HU - 28th Research and Extension Review - Proceedings PDF

HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY OFFICE OF RESEARCH
AND EXTENSION
28TH ANNUAL RESEARCH AND EXTENSION

REVIEW PROCEEDINGS
2010/2011
COMPILED AND EDITED BY STAFF OF THE

OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND EXTENSION
HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY
Haramaya University 28th Annual Research and Extension Review Proceedings March 2011
Haramaya University Office of Research and Extension
28th Annual Research and Extension Review Proceedings

2010/2011
Compiled and edited by Staff of the Office of Research

and Extension
Haramaya University
ii
Table of Contents
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................................. IV
LIST OF FIGURES .........................................................................................................................................VIII
I. MAIZE RESEARCH AND EXTENSION ACTIVITIES ..................................................................................... 1
1. MAIZE RESEARCH ACTIVITIES DURING 2009/10 CROPPING SEASON ...........................................................................2

2. RESEARCH ACTIVITIES FOR 2010/2011 CROPPING SEASON ....................................................................................21
II. SORGHUM RESEARCH AND EXTENSION ACTIVITIES ............................................................................ 25
1. ONGOING PROJECTS .........................................................................................................................................27

2. NEW PROJECTS................................................................................................................................................28
III. COMMON BEAN RESEARCH ACTIVITIES .............................................................................................. 31
1. COMPLETED PROJECTS IN 2010 .........................................................................................................................32

2. NEW PROJECTS PROPOSED FOR 2011 .................................................................................................................48
3. COLLABORATIVE NATIONAL PROJECTS .................................................................................................................60
IV. HIGHLAND PULSES RESEARCH ACTIVITIES .......................................................................................... 62
COMPLETED PROJECTS .........................................................................................................................................63
V. POTATO RESEARCH ACTIVITIES ........................................................................................................... 74
COMPLETED PROJECT ...........................................................................................................................................74
VI. SOIL AND WATER MANAGEMENT RESEARCH ACTIVITIES ................................................................... 78
1. ONGOING PROJECTS ........................................................................................................................................78

