2013-03-06 B2-13g Instruments PitotStatic SR

Student Resource
Subject B2-13g
Instruments Pitot Static
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Part 66 B2-13g Instruments Pitot Static
Subject
CONTENTS
Topic
Definitions 2
Study Resources 3
Introduction 4
Terminology and the Atmosphere 13.8.1.1-1
Pressure Measuring Devices 13.8.1.2-1
Pitot Static Systems 13.8.1.3-1
Altimeters and Altitude Reporting 13.8.1.4-1
Vertical Speed Indicators 13.8.1.5-1
Airspeed Indicators and Machmeters 13.8.1.6-1
Air Data Computers 13.8.1.7-1
Pneumatic Instruments 13.8.1.8-1
Pressure Measuring Instruments 13.8.1.9-1
Training Material Only
2013-02-11 B2-13g - 1
Subject
DEFINITIONS
Define
 To describe the nature or basic qualities of.
 To state the precise meaning of (a word or sense of a word).
State
 Specify in words or writing.
 To set forth in words; declare.
Identify
 To establish the identity of.
List
 Itemise.
Describe
 Represent in words enabling hearer or reader to form an idea of an
object or process.
 To tell the facts, details, or particulars of something verbally or in
writing.
Explain
 Make known in detail.
 Offer reason for cause and effect.
STUDY RESOURCES
Student Handout – Subject B2-13g
Jeppesen General
Jeppesen Airframe
AC 43.13-1B/ AC 43.13-2A Combined – Aircraft Inspection and Repair
Kennedy – Davis Electronic Communication Systems
James Powel (Jeppesen) Aircraft Radio Systems
National Training Materials for the Aerospace Industry
An introduction to ACARS.pdf
Aircraft Instruments and Integrated Systems – EHJ Pallett – 1992
COA’s
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this subject is to allow you to gain knowledge of aircraft
systems utilising digital and electronic applications.
On completion of the following topics you will be able to:

13.8.1 Instrument Systems – Pitot Static
13.8.1.1.1 Define terminology associated with instrument systems.
13.8.1.1.2 State the various layers of the atmosphere and explain how pressure,
temperature and density vary with altitude and explain the effects these
variations have on indication.
13.8.1.2 Explain the function, construction and operation of pressure measuring
devices and systems.
13.8.1.3.1 Identify and explain the classifications of Instrument Systems.
13.8.1.3.2 Explain the function, construction and operation of the following
pressure measuring systems:
 Pitot Static.
13.8.1.4 Explain the function, construction and operation of the following
 Altimeters, and
 Altitude Reporting and Alerting.
 Vertical Speed Indicators.
 Airspeed Indicators, and
 Machmeters.
 Air data Computers.
 Instrument Pneumatic.
13.8.1.9.1 Utilising a schematic diagram, perform fault isolation on pressure
measuring instrument systems.
13.8.1.9.2 Describe precautions involved with pitot static systems and
components.
TOPIC 13.8.1.1: TERMINOLOGY AND ATMOSPHERE
Navigation Systems
Navigation is the art and science of getting from point "A" to point "B" in the least
possible time without losing your way. In the early days of aviation, navigation was
mostly an art. The simplest instruments of flight had not been invented, so pilots
flew "by the seat of their pants". Today, navigation is a science with sophisticated
equipment being standard on most aircraft.
Visual Flight Rules (VFR)

When operating under these rules, pilots navigate by reference to features on the
ground obtained by looking outside the aircraft (hence, the use of the word "visual"
in "visual flight rules"). In some cases, instruments or equipment inside the aircraft
are used to confirm or improve on this information.
Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)

When operating under these rules, pilots rely mainly on navigation information
displayed on instruments or equipment inside the aircraft (hence, the use of the
word "instrument" in "instrument flight rules"). These instruments replicate the
information that could be obtained by looking outside the aircraft.
Examples of these instruments include distance measuring equipment, radio
compasses, instrument landing and satellite navigation systems.
In the days of the first successful aeroplanes the problems of operating them and
their engines according to strict and complicated procedures, or navigating over
long distances day and night under all weather conditions, were not of any
particular concern.
Such aeroplanes as these pioneers flew were rather ‘stick and string’ affairs with
somewhat temperamental engines. Pilots were typically lying, sitting or crouching
precariously in the open, for the luxury of a cockpit was still to come. Instruments
designed specifically for use in an aeroplane were non-existent; after all, what
instrument manufacturer at the time had had the necessity of designing an
instrument to show how fast a man and a machine could travel through the air?
Figure 1: ‘Stick and string’ operating by visual flight rules
2013-02-11 Page 1 of 60
It is a little difficult to say exactly in what sequence instruments were introduced
into aeroplanes. A magnetic compass was certainly an early acquisition as soon as
pilots attempted to fly from A to B, and flying greater distances would have required
information as to how much petrol was in the tank, so a contents gauge was fitted,
usually taking the form of a glass sight gauge. Somewhere along the line the clock
found its place and was useful as a means of calculating speed from a
time/distance method, and as an aid to navigation.
Many diverse aeroplane designs appeared, some of which provided an enclosure for
the pilot and a wooden board on which the then available instruments could be
mounted. Thus the cockpit and instrument panel were born.
Pilots soon lost their sense of equilibrium and had difficulty controlling aircraft
when external references were obscured so safe commercial operations could not be
considered at night or under adverse conditions.
Shortly before the outbreak of World War I, some attention was given to the
principles of air navigation and a few more instruments appeared on the
dashboards of certain types of aeroplanes including an altimeter, airspeed indicator
and the first engine instruments an RPM indicator and oil pressure gauge.
Gyro instruments were slowly introduced with the first being the turn indicator and
used in conjunction with the magnetic compass provided the first useful blind flying
aid. The gyro horizon and Directional gyro were first used in 1929.
Thus by about 1930 the grouping of instruments became rationalised so that
scanning distance between them was reduced to a minimum – this basic
instrument grouping has continued through to the present day.
Figure 2: A very early aircraft – cockpit instrument layout

Requirements and Standards
The complexity of modem aircraft and all allied equipment, and the nature of the
environmental conditions under which they must operate, require conformity of
design, development and subsequent operation with established requirements and
standards. This is, of course, in keeping with other branches of mechanical and
transport engineering, but in aviation requirements and standards are unique and
by far the most stringent.
The formulation and control of airworthiness requirements as they are called, and
the recommended standards to which raw materials, instruments and other
equipment should be designed and manufactured, are established in the countries
of design origin, manufacture and registration, by government departments and/or
other legally constituted bodies. The international operation of civil aircraft
necessitates international recognition that aircraft do, in fact, comply with their
respective national airworthiness requirements. As a result, international standards
of airworthiness are also laid down by the International Civil Aviation Organisation
(ICAO). These standards do not replace national regulations, but serve to define the
complete minimum international basis for the recognition by countries of
airworthiness certification.
ICAO sets international standards for the safety, security and efficiency of air
transport and serves as coordinator for international cooperation in all areas of civil
aviation.
ICAO is a sub-organisation of the United Nations (UN). ICAO was enacted in 1944.
The ICAO flag is a UN-related flag. The flag flies in Montreal where ICAO has its
headquarters.
Figure 3: International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO)

This lesson is not intended to go into all the requirements — these take up volumes
in themselves — but rather to extract those related essentially to instruments; by so
doing a useful foundation can be laid on which to study operating principles and
how they are applied in meeting the requirements.
Location, Visibility and Grouping of Instruments
All instruments shall be located so that they can be read easily by the appropriate
member of the flight crew.
When illumination of instruments is provided there shall be sufficient illumination
to make them easily readable and discernible by night. Instrument lights shall be
installed in such a manner that the pilot’s eyes are shielded from their direct rays
and that no objectionable reflections are visible to him.
Flight, navigation and power-plant instruments for use by a pilot shall be plainly
visible to him from his station with the minimum practicable deviation from his
normal position and line of vision when he is looking out and forward along the
flight path of the aircraft.
All flight instruments shall be grouped on the instrument panel and, as far as
practicable, symmetrically disposed about the vertical plane of the pilot’s forward
vision.
All the required power-plant instruments shall be conveniently grouped on
instrument panels and in such a manner that they may be readily seen by the
appropriate crew member.
In multi-engined aircraft, identical power-plant instruments for the several engines
shall be located so as to prevent any misleading impression as to the engines to
which they relate.
Figure 4: All flight instruments shall be grouped on the instrument panel and, as
far as practicable
Instrument Panels
The vibration characteristics of instrument panels shall be such as not to impair
seriously the accuracy of the instruments or to damage them. The minimum
acceptable vibration insulation characteristics are established by standards
formulated by the appropriate national organisation.
Instruments to be Installed:
 Flight and Navigation Instruments
 Pitot-static Instruments
 Gyroscopic Instruments
 Magnetic Compass
 Outside air temperature indicator
 Clock
 Duplicate Instruments
 Power Plant Instruments
Figure 5: Instrument Panel

Pitot-Static System Instruments
Instruments which are integral to an aircraft’s pitot-static system, which must also
conform to certain requirements:
 Altimeter adjustable for changes in barometric pressure.
 Airspeed indicator.
 Vertical speed indicator.
These are summarised as follows:
 The system shall be air-tight, except for the vents to atmosphere, and shall be
arranged so that the accuracy of the instruments cannot be seriously affected
by the aircraft’s speed, attitude, or configuration: by moisture, or other foreign
matter.
 The system shall be provided with a heated pitot-pressure probe to prevent
malfunctioning due to icing.
 Sufficient moisture traps shall be installed to ensure positive drainage
throughout the whole of the system.
 In aircraft in which an alternate or emergency system is to be installed, the
system must be as reliable as the primary one and any selector valve must be
clearly marked to indicate which system is in use.
 Pipelines shall be of such an internal diameter that pressure lag and
possibility of moisture blockage is kept to an acceptable minimum.
 Where static vents are used, to obviate yawing errors they shall be situated on
opposite sides of the aircraft and connected together as one system. Where
duplicate systems are prescribed, a second similar system shall be provided.
Gyroscopic Instruments
Gyroscopic instruments may be of the vacuum-operated or electrically operated
type, but in all cases the instruments shall be provided with:
 Two independent sources of power,
 A means of selecting either power source, and
 A means of indicating that the power supply is working satisfactorily.
The installation and power supply system shall be such that failure of one
instrument, or of the supply from one source, or a fault in any part of the supply
system, will not interfere with the proper supply of power from the other source.
Figure 6: Gyroscopic Instrument
Duplicate Instruments
In aircraft involving two-pilot operation it is necessary for each pilot to have his own
pilot-static and gyroscopic instruments. Therefore two independent operating
systems must be provided and must be so arranged that no fault which might
impair the operation of one is likely to impair the operation of both.
Figure 7: Duplicate Instruments

Magnetic Compass
The magnetic compass shall be installed so that its accuracy will not be excessively
affected by the aircraft vibration or magnetic fields of a permanent or transient
nature.
Figure 8: Magnetic Compass
Power Plant Instruments

Tachometer - to measure rotational speed of a crankshaft or compressor as
appropriate to the type of power plant.
Cylinder-head temperature indicator - for an air-cooled engine to indicate the
temperature of the hottest cylinder.
Carburetor-intake air temperature indicator.
Oil temperature indicator - to show the oil inlet and/or outlet temperature.
For turbojet and turboprop engines a temperature indicator - to indicate whether the
turbine or exhaust gas temperature is maintained within its limitations.
Figure 9: Power Plant Instruments

Fuel-pressure indicator - to indicate pressure at which fuel is being supplied and a
means for warning of low pressure.
Oil-pressure indicator - to indicate pressure at which oil is being supplied to a
lubricating system and a means for warning of low pressure.
Manifold pressure gauge - for a supercharged engine.
Fuel-quantity indicator - to indicate in gallons or equivalent units the quantity of
usable fuel in each tank during flight. Indicators shall be calibrated to read zero
during cruising level flight, when the quantity of fuel remaining is equal to the
unusable fuel, i.e. the amount of fuel remaining when, under the most adverse
conditions, the first evidence of malfunctioning of an engine occurs.
Fuel-flow indicator for turbojet and turboprop engines.
For piston engines not equipped with an automatic mixture control a fuel flow-
meter or fuel/air ratio indicator.
Thrust indicator for a turbojet engine.
Torque indicator for a turboprop engine.
Standards
In the design and manufacture of any product, it is the practice to comply with
some form of specification the purpose of which is to ensure conformity with the
required production processes, and to set an overall standard for quality of the
product and reliability when ultimately performing its intended function.
Specifications, or standards as they are commonly known, are formulated at both
national and international levels by specialised organisations. For example, in the
United Kingdom, the British Standards Institution is the recognised body for the
preparation and promulgation of national standards and codes of practice, and it
represents the United Kingdom in the International Organisation for
Standardisation (ISO), in the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and
in West European organisations performing comparable functions.
Standards relate to all aspects of engineering and as a result vast numbers are
produced and issued in series form corresponding to these aspects. As far as
aircraft instruments and associated equipment are concerned, British Standards
come within the Aerospace G100 and G200 series; they give definitions,
constructional requirements, dimensions, calibration data, accuracy required under
varying environmental conditions, and methods of testing.
Also in connection with instruments and associated electronic equipment, frequent
reference is made to what are termed ARINC specifications. This is an acronym for
Aeronautical Radio Incorporated, an organisation in the United States which
operates under the aegis of the airline operators, and in close collaboration with
manufacturers.
Figure 10: Standards

One notable specification of the many which ARINC formulate is that which sets out
a standard set of form factors for the items colloquially termed ‘black boxes’. In the
main, these factors cover case dimensions, mounting racks, location of plugs and
sockets, and a system of indexing fouling pins to ensure that only the correct
equipment can be fitted in its appropriate rack position. The size of box is based on
a standard width dimension called ‘one ATR’ (Air Transport Rack) and variations in
simple multiples of this provide a range of case widths. Two case lengths are
provided for, and are termed long and short, and the height is standard.
Instrument Elements and Mechanisms
Elements
From the operating point of view, we regard an instrument as being made up of the
following four principal elements:
 Detecting element - which detects changes in value of the physical quantity or
condition presented to it;
 Measuring element - which actually measures the value of the physical
quantity or condition in terms of small translational or angular displacements;
 Coupling element - which displacements are magnified and transmitted; and
 Indicating element - which exhibits the value of the measured quantity
transmitted by the coupling element, by the relative positions of a pointer, or
index, and a scale.
Figure 11: Instrument Elements

Mechanisms
In the strictest sense, the term mechanism refers to all four elements as a
composite unit and contained within the case of an instrument. However, since the
manner in which the functions of the elements are performed and integrated is
governed by relevant instrument operating principles and construction, this applies
to only a very few instruments.
In the majority of applications to aircraft, a separation of some of the elements is
necessary so that three, or maybe only two, elements form the mechanism, within
the instrument case.
The direct-reading pressure gauge shown on the slide is a good example of a
composite unit of mechanical elements, while an example of separated mechanical
elements as applied to an airspeed indicator.
In the left example figure 12, the detecting element is separated from the three
other elements, which thus form the mechanism within the case.
Figure 12: Mechanisms

At this basic stage we will consider the operation of a class of mechanisms based on
the principles of levers and rods (the right example figure 12). These are utilised as
coupling elements which follow definite laws, and can introduce any required
input/output relationship. In aircraft instrument applications, such lever and rod
mechanisms are confined principally to direct-reading pressure gauges and pitot-
static flight instruments.
Lever Mechanism
Consider a simple Bourdon tube pressure gauge. The Bourdon tube forms both the
detecting and measuring elements, a simple link, lever, quadrant and pinion forms
the coupling element, while the indicating element is made up of the pointer and
scale.
This mechanism is of the basic lever type, the lever being in this case the complete
coupling element. When pressure is applied to the tube it is displaced, such
displacement resulting in input and output movements of the coupling and
indicating elements, respectively, in the directions shown in figure 13.
Figure 13: Bourdon tube

In connection with mechanisms of this type, two terms are used both of which are
related to the movement and calibration of the indicating element.
They are:
 lever length - which is the distance d between the point of operation of the
measuring element and the pivoting point of the lever, and
 lever angle - which is the angle Ө (theta) between the lever and the link
connecting it to the measuring element.
Lever Length
In order to understand what effects these have on the input/output relationship,
refer to the illustration figure 14.
The movement of the indicating element is proportional to the lever length; thus, if
the lever is pivoted at its centre, this movement will be equal to the input
movement.
Figure 14: Lever Length

Let us now assume that the pivoting point is moved to a distance d1, from the point
of operation.
The lever length is now reduced so that for the same input movement as before the
output movement of the indicating element will be increased.
From this it will be clear that an increase of lever length to a distance d2 will
produce a decreased output movement for the same input movement.
Lever Angle
The effect of lever angle on the input/output relationship is to change the rate of
magnification since the lever angle itself changes in response to displacement of the
measuring element.
Figure 15: Lever Angle

Assume that the line AB represents the axis of the lever at its starting position, then
the starting lever angle will be Ө (theta). Assume now that the measuring element is
being displaced by equal increments of pressure applied to it.
The link attachment point C will move to C1 and will increase the lever angle in two
stages; firstly when the link pivots about point B, and secondly when the link pulls
the lever arm of the coupling element upwards from the starting position taking
point B to point B1. Thus, the axis of the lever arm has moved to A1, B1 and the
lever angle has increased to a total angle Ө1.
When the next increment of pressure is applied, point C reaches C2, point B
reaches B2 and the axis AB moves to A2 B2, so that not only has the lever angle
been further increased, but also the magnification, the distance from A1 to A2 being
much greater than that from A to A1.
From this explaination, it would appear that the two effects counteract each other,
and that erratic indications would result. In all instruments employing lever
mechanisms, however, provision is made for the adjustment of lever lengths and
angles so that the indicating element follows the required calibration law within the
limits permissible.
Rod Mechanisms
Unlike pure lever mechanisms, rod mechanisms dispense with pin or screw-jointed
linkages for the interconnection of component parts, and rely on rods in contact
with, and sliding relative to, each other for the generation of the input/output
relationship.
Contact between the rods under all operating conditions is maintained by the use of
a hairspring which tensions the whole mechanism.
Figure 16: Rod Mechanisms

These mechanisms, find their greatest application in flight instruments, and can be
divided into three main classes named after the trigonometrical relationships
governing their operation:
 Sine mechanism,
 Tangent mechanism, and
 Double-tangent mechanism.
Sine Mechanism
The sine mechanism, is employed in certain types of airspeed indicator as the first
stage of the coupling element, and comprises two rods A and B in sliding contact
with each other, and a rocking shaft C to which rod B is attached. In response to
displacement of the measuring element, the input movement of rod A is in a vertical
plane, causing rod B to slide along it and at the same time to rotate the rocking
shaft. The point of contact between the two rods remains at a constant radius r
from the centre of the rocking shaft.
Figure 17: Sine Mechanism

The rotation of the rocking shaft is given by the trigonometrical relationship;
h2 – h1 = r (sin Ө2 – sin Ө1)
where h is the vertical input movement of rod A and Ө the angle of rod B. The
usable range of movement (Ө in the diagram) of rod B is ±60°, and the angle at
which it starts within this range depends on the magnification required for
calibration. For example, if rod A moves upwards from a starting angle at – 60°, the
magnification is at first high and then decreases with continued movement of rod A
(compare angular distance Ө2 to Ө1 on diagram on slide) . When the starting angle
is at or near the zero degree position, the magnification rate is an increasing one
(assume rod B starting point is horizontal – the further rod A moves away from zero
the greater the magnification factor – aligned to a sine table – sine of 0° is 0, sine of
90° is 1).
Sine 5° = 0.087
Sine 30° = 0.5
Sine 60° = .866
Note that as rod A moves up and down, the lever length ‘r’ (length of rod B) remains
constant.
Lever length ‘r’ is effectively hypotenuse of right angle triangle, and movement of rod
A varies length of ‘opposite’ side. (SOHCAHTOA: Sine = opposite ÷ Hypotenuse).
Tangent Mechanism
A tangent mechanism is similar to a sine mechanism, but the point of contact
between the two rods remains at a constant perpendicular distance d from the
centre of the rocking shaft. The rotation of the rocking shaft is given by the
relationship;
h2 – h1 = d (tan Ө2 – tan Ө1 )
The magnification rate of this mechanism is opposite to that of a sine mechanism
except at a starting angle at or near 0°, where sin Ө and tan Ө are approximately
equal.
Sine 5° = 0.087 Tan 5° = 0.087
Sine 18° = 0.3 Tan 18° = 0.32
Sine 30° = 0.5 Tan 30° = 0.577
Sine 60° = 0.866 Tan 60° = 1.73
As rod A moves further away from 0°, magnitude of angular displacement of rocking
shaft decreases – eg as rod A moves down – less magnification (less rotation of
rocking shaft) of movement the farther it moves, for 1 cm of movement near 0° lets
assume we get 10° of shaft rotation. For 1 cm of movement near 70°, we only get 3°
of rotation (figure18 diagrams are only assumed – they are by no means accurate).
In this mechanism the effective length of the lever (length of rod B) varies as rod A
moves up and down. Where in the sine mechanism, the length of rod B (‘r’) was
considered as a constant when calculating the sine of the angle, in this mechanism
the adjacent remains constant. In this Tan mechanism the distance ‘d’ remains
constant, and is effectively the ‘adjacent’ of a right angled triangle. The input
movement of rod A is still varying the ‘opposite’, so the Tan of the angle is the
output of this mechanism. (SOHCAHTOA: Tan = opposite ÷ Adjacent).
Figure 18: Tangent Mechanism

Double Tangent Mechanism
A double-tangent mechanism is employed where rotary motion of a shaft is to be
transferred through a right angle. A typical application is as the second stage of an
airspeed indicator coupling element and for the gearing of the indicating element.
It is formed basically of two tangent mechanisms in series so that the rotary motion
of one shaft is converted into rotary motion of a second.
This is instead of converting a linear motion into a rotary one as with a sine or a
tangent mechanism. The input/output relationship is a combined one involving two
trigonometrical conversions; the first is related to the movement of the contact point
between rods A and B and is given by:
h = d (tan ӨD2 – tan ӨD1)
where d is the perpendicular distance between the axis of shaft D and the plane of
contact between A and B, and ӨD is the rotation of D.
The second conversion is given by:
h = f (tan ӨC2 – tan ӨC1)
where f is the perpendicular distance between the axis of shaft C and the plane of
contact between A and B, and e is the rotation of shaft C.
When the planes of movement of rods A and B intersect at right angles and the rods
are straight ones, the combination of the two conversions gives the relationship:
d (tan ӨD1 – tan ӨD2) = f (tan ӨC1 – tan ӨC2)
The output of the double tangent mechanism can therefore be modified by varying
the angular relationship between the rods and the effective lengths of the rods. By
modifying the relationship, the output of a sensing device (eg a differential capsule)
can be made linear to drive a pointer over a dial.
A variation on the double tangent theme is the skew tangent mechanism. In this,
the rocking shafts are orthogonal (having a set of mutual perpendicular axes –
meeting at right angles) but the planes of the rods A and B do not intersect at right
angles.
Gears
The coupling and indicating elements of many aircraft instruments employ gears in
one form or another, for the direct conversion of straight-line or arc-like motion into
full rotary motion, and for increasing or decreasing the motion.
The illustration in figure 19, shows in schematic form how gears are applied to an
instrument utilising a multi-pointer type of indicating element. The sector gear and
its meshing pinion provide for the initial magnification of the measuring element’s
displacement.
The gear is a small portion of a large geared wheel, and since it has as many teeth
in a few degrees of arc as the pinion has completely around it, the sector need only
turn a few degrees to rotate the pinion through a complete revolution.
The other gears shown are designed to provide a definite magnification ratio of
movement between their respective pointers and the pointer actuated by the sector
gear and pinion.
Figure 19: Gears

