkl,; when j 2:: k (5g)

Throughout the calculation of member behavior, C~i and CZ i remain constant.

Member Restraint Equations: Relationship 6
At each node, member actions are related to the corresponding applied actions and defor-
mations, when restraint is present.
Often, restraints are applied only to the ends of the member. Nevertheless, for general
formulation, restraints are defined for each node using arbitrary stiffness functions, which may
be linear or nonlinear, i.e.
(6a-c)

(6d,e)

where P zb P"k' P'k' M"b M Xk = constant applied actions; and Kl'z' KI"" KI'I' K M ,., K Mx =
arbitrary restraint stiffness functions.

Member Equilibrium Equations: Relationship 7

The cross-section actions are calculated from the member actions based on the member's
condition of static equilibrium. The geometric effects resulting from the member's lateral de-
flection are taken into account (Fig. 7). Thus, the three cross-section actions associated with
each segment are
lilt I

Pzi = 2:
J.. -,--j + I
P'k (7a)

-, /-
3OOx300mm
•
J.u.. ;:~:

FIG. 7.
rnemt>er
IICIIonS

Calculating Cross-section Actions from Member Ac-

•

-- SERVICE CORE

- •
tions FIG. 8. Dry-Wall Service Core with Unprotected Steel Columns

JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 669

J. Struct. Eng., 1995, 121(4): 664-675

 (7b)

(7c)

where Cf~~y, Cf~~x, Cft, and CM = geometric terms

Cps,. {-~L - ZJ&~k.- L&x;; whe.n k ::; j (7d)
jk - Zj&xk - L&xj, when k > ]

{= ~L. ~j)&tk.' .-
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Cf?.> = - L&,j; whe.n k ::; j (7e)

Zj&vk L&,j' when k > ]

CII = {(L - Zj)Zk; when k ::; j

jk - (L - Zk)Zj; when k > j
(7f)

eM = {-(L - Zj); when k::; j (7g)

jk Zj; when k > j

and Bxj , Byj = deflection at the midlength of the segment in the x and y directions, respectively.
Both Cf~~y and Cf~8x change as the member deflection varies, but Cft and CM remain constant
throughout the calculation of member behavior.

Convergence Criteria
Solution convergence is checked separately for both cross section and member analyses.
For the cross-section analysis, cross-section actions calculated from subarea actions [(3)] are
compared with those calculated from member actions [(7)]. The solution is considered to have
converged when the differences between the actions calculated using the two relationships are
within an acceptable limit.
For the member analysis, the lateral displacements calculated in one iteration are checked
against those calculated in the previous iteration. The solution is considered to have converged
when the difference in the displacements calculated in both iterations are within an acceptable
limit.

APPLICATION OF METHOD
The method of analysis described in this paper has been used to analyze a series of restrained
and unrestrained columns tested in the laboratory (Poh and Bennetts 1995), and is being used
to develop practical design rules for the use of unprotected steel members in multistory office
construction. In this paper, the method is used to analyze the behavior of steel columns of large
cross-sectional area subject to a temperature gradient.
In the early 1990s, a steel-framed office tower was proposed for the city of Melbourne,
Australia. The proposed construction included the use of a braced service core surrounded by
dry wall construction (Fig. 8). The columns within the service core formed part of the bracing
system for lateral load resistance but, more particularly, were required to resist high levels of
gravity loading. The columns were to be fabricated from thick plates and varied in cross-sectional
size from 300 x 300 mm to 500 x 500 mm. Unfortunately, for a variety of reasons, steel
construction was not used for the building, but was replaced by a reinforced-concrete solution.
It is arguable that members located within a fire-resistant envelope should not be required
to have a fire rating, but this argument was not accepted by the regulatory authorities at this
time, and members within the core were required to have a fire resistance of two hours. Never-
theless, it was considered desirable that these large columns not be fire-protected. As illustrated
in Fig. 8, the columns are potentially exposed to fire on two or three adjacent sides because of
the dry wall construction.
The massiveness of the columns suggested that fire protection was probably not required in
order to achieve the required fire resistance. The columns could not be fire-tested under load,
because of their high capacity, and it was necessary to assess their fire resistance by calculation.
The behavior of one of these columns when exposed to standard fire test conditions is now
considered. The member chosen for analysis has a solid steel cross section of 500 x 500 mm
and is 4 m long. The member is located at the corner of the service shaft and is, therefore,
potentially exposed to fire on two adjacent sides while the other sides are assumed to be fully
insulated.
The member is assumed to be subjected to the ISO standard fire for a period of 2 hr. A two-
dimensional transient heat-flow analysis of the cross section was conducted using the program
"TASEF-2" (Wickstrom 1979) to determine temperature distribution throughout the cross sec-
tion. The temperature distribution is assumed to be identical at every cross section along the