2. NEW PROJECTS ...............................................................................................................................................84
VII. FORESTRY RESEARCH ACTIVITIES ...................................................................................................... 100
1. COMPLETED PROJECTS....................................................................................................................................100
2. ONGOING PROJECTS ......................................................................................................................................105
3. NEW PROJECTS..............................................................................................................................................105
VIII. SCHOOL OF ANIMAL AND RANGE SCIENCES COMPLETED RESEARCH ACTIVITIES .............................. 114
IX. INSTITUTE OF PASTORAL AND AGROPASTORAL RESEARCH ACTIVITIES ............................................ 190
1. ONGOING PROJECTS.................................................................................................................................190
2. COMPLETED PROJECTS ..............................................................................................................................192
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List of Tables
TABLE 1: MEAN VALUES OF GRAIN YIELD AND RELATED TRAITS OF VARIETIES INVOLVED IN NATIONAL VARIETY
TRIAL-9A (NVT-9A) – HARAMAYA, 2010...................................................................................................4
TRIAL-8A (NVT-8A) – HARAMAYA, 2010...................................................................................................4
TRIAL-8B (NVT-8B) – HARAMAYA, 2010 ..................................................................................................5
TABLE 4: MEAN VALUES OF GRAIN YIELD AND RELATED TRAITS OF QOQLITY PROTEIN VARIETIES INVOLVED IN
VARIETY TRIAL-8A (QPVT-8A) – HARAMAYA, 2010 .................................................................................5
TABLE 5: MEAN VALUES OF GRAIN YIELD AND RELATED TRAITS OF QOQLITY PROTEIN VARIETIES INVOLVED IN
VARIETY TRIAL-2C (QPVT-2C) – HARAMAYA, 2010 .................................................................................6
TABLE 6: MEAN VALUES OF VARIETIES INVOLVED IN PRELIMINARY VARIETY TRIAL-2E (PVT-2E) –
HARAMAYA, 2010 ........................................................................................................................................8
TABLE 7: MEAN VALUES OF GRAIN YIELD AND RELATED TRAITS OF VARIETIES INVOLVED IN PRELIMINARY
VARIETY TRIAL-2H (PVT-2H) – HARAMAYA, 2010 ..................................................................................10
TABLE 8: MEAN VALUES OF GRAIN YIELD AND RELATED TRAITS OF VARIETIES INVOLVED IN PRELIMINARY
VARIETY TRIAL-2R (PVT-2R) – HARAMAYA, 2010 ..................................................................................11
TABLE 9: MEAN VALUES OF GRAIN YIELD AND RELATED TRAITS OF VARIETIES INVOLVED IN AMB10PVT1-4
TRIAL -HARAMAYA, 2010 .......................................................................................................................... 13
TRIAL -HARAMAYA, 2010 .......................................................................................................................... 14
TABLE 11: MEAN VALUES OF GRAIN YIELD AND RELATED TRAITS OF VARIETIES INVOLVED IN AMB10PVT3-4 -
HARAMAYA, 2010 ......................................................................................................................................14
TRIAL -HARAMAYA, 2010 .......................................................................................................................... 15
TRIAL -HARAMAYA, 2010 .......................................................................................................................... 17
TABLE 14: MEAN VALUES OF GRAIN YIELD AND RELATED TRAITS OF VARIETIES INVOLVED IN AMB10PVT9-4 -
HARAMAYA, 2010 ......................................................................................................................................17
TRIAL -HARAMAYA, 2010 .......................................................................................................................... 18
TRIAL -HARAMAYA, 2010 .......................................................................................................................... 18
TRIAL -HARAMAYA, 2010 .......................................................................................................................... 19
TRIAL -HARAMAYA, 2010 .......................................................................................................................... 19
TRIAL -HARAMAYA, 2010 .......................................................................................................................... 20
TRIAL -HARAMAYA, 2010 .......................................................................................................................... 20
TABLE 21. THIRTY SELECTED ENTRIES FROM 2010 OBSERVATION NURSERY AT HARAMAYA ..............................26
TABLE 22. FIFTEEN SELECTION FROM 2010 OBSERVATION NURSERY AT BABILE ................................................26
TABLE 23. DAYS TO 50% FLOWERING AND GRAIN YIELD (KG/HA) OF SIX AND FOUR EXPERIMENTAL AND CHECK
SORGHUM VARIETIES, RESPECTIVELY EVALUATED AT ADELE, HARAMAYA AND KERSA IN 2010 CROP
SEASON....................................................................................................................................................... 27
TABLE 24: COMMON BEAN VARIETIES RELEASED BY HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY FOR EASTERN ETHIOPIA (1997 TO
2008)..........................................................................................................................................................32
TABLE 25: MEAN AND STANDARD ERROR (SE) VALUES OF AGRONOMIC TRAITS IN LARGE SEEDED BEAN VARIETY
TRIAL (LSBRVT) OVER FOUR LOCATIONS AND THREE YEARS (2008- 2010) IN EASTERN ETHIOPIA ........... 34
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TABLE 26: MEAN GRAIN YIELD (KG/HA) OF GENOTYPES IN LARGE SEEDED BEAN VARIETY TRIAL AT FOUR
LOCATIONS OVER THREE YEARS (2008 – 2010) .......................................................................................... 34
TABLE 27: F-VALUES AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE LEVELS FOR THE VARIOUS SOURCES OF VARIATIONS IN
COMBINED ANOVA OF LARGE SEEDED BEAN REGIONAL VARIETY TRIAL (LSBRVT) ................................ 36