Backlash
In applying gears to instruments and control systems, a problem which has to be
faced is that a gear can always turn a small amount before it will drive the one in
mesh with it.
This loss of motion, or backlash as it is termed, is unavoidable since the
dimensioning of the gear teeth must allow for a set amount of ‘play’ to avoid
jamming of the gears. Other methods must therefore be found to minimise the
unstable effects which backlash can create.
Figure 20: Backlash

The method most commonly adopted in geared mechanisms is one involving the use
of a coiled hairspring. The hairspring usually forms part of an indicating element
and is positioned so that one end is attached to the pointer shaft and the other to
the mechanism frame.
In operation, the spring due to tensioning always has a tendency to unwind so that
the inherent play between gear teeth is taken up and they are maintained in
contact.
Another method, and one which is adopted in certain instrument systems involving
the transmission of data, is the anti-backlash gear. This consists of two identical
gears freely mounted face to face on a common hub and interconnected with each
other by means of two springs so that, in effect, it is a split single gear wheel.
Before the gear is meshed with its partner, one half is rotated one or two teeth thus
slightly stretching the springs. After meshing, the springs always tend to return the
two halves of the gear to the static unloaded position; therefore the face of all teeth
are maintained in contact.
The torque exerted by the springs is always greater than the operating torques of
the transmission system so that resilience necessary for gear action is unaffected.
Hairsprings
Hairsprings are precision-made devices which, in addition to the anti-backlash
function already referred to, also serve as controlling devices against which
deflecting forces are balanced to establish required calibration laws (as in electrical
moving-coil instruments) and for the restoration of coupling and indicating
elements to their original positions when the deflecting forces are removed. In an
electrical instrument, the current through the coil deflects the pointer assembly, if
hairspring tension is increased, increased current is required to fully deflect the
pointer – provides a means of calibrating meter movement
Figure 21: Hairspring

In the majority of cases, hairsprings are of the flat-coil type with the inner end fixed
to a collet, enabling it to be press-fitted to its relevant shaft, the outer end being
anchored to an adjacent part of the mechanism framework. The method of
anchoring permits a certain degree of spring torque adjustment and initial setting of
the indicating element by moving a greater degree of the hairspring coil into the
post before pinning it to apply a greater tension to the attached mechanism.
In certain types of electrical measuring instruments, provision must be made for
external adjustment of the pointer to the zero position of the scale. One method
commonly adopted, and which illustrates the principles in general, is shown in
figure 22. The inner end of the spring is secured to the pointer shaft in the normal
way, but the outer end is secured to a circular plate friction-loaded around the front
pivot screw. A fork, which is an integral part of the plate, engages with a pin
eccentrically mounted in a screw at the front of the instrument. When the screw is
rotated it deflects the plate thus rotating the spring, shaft and pointer to a new
position without altering the torque loading of the spring.
Figure 22: external adjustment of the pointer

The materials from which hairsprings are made are generally phosphor-bronze and
beryllium-copper, their manufacture calling for accurate control and grading of
thickness, diameter and torque loading to suit the operating characteristics of
particular classes of instrument.
Jewels
Excessive friction causes wear which destroys the accuracy and precision of
instruments. Certain parts move on bearings made of tiny jewels, usually sapphires
or rubies.
Instrument maintenance and calibration performed in ultra-clean conditions –
eliminates dust and contamination which causes friction in instrument
mechanisms.
Temperature Compensation of Instrument Mechanisms.
In the construction of instrument mechanisms, various metals and alloys are used,
and unavoidably, changes in their physical characteristics can occur with changes
in the temperature of their surroundings. For some applications deliberate
advantage can be taken of these changes as the basis of operation; for example, in
certain electrical thermometers the changes in a metal’s electrical resistance forms
the basis of temperature measurement. However, this and other changes in
characteristics are not always desirable, and it therefore becomes necessary to take
steps to neutralise those which, if unchecked, would introduce indication errors
due solely to environmental temperature changes.
The methods adopted for temperature compensation, as it is called, are varied
depending on the type of instrument to which they are applied. The oldest method
of compensation is the one utilising the bimetal-strip principle and is applied to
such instruments as airspeed indicators, altimeters, vertical speed indicators, and
exhaust-gas temperature indicators.
Like all substances, instrument sensing elements are effected by temperature
changes. In a cold climate an aneroid capsule is not as malleable, so won’t expand
and contract as readily as in a hot climate, therefore the instrument readings will
be influenced by temperature, and not the pressure they are intended to measure.
Figure 23: Bearings made of tiny jewels, usually sapphires or rubies

Temperature errors can occur at sea level between hot and cold days, but will also
be induced by altitude. Instruments movements must be compensated for
temperature changes.
Forms of compensation include:
 Bi Metallic Strip,
 Thermo resistance method, and
 Thermo magnetic shunt method.
Figure 24, illustrates the action of ‘strip’ and ‘disc’ types of ‘bimetallic temperature
sensors’. Two metals of high (brass) and low (invar) temperature coefficients are
bonded together.
Figure 24: ‘strip’ and ‘disc’ types of ‘bimetallic temperature sensors’

A bimetal strip, as the name implies, consists of two metals joined together at their
interface to form a single strip. One of the metals is invar, a form of steel with a
36% nickel content and a negligible coefficient of linear expansion, while the other
metal may be brass or steel, both of which have high linear expansion coefficients.
Thus, when the strip is subjected to an increase of temperature the brass or steel
will expand, and conversely will contract when the strip is subjected to a decrease
of temperature. The invar strip, on the other hand, on account of it having a
negligible expansion coefficient, will always try to maintain the same length and
being firmly joined to the other metal will cause the whole strip to bend.
At some datum temperature the strip is straight. If the strip is heated the brass
expands more than the invar to cause it to curl. If the strip is cooled the brass
contracts more than the invar to cause it to curl the opposite way. Disc shaped
bimetallic sensors are common in applications requiring a snap action. When
heated, a slightly domed bimetallic disc will suddenly snap across to being domed
on the opposite side. Bimetallic temperature sensors are used in temperature,
liquid level and position indicators as temperature compensators or correctors in
various instruments and mechanisms and to operate switch contacts in circuit
breakers, fire detectors, thermostats and timers. Variations in temperature can
cause errors in some instruments and mechanisms. ‘Bimetallic compensators’ may
then be built into the mechanism to introduce corrections that are equal and
opposite to the errors. Temperatures above normal make the bellows more flexible,
so it expands more than it should for a given pressure. This unwanted extra
movement is represented by the full arrows. If one of the links moved by the bellows
is bimetallic, the same high temperature would bend it in the direction (broken
arrow) that corrects the output error.
Bimetal-Strip Method
An application of the bimetal-strip principle to a typical rod-type mechanism is
shown on the slide. In this case, the vertical ranging bar connected to the rocking
shaft is bimetallic and bears against the arm coupled to the sector gear of the
indicating element. The principal effect which temperature changes have on this
mechanism is expansion and contraction of the capsule, thus tending to make the
indicating element overread or underread.
For example, let us assume that the positions taken up by the mechanism elements
are those obtaining when measuring a known quantity at the normal calibration
temperature of 15°C, and that the temperature is gradually increased. The effect of
the increase in temperature on the capsule material is to make it more flexible so
that it will expand further to carry the ranging bar in the direction indicated by the
solid arrows. As the ranging bar is in contact with the sector gear arm the
indicating element has the tendency to overread.
However, the increase of temperature has a simultaneous effect on the ranging bar
which, being a bimetal and on account of the position of the invar portion, will sag,
or deflect in the direction indicated by the dotted arrow, thus counteracting the
capsule expansion and keeping the indicating element at a constant reading.
When the temperature is decreased the capsule material ‘stiffens up’ and contracts
so that the indicating element tends to underread; as will be apparent from the
diagram, a constant reading would be maintained by the bimetal ranging bar
sagging or deflecting in the opposite direction.
Figure 25: Bimetal ranging bar

In some instruments, for example exhaust-gas temperature indicators, indication
errors can be introduced due to the effects of environmental temperature on the
values of the electromotive force produced by a thermocouple system. Although
such errors ultimately result from changes in an electrical quantity, compensation
can also be effected mechanically and by the application of the bimetal-strip
principle. As, however, the operation of the method is closely connected with the
operating principles of thermo-electric instruments, we shall study it in detail at the
appropriate stage.
Thermo-Resistance Method
For temperature measurements in aircraft, many of the instruments employed are
of the electrical moving-coil type, and as the coil material is usually either copper or
aluminium, changes of indicator temperature can cause changes in electrical
resistance of the material. As they depend for their operation on electric current,
which is governed by resistance, the effects of temperature can result in indication
errors which necessitate compensation.
One of the compensation methods adopted utilises a thermoresistor or thermistor
connected in the indicator circuit. A thermistor, which is composed of a mixture of
metallic oxides, has a very large temperature coefficient of resistance which is
usually negative; i.e. its resistance decreases with increases in temperature.
Assuming that the temperature of the indicator increases, the current flowing
through the indicator will be reduced because copper or aluminium will
characteristically increase in resistance (copper and aluminium like most
conductors has a postitve temperature coefficient – for an increase in temperature,
resistance increases); the indicator will therefore tend to underread. The thermistor
resistance will, on the other hand, decrease, so that for the same temperature
change the resistance changes will balance out to maintain a constant current and
therefore a constant indication of the quantity being measured.
Thermo-Magnetic Shunt Method

As an alternative to the thermistor method of compensating for moving-coil
resistance changes, some temperature measuring instruments utilise a device
known as a thermo-magnetic shunt. This is a strip of nickel-iron alloy sensitive to
temperature changes, which is clamped across the poles of the permanent magnet
so that it diverts some of the airgap magnetic flux through itself.
As before, let us assume that the indicator temperature increases. The moving-coil
resistance will increase thus opposing the current flowing through the coil, but, at
the same time, the reluctance (‘magnetic resistance’) of the alloy strip will also
increase so that less flux is diverted from the airgap. Since the deflecting torque
exerted on a moving coil is proportional to the product of current and flux, the
increased airgap flux counterbalances the reduction in current to maintain a
constant torque and indicated reading. Depending on the size of the permanent
magnet, a number of thermo-magnetic strips may be fitted to effect the required
compensation.
Sealing of Instruments Against Atmospheric Effects

In pressurised aircraft, the internal atmospheric pressure conditions are increased
to a value greater than that prevailing at the altitude at which the aircraft is flying.
Consequently, instruments using external atmospheric pressure as a datum, for
example altimeters, vertical speed indicators and airspeed indicators, are liable to
inaccuracies in their readings should air at cabin pressure enter their cases. The
cases are therefore sealed to withstand external pressures higher than those
normally encountered under pressurised conditions. The external pressure against
which sealing is effective is normally about 15 psi. Direct-reading pressure
measuring instruments of the Bourdon tube, or capsule type, connected to a
pressure source outside the pressure cabin, are also liable to errors. Such errors
are corrected by using sealed cases and venting them to outside atmospheric
pressure.
Hermetic Sealing of Instruments
Many of the instruments in current use depend for their operation on sensitive
electrical circuits and mechanisms which must be protected against the adverse
effects of atmospheric temperature, pressure and humidity. This protection is
afforded by filling the cases with an inert gas such as nitrogen or helium, and then
hermetically sealing the cases.
Measurement of Pressure
Pressure, which is defined as force per unit area, may be measured directly either
by balancing it against that produced by a column of liquid of known density, or it
may be permitted to act over a known area and then measured in terms of the force
produced. The former method is the one utilised in simple U-tube manometers,
while the second enables us to measure the force by balancing it against a known
weight, or by the strain it produces in an elastic material.
Figure 26: U-tube manometers

In connection with pressure measurements, we are concerned with the
following terms:
Absolute Pressure
The absolute pressure of a fluid is the difference between the pressure of the fluid
and the absolute zero of pressure, the latter being the pressure in a complete
vacuum. Therfore it can never be negative. A Vacuum is as low as pressure can go –
there is no such thing as a negative vacuum. Thus, in using a gauge to measure the
fluid pressure, the absolute pressure of the fluid would be equal to the sum of the
gauge pressure and the atmospheric pressure.
Figure 27: Absolute Pressure

Gauge Pressure
Most pressure gauges measure the difference between the absolute pressure of a
fluid and the atmospheric pressure. Such measurement is called the gauge
pressure, and is equal to the absolute pressure minus the atmospheric pressure.
Gauge pressure is either positive or negative, depending on its level above or below
the atmospheric pressure reference.
Figure 28: Gauge Pressure

In gauges which are spoken of as indicating vacuum or suction, they are really
indicating the amount the absolute pressure is less than atmospheric pressure.
Thus, gauge pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure minus pressure of the fluid,
and the absolute pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure minus gauge pressure.
Differential Pressure
It is often necessary to know, not the pressure itself, but the difference between two
pressures. For example, in a pressure carburettor
Figure 29: Differential Pressure

The important pressure is the difference between the inlet fuel pressure and the
inlet air pressure. Airspeed is measured by the difference between the ram, or pitot
pressure, and still air, or static pressure. This differential pressure may be
measured by two bellows, in which one pressure is sensed by one bellows and the
reference pressure by the other bellows. The movement of the bellows is transmitted
to the pointer through a set of amplifying levers. Airspeed is measured by
introducing ram pressure into the capsule and measuring this against static
pressure in the airtight instrument case.
Hysteresis Error
The lagging of an effect behind its cause; especially the phenomenon in which the
magnetic induction of a ferromagnetic material lags behind the changing magnetic
field.
Figure 30: Hysteresis Error

Elastic hysteresis is the internal friction in an elastic solid subjected to varying
stress (eg aneroid capsule). The delay of an indicator in registering a change in a
parameter being measured.
Instrument indication that occurs after movement of the indicator because of a rise
or fall in the force being measured by the instrument. (Up and down scale error).
Hysteresis is essentially a lagging of the indication caused by the deflection of the
metal in the diaphragms not keeping up with the pressure changes as a result of
friction and elasticity limitations.
Parallax Error
When you read a measurement from a scale, three points should be in a line. These
are your eyes, the scale, and whatever it is that is being measured. This may for
instance be the needle or pointer of an instrument, or some edge or mark on an
object against which a ruler is placed.
Whenever there is a gap between the scale and the reference mark, the accuracy of
the reading will depend on the angle formed by your line of sight and the scale. The
reading could be taken as 27, 28, or 29 mm depending on the position of the eye. In
this case it appears that to ensure accuracy, you must position yourself so that
your line of sight is perpendicular to the plane of the scale. The error that results
from viewing the reference point and scale from positions A, C, or any other position
than B, is known as parallax error.
Figure 31: Parallax Error

When there is no gap between the scale and the reference mark, the readings taken
at positions A, B, and C are the same, and there is no parallax error . For accuracy,
it is important that your line of sight be perpendicular to the plane of the scale, and
that the gap between the scale and the reference point be as small as possible.
To reduce Parallax or apparent error:
 Be directly in front of scale
 Closer the pointer is to the scale the better
 Use knife edge pointer – end of pointer twisted 90° so you look at is side on
 Mirror behind scale
The system of measurements is based mainly on the International System of Units,
usually abbreviated to SI (from the French Système Internationale). However,
aircraft maintenance data expressed in imperial and US units are still used and will
remain in use for many years. You therefore need to know both the SI and imperial
systems together with the few US variations of the imperial system. You will also
have needs to convert all ways between SI, imperial and US units.
2013-02-11 Page 32 of
Metric Systems and SI Base Units
The most universally accepted systems of measurements have for quite some time
been metric; and most countries that are already metric, or that are going metric,
are adopting the Systéme Internationale (SI) the latest version of the metric system.
As a basis for the measurement of all physical quantities, this system uses seven
base units, two supplementary units, and many derived units.
The International System has base units from which all others in the system are
derived. The standards for the base units, except for the kilogram, are defined by
unchanging and reproducible physical occurrences. For example, the meter is
defined as the distance traveled by light in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a second.
The standard for the kilogram is a platinum-iridium cylinder kept at the
International Bureau of Weights and Standards in Sèvres, France.
There are still a few countries which have not yet adopted a metric system. The
most notable of these is the USA.
A striking advantage of metric systems, and particularly SI, over the imperial styled
systems, is that there is only one unit in the system for each physical quantity, and
multiplying factors for the unit follow a consistent pattern. This is not so in the
imperial system in which for instance: 12 inches = 1 foot, 3 feet = 1 yard, 1760
yards = 1 mile, 1 fathom = 6 feet, 1 chain = 22 yards. The basic SI unit of length is
the metre, and larger or smaller values of length are expressed as decimal multiples
or submultiples of the metre. For example 1 metre ± 1000 = 1 millimetre, 1 metre ÷
‘100 = 1 centimetre, 1 metre x 1000 = 1 kilometre. The same multiple and
submultiple factors are used for all other quantities in SI.
2013-02-11 Page 33 of
Mole
The amount of a substance that contains as many atoms, molecules, ions, or other
elementary units as the number of atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon 12. The number is
6.0225 × 1023, or Avogadro's number. Also called gram molecule.
Figure 32: Primary SI units

The mass in grams of this amount of a substance, numerically equal to the
molecular weight of the substance. Also called gram-molecular weight.
Candela
The basic unit of luminous intensity adopted under the System International
d'Unites; equal to 1/60 of the luminous intensity per square centimeter of a
blackbody radiating at the temperature of 2,046 degrees Kelvin
SI Symbols and Prefixes

When representing units by using their abbreviation, the plural of a symbol is
identical to its singular form, as with 1 m and 153 m. Although the name of a unit
derived from a proper name does not take a capital letter, the symbol does, as with
watt, W; and newton, N.
Note – base unit for mass is kilogram (hence the reference “except for mass”)
Symbols for derived units with complex names are combinations of the constituent
unit symbols. The product of two or more unit symbols may be indicated by a full
stop, or where there is no risk of confusion with another unit symbol, the stop may
be omitted and a space left. Thus N.m or Nm is the symbol for newton metre. The
division of one unit by another in a complex unit is indicated by a negative index,
an oblique stroke /, or a horizontal line. For example, a kilogram per cubic metre is
expressed as kg m3, kg/m3, or kg ÷ m3
It is confusing to use more than one oblique stroke in the symbol for a derived unit.
Acceleration for instance, should be written as m/s2. rather than m/s/s.
Satisfactory alternatives are ms-2 or m ÷ s2.
Factors of 10 are always used as multiples and submultiples of SI units. The metre
for example, is useful for measuring objects such as the size of a hangar, but many
zeros would be required to express the maximum range of a jet airliner in metres.
Similarly it would be cumbersome to express small measurements, such as a
contact breaker gap, as a decimal fraction of a metre.
Figure 33: Non-SI Units

Multiples and submultiples of SI units are formed by attaching a prefix to the name
of the unit. The table on the slide lists the standard prefixes, together with their
symbols and multiplication factors.
Generally, it is preferable to use the prefixes that advance or decline by factors of
103. Thus the use of hecto, deca, deci and, to a lesser extent, centi, are not
encouraged. The most commonly used prefixes are mega, kilo, milli, and micro.
Prefix symbols should be written or printed without spacing between the prefix
symbol and the unit symbol, as in mm and kW.
Compound prefixes, such as milli-micro should not be used and in general only one
prefix should be used in forming the symbol for a unit.
Even greater multiples:
 peta - P 1015 - 1,000,000,000,000,000,000
 exa - E 1018 - 1,000,000,000,000,000
and even greater sub-multiples
 atto - a - 10-18 = 0.000,000,000,000,000,001
SI Supplementary Units
The two supplementary units relate to quantities of angle. One is for plane angles
(the region cut out in a plane by two straight lines diverging from a point), and the
other for solid angles (the region cut out in space by an arbitrary cone).
Figure 34: SI Supplementary Units

Units of Angular Measure — Radians (rad).
Definition: 1 rad is the angle measure such that when the vertex of the angle is
placed at the center of a circle then the arc length (i.e. curved distance along the
edge) of the circle equals the length of the circle's radius, (r).
360° = 2π radians; therefore π rad = 180°.
The animation on the slide is meant to illustrate how many times a distance "r" fits
around the edge of a circle. From our experience, we know that C = 2πr. This
means there are exactly 2π distances of length "r" to wrap around the circle once
(from point A back to itself). Since there is an angle of measure θ = 1 radian for
each "r", then there must be the same number of radians in one revolution. That is,
if there are 2π distances of "r" in one trip around a circle then there must also be
precisely 2π angles of measure 1 radian inside the same circle for every complete
revolution...... 360° = 2π radians.
Steradian - Solid Angle
The angle that, seen from the center of a sphere, includes a given area on the
surface of that sphere. The value of the solid angle is numerically equal to the size
of that area divided by the square of the radius of the sphere.
Ω = A / r2
Other than the diagram might suggest, the shape of the area doesn't matter at all.
Any shape on the surface of the sphere that holds the same area will define a solid
angle of the same size.
Figure 35: Steradian - Solid Angle

Also, the diagram only shows the elements that define a solid angle, not the solid
angle itself. The solid angle is the quantitative aspect of the conical slice of space,
that has the center of the sphere as its peak, the area on the surface of the sphere
as one of its spherical cross sections, and extends to infinity.
The maximum solid angle is ~12.57, corresponding to the full area of the unit
sphere, which is 4 x Pi.
Standard unit of a solid angle is the Steradian (sr).
(Mathematically, the solid angle is unitless, but for practical reasons, the steradian
is assigned.)
SI Derived Units
These are always made up from two or more other units which may be base units,
supplementary units or other derived units.
Figure 36: SI Derived Units

Some derived units such as the joule, the watt and the newton are named after
eminent scientists. The illustration on the slide lists a selection of derived units
with special names that are significant for aircraft maintenance people. Some of
these such as the watt, volt and ohm are common to metric and imperial systems of
measurement.
Other SI Derived Units have complex names which are derived from the units
comprising them, such as metre per second (a combination of two base units) and
radians per second (a combination of a supplementary unit and a base unit).
The illustration on the slide lists a selection of derived units with complex names
that are significant for aircraft maintenance people. Some of these measure
quantities such as Apparent Power, Velocity and Density.
SI Metric System Family tree
The family tree on the slide shows the SI base and supplementary units, and a few
of the many derived units. The broken lines indicate the source of some of the
derived units. As yet, no country uses SI units exclusively. The block alongside the
family tree lists some of the non-SI units that are commonly used in conjunction
with SI.
Figure 37: SI Metric System Family tree
Other Units Used With SI Units