670 JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

J. Struct. Eng., 1995, 121(4): 664-675

 fully insulated

••• fully Insulated

fully
insulated + FIRE • ~

••
• FIRE fully
Insulated
• FIRE
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••
'"

•
FIRE
z

(a)
•

• "'or] •
FIRE

(b)
FIG. 9. Temperature Distribution over Cross Section after Two
Hours of Exposure to ISO Standard Fire FIG. 10. Discretization of: (a) Member; (b) Cross Section

200
--
"room
\/_----2OO'C
A-----3OO'C

TI'CriP ·
200 ,

l
,,..-----4OO'C
l!.'50 .r-----l5OO'C
I 100 'Ir - - - - - 8 O O ' C
1000
...
...
0.01
0-
0-
<GO 0-
,..-----7OO'C JllIO ...

50 IJ V •
~
8OO'C

O'O-l,---r-.......,--r-"'T"""~it-J
IJV lIOO'C
8
: ~-o.25
"

200
_ «XI
_rorcJ
eoo eoo '000 2
_ 3

(0) (b) (c)

FIG. 11. Steel Properties: (a) Yield Stress and Modulus of Elas- FIG. 12. (a) Temperatures; (b) Total Strains; (c) Stresses As-
ticity; (b) Stress-Strain Curves sociated with Subarea at Two-Hour Fire Exposure Period

member throughout the fire exposure period. The temperature distribution over the cross section
after 2 hr of fire exposure is shown in Fig. 9.
For the analysis, the length of the member is divided into 20 equal segments and the cross
section is divided into 100 subareas of equal size (Fig. 10). For simplicity, the member is assumed
to be initially straight and stress free. The member is assumed to be pin supported at the ends
through the center of the cross section, and it does not have applied restraints. The origins of
the coordinates are placed at the center of the cross section.

Level 1: Subarea Behavior

Since the member is constructed entirely from steel, the behavior of each subarea is essentially
a function of the elevated temperature stress-strain relationship for the steel. Different stress-
strain relationship for steel are used in different countries (TwiIt 1991); however. for this ex-
ample. the elevated temperature steel properties recommended by AS4JOO (1990) are adopted.
These are similar to properties recommended by European organizations such as the CTICMI
DTU ("'Methode" 1982) and are known to reasonably model Australian steels.
AS4100 gives the yield stress and modulus of elasticity as functions that reflect the reduction
on properties with increasing temperature (Fig. lla)
1.0; when O°C < T os; 21SOC
O'\'T
_.- = 905 - T (8a)
CT,211 { • when 215°C < T os; 905°C
690 •
T
1.0 + ; when O°C < T oS 600 0
e
2,000 [In C.~~) ]
(8b)
690 (1 -~)
1,100
- - - - - - . when 600 e < T 0
oS 1,OOOoe
T - 53.5 '

JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 671

J. Struct. Eng., 1995, 121(4): 664-675

 where ad and E.,. = yield stress and modulus of elasticity at temperature T; a ,lO and E 20 =
yield stress and modulus of elasticity at room temperature (20°C) and are assumed to be 250
MPa and 200 GPa, respectively.
No detailed stress-strain relationships are specified in AS4100, and for this analysis the stress-
strain curves are assumed to be perfectly elastic-plastic (Fig. lib) in both tension and compres-
sion, and the effects of thermal creep are ignored. The coefficient of thermal expansion of steel
is assumed to be 14.0 x 1O- h ;oC.