TABLE 28: MEAN AND STANDARD ERROR (SE) VALUES OF AGRONOMIC TRAITS IN RED MOTTLED BEAN VARIETY
TRIAL (RMBRVT) OVER FOUR LOCATIONS AND THREE YEARS (2008- 2010) IN EASTERN ETHIOPIA ......... 38
TABLE 29: MEAN GRAIN YIELD (KG/HA) OF GENOTYPES IN RED MOTTLED BEAN REGIONAL VARIETY TRIAL AT
FOUR LOCATIONS OVER THREE YEARS (2008 – 2010) ................................................................................. 38
COMBINED ANOVA OF RED MOTTLED BEAN REGIONAL VARIETY TRIAL (RMBRVT) ............................... 40
TABLE 31: MEAN AND STANDARD ERROR (SE) VALUES OF AGRONOMIC TRAITS IN LARGE RED BEAN REGIONAL
VARIETY TRIAL (LRBRVT) OVER FOUR LOCATIONS AND THREE YEARS (2008- 2010) IN EASTERN ETHIOPIA
...................................................................................................................................................................41
TABLE 32: MEAN GRAIN YIELD (KG/HA) OF GENOTYPES IN LARGE RED BEAN REGIONAL VARIETY TRIAL AT FOUR
TABLE 33: F-VALUES AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE LEVELS FOR THE VARIOUS SOURCES OF VARIATIONS OF
COMBINED ANOVA OF LARGE RED BEAN REGIONAL VARIETY TRIAL (LRBRVT) ..................................... 43
TABLE 34: MEAN AND STANDARD ERROR (SE) VALUES OF AGRONOMIC TRAITS IN WHITE PEA BEAN REGIONAL
VARIETY TRIAL (WPBRVT) OVER FOUR LOCATIONS AND THREE YEARS (2008- 2010) IN EASTERN
ETHIOPIA ....................................................................................................................................................45
TABLE 35: MEAN GRAIN YIELD (KG/HA) OF GENOTYPES IN WHITE PEA BEAN REGIONAL VARIETY TRIAL AT FOUR
COMBINED ANOVA OF WHITE PEA BEAN REGIONAL VARIETY TRIAL (WPBRVT) ..................................... 47
TABLE 37: VARIETIES TO BE INVOLVED IN TRIALS FOR IMPROVED RESISTANCE TO ANTHRACNOSE AND CBB .....55
TABLE 38: LOCALLY AVAILABLE POTENTIAL GENE SOURCES FOR THE STUDY OF VARIETAL RESISTANCE TO
ANTHRACNOSE AND CBB. .......................................................................................................................... 56
CONSUMABLES, KITS, AND CHEMICALS ...................................................................................................................59
TABLE 39. MEAN OF SEED YIELD OF FABA BEAN REGIONAL VARIETY TRIAL-I CONDUCTED AT DIFFERENT
LOCATION IN 2007 AND 2008 CROPPING SEASONS. ..................................................................................... 64
TABLE 40. MEAN OF SEED YIELD OF FABA BEAN REGIONAL VARIETY TRIAL-II CONDUCTED AT DIFFERENT
LOCATION IN 2008 CROPPING SEASON. ....................................................................................................... 65
TABLE 41: MEAN PERFORMANCE OF FABA BEAN NATIONAL VARIETY TRIAL (LARGE SEEDED) TRIAL AT
HARAMAYA DURING 2010/11 CROPPING SEASON .......................................................................................67
TABLE 42: MEAN PERFORMANCE OF FABA BEAN NATIONAL VARIETY TRIAL (SMALL SEEDED TRIAL) AT
HARAMAYA DURING 2010/11 CROPPING SEASON .......................................................................................68
TABLE 43: MEAN PERFORMANCE OF FENUGREEK REGIONAL VARIETY TRIAL AT HARAMAYA DURING 2010/11
CROPPING SEASON ...................................................................................................................................... 72
TABLE 44: MAJOR MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MEDIUM MATURING IMPROVED POTATO VARIETIES .75
TABLE 45: TUBER CHARACTERISTICS OF MEDIUM MATURING IMPROVED POTATO VARIETIES ..............................75
TABLE 46: TOTAL TUBER YIELD (TON/HA) OF BUBU AND TWO STANDARD CHECKS TESTED AT DIFFERENT
LOCATIONS, 2008 ....................................................................................................................................... 75
TABLE 47: TOTAL TUBER YIELD (TON/HA) OF BUBU AND TWO STANDARD CHECKS TESTED AT DIFFERENT
LOCATIONS, 2009 ....................................................................................................................................... 75
TABLE 48: TWO YEARS AVERAGE (2008 AND 2009) TOTAL TUBER YIELD (TON/HA) OF BUBU AND TWO
STANDARD CHECKS TESTED AT DIFFERENT LOCATIONS .............................................................................. 75
TABLE 49: ESTIMATES OF STABILITY PARAMETERS FOR TUBER YIELD (TON/HA) OF BUBU AND THE STANDARD
CHECKS ...................................................................................................................................................... 76
TABLE 50: LATE BLIGHT REACTION OF BUBU IN COMPARISON WITH THE CHECKS ...............................................76
TABLE 51: KEY TO LATE BLIGHT RECORDING ......................................................................................................76
TABLE 52: TASTE AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BOILED TUBERS OF BUBU ..............................................76
TABLE 53. THE EFFECT OF INOCULATION ON YIELD AND YIELD COMPONENTS OF FABA BEAN .............................80
TABLE 54. THE EFFECT OF INOCULATION ON YIELD AND YIELD COMPONENTS OF FIELD PEA ...............................82
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TABLE 55. EFFECTS OF SENNA GREEN MANURE AND COMMERCIAL FERTILIZER ON SOIL ORGANIC MATTER, TOTAL
NITROGEN AND AVAILABLE PHOSPHORUS ON SMALL HOLDER FARMER PLOT OF KIRA KUFISE PA, HIRNA,
TULLO DISTRICT .......................................................................................................................................103
TABLE 56. EFFECT OF LANTANA GREEN MANURE AND COMMERCIAL FERTILIZER ON SOIL ORGANIC MATTER,
TOTAL NITROGEN AND AVAILABLE PHOSPHORUS ON SMALL HOLDER FARMER PLOT OF KIRA KUFISE PA,
HIRNA, TULLO DISTRICT ..........................................................................................................................103
TABLE 57. ROLE OF WOMEN, ADULT MALES AND CHILDREN IN CAMEL PRODUCTION AMONG HOUSEHOLDS
SURVEYED IN BERHALE WOREDA (N=90). ................................................................................................117
TABLE 58. COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS OWNED BY THE SURVEYED PASTORAL HOUSEHOLDS IN BERHALE WOREDA
(N = 90) ....................................................................................................................................................118
TABLE 59. OBJECTIVES OF CAMEL REARING AMONG THE SURVEYED HOUSEHOLDS OF BERHALE WOREDA (N = 90)
.................................................................................................................................................................119