There are a few non-SI units that continue in universal use. Notable examples are
the year, day, hour, and minute for time intervals; and the degree, minute, and
second for angular measurements.
Other non-SI units such as the international nautical mile (1852 metres) and knot
are, by international agreement, still used for ship and aircraft navigation.
ICAO Specified Units for Aircraft Communications
The International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) in its role of promoting
international standards and recommended practices has published two alternative
tables of units of measurement for use in air to ground communication. These,
known as the ICAO Table and the Blue Table, are detailed in the table on the slide.
Note that they differ only in the units specified for altitudes and vertical speed.
Most English-speaking countries have adopted the Blue Table, but some of these
countries vary from it for some units.
Figure 38: ICAO Specified Units for Aircraft Communications
Conversions in General
Conversions between units of different measuring systems can be done to varying
degrees of accuracy, depending on the exactness of the conversion factors. A
quantity expressed in new units should retain the same degree of accuracy that it
had in the old units (the units from which it was converted). It is therefore
important that factors of appropriate accuracy be selected when making
conversions. These factors may be exact (or very close to exact), or approximate to
any degree from close to rough.
To illustrate the point. By using a tight conversion factor, an engine oil
consumption of one pint per hour could be said to be 0.568 261 3 litre per hour. In
practice it could be quite satisfactory to express this as 0.6 litre, or even 0.5 litre.
Thus a conversion factor of 0.6 or 0.5, rather than 5.682 613 x 10-’ (that is 0.568
261 3) would have been adequate. As the converse to this, a high level of accuracy
is necessary when converting measurements such as micrometer readings.
The precision of a measuring device should be considered when determining the
equivalence in other measuring systems.
For example, a ruler divided into sixteenths of an inch could be equated to a metric
ruler with 1 mm divisions, and measurements to better than the nearest millimetre
would be unwarranted.
Similarly, measurements made to 1/1000th of an inch, using a micrometer, would
be comparable to divisions of 25μm in a metric system.
Conversion factors taken to more than two decimal places provide accurate
equivalents and are used in some specific areas.
Such factors imply an accuracy of measurement which rarely exists in the original
quantity, and to that extent, they may have limited practical use in aircraft
maintenance.
For example, converting 15 feet 6 inches (15.5 feet) to metres by using the accurate
factor of 0.3048; gives:
15.5 x 0.3048 = 4.72440m
Although less accuracy would result if a rounded conversion factor of 0.3 is used,
giving 4.65 m, this simplifies the arithmetic and is acceptable when a high order of
accuracy is not necessary.
In aircraft maintenance, safety is an important factor when converting units
between systems. When a quantity is quoted in maintenance data as a maximum or
minimum limit, then any rounding of a converted equivalent to this should be below
the original maximum, or above the original minimum.
For example, the maintenance manual of a particular aircraft states that the main
wheel tyre pressure is to be 50 psi maximum and 46 psi minimum. Using the
conversion factor of 6.89, the equivalent pressures in SI units are 344.5 kPa and
316.94 kPa, respectively.
Rounding of these equivalents to the practical values of 340 kPa maximum and 320
kPa minimum ensures that the converted values fall within the original prescribed
range.
Approximate conversion rates from imperial gallons to other units of volumetric:
1 imperial gallon = 4.5 litres
1 imperial gallon = 1.2 US gallons
Specific Gravity relative:
1 imperial gallon Jet A = 7.9 lbs (3.58 kg)
1 imperial gallon avtur = 8 lbs (3.62 kg)
Range of conversions – rounded conversion figure may introduce errors – always
consider accuracy required of the outcome in determining rounding of figures and
conversion factors.
Conversion rates for speed:
Knots to km/h: X 1.85

Knots to mph: X 1.15
mph to km/h: X 1.61

mph to knots: X 0.87
km/h to knots: X 0.54

km/h to mph: X 0.87
1 knot = 1 nautical mile per hour
Figure 39: Fuel convertion charts

The Atmosphere
The characteristics of the atmosphere have important effects on the operation and
maintenance of aircraft.
The nature of the atmosphere may vary considerably from day to day at any given
place and it also varies from place to place at any given time. Because of these
variations and because aircraft move from one place to another pretty quickly, they
continually experience changes in the air in which they fly.
These changes affect aircraft and their systems. Changes in the density of the
atmosphere alter lift, drag, and engine power. These changes affect aircraft
performance. Changes in density result from changes in atmospheric pressure,
temperature, or humidity.
During maintenance operations atmospheric effects often need to be taken into
account:
 ground running and testing engines
 adjusting control components
 monitoring and adjusting instruments, and
 painting
The atmosphere consists of a layer of air many kilometres thick. The weight of the
atmosphere on the earth’s surface causes an air pressure of about 100 kilopascals
(kPa). This pressure progressively falls off with height (altitude) above the earth. The
atmosphere extends more than 300 km (190 miles) above sea-level, but it is
extremely thin (rarefied) at altitudes above about 16 km (10 miles). Nearer the
earth’s surface the atmosphere is much denser: about half of its total weight
occupies the relatively shallow layer under the 5.5 km (approximately 18 000 ft)
level.
Figure 40: The Atmosphere

Regions of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere is classified into four regions based on the variation of temperature
with altitude.
Aircraft fly only in the troposphere and the lowest part of the stratosphere. Civil
aircraft would rarely exceed altitudes of 45 000 ft (nearly 14 km). Note that in the
English-speaking countries that have adopted a metric system of measurements,
aircraft altitude is still measured in units of feet.
Troposphere
The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere. All the worlds weather is
contained in the troposphere. Above that things remain relatively constant. It
extends from sea level to the tropopause. From the earth’s surface the temperature
falls as altitude increases. This process continues up to a height where the
temperature stabilises at about –55°C. The tropopause is the height where this
occurs.
Virtually all weather phenomena take place in the troposphere. The temperature in
this region decreases rapidly with altitude, clouds form, and there may be much
turbulence because of variations in temperature, density, and pressure. It is
Inherently unstable.
Figure 41: Troposphere

Rate of temperature decrease is about 6.5° Celsius per 1 km or more typically 2° per
1000ft (called the lapse rate).
The jet stream is located in the upper troposphere – Higher in summer, lower in
winter.
At medium latitudes the tropopause is about 36 000 ft (11 km). At the Poles it is
lower at about 28 000 ft (8.5 km). Over the Equator it is at its highest, about 55
000 ft (16.8 km). These heights and temperatures vary substantially due to
seasonal effects, tropopause height is proportional to mean tropospheric
temperature. For about 50 000 ft above the tropopause, temperature remains fairly
constant at about –55to –60°C.

Above tropopause is stratosphere, extending to stratopause. It is located between
the troposphere and the mesosphere, characterised by a slight temperature
increase and absence of clouds. It extends between about 17 to 50 kilometers (11 to
31 miles or 50 000 ft to 150 000 ft) above the earth's surface. It is the location of
the earth's ozone layer.
The stratopause is the boundary zone or transition layer between the stratosphere
and the mesosphere.
Mesosphere
The region of the Earth's atmosphere between the upper limit of the stratosphere
(approximately 30-50 km altitude) and the lower limit of the thermosphere
(approximately 80 km altitude). In the mesosphere, temperature decreases with
height.
Thermosphere
That region of the Earth's atmosphere above the mesosphere where the neutral
temperature increases with height. It begins at the mesopause at about 80-85 km
and extends to the exosphere where the temperature regime becomes isothermal.
Exosphere
This region is considered the very outer limits of the earth's atmosphere. Its lower
boundary is often called the critical level of escape, where gas atoms are so widely
spaced that they rarely collide with one another and have individual orbits. It is
estimated to be some 400 plus miles (640 kilometers) above the surface.
Space satellites occupy orbits from 800 km (LandSat 4) to over 36,000 km (the
geostationary orbit) above the surface. Geostationary refers to a satellite's orbit
which is synchronised to the rotation of the earth, causing the satellite to appear to
remain stationary. Communications satellites are parked in geosynchronous orbit
22,300 miles above the equator.
The upper two of the four temperature classified regions (mesosphere and
thermosphere) have no bearing on aircraft operation except for the layers of ionised
atmosphere within them that exist at altitudes of 80 km and more. These layers of
ionised atmosphere are collectively known as the ionosphere.
The ionosphere affects the transmission of radio waves sent out from aircraft and
the earth below. Depending on their frequency, some radio waves are absorbed by
the ionosphere, others are reflected back to earth, and others are passed through to
outer space.
The ionosphere is not a region of the atmosphere with respect to temperature and
pressure changes, it is a region where ionised particles congregate – the inosphere
or ionised region falls within the mesosphere and thermosphere.
Atmospheric Pressure
The atmosphere consists of a layer of air many kilometres thick. The weight of the
atmosphere on the earth’s surface causes an air pressure of about 100 kilopascals
(kPa). This pressure progressively falls off with height (altitude) above the earth. The
atmosphere extends more than 300 km (190 miles) above sea-level, but it is
extremely thin (rarefied) at altitudes above about 16 km (10 miles). Nearer the
earth’s surface the atmosphere is much denser: about half of its total weight
occupies the relatively shallow layer under the 5.5 km (approximately 18 000 ft)
level.
The Atmosphere and Atmospheric Standards
Air is a mixture of gases in the following proportions: (% by Volume):
 Nitrogen 78.084
 Oxygen 20.946
 Argon 0.934
 Carbon Dioxide 0.033
The remaining 0.003% is made up of minute quantities of many other gases such
as neon, helium, krypton, hydrogen, methane, xenon etc. The bulk of air is about
4/5 nitrogen and 1/5 oxygen.
Figure 42: The Atmosphere
Aircraft Pressurisation
Above 10 000 ft (3 km) altitude the atmosphere contains insufficient oxygen to
maintain a person’s physical comfort and safety. Lack of oxygen becomes a medical
hazard causing a sickness called hypoxia. This is characterised in its early stages
by a feeling of well being bordering on overconfidence. Further hypoxia leads to
unconsciousness and then to death.
Aircraft that operate at high altitudes usually have their crew and passenger
compartments pressurised to a pressure equivalent to that at altitudes
substantially less than 10 000 ft. Alternatively, occupants of aircraft flying above 10
000 ft may breathe supplementary oxygen from a storage bottle. This is fed to them
through a face mask, where it is usually mixed with air.
Most light aircraft flying is done below 10 000 ft but some light aircraft carry oxygen
breathing equipment in case high-altitude flight becomes necessary, say, to fly
above bad weather or high terrain.
With respect to pitot/static instruments, the pressurised cabin air can cause
inaccuracies in altimeters, airspeed indicators and VSI’s and can effect ADC sensed
pressures if plumbing or case leaks exist. System integrity very important – only
very small pressures detected by pitot/static instruments and a system leak can
render an pitot/static instruments ineffective.
Additionally, pressurised aircraft typically incorporate automatically monitoring
systems to maintain pressurisation. Too little and oxygen deprivation can adversely
effect passengers and crew, too great a pressure and the aircraft can pop like a
balloon. Pressure differential measuring systems very sensitive, fragile and
extremely important.
Water Vapour and Humidity

The atmosphere is never entirely dry. It contains moisture in the form of an
invisible gas called water vapour. The proportion of water vapour in the atmosphere
varies widely from place to place, and from time to time.
When the proportion of water vapour is small the air is said to be dry. When the
proportion is significant the atmosphere is described as moist, damp, wet, or
humid. Evaporation of water on the earth’s surface supplies water vapour to the
atmosphere. Air close to oceans, seas, lakes, and above tropical regions tends to be
wetter than that above a desert. The atmosphere tends to become drier as height
increases.
When water vapour in the troposphere cools it may condense and return to the
earth’s surface as drizzle, rain, hail, dew, frost, or snow. Fog is not water vapour
but tiny particles of water held in suspension by the air. Clouds are generally
composed of fog, but at high enough altitudes they will consist of ice crystals.
The maximum proportion of water vapour that air can hold depends mainly on its
temperature. At the same pressure, air at high temperature can hold more water
vapour than when at a lower temperature. When the air holds all the water vapour
it can it is said to be saturated. When air is cold it cannot hold much water vapour.
At 40°C saturated air holds ten times more water vapour than at 0°C.
The proportion of water vapour in the air at a particular time and place is said in
weather reports to be the ‘humidity’. A relative humidity of l00% does not mean that
the air is entirely made up of water vapour. It means that the air is holding all the
water vapour it is capable of holding at that temperature, it is saturated.
This really means relative humidity. If the humidity is, say, 60% at 18°C it means
that the air holds 60% of the water vapour that would saturate it at 18°C. If the air
temperature increases—say to 25°C and no water vapour is added, the relative
humidity will decrease. This is so because more water vapour is required to
saturate the air at a higher temperature. Conversely, humidity increases with
reduction of temperature. If it reaches 100% further cooling produces fog, dew, or
frost depending on the local circumstances.
Humid air is slightly less dense than dry air at the same temperature and pressure.
The humid air is lighter because the mass of a water molecule is only about ⅝ of
the mean molecular mass of dry air. The density of dry air at sea level is about
1.225 kg per m3.
At 15°C saturated air is only about one per cent less dense than dry air because
water molecules are only a small proportion of the mass of humid air. However at
39°C, this rises to 4%. That is why humidity has a bigger influence at high ambient
temperatures—in the tropics for example. Even in saturated air most of the
molecules are dry air.
Air in contact with the Earth – heated by conduction and radiation. As air heats –
density decreases. Decreased density causes air to rise – reduced pressure allows
air to expand and cool as it rises.
Figure 43: Water Vapour and Humidity

Temperature and Air Density
The density of unconfined air (as in the atmosphere) and other gases varies
inversely with temperature. When at the same pressure hot air is lighter and less
dense than cold air.
Figure 44: Standard Atmosphere chart
Pressure and Air Density

At constant temperature, air density varies directly with pressure. Air near sea level
(where its pressure is relatively high) is more dense than air at any higher altitude
where the pressure is less. This is despite the opposing effect of the decrease in
temperature with height. The graphic on the slide illustrates how air density varies
with height in the ‘standard’ atmosphere.
Temperature, Pressure, and Density Versus Altitude
As altitude increases both temperature and pressure decrease, the former tending
to increase air density and the latter to decrease it. One effect does not exactly
compensate for the other because the pressure drop affects density more than the
temperature effect. The net result is a gradual fall in air density with increasing
altitude.
The illustration on the slide shows the fall-off of pressure, temperature, and density
with altitude. At the tropopause the air temperature ceases to fall, stabilising at —
56.5°C (standard atmosphere). At 20 000 ft (about 6 km) pressure and density are
approximately only a half of’ their sea-level values. At 60 000 ft they are less than a
tenth of sea-level values.
Air Density and Aircraft Operations
Changes in air density affect the operation of aircraft regardless of whether the
changed density results from changes in pressure, temperature, humidity, or any
combination of these. If the air density drops there will be a reduction in:
 lift produced by wings or helicopter rotors,
 thrust produced by propellers or jet engines, and
 power or torque produced by piston or turboshaft engines.
The last two of these are also significant when checking engine operation on the
ground.
The Standard Atmosphere

Since the temperature, pressure, and density of the atmosphere varies from place to
place and from day to day it is necessary to have a standard set of conditions with
which observed readings can be compared. This facilitates the correction of aircraft
and engine performance calculations for any off standard conditions. The set of
standard conditions is usually known as the International Standard Atmosphere
(ISA). In the aircraft industry this is also known as the ICAO Standard Atmosphere.
ICAO stands for International Civil Aviation Organisation.
The illustration on the slide is an abridged Standard Atmosphere table. Dry air is
assumed. Note from the table that at sea level the standard pressure is 1013.25 mb
or 29.92 in Hg, and the standard temperature is 15°C.
The tables of Standard Atmosphere published by ICAO cover a wider range of
altitudes, more accurably than does the table on the slide.
This slide provides details of the gradual decrease in atmospheric pressure and
temperature with an increase in altitude. The standard atmosphere values are
relevant around the world, and although the tropical regions have a higher sea level
temperature compared to the arctic regions, when an aircraft is at about 20 000
feet, it is still extremely cold outside, and the pressure is dramatically lower than
that felt at sea level.
The amount of pressure change the pitot static instrument are required to measure
is in the region of only around 10 psi overall, so the detecting elements are very
sensitive. That 10 psi is the difference between sea level and approximately 40 000
feet, which translates to 40 revolutions of a 100 foot pointer on an altimeter, which
again translates to about 4 revolutions per 1 psi. Therefore if a sharp increase or
decrease in pressure were applied to a pitot probe or static vent, pitot static
instruments would be severely damaged and rendered unusable.
The standard pressure decrease is approximately ½ psi every 1000ft.
At 10 000 feet atmospheric pressure is ⅔ that of pressure at sea level (10.1 PSIA).
At 18000 feet atmospheric pressure is ½ that of pressure at sea level (7.3 PSIA).
Figure 45: The Standard Atmosphere

Pressure Altitude and Density Altitude
These terms relate to important aspects of aircraft operation and performance.
Pressure altitude is the altitude listed for a given pressure in a table of the standard
atmosphere. Because of day-to-day and place- to-place variations of pressure from
the standard, an aircraft’s pressure altitude may differ from its true altitude. In
relation to air density and its affect on aircraft performance, it is pressure altitude
and not true altitude that matters. However, there is also the factor that the air
density at any particular pressure altitude is much effected by temperature.
Density altitude is the altitude listed for a given density in a table of standard
atmosphere. The density altitude will differ from the pressure altitude when the
temperature is not standard.
There are no aircraft instruments that directly measure air density, but there are
instruments that measure pressure altitude and air temperature. If these two
factors are known, the air density can be found by reference to altitude conversion
graphs. These graphs could be used during flight, and they are also used in
measuring the performance of engines during test runs on the ground.
Figure 46: Desinty Altitude - Air Temperature chart

To demonstrate the use of the graph, consider the three following pressure and
temperature conditions that could exist on different days at an airport with a true
altitude of 5000 feet:
Pressure Altitude Air Temperature
Day 1 5000ft 5°C
Day 2 4500ft 25°C
Day 3 5500ft – 10°C
Day 1 is a standard day. The density altitude, pressure altitude, and true altitude
are all 5000 feet because the pressure and temperature conform to the standard
atmosphere. Below is the method you would use to check from the graph that a
temperature of 5°C and a pressure altitude of 5000 ft mean a density altitude of
5000 ft:
 from the 5° point on the temperature scale, draw a vertical line to intersect the
5000 ft pressure altitude slant-line;
 from this point draw a horizontal line to the density altitude scale; this will be
at 5000 ft.
Day 2 is non-standard—like most days. Go through the same steps as before on the
graph and you will find that a temperature of 25°C and a pressure altitude of 4500
ft means a density altitude of 6500 ft.
On Day 3, a temperature of –10°C and a pressure altitude of 5500 ft mean a density
altitude of 3850 ft.
Aircraft Altitude Indications

Aircraft altimeters won’t be dealt with in detail here. But at this stage it is worth
knowing that an altimeter indicates altitude in feet on a scale responding to a
pressure measuring mechanism based on the aneroid barometer. Altimeters are
calibrated to the standard atmosphere, but because local conditions are rarely
standard, they have a ready means of adjusting the mechanism to allow for local
variations. This is done by a knob that sets the altimeter’s ‘barometric correction
mechanism and dial’ to the local sea-level pressure.
When the barometric correction dial is set to 1013.25 mb, the altimeter indicates
‘pressure altitude’ – QFE. When the dial is set to the local sea- level pressure the
altimeter indicates height above sea level – QNH. If with the aircraft on the ground
the barometric correction knob is turned to make the altimeter read zero altitude,
the barometric correction scale will indicate ambient pressure at the aircraft
location – QFE.
Figure 47: Mercury barometer
The mercury barometer is the most accurate pressure measuring device. The
pressure of the atmosphere forces the mercury 29.92 inches up a sealed tube. The
space above the mercury is a vacuum. As atmospheric pressure increases, the
pressure is felt around the surface of the mercury in the bowl at the bottom and the
increased pressure forces the mercury higher up the tube. As atmospheric pressure
decreases less force is applied to the mercury column so it drops lower in the tube.
By measuring how high the mercury is suspended in the tube provides us with an
indication of the atmospheric pressure.
Why is mercury used? Because it is extremely dense (very high mass) a mercury
barometer can be manufactured so it’s overall size is not excessive. If for example
water were used in place of mercury, the barometer would have to be much taller as
the water would be pushed much higher by the atmospheric pressure than 29.92
inches.
Coversion factors - in. Hg to in. H2O multiply by 13.6, so 29.92 in. Hg = 406.9 in.
H2O (About 10 ½ meters). To convert the opposite direction, from in. H2O to in. Hg,
multiply by 0.07355.
During fine, sunny conditions caused by a ‘high’ the pressure may rise toward 1035
mb (30.56 in Hg). During a cyclone the barometric pressure may fall to a ‘low’ of
about 960 mb (28.35 in Hg).
Either way a mercury barometer is not practical to mount in an aircraft so we need
another method to measure atmospheric pressure, hence providing an indication of
altitude.
For pressure measurements in aircraft, it is obviously impracticable to equip the
cockpit with U-tube manometers and dead-weight testers. It is the practice,
therefore, to use elastic pressure-sensing elements, in which forces can be
produced by applied pressures and made to actuate mechanical and/or electrical
indicating elements. The sensing elements commonly used are Bourdon tubes,
diaphragms, capsules and bellows.
U Tube Manometer
The simple U-tube manometer, consists of a glass tube partially filled with a liquid,
usually water or mercury, which finds its own level at a point 0 within the open-
ended limbs of the U. If a low-pressure source is connected to the limb A, then a
force equal to the applied pressure multiplied by the area of the bore will act on the
surface of the liquid, forcing it down limb A. At the same time the liquid is forced up
the bore of limb B until a state of equilibrium exists and the levels of the liquid
stand at the same distance above and below the zero point. By taking into account
the area of the tube bore and the density of the liquid it is possible to calculate the
pressure from the difference in liquid levels, as the following example figure 48
shows.
Figure 48: U-tube manometer