Level 2: Cross-Section Behavior

Substantial stresses will be developed within the cross section because of the influence of the
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thermal gradient. This is illustrated in Fig. 12, which shows the temperatures, total strains, and
total stresses associated with the subareas within the cross section at the two-hour fire exposure
period, assuming the cross section to be subject to zero external actions. With the exception of
the coolest corner, the subareas in the corners of the cross section are yielded in compression.
The cross-section analysis can be used to determine any three combinations of the six un-
knowns (actions or deformations). This method (Appendix I) has been used to determine the
capacity of the cross section under combined actions, which is shown in Fig. 13 for the combined
actions of axial force with uniaxial bending and with equal biaxial bending at the two-hour fire
exposure period. In this figure, the maximum axial force and moments are normalized against
the room temperature values of squash load and moment capacity, respectively.

Level 3: Member Behavior

The member has been first analyzed without any axial compression and then with different
values of axial compression P applied through the top support. The lateral deflections of the
member are shown in Figs. 14 and 15(a). By virtue of the symmetry of the cross section and
the exposure condition, the deflections in the x and y directions are identical.
With a low value of P (= 0 and 10,000 kN), the member simply deflects progressively toward
the fire. However, with higher values of P ( = 20,000 and 30,000 kN, the latter load level being
representative of the working load applied to the column), the member initially deflects toward
the fire but gradually changes direction and deflects away from the fire. This phenomenon was
observed during loaded fire tests conducted by Wainman and Kirby (1988), in which the columns

"" 1‫סס‬oo lIN ""20000 lIN ""30000 lIN

,
(mm)

"""
t
-
•.0-r-------:;;r.----:::-:::::o-1 1.0..,-----=------,

. . .r --
........ atroom

.OhOtJrs

\
""'"
1000

O'O-t---......,--+--~...L.-_____1 iii I
-0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 -'.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 I 10 15 20
max. m... 01 m,.J (moment ~ mIX. m. or m,1 (moment capedty) &. o0oi4, <mm) I, o0oi4, (mm)
(b) (eI)

FIG. 13. Force-Moment Interaction Curves under: (a) Uniaxial FIG. 14. Deflection of Member under Different Levels of Axial
Bending; (b) Equal Biaxial Bending Compression

20..,------------, 25..,_----------,

p.o
P.o cooler-
•• cooler--
••
·
P .10000kN
.::.
e
20 p 20000kN
lower
P.10000kN lhennel
- p. 2CIOOO kN •
..·P.30000kN """enslon
I.5 ....
1,0
j ~.
(!-., •• •
••
dIrection of FIRE dlrectlonof FIRE
cIefIeclIon deIlK1lon •

T
15

O~__,.._--r-,-~-_r_---I
o
/

.......
'
......

"-<'-__,.._--.-,---,--,..--1
holler-
higher
lhennel
expansion •• ho~~;-
slllIness
•
•
•
0.0 o.a
_"'IIro
1.0 1.6 2.0 2.1 3.0
~
0.0 0.5
_
1.0 1.6 2.0
"' .... ",pOI'''" (hau~
2.6 3.0

(b) (b)
(I) (IJ

FIG. 15. Member Deformations: (a) Mldhelght Lateral Deflec- FIG. 16. Effects of: (8) Differential Thermal Expansion; (b) Dif-
tion; (b) Axial Deformation ferential Material Stiffness on Direction of Member Deflection

672 JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

J. Struct. Eng., 1995, 121(4): 664-675

 were partially protected from the fire by masonry. This effect results from the combined influence
of differential thermal expansion and differential material stiffness, both arising from the tem-
perature variation across the member (Fig. 16).
The axial deformation of the column is plotted against time and is shown in Fig. 15(b). In
this case, the axial deformation increases for the entire duration of 2 hr of fire exposure. It is
possible, however, for a member in fire to extend and then shorten, as large values of curvature
are achieved.
The aforementioned analysis demonstrates that the proposed unprotected steel column will
achieve a fire rating of 2 hr. Analysis of the other column sections within the service shaft also
indicated their ability to achieve a fire rating of 2 hr without fire protection.
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CONCLUSIONS
This paper described a numerical model that can analyze the nonlinear behavior of members
under fire conditions. The model can take into account any stress-strain relationship, any tem-
perature distribution, unloading and reloading, end and intermediate restraints, and the appli-
cation of end and transverse actions. The influence of creep can also be taken into account.
The model considers both geometric and material nonlinearities.
The model uses an innovative solution procedure that enables the solution of highly nonlinear
situations, and has provided an important tool for the study of the behavior of members under
elevated temperature conditions and where there is a substantial temperature gradient and
restraint.
The application of the model was demonstrated in relation to a practical example in which
the fire resistance of an unprotected steel column of large cross-sectional area was evaluated.