TABLE 60. MAJOR BROWSE AND GRASS SPECIES AND THEIR SEASONAL AVAILABILITY AS REPORTED BY THE
RESPONDENTS IN BERHALE WOREDA .......................................................................................................121
TABLE 61. MILK OFFTAKE (LITERS) AND LACTATION LENGTH FROM CAMELS AT DIFFERENT TIMES OF MILKING
AMONG THESURVEYED HHS IN BERHALE WOREDA ..................................................................................122
TABLE 62. MEDICINAL VALUE OF CAMEL MILK AS REPORTED BY THE SURVEYED HOUSEHOLDS IN BERHALE
WOREDA (N = 90) .....................................................................................................................................122
TABLE 63. THE MAJOR FEED SOURCES OF CAMEL ON SEASONAL BASIS IN JIJIGA WOREDA.................................129
TABLE 64. ASH, DM AND MACRO-MINERALS CONCENTRATION (%) IN BROWSE SPECIES OF CAMEL AS RELATED
TO SEASONS ..............................................................................................................................................130
TABLE 65. GROUPING OF THE LACTIC ACID BACTERIA ISOLATED FROM TRADITIONALLY FERMENTED CAMEL’S
MILK (ITITU) BASED ON CARBOHYDRATE FERMENTATION .......................................................................137
TABLE 66. AVERAGE MICROBIAL LOAD (LOG CFU/ML ± SD) OF LABORATORY MADE ERGO SAMPLES AND
TRADITIONALLY FERMENTED CAMEL MILK PRODUCT (ITITU). ..................................................................138
TABLE 67. TREATMENT COMBINATIONS OF THE EXPERIMENT INVOLVING FOUR BREEDS AND TWO LEVEL OF
SUPPLEMENTATION. .................................................................................................................................142
TABLE 68. THE EFFECT OF BREED AND DIET ON TOTAL DRY MATTER AND NUTRIENT INTAKE OF LOCAL AND
CROSS BRED LAMBS (LSMEAN±SE) .......................................................................................................146
TABLE 69.THE EFFECT OF BREED AND DIET ON GROWTH RATE AND FEED CONVERSION EFFICIENCY OF LOCAL AND
CROSS BRED LAMBS (LSMEAN±SE). ......................................................................................................147
TABLE 70. THE EFFECT OF BREED AND DIET ON CARCASS CHARACTERISTICS OF LOCAL AND CROSS BRED LAMBS
(LSMEAN ± SE)......................................................................................................................................148
TABLE 71. THE EFFECT OF BREED AND DIET ON CARCASS AND CONFORMATION MEASUREMENT OF LOCAL AND
CROSS BRED LAMBS (LSMEAN±SE) .......................................................................................................149
TABLE 72. THE EFFECT OF BREED AND DIET ON CARCASS COMPOSITION OF LOCAL AND CROSS BRED LAMBS
(LSMEAN ± SE)......................................................................................................................................151
TABLE 73. GRADING OF RAW SKINS IN RELATION TO MASS IN LOCAL AND CROSS BRED LAMBS BASED ON
SPECIFICATIONS OF ETHIOPIAN QUALITY STANDARDS AGENCY (LSMEAN±SE). ...................................152
TABLE 74. THE EFFECT OF BREED AND DIET ON FAT AND CHROME-OXIDE CONTENT OF LOCAL AND CROSS BRED
LAMBS (LSMEAN ± SE). .........................................................................................................................152
TABLE 75. EFFECT OF LOCAL OR IMPORTED PROTEIN BALANCER, GENOTYPE AND THEIR INTERACTION ON DM
AND NUTRIENT INTAKE DURING THE ENTIRE EXPERIMENTAL PERIOD (0-49 DAYS). ..................................159
TABLE 76. GROWTH PERFORMANCE FROM 0-49 DAYS OF AGE ..........................................................................160
TABLE 77. DRY MATTER CONVERSION RATIO FOR HUBBARD CLASSIC AND COBB 500 COMMERCIAL HYBRID
BROILERS FED CONTROL OR RATION CONTAINING EITHER LOCAL OR IMPORTED PROTEIN BALANCER ......160
TABLE 78. BODY WEIGHT AND DRY MATTER INTAKE OF HORRO, KOEKOEK AND LOHMANN SILVER CHICKEN
BREEDS UNDER INTENSIVE MANAGEMENT ................................................................................................173
TABLE 79. COMPARISON OF HEN-DAY AND HEN-HOUSED EGG PRODUCTION, AVERAGE DAILY EGG WEIGHT AND
DAILY EGG MASS OF HR, KK AND LS CHICKEN BREEDS UNDER INTENSIVE MANAGEMENT CONDITION, 20-
44TH WEEKS...............................................................................................................................................174
TABLE 80. COMPARISON OF EGG QUALITY PARAMETERS OF EGGS COLLECTED FROM HR, KK AND LS CHICKEN
TH
BREEDS REARED UNDER INTENSIVE MANAGEMENT, 20-44 WEEKS .........................................................175
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TABLE 81. PERCENT FERTILITY AND HATCHABILITY OF EGGS FROM HR, KK AND LS CHICKEN BREEDS REARED
ST
UNDER INTENSIVE MANAGEMENT, 41 WEEK ...........................................................................................176
TABLE 82. COMPARISON OF EGG WEIGHT LOSS DURING STORAGE AND INCUBATION OF EGGS FROM HORRO,
KOEKOEK AND LOHMANN SILVER REARED UNDER INTENSIVE MANAGEMENT, 41ST WEEK .......................176
TABLE 83. EXPERIMENTAL TREATMENTS ..........................................................................................................182
TABLE 84. TRENDS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF CATTLE FATTENING IN FEDIS AND HABRO WEREDAS .................183
TABLE 85. MAJOR CONSTRAINTS OF FATTENING PRACTICES IN FEDIS AND HABRO WOREDAS ..........................185
TABLE 86. DAILY FEED DRY MATTER AND NUTRIENTS INTAKE OF HARARGHE HIGHLAND BULLS FED MAIZE
STOVER AND CONCENTRATE MIX FORTIFIED WITH DIFFERENT LEVELS OF YEAST (SACCHAROMYCES
CEREVISIAE) ..............................................................................................................................................186
TABLE 87. BODY WEIGHT CHANGE OF HARARGHE HIGHLAND BULLS FED MAIZE STOVER AND CONCENTRATE MIX
FORTIFIED WITH DIFFERENT LEVELS OF YEAST (SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE) .........................................186
TABLE 88. WATER SAMPLE LOCATIONS ............................................................................................................197
TABLE 89: PH READINGS OF WATER FROM SAMPLED BIRKAS ...........................................................................202
TABLE 90: TURBIDITY READINGS OF WATER FROM SAMPLED BIRKAS (NTU) ...................................................203
TABLE 91: EC READINGS OF WATER ROM SAMPLED BIRKAS (µS/CM) ...............................................................203
TABLE 92. HARDNESS OF WATER FROM THE SAMPLED BIRKAS (PPM AS CACO3)..............................................204