Let us assume that the manometer is of the mercury type having a bore area of 3
in2, and that a pressure is applied to limb A such that at equilibrium the mercury
levels are 4 in below and 4 in above zero. The difference in levels is H and its value
is obtained by subtracting the lower level from the higher one; thus,
H = hB—hA = 4—(— 4) = 8 in.
we must know the weight of the mercury column being supported, and this is
calculated from volume multiplied by density. The volume in this case is 3H and the
density of mercury is usually taken as 0.49 lbf/in3. Thus, the weight of the column
is 3H X 0.49 = 1.47 X 8 = 11.76 lb, and as the pressure balancing this is weight
divided by area, then 11.76/3 = 3.92 lbf/in2 is the pressure being applied to limb A
and corresponding to a difference in mercury levels of 8 in. In the same manner,
other pressures can be calculated from the corresponding values of level difference
H.
In practice, manometers are used for checking the calibration of pressure gauges,
and so it is usually more convenient to graduate the manometer scale directly in
pounds per square inch. If 3.92 lbf/in2 is represented by 8 in, then, for the mercury
manometer we have considered, 1 lbf/in2 is equal to 8/3.92, or 2.04 in, and so a
scale can be graduated with marks spaced this distance apart, each representing
an increment of 1 lbf/in2. The equivalent value 2.04 in Hg to 1 lbf/in2 is standard
and results of calculations for differing bore areas will show that they are
independent of the areas.
If the water is used in the manometer the foregoing principles also apply, but as
water has a much lower density than mercury, then for a given pressure the
difference in level H for a water manometer will be much greater than that of a
mercury manometer (2.04 in. Hg = 27.7 in. H2 0 very nearly).
Pressure/Weight Balancing
The measurement of pressure by balancing it against weights of known value is
based on the principle of the hydraulic press.
Let us suppose that we have a cylinder containing a liquid, and that a tight-fitting
piston is placed on the liquid’s surface. If now we try to push the piston down with
a force F, we shall find that the piston will only be displaced by a very small
amount, since the compressibility of liquids is very small. The pressure p produced
in the liquid by pushing on the piston is equal to F/a and is transmitted to every
part of the liquid and acts on all surfaces in contact with it.
Figure 49: Cylinder containing a liquid

In applying this principle to a hydraulic press we require essentially two
interconnected cylinders as shown in figure 49, one of small cross-sectional area a1,
the other of large cross-sectional area a2. Each cylinder is fitted with a piston and
both are supplied with oil from a common reservoir. If a force F is exerted on the
small piston then the additional pressure produced is p = F÷a1 and is transmitted
throughout the liquid and therefore acts on the larger piston of area a 2.
Eg what pressure is applied for a force of 10lbs on a piston of area of 2in 2.
P = F÷a
P = 10÷2
P = 5psi
If 5 psi is applied to an area of 5in2, what force is required to balance the pistons
(how much weight can be supported on piston a2)?
P = F÷a
F=Pxa
F = 5psi x 5in2
F = 25lb
Thus, the force that can be exerted by this piston is equal to pa 2. If the press is
designed to lift a weight W, then W will also be equal to pa2. The weight that can be
lifted by the application of a force F is multiplied in the ratio of the areas of the two
pistons.
Figure 50: Ratio of the areas of the two pistons

As far as instruments are concerned, it finds a practical application in a hydraulic
device known as the dead-weight tester and used for the calibration and testing of
certain types of pressure gauge.
When the piston in the horizontal cylinder is screwed in, a force is exerted and
pressure is transmitted to the weighing piston in the vertical cylinder, so that it can
be supported in a balanced condition by the oil column. In this application we are
more interested in direct measurement of pressure and therefore need to know
what weights are necessary to balance against required pressures.
Now, the area constant A for a typical dead-weight tester is 0.125 in2 thus,
assuming that we require to balance a pressure p of 50 lbf/in2, then, from the
relation W = pA a weight of 6.25 lb is necessary. With this weight in position on the
weighing piston the piston in the horizontal cylinder is screwed in until the weight
is freely supported by the oil, which, at this point, is subjected to 50 lbf/in2. In
practice, the weights are graded and are marked with the actual pressures against
which they will balance.
Aneroid Barometer
About 1645, an Italian mathematician named Torricelli discovered the principle of
the barometer by using a long glass tube closed at one end, which he put upside
down in an open container holding liquid.
Figure 51: Aneroid

He found that the pressure of the air bearing down on the liquid in the container
forced it up the tube, and the measurement of the various lengths of the column of
liquid was therefore a means of expressing the changes in air pressure. In order to
have a tube of manageable length, the heaviest of all liquids, mercury, was later
used.
Today we have finely constructed mercurial barometers capable of giving very
accurate readings. They are costly and they need special care in handling.
For general use an easier though less precise means of measurement has been
devised:
ANEROID BAROMETER (aneroid = without fluid)
Figure 52: aneroid capsule

In place of a mercury barometer we incorporate aneroid capsules in pitot/static
instruments. An evacuated (vacuum) metal capsule prevented from collapsing by a
strong leaf spring which tends to pull the capsule open. As pressure around
(outside) the capsule increases it tends to compress against the spring pressure. As
pressure decreases (with a rise in altitude for example) the capsules opposition to
the spring pressure lessens so it tends to expand.
WARNING: DO NOT TOUCH CAPSULE, ONLY THE SUPPORTING FRAME .
CAPSULES OFTEN MANUFACTURED FROM BERYLLIUM COPPER WHICH IS
CARCINOGENIC.
The very small expansion and contraction is magnified and transformed into rotary
motion by levers and sector gears. These instruments are very accurate and are
very susceptible to inaccuracies caused by contamination or through mis-handling.
The slightest amount of contamination or corrosion can bind up the entire
movement so the inside of these instruments are spotlessly cleaned. They are
repaired in laminar flow clean rooms where all dust is filtered from the air to
eliminate any form of contamination.
The overall movement of the capsule is only a few fractions of an inch, but this
small movement is amplified to become up to 50 pointer revolutions (50 revs = 50
000 feet). The capsule is the only force within the instrument and is the sole source
of mechanical power to drive the instrument movement, so even the slightest speck
of dust will cause the pointer to stick and skip. These instruments are very delicate
and must be handled with extreme care at all times.
The household barometer is a simple aneroid barometer. Changes in atmospheric
pressure are detected by the aneroid capsule. This instrument is calibrated in
Millibars.
Figure 53: Changes in atmospheric pressure are detected by the aneroid capsule
Only a very limited range of measurement 980 to 1040. this instrument would be
damaged if transported by air because the capsules range of movement is limited by
how far the pointer can move.
Low atmospheric pressure results in stormy conditions, eg tropical lows and
cyclones. Think about the weather man explaining highs and lows. High
atmospheric pressure is great fishing weather, low atmospheric pressure will be
stormy.
Provide a standard household barometer for students to view and determine daily
atmospheric pressure for the week of this subject.
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Subject
TOPIC 13.8.1.2: PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES

Gauge pressure is effectively a differential pressure measuring the difference
between atmospheric pressure (14.7 PSIA) and whatever other pressure you are
referencing.
Differential pressure can be the difference between two entirely unrelated
pressures though, and to measure this we use a bellows, or a Diaphragm.
Capsules, bellows and diaphragms are all unsuitable for measuring very high
pressures though, eg hydraulic system pressure, and for this we use a Bourdon
tube type gauge.
Principle of Operation
The household barometer is a simple aneroid barometer.
Changes in atmospheric pressure are detected by the aneroid capsule.
`This instrument is calibrated in Millibars.
Only a very limited range of measurement 980 to 1040. this instrument would be
damaged if transported by air because the capsules range of movement is limited by
how far the pointer can move.
Low atmospheric pressure results in stormy conditions, eg tropical lows and
cyclones. Think about the weather man explaining highs and lows. High
atmospheric pressure is great fishing weather, low atmospheric pressure will be
stormy.
Training Material
2013-02- Only Page 1 of 23
12
Aneroid Capsule Uses
Aneroid Capsules used in Aircraft to measure atmospheric Pressure Altitude, and
parameters with respect to a vacuum, or absolute pressure.
Aneroid Capsules are the basis of:
 Barometers
 Altimeters
 Manifold pressure gauges
A stack of Aneroid Capsules increases sensitivity of the instrument, therefore
improves accuracy.
Capsules May be either evacuated (aneroid) or filled with a specific pressure of inert
gas and exposed to the pressure to be measured.
Aneroid capsules measure very small changes in pressure with reference to a
vacuum. Maximum operating range from 0 PSIA or a vacuum up to about 17 PSIA.
Other pressure measuring devices:
 Bellows
 Diaphragm
 Bourdon tubes
Bellows - Principle of Operation
Similar to operation of an aneroid capsule except a bellows is generally not
evacuated and is manufactured from more rugged material.
An increase in pressure expands a bellows.
A bellows type of element can be considered as an extension of the corrugated

diaphragm principle, and in operation it bears some resemblance to a helical
compression spring. It may be used for high, low or differential pressure
measurement, and in some applications a spring may be employed (internally or
externally) to increase what is termed the ‘spring-rate’ and to assist a bellows to
return to its natural length when pressure is removed.
The element is made from a length of seamless metal tube with suitable end fittings
for connection to pressure sources or for hermetic sealing. Typical applications of
bellows are described in Pallett Aircraft Instruments on pages 306 and 307.
By connecting two bellows the centre point varies dependant upon pressure applied
to each bellows.
Works as a push, pull arrangement producing an output which is applied to
linkages and gears driving an instrument pointer.
Bellows can be used to measure high, low and differential pressures.
Differential: Two (2) bellows fed from different sources – movement at centre
proportional to pressure difference.
Sylphon: one bellows fed from a pressure source – other is evacuated (aneroid
bellows) – resultant differential pressure expressed as Absolute Pressure or PSIA –
differential pressure referenced to a vacuum.
This is where PSIA and PSID overlap. Also PSIG can be termed PSID, because the
pressure measured is the difference between atmospheric and the pressure under
test. In reality, consider what pressures are being monitored and what is used as a
reference.
Manifold pressure gauge typical example of Sylphon type bellows – evacuated
bellows used to reference measured pressure to vacuum.
Diaphragms are usually in the form of a corrugated metal disc and are usually
employed to measure low pressures. A pressure is supplied to each side of the disc
and the resultant mechanical output either drives a pointer or triggers a warning
light contact.
Diaphragms in the form of corrugated circular metal discs, owing to their
sensitivity, are usually employed for the measurement of low pressures. They are
always arranged so that they are exposed at one side to the pressure to be
measured, their deflections being transmitted to pointer mechanisms, or to a
warning-light contact assembly. The materials used for their manufacture are
generally the same as those used for Bourdon tubes. The purpose of the
corrugations is to permit larger deflections, for given thicknesses, than would be
obtained with a flat disc. Furthermore, their number and depth control the
response and sensitivity characteristics; the greater the number and depth the
more nearly linear is its deflection and the greater is its sensitivity.
The Bourdon tube is about the oldest of the pressure-sensing elements. It was
developed and patented in 1850 by a Parisian watchmaker (whose name it bears)
and has been in general use ever since, particularly in applications where the
measurement of high pressure is necessary. The element is essentially a length of
metal tube, specially extruded to give it an elliptical cross-section, and shaped into
the form of a letter C. The material from which the tube is made may be copper,
phosphor-bronze, beryllium-bronze, beryllium-copper or stainless steel. The
pressure to be measured determines the type of material to be used. The sensitivity
of the bourdon tube is determined by the ratio of the width (major axis) of the
elliptical tube compared to its flatness (minor axis). A wide flat tube is more
sensitive than a predominately circular tube.One end of the tube, the ‘free-end’, is
sealed, while the other end is left open and fixed into a boss so that it may be
connected to a source of pressure and form a closed system.
When pressure is applied to the interior of the tube there is a tendency for the tube
to change from an elliptical cross-section to a circular one, and also to straighten
out as it becomes more circular. In other words, it tends to assume its original
shape. This is not such a simple process as it might appear and many theories have
been advanced to explain it. However, a practical explanation sufficient for our
purpose is as follows.
Firstly, a tube of elliptical cross section has a smaller volume than a circular one of
the same length and perimeter. This being the case, an elliptical tube when
connected to a pressure source is made to accommodate more of the liquid, or gas,
than it can normally hold. In consequence, forces are set up which change the
shape and thereby increase the volume. The second point concerns the
straightening out of the tube as a result of its change in cross-section. Since the
tube is formed in a C-shape then it can be considered as having an inner wall and
an outer wall, and under ‘no pressure’ conditions they are each at a definite radius
from the centre of the C.
When pressure is applied and the tube starts changing shape, the inner wall is
forced towards the centre, decreasing the radius, and the outer wall is forced away
from the centre thus increasing the radius.
Now, along any section of the curved tube the effects of the changing radii are to
compress the inner wall and to stretch the outer wall, but as the walls are joined as
a common tube, reactions are set up opposite to the compressive and stretching
forces so that a complete section is displaced from the centre of the C.
Since this takes place at all sections along the tube and increases towards the more
flexible portions, then the resultant of all the reactions will produce maximum
displacement at the free end.
Within close limits the change in angle subtended at the centre by a tube is
proportional to the change of internal pressure, and within the limit of
proportionality of the material employed, the displacement of the free end is
proportional to the applied pressure.
The displacement of the free end is only small; therefore, in order to transmit this in
terms of pressure, a quadrant and magnifying system is employed as the coupling
element between tube and pointer.
Made of Phosphor Bronze, or Beryllium Bronze or Beryllium Copper, Stainless
Steel.
The type of material governs the range of pressure able to be sensed. Stainless steel
being for the highest pressure applications.
Dangers of Beryllium: Known Carcinogen. Can enter the body through open
wounds, or by inhaling beryllium dust. Never handle Capsules, Bellows,
Diaphragms or Bourdon Tubes.
This is a differential pressure measurement as opposed to a PSIG measurement.
Although fuel pressure is compared to atmospheric pressure, the atmospheric
pressure can vary from sea level to high altitude so it is not a constant as would be
the case for a tyre pressure gauge measuring PSIG.
Sensing devices in general order of sensitivity (Highest to Lowest):
• Aneroid Capsule
• Diaphragm
• Bellows
• Bourdon Tube
Electrical Temperature Indicators
The measuring elements employed in the indicators of resistance-type and a
majority of thermo-electric temperature-indicating systems, depend for their
operation on the fact that electric current flowing through a conductor produces a
magnetic field in and around the conductor.
In order to utilise this effect as a method of measurement, it is necessary to have a
free-moving conductor in a magnetic field which is both permanent and of uniform
strength. In this manner, as will be shown, advantage can be taken of the
interaction between the two magnetic fields and the resultant forces to move the
conductor and its indicating element to definite positions.
Conductor Carrying Current in a Magnetic Field

When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the interaction of
the field produced by the current and the field in which the conductor is located
exerts a force upon the conductor. This force is in direct proportion to the flux
density, the current and the length of the conductor.
The field set up around the conductor is shown as being in the same direction as
the main field above the conductor and in the reverse direction to the main field
below the conductor. Thus, the interaction is similar to that of like and unlike poles
of two bar magnets, i.e. lines of magnetic force flowing in the same direction attract
each other while those flowing in opposite directions repel each other.
The lines of force of the main field thus become distorted so that it is stronger on
one side of the conductor than on the other, the net effect being that the conductor
is subjected to a force in the direction of the weaker field. If the conductor is free to
move in the main field, as is the case with electric motors and moving-coil
instruments, then it is clear that the motion will be in the same direction as the
force. The force is also dependent upon the angle which the conductor makes with
the main magnetic field, being maximum when it is at right angles to the field.
Consideration thus far has been given to a straight current-carrying conductor fixed
in a permanent magnetic field. If the conductor is formed into a single coil and
pivoted at a point P as shown on the slide, then, for the direction of current
indicated, forces F, F will be exerted on each side of the coil, each producing a
torque Fr, so that the total torque will be 2Fr and will cause the coil to rotate in a
clockwise direction. This is the basis of any moving-coil indicator. In the practical
case, however, it is necessary to intensify the forces acting on the coil in order to
obtain reasonably large deflections of the coil and its indicating element for small
values of current. This is accomplished by placing a soft-iron core between the pole
pieces of the permanent magnet, and also by increasing the number of turns of the
coil.
The Moving-Coil Indicator
Soft-iron has a lower reluctance to lines of force than air; therefore, when it is
placed in a uniform magnetic field as indicated on the slide, the lines of force from
its surroundings are drawn into the iron and it becomes magnetised by induction.
Referring to the figure below we see that by shaping the pole pieces and soft-iron
core cylindrically, a radial magnetic field of even greater intensity and uniformity is
obtained in the narrow air gap in which the sides of the coil rotate.
The constructional details of a typical moving-coil indicator are shown in the figure
below. The permanent magnet is made from a special alloy possessing high
remanence and coercive force characteristics, and may be either circular or
rectangular in shape, and machined to size within very close tolerances. An
adjustable shunt is secured across the pole pieces to vary the field in the air gap
during calibration of the indicator.
The cylindrical soft-iron core and the moving coil assembly are usually built up into
a single unit which can be positioned in the magnet air gap. In the example shown,
the unit is secured by screwing a bridge piece to the magnet pole pieces.
The coil consists of a number of turns of fine copper wire wound on a rectangular
aluminium former or frame, pivoted in jeweled bearings so that when current flows
through the coil the combination of magnetic fields set up around each turn will
increase the force required to deflect the coil.
Current is supplied to the moving coil via two flat-coil hairsprings the main function
of which is to ensure that currents of varying magnitudes shall produce
proportionate deflections of the coil. In other words, they form the controlling
system, an essential part of any moving-coil instrument without which the coil
would move to its maximum deflected position regardless of the magnitude of the
current, and moreover would not return to its zero position on cessation of the
current flow. The hairsprings are made of materials having low resistance and low
temperature coefficients, phosphor- bronze and beryllium-bronze being most
commonly used. The effects of extreme temperature variations are minimized by
coiling the springs in opposite directions so that they act one against the other.
The setting of the moving coil and pointer to zero is carried out by means of an
adjusting device.
As in all indicating instruments, mechanical balance of the moving system is
necessary to ensure uniform and symmetrical wear on pivots and bearings, so
preventing out-of-balance forces from causing errors in indication. This is usually
effected by attaching balance arms on the supporting spindle and providing them
with either adjustable balance weights or wire coiled round and soldered to the
arms.
A further essential requirement of any moving-coil instrument is that the coil
should take up its deflected position without oscillation and overshoot, i.e. it must
be damped and rendered dead beat in its indications. In this type of instrument
damping is effected automatically by the aluminium former on which the coil is
wound. As the former moves in the air gap it cuts the magnetic flux, thus setting up
eddy currents within itself to produce a force opposing that causing movement of
the coil. Since the force is proportional to the velocity of the moving coil, the latter
will be retarded so as to take up its deflected position without overshoot.
The complete instrument movement is enclosed in a soft-iron case to screen it
against the effects of external magnetic fields.
Ratiometer System
A ratiometer-type temperature-indicating system consists of a sensing element and
a moving-coil indicator, which unlike the conventional type has two coils moving
together in a permanent-magnet field of non-uniform strength. The coil
arrangements and methods of obtaining the non-uniform field depends on the
manufacturer’s design, but three methods at present in use are shown.
The illustration shows the circuit in basic form, and from this it will be noted that
two parallel resistance arms are formed; one containing a coil and a fixed
calibrating resistance R1, and the other containing a coil in series with a calibrating
resistance R2 and the temperature- sensing element R.
Both arms are supplied with direct current from the aircraft’s main power source,
but the coils are so wound that current flows through them in opposite directions.
As in any moving-coil indicator, rotation of the measuring element is produced by
forces which are proportional to the product of the current and field strength, and
the direction of rotation depends on the direction of current relative to the magnetic
field. In a ratiometer, therefore, it follows that the force produced by one coil will
always tend to rotate the measuring element in the opposite direction to the force
produced by the second coil, and furthermore, as the magnetic field is of non-
uniform strength, the coil carrying the greater current will always move towards the
area of the weaker field, and vice versa.
Subject
Ratiometer System
For purposes of explanation, let us assume that the basic circuit employs an
instrument which utilises the crossed-coil winding method, and that winding B is in
the variable-resistance arm, and winding A is in the fixed-resistance arm. The
resistances of the arms are so chosen that at the zero position of the instrument the
forces produced by the currents flowing in each winding are in balance. Although
the currents are unequal at this point, and indeed at all other points except mid-
scale, the balancing of the torques is always produced by the strength of the field in
which the windings are positioned.
When the temperature at the sensing element R increases, then in accordance with
the temperature/resistance relationship of the material used for the element, its
resistance will increase (positive temperature coefficient – PTC) and so cause a
decrease in the current flowing in winding B and a corresponding decrease in the
force created by it. The current ratio is therefore altered and the force in winding A
will rotate the measuring element so that both windings are carried round the air
gap; winding B is advanced further into the stronger part of the magnetic field while
winding A is being advanced to a weaker part. When the temperature at the sensing
element stabilises at its new value the forces produced by both windings will once
again balance, at a new current ratio, and the angular deflection of the measuring
element will be proportional to the temperature change.
When the measuring element is at the mid-position of its rotation, the currents in
both windings are equal since this is the only position where the two windings can
be in the same field strength simultaneously.
In a conventional moving-coil indicator, the controlling system is made up of

hairsprings which exert a controlling torque proportional to the current flowing
through the coil. Therefore, if the current decreases due to a change in the power
supply applied to the indicator, the deflecting torque will be less than the
controlling torque of the springs and so the coil will move back to a position at
which equilibrium between torques is again established. The pointer will thus
indicate a lower reading.
A ratiometer system, however, does not require hairsprings for exerting a
controlling torque, this being provided solely by the appropriate coil winding and
non-uniform field arrangements. Should variations in the power supply occur they
will affect both coils equally so that the ratio of currents flowing in the coils remains
the same and tendencies for them to move to positions of differing field strength are
counterbalanced.
Subject
In practical applications of the ratiometer system, a spring is, in fact, used and so
at first sight this may appear to defeat the whole object of the ratiometer principle.
It is, however, essential that the moving-coil former and pointer should take up an
off-scale position when the power supply is disconnected, and this is the sole
function of the spring. Since it exerts a very much lower torque than a conventional
moving-coil indicator control spring, its effects on the ratiometer controlling system
and indication accuracy, under power supply changes normally encountered, are
very slight.
The power of the output signals from resistance type temperature- sensing elements
is very limited, so that the moving-coil mechanisms of indicators need to be of
delicate construction in order to provide the necessary accuracy and response. For
some applications, however, it may be required for indicators to operate in extreme
environmental conditions which call for a more robust form of mechanism.
Indicators employing a powered moving coil were therefore introduced and the dial
presentation of one such indicator serving a dual function. The low power output
signal from the temperature-sensing element is supplied to discrete signal
processing circuits within the indicator, which amplify the output to position the
moving coil of the lower indicator in the conventional manner.
DC Synchronous System
When the movement available to actuate the sensor is very small, the basic resistive
network can be modified into a device called a micro sensor, which will still give
maximum electrical output with a minimum of mechanical movement of the wiper
arms. Imagine that two circular resistances, called toroidal resistors are joined up
in parallel, with the wiper arms insulated from each other but linked together, one
wiper arm on each resistor. They will operate as one resistor, with movement of the
wiper arms providing full 360° of sensing.
This circular arrangement of resistors is altered to give it a linear movement by