APPENDIX I.
The cross-section action-deformation equation is
"
2:" S,
;--,-1
2:"
i= I
SiX; 2:" SiYi
ie-I
2:
"
1-'--1
(£j1 - £;')s; 2:f;
, 1

[:':] 2:" S,X, 2:" s,X~ 2:" SiX,Y,

j-c:1 i -, I 1=1
[;:]
<Px
+
"
2:
j- I
(EjJ - E ~I )Si X ; + 2:" f;X i
i-I
(9a)

" " " " "

2: S,Y, 2: SiX,Y, 2: SiY~
1-=1 ;--,-1 i= I
2:
j= I
(E ~J - Ej')SiYi
,2: f;Y,
1

or simply
{A} = [S]{D} + {B} + {C} (9b)

This equation presents a set of three simultaneous equations, from which any chosen com-
binations of three unknowns (cross-section actions A or deformations D) can be solved.
The methods to solve for different combinations of unknowns are presented in the following
sections.

Solving for {A} when {D} is Known

When {D} is known, {C} can be calculated directly. [S] and {B} can also be readily calculated
once the temperatures and material properties of the subareas are known. Thus, {A} is easily
obtained by straightforward substitutions.

Solving for {D} when {A} is Known

To solve for {D} when {A} is known, matrix [S] is first fully inverted to allow {D} to be placed
on the left-hand side of the equation, as shown
{D} = [S]-l({A} - {B} - {C}) (10)
Once the temperatures and material properties of the subareas are known, [S] - I and {B} can
be readily calculated. However, {C} is dependent on the unknown {D}. Thus, (10) cannot be
solved directly and an iterative procedure must be used to obtain the solution. This involves
successively calculating {C} and {D} in turns until the conditions of equilibrium are attained.

Solving for Three Unknowns of Combinations of D and A

To solve for a set of three unknowns that comprises combinations of D and A, matrix [S] is
partially inverted to allow the three unknowns to be placed on the left-hand side of the equation,
and a similar iterative procedure is used to obtain the solution

JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 673

J. Struct. Eng., 1995, 121(4): 664-675

 To demonstrate the partial inversion, (9) is reexpressed as

(11)

Thus, if AI' Dz, and D3 are the three unknowns, partially inverting [5] gives

(12)
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where

(13)

Similarly, if Db Az, and A3 are the three unknowns, partially inverting [5] gives

(14)

where

(15)

5 _ 5:12 5 21)
( 31 S..,,,

Other combinations of unknowns may be treated in a similar fashion.