TABLE 93. NITRATE NO3- CONTENT OF WATER FROM THE SAMPLED BIRKAS (PPM) .........................................204
TABLE 94. TDS OF WATER FROM SAMPLED BIRKAS (MG/L (PPM)) ....................................................................205
TABLE 95. COD OF WATER FROM SAMPLED BIRKAS (MG/L(PPM)) ....................................................................205
TABLE 96. BACTERIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF WATER SAMPLES OF THE THREE SELECTED KEBELES OF HARSHIN
.................................................................................................................................................................212
TABLE 97. PREVALENCE OF PARASITES IN SAMPLE WATER OBTAINED FROM THE THREE SELECTED KEBELES OF
HARSHIN ..................................................................................................................................................212
TABLE 98: TOTAL AEROBIC PLATE COUNT PER MILLILITER OF WATER SAMPLES OBTAINED FROM THE THREE
SELECTED KEBELES OF HARSHIN .............................................................................................................214
TABLE 99: COLIFORM COUNT PER MILLILITER OF WATER SAMPLES OBTAINED FROM THE THREE SELECTED
KEBELES OF HARSHIN ..............................................................................................................................214
TABLE 100. BACTERIOLOGICAL QUALITY OF DRINKING-WATERA (WHO, 1998) ...............................................219
TABLE 101. GUIDELINE VALUE/ PERMISSIBLE LIMITS FOR MICROBIOLOGICAL QUALITY PARAMETERS IN
DRINKING WATER (FOR UNTREATED WATER ENTERING DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM) (BORAH ET AL., 2010)...220
TABLE 102: DISTRIBUTION OF SAMPLED RESPONDENTS BY SAMPLED KEBELES ................................................223
TABLE 103: USE OF WATER PURIFYING AGENT/METHOD BY SEX........................................................................225
TABLE 104. MATERIALS USED TO COLLECT AND STORE WATER ........................................................................228
TABLE 105. WELLS IN WACHILE VILLAGE WITH THEIR RESPECTIVE GOSA ........................................................246
TABLE 106. DISTRIBUTION OF AVAILABLE WATER SOURCES TO COMMUNITY SEGMENTS ..................................247
TABLE 107. DISTRIBUTION OF WATER SOURCES FOR DIFFERENT PURPOSES .......................................................248
TABLE 108. FACTORS CAUSING CONFLICT OVER WATER RESOURCES.................................................................248
TABLE 109. CHALLENGES ON BORANA INDIGENOUS WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ....................................249
TABLE 110. THE ROLES OF COMMUNITY SEGMENTS IN DETERMINING MOBILITY PATTERN ................................251
TABLE 111. THE ROLE OF COMMUNITY SEGMENTS IN BUSH CLEARING ..............................................................251
TABLE 112. THE ROLE OF COMMUNITY SEGMENTS ON FENCING RESERVED PASTURE ........................................252
TABLE 113. ARERO DISTRICT FOREST MANAGEMENT COMMITTEES AND THEIR RESPECTIVE SITES ....................256
TABLE 114. LAND USE PATTERN OF ARERO DISTRICT DURING THE YEAR 2008/09 ..........................................260
TABLE 115. GENDER ROLES IN PASTORAL PRODUCTION SYSTEM ......................................................................263
TABLE 116. INTERVENTIONS OF STATE-NGOS PARTNERSHIP ...........................................................................266
TABLE 117. GENERAL TRENDS OF ISSUES FOR THE LAST FIVE DECADES (ACCORDING TO THE KEY INFORMANTS)
.................................................................................................................................................................268
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List of Figures
FIGURE 1: MEAN OF SEED YIELD OF TWENTY FIVE FABA BEAN ACCESSIONS (FRVT-III) TESTED AT THREE
LOCATIONS AND CROPPING SEASONS. ......................................................................................................... 66
FIGURE 2: MEAN OF SEED YIELD OF TEN FIELD PEA ACCESSIONS (FPRVT-II) CONDUCTED AT THREE LOCATIONS
AND TWO CROPPING SEASONS. .................................................................................................................... 69
FIGURE 3: MEAN OF SEED YIELD OF TEN FIELD PEA ACCESSIONS (FPRVT-III) CONDUCTED AT THREE LOCATIONS
AND TWO CROPPING SEASONS. .................................................................................................................... 70
FIGURE 4. EFFECT OF SENNA GREEN MANURE AND COMMERCIAL FERTILIZER ON MAIZE GRAIN YIELD ON SMALL
HOLDER FARMER PLOT OF K IRA KUFISE PA, HIRNA, TULLO DISTRICT .....................................................102
FIGURE 5. EFFECTS OF LANTANA GREEN MANURE AND COMMERCIAL FERTILIZER ON MAIZE GRAIN YIELD ON
SMALL HOLDER FARMER PLOT OF KIRA KUFISE PA, HIRNA, TULLO DISTRICT .........................................102
FIGURE 6. HARSHIN DISTRICT............................................................................................................................195
FIGURE 7. BACTERIAL ISOLATES IN SAMPLE WATER OBTAINED FROM THE THREE SELECTED KEBELES OF
HARSHIN ..................................................................................................................................................213
FIGURE 8 . COLIFORM COUNT RANGES OF WATER SAMPLES OBTAINED FROM THE THREE SELECTED KEBELES OF
HARSHIN ..................................................................................................................................................215
FIGURE 9. AEROBIC PLATE COUNT RANGE OF WATER SAMPLES OBTAINED FROM THE THREE SELECTED KEBELES
OF HARSHIN .............................................................................................................................................215
FIGURE 10. HOUSEHOLDS WITH PRIVATE BIRKA ................................................................................................224
FIGURE 11. LATRINE COVERAGE IN THE SURVEYED KEBELES ............................................................................227
FIGURE 12. FREQUENCY IN WHICH STORAGE MATERIALS ARE CLEANED............................................................228
FIGURE 13. FREQUENCY IN WHICH STORAGE MATERIALS ARE CHANGED ...........................................................229
FIGURE 14: BORANA PASTORALISTS’ SOCIO-CULTURAL LINK ON RESOURCE MANAGEMENT .............................241
viii
I. Maize Research and Extension Activities