cutting the outer resistor at point 3 and the inner resistor between points 1 and 2
and opening them out into a straight line. By interconnecting the pickoffs as shown
we will have the three tappings arranged so that 45 degrees of movement of the
sensing device, will move the wiper arms over the length of the resistors, equaling
360 degrees of electrical movement.
This arrangement is used to reduce friction errors.
The pressure-sensing element consists of a bellows which is open to the pressure
source. A cup-shaped pressing is fitted inside the bellows and forms a connection
for a push-rod which bears against a rocking lever pivoted on a fixed part of the
mechanism. A spring is provided inside the bellows.
The electrical element is micro-Desynn and is positioned in the transmitter body in
such a manner that the eccentric pin is also in contact with the pivoted rocking
lever. The indicator is of the normal Desynn system type.
When pressure is admitted to the interior of the bellows it expands and moves the
push-rod up, thus rotating the rocking lever. This, in turn, moves the eccentric pin
and brushes coupled to it through a small angle over the coils. The resistance
changes produced set up varying voltage and current combinations within the
indicator, which is calibrated for the appropriate pressure range.
Subject
A.C. Inductor and Ratiometer System
The operation of this system is dependent on the production of a current ratio by a
variable inductor transmitter, an example of which is shown on the slide. It consists
of a main body containing a bellows and two single-phase two-pole stators each
surrounding a laminated salient-pole armature core. Both cores are on a common
shaft and are so arranged that, as pressure increases, the lower core (A) moves
further into its associated stator coil, while the upper core (B) moves further out of
its coil. The coils are supplied with alternating current at 26V, 400 Hz. The core
poles are set 90° apart and the stators are also positioned so that the poles
produced in them are at 90° to each other to prevent mutual magnetic interference.
A spring provides a controlled loading on the bellows and armature cores, and is
adjustable so as to set the starting position of the cores during calibration.
The essential parts of the indicator used with this particular transmitter are
illustrated on the slide. The coils around the laminated cores are connected to the
transmitter stator coils, and as will be noted, a gap is provided in one limb of each
core. The purpose of the gaps is to permit free rotation of two aluminium cam-
shaped discs which form the moving element. The positioning of the discs on their
common shaft is such that, when the element rotates in a clockwise direction
(viewed from the front of the instrument in its normal position), the effective radius
of the front disc a decreases in its air gap, while that of the rear disc b increases.
The moving element is damped by a circular disc at the rear end of the shaft, and
free to rotate between the poles of a permanent magnet. A hairspring is provided to
return the pointer to the off-scale position in the event of a power failure.
When the bellows expand under an increasing pressure, the armature cores move
in their respective stators, and since the latter are supplied with alternating
current, there is a change in the inductance of the coils. Thus core A, in moving
further into its stator, increases the inductance and impedance (XL), and core B, in
moving out of its stator, decreases the inductance and impedance. The difference
between the two may therefore be interpreted in terms of pressure.
Subject
As the stator coils are connected to the indicator coils in the form of a bridge
network, then the changes in impedance will produce a change of current in the
indicator coils at a predetermined ratio. The current is alternating, and so produces
alternating fluxes in the laminated cores and across their gaps. It will be noted from
the illustration on the slide that copper shading rings are provided at the air gaps.
The effect of the alternating flux is to induce eddy currents in the rings, these
currents in turn setting up their own fluxes which react with the airgap fluxes to
exert a torque on the cam-shaped discs.
The resulting movement of the cam discs is arranged to be in a direction

determined by the coil carrying the greater current, and due to the disposition of
the discs, this means there will be a difference between their torques. In the gap
affected by the greater current the effective radius of its disc (a) decreases, thereby
increasing the impedance and decreasing the torque, while in the gap affected by
the weaker current, the converse is true. We thus have two opposing torques
controlling the movement of the discs and pointer, the torques being dependent on
the ratio of currents in the coils.
The indicator, being a ratiometer, is independent of variations in the supply voltage,
but since this is alternating, it is necessary to provide compensation for variations
in frequency. For example. an increase of frequency would cause the stator coils to
oppose the current changes produced by the transmitter, so that, in technical
terms, the coil reactance would increase. However, reactance changes are overcome
by the simple expedient of connecting a capacitor in parallel with each coil, the
effects of frequency changes on a capacitor being exactly the opposite to those
produced in a coil.
Changes in temperature can also have an effect on the impedance of each coil: an
increase in temperature reduces the ratio and so makes the indicator under-read.
Temperature effects are therefore compensated by connecting a high-temperature-
coefficient resistor across the coils of the indicator.
A.C. Inductor and Ratiometer System
The illustration dipicts another form of AC inductor type of pressure transmitter.
The sensing element construction differs from the one already described in that it
utilises a capsule, and an armature that moves relative to air gaps in the stator
core. With pressure applied as indicated, the length of the air gap associated with
stator coil I is decreased, while that associated with coil 2 is increased. As the
reluctance of the magnetic circuit across each coil is proportional to the effective
length of the air gap, then the inductance of coil 1 will be increased and that of coil
2 will be decreased; the current flowing in the coils will, respectively, be decreased
and increased. Another difference related to the use of this transmitter, is that its
associated indicator may be of the moving-coil type based on the DC ratiometer
principle.
Pressure Switches
In many of the aircraft systems in which pressure measurement is involved, it is
necessary that pilots be given a warning of either low or high pressures which might
constitute hazardous operating conditions. In some systems also, the frequency of
operation may be such that the use of a pressure-measuring instrument is not
justified since it is only necessary for the pilot to know that an operating pressure
has been attained for the period during which the system is in operation. To meet
this requirement pressure switches are installed in the relevant systems and are
connected to warning or indicator lights located on the cockpit or flight deck panels.
A switch consists of a metal capsule open to ambient pressure, and housed in a

chamber open to the pressure source. On the other side of this chamber is an
electrical contact assembly arranged to ‘make’ on either a rising or a falling
pressure; in the example shown, the contacts ‘make’ as a result of a rise in pressure
to the value pre-set by the micro-adjuster. The capsule is constructed so that
corrugations of each diagram half ‘nest’ together when the capsule is fully
contracted to form virtually a solid disc which prevents damage to the capsule
under an overload pressure condition.
The pressure inlets of switch units are normally in the mounting flange, and they
may either be in the form of plain entry holes directly over the pressure source,
spigots with ‘0’ ring seals or threaded connectors for flexible pipe coupling.
Pressure switches may also be applied to systems requiring that warning or
indication be given of changes in pressure with respect to a certain datum pressure;
in other words, as a differential pressure warning device. The construction and
operation are basically the same as the standard type, with the exception that the
diaphragm is subjected to a pressure on each side.
In some cases, a pressure switch may be incorporated with a pressure transmitter.
TOPIC 13.8.1.3: PITOT STATIC SYSTEMS
Instrument Categories
Many systems associated with operation of aircraft and engines, liquid and gas
pressures must be measured and indicated. The gauges and indicating systems fall
into two main categories: (i) direct-reading, or those to which the source of pressure
is directly connected, and (ii) remote-indicating, or those having a separate sensing
element connected to a pressure source at some remote point.
Direct Reading Pressure Gauges

These are almost entirely based on the Bourdon tube principle already described,
and are used for such measurements as hydraulic system pressure, and in a
number of general aviation aircraft powered by piston engines, fuel and oil
pressures also.
Remote Indicating Pressure Gauge Systems

Systems of this type are available in a variety of forms but all have one common
feature; they consist of two main components, a transmitter unit located at the
pressure source, and an indicator mounted on the appropriate panel.
They have distinct advantages over direct- reading gauges; for example, the
pressures of hazardous fluids such as fuel, engine oil and certain hydraulic fluids
can be measured at their source and not brought up to the cockpit or flight deck;
also long pipelines are unnecessary thus saving weight.
The majority of systems in current use are of the electrical transmission type, i.e.
pressure is measured in terms of the displacement of an elastic pressure-sensing
element, and transmitted to an indicator as a combination of varying voltage and
current signals. Transmitters are therefore made up of mechanical and electrical
sections, and according to the operating principle adopted for any one system,
indicators can either be synchronous receivers, DC or AC ratiometers, and in some
applications, servo-operated.
Training Material
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Pitot/Static Systems
The system of ports and tubing on the aircraft which supplies pitot and static
pressure for the instruments is called the pitot-static system. The pitot tube is an
open tube which faces forward into the relative wind in flight. It measures the ram
pressure of the airstream.
The static ports are openings at right angles to the relative wind so that they will
measure static pressure and not be affected by the speed of the aircraft. The static
ports are most often located in pairs along the sides of the fuselage. On some
aircraft, the static ports are along the sides or top and bottom surfaces of the pitot
tube so that both pressures are measured with the same probe. A pitot/static tube
typically includes static ports and electric heaters to prevent Icing, this style of pitot
probe will be covered in further in this topic.
With the static ports in pairs on opposite sides of the fuselage, any errors caused by
sideslip will be eliminated. Aircraft that must operate in adverse weather conditions
will require an electrical heating system for the pitot tubes and static ports to
prevent Icing. Air carrier jets and similar types of aircraft usually employ multiple
pitot tubes and static ports for safety. A typical arrangement of this kind with three
pitot tubes and three sets of static ports is illustrated on the slide. Notice that the
instruments on the left and right sides of the cockpit are operated by totally
separate pressure sources. By routinely cross checking the instrument Indications
from the left and right sides, a faulty indication can be identified.
Position Error
As far as airflow over the probe is concerned, we may consider the probe and the
aircraft to which it is fitted as being alike because some of the factors determining
air flow are: shape, size, speed and angle of attack. The shape and size of the probe
are dictated by the speed at which it is moved through the air; a large-diameter
casing, for example, can present too great a frontal area which at very high speeds
can initiate the build-up of a shock wave which will break down the flow over the
probe. This shock wave can have an appreciable effect on the static pressure,
extending as it does for a distance equal to a given number of diameters from the
nose of the probe.
One way of overcoming this is to decrease the casing diameter and increase the
distance of the static orifices from the nose. Further more, a number of orifices may
be provided along the length of the probe casing so spaced that some will always be
in a region of undisturbed airflow.
A long and small-diameter probe is an ideal one from an aero dynamic point of view,
but it may present certain practical difficulties; its stiffness may not be sufficient to
prevent vibration at high speed; and it may also be difficult to accommodate the
high- power heater elements required for anti-icing. Thus, in establishing the
ultimate relative dimensions of a probe, a certain amount of compromise must be
accepted.
When a probe is at some angle of attack to the airflow, it causes air to flow into the
static orifices which creates a pressure above that of the prevailing static pressure,
and a corresponding error in static pressure measurement. The pressures
developed at varying angles of attack depend on the axial location of the orifices
along the casing, their positions around the circumference, their size, and whether
the orifices are in the form of holes or slots.
For aircraft whose operating ranges are confined to speeds below that of sound
some typical locations of pressure heads are ahead of a wing tip, ahead of a vertical
stabilizer, or at the side of a fuselage nose section. At speeds above that of sound, a
pressure head located ahead of the fuselage nose is, in general, the most desirable
location.
Basically explain each of the points listed, with particular reference to inaccuracies
which will result if pitot probes are damaged, blocked or bent. Explain the reason
for heating pitot probes and state how probes can be very hot shortly after flight, or
after the system has been tested. Avoid touching pitot probes, you will never know
when they may be hot.
The static vents are mounted so that they are not effected by impact air, so they
sense atmospheric pressure. The pitot inlet senses impact pressure so faces directly
forward into the oncoming airstream.
Pitot or impact pressure represents how fast the aircraft is moving through the air
and will be covered in more detail shortly.
Static Vents
From the foregoing, it would appear that, if all these problems are created by
pressure effects only at static orifices, they might as well be separated from the
pressure head and positioned elsewhere on the aircraft. This is one solution and is,
in fact, put into practice on many types of aircraft by using a pressure head
incorporating a pitot tube only, and a static vent in the side of the fuselage. In some
light air craft the vent may simply be a hole drilled in the fuselage skin, while for
more complex aircraft systems specially contoured metal vent plates are fitted to
the skin.
Independent static vents, when fitted, are always located in the skin of a fuselage,
one on each side and interconnected so as to minimize dynamic pressure effects
due to yawing or sideslip of the aircraft.
The actual PE due to a chosen location is determined for the appropriate aircraft
type during the initial flight-handling trials of a prototype, and is finally presented
in tabular or graphical form thus enabling a pilot to apply corrections for various
operating conditions. In most cases however, corrections are performed
automatically and in a variety of ways. One method is to employ aerodynamically-
compensated pitot-static probes, i.e. probes which are so contoured as to create a
local pressure field which is equal and opposite to that of the aircraft, so that the
resultant PE is close to zero. Other methods more commonly adopted utilize
correction devices within separate transducers described below, or within central
air data computers.
Construction - Static Vent
Construction of a flush mounted static port.
Positioned by the manufacturer to give sensed pressure free from errors when
aircraft yaws or at different angles of attack.
Left and right side of aircraft static ports are connected across each other by the
use of a “T” fitting so as to provide an average reading to minimise errors.
Pitot Probe Location
Common positioning of probes and vents ,e.g. pitot probes forward of nose for
supersonic aircraft, on wingtip, forward of stabs or on fuselage for sub sonic
aircraft. Static vents on each side and averaged in common to minimise impact
pressure effects induced by yawing and sideslip.
Static Vent Location
Static ports can be incorporated into pitot/static probes or flush mounted.
If an aircrafts pitot probe only samples impact air, flush mounted static vents will
be located elsewhere on the aircraft.
Flush mounted static ports will be on each side of the aircraft to minimise errors
induced by yawing and sideslip.
Static pressure will be averaged in a common manifold before being applied to
instruments.
Pitot Static System Layout
Both pitot and static systems have separate drains – located in lowest point of
plumbing. They require draining at regular intervals.
Drain Traps are sealed so as not to create a leak in the system and can have
blanking caps fitted or may be push to release or tap type fittings.
If you drain a pitot or static system always ensure the drain trap is resealed or a
leak will result and the instruments will not provide accurate readings.
Pitot / static systems also incorporate a selector which allows sampling information
from a different source.
NOTE :In most applications the selector valve requires a deliberate action to make
the selection i.e.a guard over it or it is copper lockwired into the normal position.
Static Line Blockages
The instruments on this manifold will read incorrectly due the blocked static line.
Blockages can be caused by ice, kinks in pipes or by insects e.g. wasps.
Must ensure no moisture in lines, cover all probes and vents when aircraft on the
ground to prevent insects building nests. If pilot does notice problems they can
select backup static source to alleviate blockage problem.
On unpressurised aircraft the alternate source can simply be cockpit pressure
behind the instrument panel. Pressurised aircraft may have average static as the
primary source for instruments and a separate static vent selectable as an
alternate.
Above shows selection of an alternate source overcomes errors caused by blocked
static ports.
Protective Covers
Protective covers have two purposes:
 To stop insects from entering or building nests.
 To soften the blow when you walk into them.
Fit covers whenever aircraft are on the ground. Ensure covers have large “obvious”
remove before flight flags so they won’t be overlooked.
WARNING:
 Pitot probes can be extremely hot if heaters have been left on or
immediately after flight.
 Never grab a pitot probe always test its temperature with the back of your
hand.
 Simulating weight off wheels can energise probe heaters – always ensure
checklists are completed prior to simulating weight off wheels, eg pull
appropriate circuit breakers.
 Operating pitot heaters with protective covers fitted is a fire hazard –
exercise extreme caution when operating pitot heaters.
 Operating Pitot heaters for lengthy periods on the ground can burn out
the probe and or heating element.
 Only operate heaters for as long as is absolutely necessary.
Pitot/Static Pipes and Lines
To avoid cross connections, Pitot and Static plumbing unions are now commonly of
different sizes in modern aircraft.
Alternatively, sometimes fittings are colour coded.
CAUTION: WHEN CHANGING PITOT HEADS ALWAYS ENSURE THE PART

NUMBER OF THE PROBE YOU FIT IN THAT POSITION IS CORRECT AND THAT
BIAS BLOCKS ARE FITTED IF REQUIRED.
Testing of Static Systems
For Instrument Flight Reference (IFR) Aircraft the pitot/static system must be leak
tested:
 Every 2 years.
 Following the opening or closing of a pitot/static line.
Opening drain valves or opening and closing the static backup source
select valve are excluded from this requirement
 Whenever maintenance has been performed on the automatic altitude system
of the ATC transponder.
 Whenever instrument accuracy is questioned, or pitot/static blockages are
suspected.
Refer CAO 107, AD/INST/8 and AD/INST/9.
Unpressurised Aircraft
Evacuate the static system to a pressure of 1000 ft above aircraft elevation. Without
any additional pumping the system must not leak at a rate greater than 100 ft in
one minute.
Pressurised Aircraft
Evacuate the static system until a pressure differential equivalent to the maximum
cabin pressure differential for which the aircraft is certified is achieved. Without any
additional pumping the system must not leak at a rate greater than 2% of the
original altitude or 100 ft (whichever is the greater) in one minute.
Refer CAO 108.56, para 3.3.
Testing Static Systems Pressurised Aircraft
An example of how to leak test a pressurised Aircraft
1. Determine the aircrafts maximum differential pressure using appropriate
aircraft manuals. This will be something like:
 If aircraft operates at 35 000 ft with a cabin altitude of 10 000 ft max diff
is:
10.7 psia (pressure at 10 000 ft) – 4.4 psia (pressure at 35 000 ft) = 6.3
psia
2. To achieve a differential pressure of 6.3psi the aircraft static system would
have to be evacuated to an altitude of approximately 18 000 ft
 14.7 psia (sea level) – 6.3 psia (differential) = 8.4psia
8.4 psia corresponds to an altitude of approximately 18 000 ft.
3. Tolerance = 2% of 18 000 which is 360 ft.
4. So leak rate at 18 000 ft must be less than 360 ft in one minute.
Testing of Pitot Systems
There are no specific testing regulations laid down for a pitot system other than at
normal aircraft inspections of if system serviceability is suspected.
The general leak test procedure is:
 Apply a pressure to the pitot system to cause the airspeed indicator to read
150 kts.
 Seal off for one minute and the maximum permitted loss is 10 knots in one
minute.
Precautions in Testing Pitot/Static Systems
 Complete all maintenance and inspections before leak testing.
 Check the test unit for leaks before beginning the test.
 Only run full range tests if you are familiar with the aircraft and the test
equipment.
 Pressure in the pitot system must always be greater than that in the static
system.
 The rate of change of pressure during testing should not exceed the limits of
any installed instrument.
 After testing make sure that the system is returned to flying condition, such as
removing any tape from static vents or drain holes.
 Never perform any form of maintenance on a pressurised pitot/static system,
eg tightening unions to try and eliminate a leak.
 Certain aircraft require power to be applied when performing pitot/static leak
checks otherwise Air Data Computers and Air Data Sensors may be damaged
because internal servo systems are unable to respond to pressure changes –
always read appropriate maintenance manuals before performing any testing
of aircraft systems.
Testing of Static Systems
A static pressure system must comply with the following requirements:
 A method to drain moisture from the system is incorporated.
 Chafing of tubing and excessive bend radiuses are avoided.
Materials used in manufacture are durable, suitable and protected against
corrosion.
TOPIC 13.8.1.4: ALTIMETERS AND ALTITUDE REPORTING
Altimeter Construction
Static pressure is fed into the instrument through the back of the case, and is the
only pressure inside the case.
To ensure this, the case is sealed (airtight) to prevent inaccuracies which may
otherwise occur through pressure leakage.
Aneroid capsule is the sensing element and is located within the case. Aneroid
refers to an evacuated capsule.
Elements of an Altimeter
1. Detecting: Static vent or static chambers on a pitot/static probe.
2. Measuring: Aneroid Capsule or stack of aneroid capsules
3. Coupling: Lever system
4. Indicating: Sector gears, magnification gearing, pointer and dial
Training Material
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Basic Altimeter Operation
Capsule expands as atmospheric pressure decreases with a rise in altitude.
Movement of mechanical linkages rotate sector gear drive shaft. As sector gear
moves Counter Clockwise (CCW) pointer moves clockwise (CW).
Non-Sensitive Altimeter
Only has 1 pointer. Only totally accurate up to 10 000 ft. Above 10 000 ft altitude
readout can be ambiguous, eg: are we at 8 000 ft or 18 000 ft.
(Not suitable for IFR aircraft).
Sensitive Altimeter
As the name suggests it is a more sensitive altimeter. It may have 3 pointers or
single pointer and a drum (digital ) readout:
 100 ft pointer 1 rev = 1 000 ft
 1000 ft pointer 1 rev = 10 000 ft
 10 000 ft pointer 1 rev = 100 000 ft
Contains a stack of aneroid capsules (nominally 3). Incorporates a barometric
pressure adjustment knob. The small pointer can be easily hidden by the larger
pointers.
As temperature decreases the capsule becomes less elastic. Less elasticity means it
tries to return to its normal size opposing the vacuum keeping it compressed, so it
expands. As capsule expands, altimeter over reads. Low temperature at higher
altitude has the same effect.
Bi Metallic Strips
The diagram below illustrates the action of ‘strip’ and ‘disc’ types of ‘bimetallic
temperature sensors’. Two metals of high (brass) and low (invar) temperature
coefficients are bonded together. At some datum temperature the strip is straight. If
the strip is heated the brass expands more than the invar to cause it to curl. If the
strip is cooled the brass contracts more than the invar to cause it to curl the
opposite way.
Disc shaped bimetallic sensors are common in applications requiring a snap action.
When heated, a slightly domed bimetallic disc will suddenly snap across to being
domed on the opposite side.
Bimetallic temperature sensors are used in temperature, liquid level and position
indicators as temperature compensators or correctors in various instruments and
mechanisms and to operate switch contacts in circuit breakers, fire detectors,
thermostats and timers.
Variations in temperature can cause errors in some instruments and mechanisms.
‘Bimetallic compensators’ may then be built into the mechanism to introduce
corrections that are equal and opposite to the errors. Temperatures above normal
make the bellows more flexible, so it expands more than it should for a given
pressure. This unwanted extra movement is represented by the full arrows. If one of
the links moved by the bellows is bimetallic, the same high temperature would bend
it in the direction (broken arrow) that corrects the output error.
Temperature Compensating “U” Bracket
The pressure sensing element of an altimeter is compensated for changes in
ambient temperature by a bimetal ‘U’-shaped bracket, the open ends of which are
connected to the top capsule by push rods. The temperature coefficient of the
instrument is chiefly due to the change of elasticity of the capsule material with
change of temperature; this, in turn, varying the degree of deflection of the capsule
in relation to the pressure acting external to it. For example, if at sea-level the
temperature should decrease, the elasticity of the capsule would increase; in other
words, and from the definition of elasticity, the capsule has a greater tendency ‘to
return to its original size’ and so would expand and cause the altimeter to over-
read. At higher altitudes the same effects on elasticity will take place, but since the
pressures acting on the capsule will have decreased, then by comparison, the
capsule expansion becomes progressively greater. The effect of a decrease in
temperature on the ‘U’-shaped bracket is to cause the limbs to bend inwards, and
by virtue of the angular position of the pins, a corresponding downward force is
exerted on the capsule assembly to oppose the error-producing expansion. The
converse of the foregoing sequence will apply when an increase of ambient
temperature occurs.
As temperature causes the stack of capsules to expand and contract the bi-metallic
strip will oppose this movement by transferring an opposing force through the
angular position of the pins connecting the “U” shaped bracket to the capsules, eg
as capsules try to expand (due to temperature change) the bi-metallic “U” bracket
will be similarly effected by the temperature change, but will oppose the expansion
by applying more compressing force to the stack, through the connecting pins.
The capsule tends to expand when cooled because it tries to return to its original
shape, which is expanded, remember the vacuum within it is holding it flattened.
This is the opposite of a bellows which expands with increase in temperature,
because it becomes more flexible, so over expands with pressure applied. The
capsule is the opposite, the pressure it is measuring is from the outside, so you
could look at as though the externally applied pressure crushes the capsule more
because it is now more flexible (like the bellows) but the crushing action will cause
an altimeter to under read.
Of course the bi-metallic strip will not be effected by pressure change, so will not
oppose any capsule movement produced by a change in pressure, but will simply
act as a spring as explained in the lesson segment on capsules.
As said before, in the cold an aneroid capsule will expand indicating a higher
reading. Heating an altimeter has an opposite effect.
As an aircraft flies into a colder climate the altimeter will indicate an increase in
altitude, although the aircraft would not have changed altitude. The pilot will see
his altitude increasing and will push the stick forward to try and maintain his
chosen height. The effect this has is that the aircraft will be flying below the
intended altitude.
An altimeter which has temperature compensation will not indicate an increase in
altitude as temperature changes so the aircraft will maintain the same actual
altitude regardless of temperature acting on the aneroid capsule.
For increasing temperature the opposite applies, and the pilot will end up flying
above his chosen altitude.
Q Code for Altimeter Setting
Correctly setting altimeter barometric scales is imperative to maintaining flight
separation between aircraft and between aircraft and terrain. Because atmospheric
pressure varies day to day so pilots are continually changing their barometric
setting it is possible for different aircraft to be operating with different barometric
pressures set in. If an aircraft set in barometric pressure of the day in Sydney of say
995 millibars and another pilot in Brisbane set in barometric pressure there of
1025 millibars, then both aircraft headed towards each other it is possible that
although both aircrafts altimeters would be reading plenty of separation, eg Sydney
aircraft at 15 000 ft and Brisbane aircraft at 13 000ft when they meet over Coffs
Harbour where the barometric pressure is 1010 millibars it is likely that they will
both actually be flying 14 000 ft above the ground, although their altimeters will
still show they are separated by 2000 ft.
To prevent this type of incident occurring the International Civilian Aviation
Organisation (ICAO) developed 3 methods of setting altimeter barometric scales,
and have established regulations regarding barometric settings in major flight
paths. These 3 methods are adopted universally and form part of the ICAO Q code
system.
QFE
The pilot sets the altimeter to read zero when he’s on the ground, regardless of how
high the airfield may be. So even if he’s taking off from Mexico, he sets the altimeter
to zero prior to takeoff. Only used for local flying if an aircraft is returning to the
same airfield. If the Mexico pilot left his altimeter set on QFE for Mexico and flew to
the coast he would land with an indication several thousand feet below sea-level.
Also his altimeter would be reading entirely different to any other aircrafts altimeter
(that didn’t take off from Mexico) so there would be a very good chance of a collision
if this aircraft was flying across busy flight lanes.
QNH
This is setting the pressure of the day, so the altimeter will read airfield elevation or
the airfields height above sea-level. So the Mexican aircraft setting QNH in would
take-off with his altimeter reading several thousand feet already, but when he lands
on the coast it would read zero feet. This method is used for aircraft flying under 15
000 ft and all charts refer to altitudes measured by this means (heights of
mountains, etc). It is also called Mean Sea Level or MSL.
Both these methods rely on a pilot setting in a barometric reading dependant upon
where he’s taking off from so different aircraft can be flying around with different
altimeter settings, meaning separation would not be maintained. We must have a
standard barometric setting for all aircraft to use when they are flying in controlled
airspace. This method is called QNE.
QNE
QNE is when the altimeter is set to standard atmospheric pressure of 1013.25, or
29.92” HG. With all aircraft using the same settings all altimeters will be reading on
the same scale. If aircraft fly through regions of higher or lower pressure all aircraft
will adjust their heights accordingly, which will maintain separation.
When aircraft altimeters are set for QNE, they are assigned Flight Levels (FL). So
when a controller tell a pilot to go to Flight Level or FL 260 that means using your
altimeter set on QNE maintain 26 000 ft, the term FL refers to hundreds of feet. The
term Flight Level is not applied to altimeters set to QFE or QNH. QNE and Flight
Level are only used at altitudes above 15 000 ft. Below that QNH or MSL height is
used.
Aircraft Altitude Depending on the Barometric Setting
In relation to the diagram on the following page, this aircraft has a barometric
setting of 30” HG.
When flying through an area where sea-level pressure of the day is 30.5” HG
although the altimeter will read 3500 ft the aircraft will actually be flying at 4000 ft.
When flying through a region at 30.0” HG the altimeter will read actual aircraft
height.
If the aircraft then continues on to an area of lower barometric pressure of 29.5” HG
the actual height of the aircraft will be 3000 ft, but the altimeter will still be reading
3500 ft.
If the pilot were to update the barometric pressure to 29.5” HG the aircraft would
again be flying at the same height as indicated by the altimeter.
As long as all aircraft using this patch of airspace have the same barometric setting
separation will always be maintained. All aircraft will fly maintaining the same
altitude reading on the altimeter and will fly a path similar to the one pictured here,
but all will be climbing and diving at the same rate so will maintain the same gap
between them. The only time problems can occur is if aircraft have different
barometric settings and then when they think they are separated they may well be
flying on a collision course.
An aircraft maintaining a constant height above MSL and flying into an area of
higher atmospheric pressure would show a decrease in altimeter height. Therefore a
pilot who would be monitoring their altimeter as a height referenc, and would climb.
So as an aircraft flew into an area of higher atmospheric pressure the pilot would
climb to maintain the same altimeter readout. The opposite occurs when an aircraft
flies into an area of lower atmospheric pressure, eg if the same MSL were
maintained the altimeter readout would indicate an increase in altitude (because
outside pressure drops). So to maintain the same readout on the altimeter the pilot
would decrease his altitude or dive.
Servo Altimeters
The manual knob enables a change of height reference.