APPENDIX II. REFERENCES

AS4100-1990, steel structures. (1990). Standards Australia, Sydney, Australia.
Anderberg, Y. (1976). "Fire exposed hyperstatic concrete structures-an experimental and theoretical study."
Bull. 55, Lund Inst. of Technol., Div. of Struct. Mech. and Concrete Constr., Lund, Sweden.
"Methode de Prevision par Ie Calcul du Comportement au Feu des Structures en Acier; Document Technique
Unifie (DTU)." (1982). Construction Metallique, Saint-Remy-Chevreuse, France, Centre Technique Industriel
de la Construction Metallique (CTICM), Vol. 3, 39-104 (in French).
Franssen, J. M. (1990). "The unloading of building materials submitted to fire." Fire Safety Journal, 16(3),213-
227.
Hass, R. (1986). "Zur Praxisgerechten Brandschutztechnischen Beurteilung von Stiitzen aus Stahl und Beton."
Res. Rep., Institut fUr Baustoffe, Massivbau und Brandschutz der Technischen Universitat Braunschweig,
Braunschweig, Germany, Vol. 69 (in German).
Jeyarupalingam, N., and Virdi, K. S. (1991). "Steel beams and columns exposed to fire hazard." Proc-, Conf.
of Struct. Des. for Hazardous Loading.
Lie, T T, and Chabot, M. (1993). "Evaluation of the fire resistance of compression members using mathematical
models." Fire Safety Journal, 20(2), 135-149.
Okabe, T., Furumura, F., Ave, T, and Shinohara, Y. (1991). "Elasto-plastic-creep three-dimensional analysis
of steel H-columns subjected to high temperature." Fire Safety Sci. -Proc-, 3rd Int. Symp., 741-750.
O'Meagher, A. J., Bennetts, 1. D., Hutchinson, G. L., and Steven, L. K. (1991). "Modelling of concrete-filled
tubular columns in fire." Rep. No. BHPRIENGIRI911031IPS69, BHP Res.-Melbourne Laboratories, Mel-
bourne, Australia.
Poh, K. W., and Bennetts, I. D. (1995). "Behavior of steel columns at elevated temperatures." J. Struct. Engrg ..
ASCE, 121(4), 676-684.
Schleich, J. B. (1987). "Computer-assisted analysis of the fire-resistance of steel and composite concrete-steel
structures." EUR 10828 EN, Commission of the Eur. Communities, Esch-Sur-Alzette, Luxembourg.
Twill, T (1991). "Stress-strain relationships of structural steel at elevated temperatures: analysis of various options
& European Proposal." TNO-Rep. BI-91-015, TNO Build. and Constr. Res., Delft, The Netherlands.
Wainman, D. E., and Kirby, B. R. (1988). "Compendium of United Kingdom standard fire test data on unpro-
tected structural steel." Rep., British Steel Tech., Swinden Laboratories, Moorgate, Rotherham, South York-
shire, England,Vol. 1.
Wickstrom, U. (1979). "TASEF-2-a computer program for temperature analysis of structures exposed to fire."
Rep. No. 79-2, Lund Inst. of Technol., Dept. of Struct. Mech., Lund, Sweden.

674 JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

J. Struct. Eng., 1995, 121(4): 664-675

 APPENDIX III. NOTATION
The following symbols are used in this paper:

{A} cross-section action;

a area of subarea;
{B} cross-section action due to eO and e,l;
{C} cross-section action due to 1';
Co, Cb, CPby, CPb., CII, CM geometric terms;
{D} cross-section deformation;
E T , E 20 modulus of elasticity at temperature T and at room temperature,
respectively;
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f,f' axial force and correction component of subarea;

g(e", T), h(e", T) stress-strain functions during loading and reversed loading, respec-
tively;
i, j, k subscripts denoting subarea number, segment number and node
number, respectively;
K p =, K p ", K p ,.. K M ." K Mx restraint stiffness functions;
, L overall length of member;
I length of segment;
m,n number of segments along member and number of subarea in cross
section, respectively;
P=, P", P", M , M. member forces in z, y, x directions and moments about y-axis and
" x-axis, respectively;
applied nodal forces in z, y, x directions and moments about y-axis
and x-axis, respectively;
p=, my, m. l" cross-section force along z-axis and bending moments about y-axis
and x-axis, respectively;
[S] elastic stiffness matrix of cross section;
s elastic stiffness of subarea = ETa;
T temperature;
x,y centroidal position of subarea;
z, i longitudinal coordinates of node and segment midlength, respec-
tively;
member displacements in z, y, x directions and rotations about y-
axis and x-axis, respectively;
initial member displacements in the y and x directions and rotations
about y-axis and x-axis, respectively;
total displacements at midlength of segment in y and x directions,
respectively;
axial strain, free creep strain, deformation strain, initial strain, ir-
recoverable plastic strain, free shrinkage strain, free thermal strain
and stress-related strain of subarea, respectively;
cross-section strain along z-axis and curvatures about y-axis and x-
axis, respectively;
axial stress of subarea; and
yield stress at temperature Tand at room temperature, respectively.

JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 675

J. Struct. Eng., 1995, 121(4): 664-675