By
Habtamu Zeleke
Introduction
Maize is one of the world’s three most important cereals along with wheat and rice. Maize is
currently produced on nearly 100 million hectares in 125 developing countries and is among the
three most widely grown crops in 75 of those countries and its Global production is estimated to
be over 800 million tons per year (FAOSTAT, 2010). Although much of the world’s maize
production (approximately 78%) is utilized for animal feed, human consumption in many
developing and developed countries is steadily increasing. For example, maize is the most
important cereal crop for food in sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. The growing demand
for food consumption in developing countries alone is predicted to increase by around 1.3% per
annum until 2020 (Ortiz et al., 2010). Between now and 2050, the demand for maize in the
developing world will double, and by 2025, maize is likely to become the crop with the greatest
production globally (Rosegrant et al., 2010).
In Ethiopia, cereals account for about 82.34% of the annual national crop production. Maize
ranks first in total production and yield per unit area and second in area coverage among all the
cereals in the country and it is the second most important cereal crop after maize in eastern
Ethiopia (CSA, 2010). In 2010/2011 cropping season about 2,152,571.40 ha of land was covered
by maize with an estimated production of 49,263,541.69 tons and its productivity capacity was
2.3 t/ha (CSA, 2010). ). It is largely produced in western, central, southern and eastern regions. It
is mainly produced for human consumption in different form of food such as bread, boiled green
maize on cob, roasted maize grain etc. In addition, it is also used to prepare local beverages
such as “tella” and “Aarekie”. The leaves, cobs and stalk are used for animal feed, as fuel wood,
for fuel and also used as industrial material for oil and glucose production (MoRAD, 2009).
The maize research and extension program of the university has been working hand-in-hand wit
the National Maize Research and Extension for the past several years. As a result it has been
contributing in the development of improve maize technology for the Ethiopian farmers and that
of the farmers of eastern Ethiopia.
During 2009/2010 cropping season several breeding activities were conducted in areas of
germplasm refreshment/rejuvenation, variety testing and verification of varieties. In addition, HU
researcher actively participated in the preparation of “Improved Maize Technology Generation
and Promotion for Highland, Mid-altitude and Lowland Agro-ecologies of Ethiopia”. The
general and specific objectives of the program are indicated below.
The weather condition during the early stages of the 2009/2010 cropping season was not
conducive and the rainfall was erratic and very little to support the crop plants in the month of
June (only 23.4 mm) and up to the middle of July (5.4 mm), which lead to poor performance of
some of the genotypes tested due to exposure of the plants at the critical stage of development
(flowering time).
1
Objectives
General:
Increasing maize productivity and production and thereby contribute to enhanced food security
and poverty reduction in Ethiopia and in eastern Ethiopia in particular.
Specific:
• To broaden the genetic base of maize germplasm for highland, mid-altitude and low
altitude areas of eastern Ethiopia
• To develop and promote high yielding, stress tolerant and widely/specifically adapted
hybrids and open pollinated varieties with desirable agronomic practices and quality traits
for food and feed.
• To develop improved maize protection technologies for mid and lowland areas.
• To renew and conserve breeding materials, to increase and maintain true to type breeder
seeds.
• To demonstrate and promote improved maize technologies
Manpower Status
During the 2009/2010 cropping season, only one researcher, one technical assistant with diploma,
one twelve grade complete personnel and one field assistant were actively involved in maize
research indicating the need for strengthening the program by man-power.
1. Maize Research Activities during 2009/10 Cropping Season
The results of the research activities conducted during the cropping season are reported under the
following headings.
Germplasm enhancement
In this activity maize line development and maintenance; maize population development and
maintenance were included. The objective was to develop and maintain maize lines and
population.
Population’s maintenance
Location: Haramaya (HU campus)
Materials and Methods: During the season, 20 maize populations were planted in none
replicated plots comprising of 20 rows each with 4 meter length.
Objective: to produce fresh seed of each population by bulk pollination.
Highlights of the results: Failed due to lack of pollen bags availability at the right time
(during flowering).
Maintenance of Lines
Location: Haramaya (HU campus)
Materials and Methods: During the season, 165 lines were planted in a single none
replicated plots of 1 meter long.
Objective: to produce fresh seed of each line by selfing/sib-pollination.
2
Highlights of the results: From each line 0.3 – 1 kg of fresh seed was obtained.
Both population and line maintenance activities planned for the project duration (1998-
2002 E.C.) were completed.
Variety Development
Under this, national variety trials, preliminary variety trials from Bako National Maize Research
and Extension Coordination Center, and trials from Ambo Highland Maize Project were included.
Statistical analysis was done for yield obtained in each trial and depicted that there is significant
difference between the entries included in each trial. The highlights of the results obtained are
discussed below.
National Variety Trials
All in all, eight different sets were planted with the objective to identify possible genotypes with
their appropriate agronomic practices. The trials under this were planted at Haramaya in
randomized complete block design with 2-3 replications. The rows were spaced 75 cm and
spacing between the plants was 30 cm. Two seeds per hill were planted and later thinned to one
plant per hill to obtain 44, 444 plants/ha. DAP and urea at the rates of 100 and 150 kg/ha (46kg
P2O5 and 87 kg N per ha), respectively, were applied. Half the nitrogen was applied at knee
height stage of the crop plant. Weeding and other cultural practices including application of
pesticide to control borers was done as required. The highlights of results obtained from each of
the trials are depicted below.
National Variety Trial – 9A (NVT-9A)