An Altimeter always indicates the vertical height in feet above the Barometric
setting
When the adjustment knob is rotated, the whole mechanism is rotated in the case,
causing the pointer to move.
Capsules cannot provide enough torque or driving power to reposition much other
than a small lightweight pointer. In order to drive drum counters, warning
microswitches, etc you need to have a servo altimeter. The output from the stack of
aneroid capsules is converted into an electrical signal by a synchro or something
similar and then the synchro output drives a servo motor to reposition the indicator
needle, drum counters and to trip microswitches. Servo altimeters are still self
contained but require electrical power to operate, whereas basic sensitive altimeters
do not require any power.
Altimeters can also have vibrators fitted to help overcome static friction which
means the altimeter needle moves more uniformly around the dial.
SERVO Altimeters came about due to limitations of capsule to physically drive 3
pointers and drum. In modern servo altimeter – inductive type pickoff bar attached
to the capsule. Laminated ‘I‘ bar coupled to capsule and positioned at very close
distance to limbs of laminated ‘E’ bar.
Coils wound around centre of E bar are provided with AC excitation. The Pickoff is a
special type of transformer – centre limb coil being primary winding and outer limb
coils being secondary windings.
The Baro correction knob has two functions:

 it allows to reposition the pointer for QFE, QNH, QNE, and
 it allows this to be digitized in fine and coarse data to allow the ADC to be
corrected also.
The inductive type of pick –off consists of a pivoted laminated I-bar coupled to the
capsules and positioned atra very small distance from the limbs of a laminated E-
bar pivoted on a cam follower. A coil is wound around the centre limb on the E-bar
and is supplied with alternating current, while around the outer limbs coils are
wound and connected in series to supply an output signal to an external amplifier
unit. Thus, the pickoff is a special form of transformer, the centre-limb coil being
the primary winding and the outer-limb coils the secondary winding.
A two-phase drag-cup type of motor is coupled by a gear train to the pointer and
counter assembly, and also to a differential gear which drives a cam. The cam bears
against a cam follower so that as the cam position is changed the E-bar position
relative to the I-bar is altered.
Setting of barometric pressure is done by means of a setting knob geared to a digital
counter, and through a special rod and lever mechanism to the differential gear and
cam. Thus, rotation of the setting knob can also alter the relative positions of the E -
bar and I-bar.
When the aircraft altitude changes the capsules respond to the changes in static
pressure in the conventional manner. The displacement of the capsules is
transmitted to the I-bar, changing its angular position with respect to the E-bar and
therefore changing the air-gaps at the outer ends. This results in an increase of
magnetic flux in one outer limb of the E-bar and a decrease in the other. Thus, the
voltage induced in one of the secondary coils increase, while in the other it
decreases. An output signal is therefore produced at the secondary coils terminals,
which will be either in phase or out of phase with the primary-coil voltage,
depending on the direction of I-bar displacement. The magnitude of the signal will
be governed by the magnitude of the deflection.
The signal is fed to the amplifier, in which it is amplified and phase detected, and
then supplied to the servomotor control winding. The motor rotates and drives the
pointer and height-counter mechanism in the direction appropriate to the altitude
change. At the same time, the servomotor gear train rotates a worn-gear shaft and
the differential gear which is meshed with it.
The cam and cam follower are therefore rotated to position the E-bar in a direction
which will cause the magnetic fluxes in the cores, and the secondary-coil voltages,
to start balancing each other. When the E-bar reaches the null position, i.e. when
the aircraft levels off at a required altitude. No further signals are fed to the
amplifier, the servomotor ceases to rotate, and the pointer and counter indicate the
new altitude.
When the barometric-pressure setting knob is rotated, the pressure counters are
turned and the lever of the setting mechanism moves the worm-gear shaft laterally.
This movement of the shaft rotates the differential gear, cam and cam follower,
causing relative displacement between the E-bar and I-bar. An error signal is
therefore produced which, after amplication and phase detection, drives the
servomotor and gear mechanisms in a sequence similar to that resulting from a
normal altitude change. When the null position of the E-bar is reached, however,
the pointer and counters will indicate aircraft altitude with respect to the
barometric pressure adjustment.
Altimeter Tests
The Altimeter is the only instrument specifically singled out by the Federal Aviation
Regulations as requiring specific and regulated testing.
Every 24 months every altimeter and every static system of all IFR aircraft must be
tested as prescribed in FAR 43.
Regulations for testing of altimeters in VFR aircraft:
Altimeters shall be tested for diaphragm errors against an appropriate test
instrument from sea level to the maximum operating height of the altimeter or to
21,000 feet. Errors shall not exceed:
1. those specified by the instrument manufacturer; or
2. ± 100 feet or 3 per cent of the indicated altitude whichever is the
greater.
For Altimeters in IFR Aircraft the tolerances are much tighter and there are
quite a few additional tests which must be performed, they include:
Scale error: errors up to 50 000 ft limited to less than 1% of test altitude
Hysterisis Error: tests the capsule stack for evidence of lagging
Friction: tests how much the pointer jumps when vibration is applied
Case Leak: no more than 100 ft in 1 minute at 18 000 ft
Barometric Scale: tests the pointers response to barometric adjustments error
Altimeter Interface
Altimeter has coarse and fine synchros coupled to altimeter capsule so their output
is proportional to aircrafts altitude.
Rotating knob to set desired altitude on Alerting unit sets digits in counter display
and rotates rotors of units synchros thus developing a signal corresponding to
difference between indicated and selected altitudes.
Signal difference is supplied to input circuit where at predetermined values of both
synchro rotor voltages, two signals are produced and supplied as inputs to a logic
circuit.
Logic circuit comprises a timing network to control audio and visual indications in
servo altimeter and altitude alerting unit.
Thresholds
Signal difference is supplied to input circuit where at predetermined values of both
synchro rotor voltages, two signals are produced and supplied as inputs to a logic
circuit.
Logic circuit comprises a timing network to control audio and visual indications in
servo altimeter and altitude alerting unit.
As aircraft climbs or descends to pre-selected altitude, difference signal referred to
earlier is reduced – logic circuit processes the 2 signals supplied to it.
At preset outer limit H1 (typically 900ft ) above or below selected altitude, a signal
activates audio warn and visual warn lights.
Audio tone is only short duration(1 second “C” chord).
Warnings
Warn lights remain on until at a further preset point H2 ( typically 300ft ) above or
below the pre-selected altitude – a signal is sent to interrupt warn lights circuit and
extinguish them.
If aircraft should depart selected altitude more than inner limit H2 , then logic
circuit changes alerting sequence to give outer limit warnings H1, i.e. audio on for 1
seconds and warn light.
A reset circuit is incorporated in alerting unit to reset logic circuit whenever the
knob is operated to change the selected altitude by more than 100 ft at a rate
greater than 8000 fpm.
Functional testing of audio and visual warnings is accomplished by operating a test
switch on the alerting unit while rotating the altitude selector knob.
Altitude Reporting
A single antenna is used for both the receiver and the transmitter.
A duplexer arrangement switches the antenna back and forth between the receiver
and transmitter as required. The information from the receiver goes to the decoder
then to the encoder, which determines whether the transmitter will transmit. The
air data computer supplies coded altitude information to the encoder, and the
control panel supplies selected code information to the encoder. The two DME
systems and the two transponder systems are interconnected by a suppressor bus
which prevents transmission from more than one system at a time.
Optical Encoder
Encoder assembly mechanically actuated by the aneroid capsule in addition to the
pointer assembly.
Encoder assembly is optical type consisting of a light source, light – collimating
disc, a cylindrical focusing lens, encoder disc, bank of photo electric cells and
amplifier.
Encoder disc made of glass – etched with segments of transmitting and non
transmitting segments.
Binary Production
Arranged in in eleven concentric rings and spaced so as to produce Binary coded
pulses corresponding to 100 feet increments of altitude.
Coding in accordance with ICAO standards.
In the encoded altimeter, the data for transmission produced by a Grey coded
transparent disc that is coupled to an optical sensor.
Radar Survellance
Air Traffic Control Secondary Surveillance Radar operates in 4 modes of
interrogation:
 A and B modes are used for identification.
 C mode is used for altitude reporting.
 D mode is at present unassigned.
The basic principle of an encoded altimeter is an optical encoded that produces a
12 bit code that relates to height in 100 foot increments form for transmission to a
ground station.
Air Traffic Control
The Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR) was the first type of radar used by ATC. It is
able to provide the position of most aircraft within a range of about 100-160 Km, by
using the reflection of radio waves from their metallic surfaces. It is not able to
provide aircraft height, or flight identification. It also displays other reflections due
to weather or interference.
The Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) mounted on top of the PSR is able to
provide some very useful additional information like the height (altitude) and
aircraft flight identity in a form of a number. SSRs transmit interrogations that
trigger a reply from a specific device carried by aircraft called the ATC Transponder
. The flight identity number is set by the pilot while the altitude information comes
directly from the aircraft encoding altimeter (or ADC through the FMC).
SSRs are a 'must' in today's radar systems. They provide a clear picture of aircraft
in the vicinity of the tower as only replies from aircraft transponder signals are
displayed, they cover a wider range up to 200-300 Km and display a label of all
information related to aircraft which respond to the interrogation.
Their only limitation derives from the fact that aircraft which do not carry
transponders are invisible to such a system. Usually smaller and light aircraft are
not forced to carry transponders and their detection is left to the PSR.
There is a tendency to restrict these light aircraft away from the routes of the bigger
ones with transponders.
ATC Transponder
The ATC transponder system is utilised by air traffic controllers to determine what
aircraft are being picked up by their primary surveillance radar (within their region)
and the height of those aircraft. To achieve this the aircraft is fitted with a special
transponder. This transponder only replies when interrogated by a ground
transmitter. The range of the system is limited to line-of-sight.
The ground transmitter interrogates the aircraft with a coded pulse, and the aircraft
transponder replies. There are two modes used by commercial aircraft, modes A
and C.
Mode A
An aircraft transponder recognises the interrogation request and responds with a
transmission containing the aircraft identity and functional classification, for
example., civil domestic, civil international, military.
Mode C
In this mode the transponder replies with altitude reporting information.
Information for this purpose is generated by the aircraft altimeters This information
is used by ground air traffic control authorities to control flight level.
Mode S
is a recent innovation and is integral to the TCAS system. Mode S was developed to
eliminate heavy transmission traffic caused by all transponders in one area
responding to an interrogation, eg the ATC tower interrogates an area and all
aircraft respond, Mode S allows aircraft to be identified and interrogated selectively.
Mode S allows individual addressing of an aircraft transponder. This system allows
16.8 million different aircraft to be identified uniquely.
ATC Transponder Operation

Typical aircraft components are:
 transponder
 antenna
 encoder
 control unit.
The aircraft antenna required for secondary radar applications must have an
omnidirectional radiation pattern to enable communication through 360° of
azimuth. The antenna, a blade type, is mounted on the underside of the aircraft
fuselage. Both reception and transmission are handled by the same antenna The
antenna should be specified to operate in the L-band. Coaxial cable also specified
for the use in the L-band must be used to couple the antenna to the transponder.
The transponder receives interrogator pulses, processes the information and
controls the transmission timing and coded response. A duplexer in the
transponder automatically directs the RF energy to and from the receiver and
transmitter respectively. The transponder is the primary system component and
upon receiving an interrogation it formats a mode A and C response and transmits
it (omnidirectionally).
Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) control panel control unit is used to control a
number of functions:
Master function switch - turns the system on or off and selects low or normal
receiver sensitivity. Low sensitivity de-sensitises the receiver so that only a strong
signal from the ground transmitter will interrogate the receiver.
The mode selector switch - enables selection of A and C modes.
The ident - is a spring loaded switch operated by the flight crew on request from
the ATC operator. This “Squawk” causes a box or similar indicator to bracket the
mode A and C data displayed on the ATC Radar Screen. When there are a lot of
aircraft in an area an aircraft may be asked by ATC to identify itself, and this is
achieved by pressing the ident button, this highlights which blip on the ATC radar
screen is that particular aircraft.
Transponder Code Window - Displays Code set by Transponder Code selectors.

Also displays operating Transponder ( L or R )
Transponder Code Selector - Sets the Transponder Code in the window and both
transponders.
ABV / N / BLW Selectors: ABV - Displays altitude reporting traffic from 2700 ft
below to 9900 ft above aircraft altitude. N (Normal) - Displays traffic from 2700 ft
below to 2700 ft above. BLW - Displays traffic from 9900 ft below to 2700 ft above.
ABS / REL Selectors: ABS - Target altitude information is displayed as three-digit
absolute (indicated) altitude above sea level. REL - Target altitude information is
relative to present altitude (+/- two digits) or 00 for co-altitude.
ALT Source Selector - NORM - Selects normal (ADIRU) altitude source for altitude
reporting, ALTN - Selects the normal (SAARU) altitude source for altitude reporting.
L/R Selector Selects left or Right transponder system .
IDENT, TCAS and XPNDR Selector: IDENT - Push to transmit an identification
signal.
TCAS / XPNDR Selector - Rotate to:
 STBY - TCAS and the transponders are in the standby mode.
 ALT RPTG OFF - Transponder operates without altitude reporting and TCAS is
in the standby mode.
 XPNDR - Transponder operates with altitude reporting and TCAS is in the
standby mode.
 TA ONLY - The transponder is on. TCAS is on but only the Traffic Advisory
function of TCAS is operational. Resolution Advisories and pitch guidance are
inhibited. The message TA ONLY appears on the ND display.
 TA / RA - The transponder is on and all Traffic Advisory and Resolution
Advisory function of TCAS is operational. If a TA becomes active, the
indications are the same as for TA only.
New regulations require a/c in Controlled air space are to be fitted with “C” Mode
Encoders.
They are self contained units and require no altimeter or display controller inputs.
Subject
TOPIC 13.8.1.5: VERTICAL SPEED INDICATORS

Vertical Speed Indicators (Vsi’s)
VSI’s or Rate of Climb (ROC) indicators provide the pilot with an indication of the
aircrafts rate of ascent or descent. Sometimes also referred to as Vertical Velocity
Indicators (VVI).
Detecting element - (static Port).
Measuring element - (diaphragm measuring static pressure WRT instrument case
pressure).
Coupling element - (gear and lever assembly).
Indicating element - (sector gear and pointer).
Pointer indicates 9 o’clock position at rest and moves clockwise for ascent and CCW
for decent.
The vertical speed indicator contains a bellows, or pressure capsule, which is

connected to the static source and vented to the inside of the instrument case
through a diffuser, which provides an accuracy calibrated leak.
When the aircraft climbs, the pressure inside the capsule, which matches the
outside static pressure, decreases to a value less than the inside the instrument
case. The capsule compressors, causing the levers and gears to move the pointer so
it indicates a climb. The pressure inside the case now begins to decrease by leaking
through the diffuser. This leak is calibrated to maintain a difference between the
pressure inside the capsule and that inside the case, which is proportional to the
rate of change of the outside air pressure. As soon as the aircraft levels off, the
pressure inside the case and inside the capsule equalises, and the indicator then
shows a zero rate of change.
Training Material
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Construction
Pointer indicates zero at the 9 o’clock position. Zero position is normally adjustable
(by qualified maintenance personnel). Pointer moves clockwise for ascent and CCW
for decent.
Different aircraft have VSI’s calibrated for various ranges:
• Fast jet aircraft ± 6000 fpm
• light aircraft ± 2000 fpm
Operation
Straight and level flight: No movement of air through the orifice or change of
pressure inside the diaphragm.
Descending: Increasing static pressure felt inside diaphragm. Case pressure is less
than that inside the diaphragm. Diaphragm expands. Air is flowing into the case
through the orifice.
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12
Climbing: Decreasing static pressure felt inside diaphragm. Case pressure is higher
than that inside the diaphragm. Diaphragm compresses. Air is flowing out of the
case through the orifice.
The vertical speed indicator has two separate functions. First, it operates as a trend
instrument because it shows deviations from level flight before the altimeter
registers any signs. There is no lag in this function. Second, it serves as a rate
indicator. The calibrated leak prevents the pressure differential between the case
and the bellows from equalizing immediately, causing an inherent lag. When the
aircraft starts a climb or descent, it takes a few seconds for a pressure differential
to develop between the same areas and indicate a rate of movement. The same is
true when leveling off.
Component Parts
The construction of a typical vertical speed indicator employing an orifice and
capillary type of metering unit is shown below. It consists of a cast aluminium-alloy
body which forms the support for all the principal components with the exception of
the metering unit, which is secured to the rear of the indicator case. Displacements
of the capsule in response to differential pressure transmitted to the pointer via a
link and rocking-shaft magnifying system, and a quadrant and pinion. The
magnifying system and indicating element are balanced by means of an adjustable
weight attached to the rocking shaft. The flange of the metering unit connects with
the static pressure connection of the indicator case, and it also as a junction for the
capillary tube.
Range setting of the instrument during initial and subsequent calibrations is

achieved by two different calibrations springs which bear on a stem connected to
the centre-piece of the capsule. The purpose of these springs is to exert forces on
the capsule and so achieve the correct relationship between the capsules
pressure/deflection characteristics and the pointer position at all points of the
scale. The forces are controlled by two rows of screws, located in a calibration
bracket, which vary the effective length of their respective springs. The upper row of
screws and the upper spring control the rate of descent calibration, while the lower
row of screws and lower spring control the rate of climb.
A feature which meets a common requirement for all types of vertical speed
indicator is adjustment of the pointer to the zero graduation. The form taken by the
adjustment device depends on the instrument design, but in the mechanism we
have been considering, it consists of an eccentric shaft coupled by a gearwheel to a
pinion on a second shaft which extends to the bottom center of the bezel. The
exposed end of the shaft is provided with a screw driver slot. When the shaft is
rotated the eccentric shaft is driven round to displace a plate bearing against the
eccentric. The plate is also in contact with the underside of the capsule, and as a
result the capsule is moved up or down, the movement being transferred to the
pointer via the magnifying system and pointer gearing. The range of pointer
adjustment around zero depends on the climb and descent range of the instrument
but -+200 and -+400 ft/min are typical values.
Position Error
VSI’s are unaffected by position error because any error generated by turbulence or
airflow disruptions is felt both sides of the measuring element (differential pressure)
so the pointer output is unaffected. In an altimeter or ASI, the outside pressure is
measured with respect to a vacuum, so will vary by comparison thereby creating
errors.
Temperature Compensation
Temperature compensation is required in VSI’s because the density of the air will
effect the sensitivity of the instrument. Temperature compensation is achieved by
varying the calibrated leak by utilising a valve positioned by a bi-metallic strip to
increase or decrease the rate of air flow through the orifice.
Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator (IVSI)
A disadvantage of the vertical speed indicator (VSI) is that its induction lags behind
tha actual pressure change. The instantaneous vertical speed indicator (IVSI) was
developed to correct this deficiency. An IVSI supplements the conventional VSI
mechanism with an accelerator-operated dashpot that pumps air across the
capsule. One dashpot compensates for climbs and other for descents. For example,
when the aircraft noses over to begin a descent, the inertia of the accelerometer
piston causes it to move upward. This instantaneously increases the pressure
inside the case, which causes an immediate indication of a descent. After a brief
interval, the normal VSI mechanism catches up with the descent rate, and it begins
to indicate the descent without assistance from the pumps. When established in a
stabilised descent, there is no more vertical acceleration; the accelerometer piston
centers and ceases assisting the ordinary VSI mechanism.
IVSI Construction and Operation
Normal VSIs have a great deal of lag. It takes several seconds for them to adjust to
changes in climb or descent rate. This is a problem in helicopters because descent
rate is constantly changing on approach – if lag is too long – gauge is useless
because it is displaying out of date information.
An instantaneous VSI has extra mechanical linkages to sense a change in the rate
of altitude change, and it moves the indicator in response to that change. The result
is a faster indication that the pilot has changed his rate of climb or descent. IVSI’s
consist of the same basic elements as conventional VSIs, but in addition they
employ an accelerometer unit which is designed to create a more rapid differential
pressure effect, specifically at the initiation of a climb or descent.
The accelerometer comprises two small cylinders or dash- pots, containing pistons
held in balance by springs and their own mass. The cylinders are connected in the
capillary tube leading to the capsule, and are thus open directly to the static
pressure source. When a change in vertical speed occurs initially, the pistons are
displaced under the influence of a vertical acceleration force, and this creates an
immediate pressure change inside the capsule, and an instantaneous indication by
the indicator pointer. The accelerometer response decays after a few seconds, but
by this time the change in actual static pressure becomes effective, so that a
pressure differential is produced by the metering unit in the conventional manner.
Subject
TOPIC 13.8.1.6: AIRSPEED INDICATORS

Airspeed indicators provide an indication of an aircrafts velocity through the
surrounding air, and are crucial for the pilot to maintain control of the aircraft. Too
slow and the aircraft will stall, too fast and structural damage will result.
Aircraft with maximum speed limited by structural considerations have their never
exceed line marked by a red radial line on the ASI. If maximum speed is limited by
critical Mach for aircraft which fly much faster and at high altitude they will have a
Maximum Allowable airspeed indicator. Because the maximum speed varies so
much at different altitude the maximum allowable pointer is repositioned by an
altimeter type mechanism to indicate critical Mach number limitation.
Colour coding on the above ASI, green for normal operating range, yellow for
permissible operation in non-turbulent air, red line, max speed lest structural
damage may occur.
The indicator above is for much higher altitude aircraft where operating speeds are
governed by the speed of sound so colour coding is not appropriate. The maximum
allowable pointer will slowly wind down as altitude increases indicating to the pilot
that his maximum speed is more limited at higher altitudes due to the change in
the speed of sound.
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Airspeed indicators measure the aircrafts speed through the surrounding air, they
do not provide an indication of ground speed.
Function of an Airspeed Indicator
Indicated airspeed is not a value which is measured to facilitate navigation, or to
calculate estimated time of arrival at a destination. Indicated airspeed is the only
true indication a pilot has of how well his aeroplane is actually hanging in the air. If
airspeed is too slow the aircraft is going to fall out of the sky. If airspeed is too fast
structural damage will result.
An aircraft could be flying with a tailwind of 70 knots, and have an airspeed of 100
knots. This means the aircraft effectively has a groundspeed of around 170 knots.
Now if this were a light aircraft with an airspeed limit of say 150 knots, would this
aircraft be susceptable to structural damage at this speed? No. The aircrafts speed
through the surrounding atmosphere is only 100 kts so it is well below its
maximum airspeed.
Conversely, if an aircraft was flying into a 70 kt headwind doing 100 kts, it’s ground
speed would effectively be only 30 kts. Would the aircraft be nearing stalling speed?
No. It is still flying with 100 kts indicated airspeed and so would therefore be
handling with the same characteristics as the first example. Although time taken to
reach a destination would vary greatly in the two above examples, the aircrafts
aerodynamic loading or flying characteristics would be the same for both examples.
How do we determine this aerodynamic loading ? We compare static air pressure to
pitot air pressure to provide an indication of how quickly the aircraft is moving
through the local atmosphere, which therefore equates to the aerodynamic loading
of the aircraft.
Terminology
Indicated Airspeed (IAS)
Purely a representation of the differential between pitot and static pressures.
Calibrated Airspeed
IAS corrected for Instrument Error and Pressure Error. Instrument error is the
errors within the indicator, eg it may over or under-read by a knot or two, basically
the ± tolerance of the indicator.
Position error is errors induced by airflow distortion around the aircraft and can
change depending on AOA, flap and undercarriage position. At manufacture
position error is calculated and minimised by position the pitot and static sampling
outlets in positions of least airflow disturbance, and or by developing a correction
card for that particular aircraft type. In most modern production aircraft the
difference between IAS and calibrated airspeed is so small that for practical
purposes it is often ignored. So Calibrated airspeed is IAS corrected for
imperfections in pitot/static sensing systems and is an accurate indication of
aerodynamic loading.
True Airspeed (TAS)
As an aircraft increases in altitude and the atmosphere thins an error is induced in
Pitot systems termed compressibility error. Compressibility error is a result of the
thinner low pressure atmospheric air being compressed in the pitot lines leading to
the detecting capsule. Because some of the force felt by the pitot head is lost as a
result of the pitot air compressing slightly, IAS is not a true indication of how fast
the aircraft is actually travelling through the air (it is an accurate indication of the
aerodynamic loading though).
The actual speed of the aircraft through the air is termed True Airspeed or TAS and
it can be calculated by corrected IAS for temperature and altitude effects. Air
density can be calculated If temperature and altitude are known, so by applying
corrections for temperature and altitude TAS can easily be determined. Pilots can
use rotary slide rules or some IAS indicators can be adjusted for temperature of the
day and will then apply that correction factor to an altimeter function within the
ASI and produce a TAS readout as well as an IAS readout.
At 10 000 ft an IAS of 250 kts equates to a true airspeed of around 290 kts.
At 30 000 ft an IAS of 250 kts equates to about 430 kts TAS.
Calibrated Airspeed is IAS corrected for Position error and Instrument error:
 Instrument error is the term for inaccuracies as a result of instrument friction,
tolerances, etc.
 Position error is the term for errors induced by airflow distortion around the
pitot and static sensing ports.
Note the errors are minimal in later day production aircraft because pitot and static
sensing ports are positioned such that position error is almost eliminated.
Critical Mach Number

Critical Mach number – point at which first indication of supersonic airflow over
wing.
At Mach 0.5 all airflow over aircraft wing is less than Mach 1 – at mach 0.75:
airflow over wings begins to become supersonic.
Critical Mach Number varies between aircraft – depends on design characteristics of
aircraft.
At Critical Mach Number increased drag, decreased lift, movement in centre of

pressure and buffeting.
Mach number varies with air temperature – as altitude increases: velocity at which
aircraft reaches critical mach number decreases:
• Critical Mach Number at altitude is at a much slower airspeed than
critical mach number at sea level.
Small light aircraft are speed limited by structural considerations, that is if they go
too fast parts of the aeroplane may be ripped off by the airflow. The ASI for small
light aircraft is the standard looking ASI indicator with the coloured arcs indicating
normal operating areas and caution and no-go speeds.
Aircraft capable of flying at high altitude and at high speed do not have a standard
ASI fitted. These aircraft are the business jets and Lear jets. Because the major
restriction applied to maximum speed these aircraft is the speed of sound, they
have a Maximum allowable Airspeed indicator fitted. This works on the same
principle as a standard ASI.
Terms:
 Sonic - related to the speed of sound
 Subsonic - below the speed of sound
 Supersonic - Above the speed of sound
 Transonic - parts of the aircraft are travelling at the speed, usually upper
surface of aerofoils, e.g. wings, elevators
Speed of sound changes with temperature variations and decreases with an
increase in altitude. Because outside air temperature is a little difficult to measure
compared to altitude, a standard table of OAT for altitude is used and for any given
altitude a specific temperature will be assumed.
The Speed of sound decreases with altitude, so as an aircraft increases in altitude
its true airspeed must increase to maintain a given IAS and eventually the aircraft
will be limited by the critical Mach number where it is no longer able to go any
faster to maintain IAS because portions of the airflow will become supersonic and
the pilot will lose control of the aircraft.
When the aircraft reaches it’s critical mach number it becomes uncontrollable, but
if it goes any slower it will be below minimum IAS for controlled flight. Therefore in
this example this aircraft would be restricted to well below 30 000 ft maximum
altitude due to IAS and Critical Mach Number restrictions.
Elements of a Airspeed Indicator
 Detecting - Pitot probe & Static vents
 Measuring - Differential Capsule or stack of differential capsules
 Coupling - Lever system
 Indicating - Sector gears, magnification gearing, pointer and dial
As Pitot pressure increases, capsule expands, pointer moves clockwise (just like
previous altimeter lesson). As aircraft increases in altitude static pressure
decreases, therefore less pitot pressure is required to expand capsule, than would
be required at sea-level so instrument readout is referenced to atmospheric
pressure providing an indication of differential pressure between pitot and static.
So an ASI can be made to read on the ground by either apply positive pressure to
the pitot system, thus inflating the capsule; or by applying a suction to the static
system, which will also cause the capsule to inflate.
An ASI is constructed in this way so that pitot pressure is compared to the local
static pressure. So with an increase in altitude, where the air is thinner not as
much pitot pressure is required to inflate the capsule.
If the ASI case were sealed and the aircraft increased in altitude but remained at
the same speed, the airspeed indication would slow down because the pressurised
air going into the pitot system would be losing pressure the higher the aircraft went.
This slowing down indication would be as a result of the sealed case pressure would
not be dropping to match the falling pitot pressure.
By opening the case to atmospheric pressure the case pressure will be referenced to
outside air pressure so if an aircraft then increased in altitude but remained at the
same speed, the ASI would continue to indicate a constant speed because pitot and
static pressures would be decreasing proportionally with the increase in altitude.
Construction similar to altimeter except capsule supplied with pitot pressure – not
aneroid capsule.
Increasing airspeed increases impact pressure expanding capsule which drives
pointer clockwise.
Case provided with static pressure & is sealed air tight. Pointer movement is
indication of differential pressure between impact (pitot) & atmospheric (static)
pressures.
Used in faster business jet type and commercial transport aircraft where maximum
allowable speed is limited by critical mach number not structural considerations.
Permanent coloured ASI markings not suitable for high altitude operation – max
allowable speed varies with altitude change.
Houses two separate sensing elements internally. Standard ASI sensing mechanism
to drive airspeed pointer. Altitude sensing mechanism to position Maximum
Allowable Airspeed pointer. Maximum Allowable Airspeed pointer positioned based
on critical mach number for aircraft. Indicate slower maximum allowable airspeed
as altitude increases.
ASI Markings
VSO - Stall speed with gear and flaps down. This is the bottom of the white arc.
VS1 - Stall speed with gear and flaps up. The bottom of the green arc.
VMC - Minimum control speed with critical engine failed. A red radial line in the
lower range of indicated airspeeds.
VFE - Maximum speed with flaps down. Top of white arc.
VNO - Maximum structural cruise. Top of green arc or bottom of yellow arc.
VNE - Never exceed speed. A red radial line at the top of the highest permitted
airspeed, also the top of the yellow arc.
VYSE - Best rate of climb speed with one engine inoperative. A blue line or sector.
VMO - Critical mach no. Maximum speed limited by onset of supersonic airflow over
areas of the airframe.
ASI indicator dials are often not linear. Non-linearity of capsule expansion can be
overcome to some degree with coupling lever and gear ratios. Most ASI’s have more
accurate readout at the lower end of the scale where accurate airspeed indications
are more critical, eg for take-off and landing.
True Airspeed Indicators (TAS)
To correct IAS for air density, pressure and temperature corrections must be
applied. Temperature is sensed at the rear of the indicator and modifies the output
of an altitude sensor. The dial is positioned with respect to temperature and
pressure thus modifying the IAS output to read TAS.
TAS Indicators are unwieldily and difficult to incorporate on instrument panels.

TAS can be easily calculated with a rotary slide rule utilising altitude and outside
air temperature. TAS indicators are not common in small aircraft. In larger aircraft
TAS is computed in an ADC.
IAS and TAS Indicator
IAS is displayed by the pointer and the inner circular dial readout. TAS is read
using the outermost rotary dial at the very end of the indicator pointer.
Temperature and Altitude (air density) corrections are input by aligning the
temperature scale with the altitude. The sector window is simply an IAS readout in
MPH.
Airspeed Switches
ON - OFF state only.
When the differential pressure across the diaphragm reaches a predetermined point
the diaphragm moves the levers and makes or breaks the contacts of a microswitch.
This action could energise a warning light or apply power to a system and is used in
a variety of ways.
Airspeed switches are used for a variety of applications eg:
 Undercarriage warning.
 Energising the fatigue meter.
MACH ASI’s
On high speed aircraft that operate at high altitudes, is it not practical to use the
coloured markings on the airspeed indicator because the values change
significantly as the aircraft climbs to higher altitudes.
These aircraft would use a different type of airspeed indicator called maximum
allowable airspeed indicator. It is found on turboprop airplanes, bizjets and air
transport jets.
The maximum allowable airspeed indicator has two pointers; one gives the normal
indicated airspeed and the second one, which has a striped or checked pattern, is
connected to a separate diaphraphm and it shows the Vmo speed at the existing
altitude. On a jet airplane, the maximum allowable airspeed indicator will also
usually include a Mach number display.
Provides an indication of IAS and Mach Number. The mechanism consists of two
measuring elements which drive their own indicating elements. A conventional ASI
drives the pointer. Mach scale is rotated by an altimeter mechanism (somewhat
similar to the Maximum allowable airspeed pointer). The Critical mach number is
marked by a white bug on the Mach meter scale. Maximum MachOperation (MMO),
marked by red radial line.
Machmeter
A machmeter is required for jet aircraft because they will have a maximum safe
operating speed expressed in Mach numbers. This is addition to maximum safe
indicated airspeed. This is necessary because if the because if the safe Mach
number is exceeded, the airplane can become difficult or impossible to control.
Mach number indicates the ratio of the aircraft’s true airspeed compared to the
speed of sound. A speed of Mach 0.8 means the aircraft is travelling at 80% of the
speed of sound. The Speed is about 760mph at sea level. But it is affected by
temperature. As the temperature decreases, the speed of sound is also decreased.
Since temperature decreases with an increase in altitude, the speed of sound is
reduced at higher altitudes. At 35,000ft, the speed of sound would be 660mph. If
an aircraft climbed from sea level to 35,000ft at a constant true airspeed, the Mach
number would steadily increase.
Most jet airplanes have an MMO (maximum operating Mach number) of about 0.8
to 0.87. As an airplane approaches its critical Mach number, a shock wave begins
to form on the upper surface of the wing. This will occur at flight speeds below
Mach 1 because the air accelerates as it moves over the top of the wing. This shock
wave disrupts airflow and causes the centre of pressure to shift aft. As the aircraft
speed gets closer to Mmo, the shock wave gets stronger until a point is reached
where control of the aircraft maybe lost. A loss of control at high speed and high
altitude can and hasresulted in the loss of the aircraft (it is an important operating
limitation for jet airplanes). The machmeter instrument has a diaphragm like
normal speed indicator that is connected to pitot and static pressure. It also has an
additional diaphragm which modifies the movement of the pointer to compensate
for the effects of altitude and temperature.
The altimeter mechanism is calibrated to QNE and modifies the magnification of the
airspeed capsules output.
Although speed of sound is variable with respect to temperature, the altitude
measurement provides an approximation of Outside Air temperature.
Mach Switches
A Mach Switch may be incorporated in Mach ASI’s and works off a cam and/or
lever assembly. Used to provide the crew with an audible warning if they exceed
Mach limits. No cancel feature is available other than slow down.
ASI Testing
Airspeed indicators are an extremely important instrument and they provide
indications to the pilot to prevent stalling, overspeeds, structural damage and loss
of control.
A typical regulation describing ASI testing and accuracy is:
 Airspeed indicators shall be tested against an appropriate test instrument.
 The scale errors at the major graduations of the scale shall not exceed ± 4
knots up to the maximum speed of the aircraft, when tested first with the
pressure increasing and then with the pressure decreasing.
 Operation shall be smoother and continuous.
Remember the pitot/static system must also be maintained in a serviceable
condition and has a leakage test applicable to the whole system which includes all
the pitot/static instruments connected to it.
Subject
TOPIC 13.8.1.7: AIR DATA COMPUTERS

In their earliest form ADC’s where mechanical computers filled with gear trains,
cams, aneroid sensors, temperature sensors, etc and were extremely sensitive and
delicate components. Parameters were sensed and mechanically converted to
electrical signals (potentiometers, etc) for output to other systems or for display.
Modern ADC’s are fully electronically computerised. Although the sensing elements
are still mechanical type devices, the transducers which convert the mechanical
inputs to electrical signals are much more sensitive and do not load down the
mechanical sensor, so are also more accurate. Having mostly slid state components
ADC’s are very reliable components, rarely suffering unserviceabilities.
ADC’s typically receive inputs from:
 Pitot/static system
 AOA
 OAT (or TOT, Impact Temp, etc)
ADC’s also typically receive inputs providing information on flap position,
undercarriage position, etc to compensate AOA and pitot/static measurements for
position error. The ADC computes air data information from the above inputs to
help create a clear picture of flight characteristics.
All parameters are measured, converted to electrical signals then digitised for
transmission to FMC’s or for display on a VDU screen or HUD. The computer
processor performs all these functions, thereby replacing many of the old style
analogue instruments such as the ASI, Altimeter, VSI, OAT gauge, AOA gauge.
The outputs can be used as inputs to a Flight Control Computer (autopilot), or
thrust management computer to automatically maintain an airspeed or altitude, or
to fly the aircraft to a selected altitude.
ADC’s (as do all other computer systems) constantly perform Self-monitoring tests,
often called Built-in-test (BIT) to monitor the serviceability of sensors and
processing circuitry.
ADC’s typically provide outputs to:
 IAS
 Altitude
 IVSI
 Density Altitude
 TAS
 OAT
 Mach No.
 Altitude Encoding and warnings
 Mach No. and Airspeed warnings
 For display or TX to other systems
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Basic Layout
Basic system layout, inputs as below, computer contains altitude module, CAS
module, mach module, TAS module, rate of climb module and PE correction
network.
Operation, CADC (centralized air data computer) produces electrical signals equal
to pitot and static pressures by the combined operation of mechanical and
synchronous transmission devices.
Inputs - Static pressure, pitot pressure, and total air temperature.
Outputs - VSI, altimeter, CAS, MSI, TAS.
Difference between Analogue and Digital CADC.
The term' air data', relates to the sensing and transmission of pitot and static
pressures to indicators which, on the basis of physical laws, are specifically
designed to measure such pressures in terms of airspeed, altitude and rate of
altitude change. In addition to these three indicators, however, there are many
other systems whose operation depends on an air data input. The utilization of
such systems in an aircraft does, in turn, depend on its size and operational
category.
Although it would not be impossible to connect these systems to pressure probes
and/or vents by pipelines, then, as may be imagined, the amount of 'plumbing'
required would have to be considerably increased. Apart from causing additional
weight problems, there could be others associated with maintenance. In order
therefore to minimize these problems the principle is adopted whereby the
pressures are transmitted to a centralized air data computer (ADC) unit, which then
converts the data into electrical signals and transmits these through cables or data
busses to the dependent indicators and systems. Another advantage of an ADC is
that circuits may be integrated with their principal data modules in such a way that
corrections for pressure error (PE), barometric pressure changes, and
compressibility effects can be automatically applied; in addition, provision can also
be made for the calculation of true airspeed (TAS) from air temperature data inputs.
The modulator arrangement of an ADC, its associated indicators, and details of
systems that utilize air data inputs are shown in figure below.An ADC may either be
of the analogue type, or of the type which processes and transmits data in digital
signal format. The latter type is now more widely used, but as analog computers are
still adopted in some types of aircraft we can, at this stage, and by way of
introduction to ADC operating principles overall, consider a typical analog
arrangement.
Central Air Data Computer (CADC) Altitude Module
The circuit below shows an altitude module in a central air data computer using an
“E-pickoff” and a servo motor system. A sealed diaphragm in a static pressure
chamber is connected to one end of a pivoted armature for the E-pickoff. The other
end of the armature is connected through a spring to a servo motor rack and pinion
gear.
If the airplane is parked or holding altitude, static pressure is constant. The servo
motor will have driven until the force exerted by the spring balances the force
exerted by the evacuated bel lows, and the E-pickoff armature has been moved its
neutral position. Any position other than neutral causes the servo motor to run in
one direc tion or the other.
If the airplane takes off, static pressure de creases progressively. The armature is
no longer at null. An error signal is developed, causing the servo motor to drive the
rack and pinion to counter the changing force of the sealed bellows.
As long as the airplane altitude continues to in crease, the servo motor will have to
continue to drive, changing the force on the spring. The faster the airplane changes
altitude, the faster the servomotor drives to keep up. The faster the servo motor
drives, the greater is the altitude rate signal from the tachometer generator.
If the airplane descends, the servo motor drives the opposite direction, keeping the
armature near neutral. The tachometer generator is running in the opposite
direction and the phase of its signal is reversed. The phase of the tachometer
generator signal tells whether the airplane is climbing or descending. The amplitude
of the signal tells how fast.
The servo motor also drives, through its gear box, a potentiometer wiper arm, and a
coarse and a fine synchro pair.
As the airplane altitude changes, the position of the potentiometer wiper arm
changes, and the positions of the coarse and fine synchro rotors change. Airplane
altitude can be fed to remote users from any of these outputs. The potentiometer
output can be used for other internal functions in the cen tral air data computer
itself. For example, it can be one of the inputs in computing Mach.
The altitude error synchro is spring-loaded to a null position so that, when the
clutch is disen gaged, its signal is a null. If the flight crew wants an autopilot or
flight direction in altitude hold mode, they call for that mode on the control panel.
This supplies a voltage to the clutch solenoid, en gaging the clutch.
From that time on, any change in aircraft altitude develops an error signal. The
signal will be one phase for going above the desired altitude, and the opposite phase
for going below the desired altitude. The amount of deviation from the desired
altitude will determine the amplitude of the error signal.
Central Air Data Computer