Highlights of the results: The varieties included in this trial matured within the range of 156-
187 days indicating that they fall into late maturity group. There was no disease problem and the
yield potential of the genotypes ranged from 7002.0-11419.0 kg/ha. Eight out of the 15 genotypes
gave yield over 8000 kg/ha (Table 1).
National Variety Trial – 8A (NVT-8A)

Highlights of the results: Fifteen genotypes were tested. The maturity days of the genotypes
ranged 159-170 days indicating that they fall into late maturity group. All the genotypes showed
tolerant reaction to both rust and blight diseases and the yield potential of the genotypes ranged
from 4352.72-7695.74 kg/ha (Table 2).
National Variety Trial – 8B (NVT-8B)

Highlights of the results: Thirteen genotypes were tested. The maturity days of the genotypes
ranged 164-177 days indicating that they fall into late maturity group. All the genotypes showed
tolerant reaction to both rust and blight diseases and their grain potential ranged from 6908.25-
8933.11 kg/ha (Table 3).
Quality Protein National Variety Trial – 8B (QPT-8B)

Highlights of the results: Thirty five genotypes were tested in this trial. The maturity days of
the genotypes ranged 150-161 days and all the genotypes showed tolerant reaction to both rust
and blight diseases and the yield potential of the genotypes ranged from 7548.40-8439.73 kg/ha
(Table 4).
3
Quality Protein National Variety Trial – 8C (QPT-8C)