The circuit below, shows four modules of an analog central air data computer. The
inputs to the computer are static pressure, pitot pressure, and total air
temperature.
The servo motor loop of the altitude module drives: A tachometer generator to
produce altitude rate; a potentiometer whose output is to the Mach module;
another potentiometer whose output is to the cabin pressure control unit; a pair of
coarse and fine synchros; a digital encoder of altitude information used by the ATC
transponder; a pair of altitude hold synchros; and an E-pickoff armature.
The dashed lines from the static bellows and the tachometer generator go to a
square box with a pair of crossed diagonals. This is a symbol for a differential gear
box.
The indicated airspeed module has an indicated airspeed bellows controlling a servo
loop which drives Q-pots for gain control in flight directors and autopilots; a
synchro which gives a remote reading of indicated airspeed; and a potentiometer
which supplies one of the principal inputs to the Mach module.
The Mach module produces Mach information by combining indicated airspeed and
altitude. Its servomotor drives a follow-up potentiometer, a Mach output
potentiometer, and a potentiometer supply ing Mach information to the true
airspeed module.
The true airspeed module servo motor loop drives a transmit synchro for remote
indication of true airspeed. It develops true airspeed by combining Mach
information and total air temperature information. There are other ways to derive
true airspeed information; for example, by combining indicated airspeed and
altitude.
Typical CADC Inputs and Outputs
The circuit below shows a block diagram of typical central air data computer inputs
and outputs. The four blocks inside the computer represent separate modules
which are capable of supplying the information and controls indicated on their
right.
Digital Air Data Computer
The circuit below shows some typical inputs and out puts for a digital air data
computer.
A “digital air data computer” uses digital computing and electronic circuits rather
than servo motors. Analog inputs are converted to digital for computation. Outputs
desired in analog form must be converted from digital. The hold and engage
functions are for flight directors and autopilots. The altitude, altitude rate, altitude
hold, Mach hold, and airspeed hold are all typically duplicated.
Electrical Air Temperature Sensors

Air temperature is one of the basic parameters used to establish data vital to the
performance monitoring of aircraft and engines, e.g. true airspeed measurement,
temperature control, thrust settings, fuel/air ratio settings, etc. of turbine engines,
and it is therefore necessary to provide a means of in-flight measurement.
The temperature which overall would be the most ideal is that of air under pure
static conditions at the various flight levels compatible with the operating range of
the particular aircraft concerned. The measurement of static air temperature (SAT)
by direct means is, however, not possible for all types of aircraft or, in many
instances, for one type of aircraft, for the reason that measurements can be affected
by the adiabatic compression of air resulting from increases in air speed.
In general, the boundary layer at the outside surfaces of an aircraft flying at speeds
below 0.2 Mach number is very close to the SAT. However, at higher Mach numbers
the boundary layer can be slowed down or stopped relative to the aircraft, and
thereby produce adiabatic compression which will raise the air temperature to a
value appreciably higher than SAT. Friction of high speed flow along the aircraft
surfaces will also raise the air temperature. This increase is commonly referred to
as ‘ram rise’, and the temperature indicated under such conditions is known as
ram air temperature (RAT) i.e. SAT plus the ram rise.
The ram rise due to full adiabatic compression is always pre calculated
mathematically as a function of Mach number, and for each type of aircraft values
are presented in either tabular or graphical form in the operating manual or the
flight manual for the type. Thus, for air temperature sensors subjected to ram rise,
the RAT readings of the associated indicators can always be corrected to obtain
SAT, either by direct subtraction of tabulated ram rise values, conversion charts, or
in the case of air data computers by the automatic application of a correction
signal. The proportion of ram rise is dependent on the ability of the sensor to sense
or recover the temperature rise, the sensitivity in this case being expressed as a
percentage and termed the recovery factor. If, for example, a sensor has a recovery
factor of 0.80, it will measure SAT plus 80% of the ram rise.
Various types of air temperature sensors may be adopted dependent on whether
indications of SAT or RAT are required. The simplest type, and one which is used in
a few types of small private aircraft for indicating SAT, is a direct-reading
thermometer probe protruding into the airstream (only effective up to about 150
knots).
The majority of sensors are, however, of the platinum resistance wire element type,
the element being contained either in a probe similar to that adopted for the
temperature measurement of liquids, or mounted in what is termed a ‘flush bulb’
configuration.
For use at high Mach numbers, it is customary to sense and measure the
maximum temperature rise which is possible. This is referred to as total air
temperature (TAT) and is obtained when the air is brought to rest (or nearly so)
without addition or removal of heat. For this purpose, TAT probes were introduced,
and are to be found on a number of present-day public transport aircraft. They
have several advantages over ‘flush bulbs’ notably an almost negligible time lag, and
a high recovery factor (approximately 1.00). The probe is normally connected to an
indicator on the flight deck instrument panel and to a Mach number module of a
central air data computer.
The probe is in the form of a small strut and air intake made of nickel-plated
beryllium copper which gives good thermal conductivity and strength. It is secured
to the aircraft skin, at a pre-determined location in the fuselage nose section, and
outside of any boundary layer which may exist.
In flight, the air pressure within the probe is higher than that outside, and the air
flows in the manner indicated, separation of water particles from the air is effected
by the air flow being caused to turn through a right-angle before passing round the
sensing element. The bleed holes in the intake casing permit boundary layer air to
be drawn off under the influence of the pressure differential across the casing.
A pure platinum wire resistance element is used and is hermetically sealed within
two concentric platinum tubes. The inner platinum tube is used as the element
former, thereby ensuring a close match of thermal expansion and minimising of
thermal strain. An axial wire heating element is mounted integral with the probe to
prevent ice formation, and is of the self compensating type in that as the
temperature rises so does the element resistance rise, thereby reducing the heater
current. The heater dissipates a nominal 260 W under in-flight icing conditions,
and can have an effect on indicated air temperature readings. The errors involved,
however, are small; some typical values obtained experimentally being 0.9° C at 0.1
Mach decreasing to 0.15 at Mach 1.0.
Bendix Probe
Air temperature measurement is one of the basic parameters we use to establish
aircraft performance data. Under static conditions, temperature is relatively easy to
measure. However, in flight the temperature of the air is affected by what we call
adiabatic compression (change the speed of the air without a change of
temperature). The boundary layers of air are forced to slow down or stop in
relationship to the aircraft. This compression forces a temperature rise known
commonly as the ram rise.
Flush Mounted (flush bulb)

We can calculate this ram rise due to the full adiabatic compression,
mathematically, as a function of the Mach number (speed of the aircraft in relation
to the local speed of sound) of the aircraft. To successfully do this calculation, we
need to start with a reference temperature reading, which may be obtained in flight
if we use measuring devices to register:
 no ram rise( Bendix and Flush Mounted).
 complete ram rise (TAT Probe).
 a constant factor of the ram rise (don't know, maybe a version of the
photographed TAT probes on this slide).
TAT Probe
The different forms of temperature measurement devices all function in a different

manner with respect to the effect of ram rise. All passenger aircraft have an outside
air temperature sensing device but the shape and style of the temperature sensor
will be dependant upon how the temperature sensing system is designed.
Acronyms:
SAT – Static Air Temperature
OAT – Outside Air Temperature
TAT – Total Air Temperature
RAT – Ram Air Temperature
TAT – Total Air Temperature
Electrical Air Temperature Sensors – Safety Precautions
 Do NOT use probes as hand holds.
 Do NOT hang equipment on probes.
 Fit covers for personnel safety (protrusion hazard) and to stop insect
contamination.
 Temperature probes can be heated – do not touch them unless absolutely
necessary and always test for presence of heat with the back of the hand
before touching probes.
 They are sensitive items, treat them with care when working around them.
TOPIC 13.8.1.8: PNEUMATIC INSTRUMENTS
Aircraft Gyro Vacuum Systems
An aircraft vacuum source can be either from a vacuum pump which is engine
driven or from a venturi which is located in the propwash, external to the aircraft.
The vacuum supply in both cases is a source of low pressure.
Venturi’s
Aircraft use a venturi system when they do not have the facility for an engine driven
vacuum pump to power their air driven gyros. The venturi tube is an open ended
metal tube tapering towards the centre or throat. It is fitted to the fuselage or
mainplane with the inlet end in line with the direction of flight, and usually located
in the propwash area.
In flight, the air is forced into the inlet end of the tube and accelerates through the
narrowing section or throat of the tube to a higher velocity. This increase in velocity
produces a lower pressure at the throat which is connected through tubing to a
suction relief valve and then to the case of the gyro instruments. The case of the
gyro is also connected through a filter back to atmosphere. As the pressure in the
throat of the venturi is lower than atmosphere, the atmosphere causes a flow of air
or suction through the instruments to the venturi throat and back to atmosphere
as the air leaves the venturi. Venturi tubes as a vacuum source are normally
confined to early light aircraft and some of the later types of simple home built
aircraft. The venturi is extremely inefficient and limited in its capacity to drive
instruments.
Training Material
12
Venturi tubes are rated by the amount of vacuum they will produce at 120 Mph or
104 Kts. The two-inch/50 mm venturi is used to produce two inches of mercury
suction to drive one turn and bank indicator, while the larger four-inch tubes are
used for the directional and attitude gyros. One design of the larger tubes is called
the super-venturi or eight-inch venturi. This venturi has an auxiliary venturi in its
throat and is capable of more suction for the same speed.
Problems
The most common problem with a venturi is from:
 being struck
 the tube assembly being damaged
 being blocked by a foreign object
Always make sure that the tube and fittings are clean, free from obstructions and
have a good physical appearance.
Vacuum Pumps
With the introduction of new aircraft, the aircraft systems and instrumentation
became more complex. Higher speeds and increased altitude required a more
sophisticated vacuum supply source. The major problem with the venturi system is
the formation of ice in the throat and other damage being sustained by the tube
assembly sticking out in the airflow. The vacuum powered gyroscopic flight
instruments fitted to the many types of aircraft vary in the demand placed on the
vacuum system. The two main types of positive displacement, vane type vacuum
pumps which are driven from the engine accessory drives are:
 wet type
 dry type
and are classified according to their construction.
Wet Pumps
The earlier vacuum pumps were nearly all of the steel vane type which were
lubricated from the engine low pressure oil system. This oil has a one-way passage
through the pump and is lost with the discharge air over board, via the vent tube.
In some designs this oil is returned to the engine crankcase by separating the oil
from the discharge air in an oil separator before the air is allowed to enter the
atmosphere which prevents the oil causing streaks along the side of the fuselage.
Suction reducer reduces suction supplied to Turn and Slip indicator to approx two
inches Hg (Hg = Mercury).
Dry Pumps
The modern pumps are dry; that is, they have their wearing parts made of Teflon
and or carbon. The pump rotors are made of a fibre material and the rotor blades
are of carbon. The pump housing is high grade cast iron finely machined and in
some cases the surface is Teflon coated. These pumps can normally be driven in
only one direction which is indicated by an arrow on the housing To prevent
mechanical damage to the engine accessory drive system, the pumps have a weak-
link shear drive designed to fail should the pump suffer an internal fault.
Problems with Vacuum Pumps

Look for a show of oil or evidence of vibration. The vacuum pump should be smooth
in operation and an erratic output is characterised by a difficult to adjust suction
relief valve. The vacuum pump shear link must be checked for signs of stress and
the pump must appear to be in good order.
Positive Pressure Pump Systems
As an aircraft climbs above 18 000 ft MSL, vacuum pumps can’t draw enough air
through the system to provide sufficient rotor speed. To remedy this problem, many
aircraft that fly at high altitude use positive pressure systems to drive the gyros.
Same principle as vacuum systems except air is forced through the gyro housing
instead of being sucked through. All relief valves work in opposite fashion, eg if
pressure becomes too high excess is vented off to atmosphere, where in a vacuum
system if the vacuum provides too much suck, atmospheric pressure is allowed into
the system.
Vacuum System Faults

Filters
A blocked filter on the relief valve will cause the pressure in the system to rise
slightly as the other relief valve opens further to maintain flow through the system.
In a single engine aircraft, a blocked filter will indicate higher than normal
pressure. A blocked or restricted main filter will cause the instrument to operate
abnormally, however the system pressure will appear to be normal.
Plumbing
The most common problem occurring with vacuum systems is kinked plumbing or
flexible tubing. Check the bend radius of connecting hoses and always ensure end
fittings are tight fitting, not over tight and in good order. When plumbing is removed
for any reason, it is good practice to blank off the open fitting to ensure no dirt,
dust or foreign objects can enter the system.
Leaks
Most leaks occur around instrument couplings. Always use two spanners to tighten
fittings, and never over tighten a tapered fitting into an instrument. Hoses and
vacuum lines can be inadvertently left loose, and due to the vacuum, the system
can function as a result of the mating flanges being pulled together, only to fail at a
later date due to movement of the line or as a result of airframe vibration. Most
aircraft manufacturers give a tolerance for an acceptable leak rate. This is not a
good maintenance practice and you should endeavor to trace and repair all leaks.
Instruments
Listen for noisy bearings or minor inconsistencies in the operation of the
instruments. Ensure that the instrument runs up to speed in the correct amount of
time and keep inlet filters clean and changed at regular intervals. The instrument
should never require the age old traditional tap on the glass to check the reading.
This will only cause additional damage to the instrument. A light tap on the bezel or
instrument panel is allowable, however this usually indicates an instrument which
has excessive static friction or stiction in the movement.
Dust and dirt
Always keep the cabin area as clean as possible. Dust and dirt entering the vacuum
system from the cabin air cause bearing and instrument gyro imbalance problems,
and will require the instrument filters or manifold filters to be cleaned more
frequently.
Static leak check
During routine maintenance the instrument vacuum system is broken down.
Always cap open tubes during maintenance to prevent the entry of foreign objects
and always carry out a static leak test as per the maintenance instructions. Leak
rate may be quoted in the maintenance manual as acceptable leak rate, however
any leak is a sign of a potential problem.
Subject
TOPIC 13.8.1.9: TROUBLESHOOTING AND PRECAUTIONS

Blockage of Static Ports
When pitot-static lines or ports become blocked by ice or other factors, it can cause
the instruments to give improper readings. If the static line is blocked, the altimeter
will remain at the current indication and the VSI will continue to read zero even
when the aircraft climbs or descends. This problem would usually be noticed by the
pilot. The airspeed indicator uses both pitot and static pressure and a blockage
inflight could be more difficult to detect.
Assume an aircraft flying at 10 000 ft. has a static line blockage. Pressure in the
static system is be sealed in and won’t change when the aircraft climbs or
descends. If the aircraft climbs at a constant speed, the airspeed indicator will show
a decreasing airspeed. If aircraft descends, the airspeed indicator will indicate a
higher than actual airspeed. The opposite would happen if the pitot tube iced over
or was blocked. A climb would cause the airspeed indicator to read higher than it
should and a descent would cause it to read lower than actual airspeed.
The lines and connections in a pitot-static system should be maintained in good

condition. Even though they don’t have to handle high pressures, the instruments
are very sensitive to small changes in pressure so that even very small leaks can
cause errors in the instruments.
The tubing and hoses used are not very strong and should be inspected carefully for
damage. The fittings and connections should be installed with care and torqued to
specified values.
Training Material
12
Ensure no moisture in lines, cover all probes and vents when aircraft on the ground
to prevent insects building nests. Moisture will freeze at altitude and block lines,
ensure no moisture enters a pitot or static system. Source of partial blockage – ice,
water, dead bugs, insect nest, etc.
With significant partial blockage:

 Altimeter slow to respond – atmospheric pressure changes damped by
restriction.
 VSI response degraded – possibly unresponsive.
 ASI – inaccurate indications following altitude change – overreads when
descending, underreads when ascending.
With Static Leak:

 Altimeter underreads – depends on where leak is and if aircraft pressurised.
 VSI response degraded – possibly unresponsive.
 ASI – underreads.
For pitot leaks and blockages only ASI affected – under-reads or unresponsive.
Pitot and static leaks and blockages will also have an adverse effect on other
aircraft systems, including those receiving ADC (Air Data Computer) outputs, or
flight control gain scheduling of signals. Pitot static system problems can have
major effect on aircraft operations. In computerised INS aircraft the pitot/static
system is often relegated to backup status with most parameters sensed by inertial
navigation systems. But pitot/statics will always be used for gain scheduling of
flight controls (eg IAS) and will always provide barometric altitude and indicated
airspeed data to pilot regardless of computerised sensors.
Pitot Static Testing
When performing a pitot leak test:
 When pitot system is pressurised:
 Airspeed indicator shows increase in airspeed
 VSI and Altimeter have no response
 Any leak is noted by a decrease in airspeed indicator reading
When performing a static leak test:

 When static system is evacuated:
 Airspeed indicator shows increase in airspeed.
 VSI indicates ascent/descent appropriately.
 Altimeter shows increase in altitude.
If a static leak is present:
 Airspeed indicator shows decreasing airspeed
 VSI may indicate descent if leak is significant
 Altimeter shows decreasing altitude
Do NOT use leak detector to isolate static leak – bubbles ‘sucked’ into plumbing.
Protective Covers
Protective covers have two purposes:
 To stop insects from entering or building nests
 To soften the blow when you walk into them
Fit covers whenever aircraft are on the ground
Ensure covers have large obvious remove before flight flags so they won’t be
overlooked.
Pitot Heaters
WARNING:
 Pitot probes can be extremely hot immediately after flight or if heaters
inadvertently left on. Jacking aircraft or simulating weight off wheels can
automatically energise probe heaters.
 If you must handle a pitot probe always test for heat with the back of your
hand before touching it.
WARNING: NEVER GRAB PITOT PROBES UNTIL YOU HAVE TESTED FOR THE
PRESENCE OF HEAT.
WARNING:
 Only operate pitot heaters on the ground if absolutely necessary, and then
only for sufficient time to confirm their serviceability
 Do not allow pitot heaters to remain on for lengthy periods – heaters can burn
out if not cooled by ram air flowing over them
Pitot Static System Precautions
 Never touch pitot probes or static vents unless you have to and then only after
checking to ensure they aren’t hot
 Only check probes and vents for heat with back of hand, do not grab them and
wrap your fingers around probe
 Never blow into a static vent or pitot probe or any pitot static instrument –
severe damage to instruments will result
 Always replace covers to minimise chance of injury to personnel working
around aircraft and to ensure no contamination by insects
 Never lean against pitot probes or use them as a hand hold
 Never hang anything on pitot probes
 Pitot and Static instruments are very delicate, always handle with extreme care
 Ensure no moisture enters a pitot or static system
 Never seal pitot static instruments in air tight bags, or blank connections with
airtight seals – ensure they are always vented to atmosphere
Pitot Static System Maintenance Precautions
 Complete all maintenance and inspections before leak testing
 Use appropriate maintenance manuals during testing, troubleshooting and
leak isolation
 Check test unit for leaks before beginning test
 Run full range tests only if you are thoroughly familiar with aircraft and test
equipment
 Pitot system Pressure must always be equal to or greater than static system
pressure
 Rate of change of pressure during testing must not exceed limits for any
installed instrument – typically 5000 to 10000 fpm maximum rate of climb or
descent
 After completion of testing ensure system is returned to flying condition, eg
remove any tape or blanks from ports or drain holes
 If tape is used during leak isolation – use brightly coloured highly visible tape
 Never perform any maintenance on a pressurised pitot/static system
 Never overtighten unions – particularly plastic unions – always torque as
directed by maintenance manual

2013-03-06 B2-13g Instruments PitotStatic SR

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Student Resource

Copyright © 2013 Aviation Australia

Training Material Only

Student Handout – Subject B2-13g

AC 43.13-1B/ AC 43.13-2A Combined – Aircraft Inspection and Repair

Kennedy – Davis Electronic Communication Systems

James Powel (Jeppesen) Aircraft Radio Systems

National Training Materials for the Aerospace Industry

Aircraft Instruments and Integrated Systems – EHJ Pallett – 1992

On completion of the following topics you will be able to:

Visual Flight Rules (VFR)

Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)

Figure 1: ‘Stick and string’ operating by visual flight rules

Training Material Only

Figure 2: A very early aircraft – cockpit instrument layout

Figure 3: International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO)

Figure 5: Instrument Panel

Figure 6: Gyroscopic Instrument

Figure 7: Duplicate Instruments

Figure 8: Magnetic Compass

Power Plant Instruments

Figure 9: Power Plant Instruments

Figure 10: Standards

Figure 11: Instrument Elements

Figure 12: Mechanisms

Figure 13: Bourdon tube

Figure 14: Lever Length

Figure 15: Lever Angle

Figure 16: Rod Mechanisms

Figure 17: Sine Mechanism

Figure 18: Tangent Mechanism

Figure 19: Gears

Figure 20: Backlash

Figure 21: Hairspring

Figure 22: external adjustment of the pointer

Figure 23: Bearings made of tiny jewels, usually sapphires or rubies

Figure 24: ‘strip’ and ‘disc’ types of ‘bimetallic temperature sensors’

Figure 25: Bimetal ranging bar

Thermo-Magnetic Shunt Method

Sealing of Instruments Against Atmospheric Effects

Figure 26: U-tube manometers

Figure 27: Absolute Pressure

Figure 28: Gauge Pressure

Figure 29: Differential Pressure

Figure 30: Hysteresis Error

Figure 31: Parallax Error

Training Material Only

Training Material Only

Figure 32: Primary SI units

SI Symbols and Prefixes

Figure 33: Non-SI Units

Figure 34: SI Supplementary Units

Figure 35: Steradian - Solid Angle

Figure 36: SI Derived Units

Figure 37: SI Metric System Family tree

Other Units Used With SI Units

Figure 38: ICAO Specified Units for Aircraft Communications

Knots to km/h: X 1.85

mph to km/h: X 1.61

km/h to knots: X 0.54

1 knot = 1 nautical mile per hour

Figure 39: Fuel convertion charts

Figure 40: The Atmosphere