Highlights of the results: Forty genotypes were tested. The maturity days of the genotypes
ranged 179-188 days indicating that they fall into extra late maturity group. Both rust and blight
diseases were negligible on these genotypes. Their grain yield ranged from 4181.81-11203.30
kg/ha. Fourteen out of the forty genotypes gave 8000 kg/ha of grain yield (Table 5).
Table 1: Mean values of grain yield and related traits of varieties involved in
National Variety Trial-9A (NVT-9A) – Haramaya, 2010
Variety No PHT EHT Rust Blight DM Grain yield

(cm) (cm) kg/ha Rank
1 173.3 93.3 1.5 1.5 163.0 11419.0 1
8 173.3 103.3 1.8 1.7 159.0 9748.7 2
4 176.7 93.3 2.0 1.3 162.0 9133.7 3
13 190.0 100.0 1.8 1.5 187.0 9061.8 4
5 180.0 100.0 1.7 1.3 167.0 8987.5 5
10 180.0 96.7 1.2 1.5 171.0 8464.8 6
9 170.0 86.7 2.0 1.5 165.0 8422.2 7
7 150.0 70.0 1.5 1.5 156.0 8168.0 8
12 156.7 83.3 2.2 1.5 161.0 7881.0 9
15 173.3 100.0 1.8 1.8 165.0 7789.2 10
11 140.0 76.7 2.0 1.5 162.0 7758.8 11
6 153.3 80.0 1.7 1.7 164.0 7734.6 12
14 163.3 96.7 1.8 1.5 166.0 7304.6 13
2 170.0 96.7 2.0 1.7 157.0 7121.9 14
3 176.7 96.7 1.7 2.0 164.0 7002.0 15
National Variety Trial-8A (NVT-8A) – Haramaya, 2010
3 157 57 1.8 1.3 162 7695.74 1
4 143 67 1.7 1.5 162 6636.60 2
12 177 107 1.8 1.3 165 6555.57 3
9 140 73 2.2 1.5 160 6245.07 4
13 133 70 1.8 1.3 162 6003.09 5
2 137 77 2 1.5 170 5701.68 6
8 133 73 2 1.7 159 5675.30 7
11 153 80 2.2 1.2 163 5602.64 8
15 157 67 2.2 1.5 163 5500.22 9
1 147 73 2 1.5 164 5648.65 10
5 143 70 1.7 1.5 162 5418.11 11
10 137 73 1.7 1.5 169 4731.42 12
14 179 80 2 1.3 164 4693.53 13
6 143 77 1.8 1.3 169 4594.14 14
7 126 63 1.8 1.5 164 4352.72 15
4
National Variety Trial-8B (NVT-8B) – Haramaya, 2010
6 153 87 1.8 1.5 174 8933.11 1
1 170 93 1.8 1.2 175 8537.52 2
8 157 70 2 1.5 171 8441.23 3
3 160 83 1.7 1.3 169 8428.36 4
9 147 73 1.5 1.2 169 7831.19 5
10 143 73 1.7 1.5 167 7399.66 6
11 133 73 1.8 1.5 164 7334.17 7
13 170 90 1.8 1.3 167 7323.81 8
5 157 87 1.8 1.3 170 7237.40 9
12 153 80 1.7 1.5 177 7125.01 10
4 150 63 2 1.5 173 7053.15 11
7 169 83 2 1.5 171 6992.87 12
2 137 70 2 1.5 173 6908.25 13
Table 4: Mean values of grain yield and related traits of QOQLITY protein
varieties involved in Variety Trial-8A (QPVT-8A) – Haramaya, 2010
Variety No PHT (cm) EHT (cm) Rust Blight DM Grain-yield/ha (kg)
1. 167 83 1.5 1.0 161 8439.73
2. 123 70 1.3 1.0 157 7188.60
3. 160 80 1.5 1.0 158 9473.50
4. 147 83 1.5 1.0 157 6940.37
5. 157 87 2.2 1.0 157 7922.67
6. 137 73 1.5 1.0 157 7554.84
7. 150 80 1.5 1.0 154 7886.25
8. 143 67 1.7 1.0 158 6668.35
9. 163 93 1.3 1.0 155 7676.40
10. 163 80 1.2 1.0 154 6740.60
11. 140 63 1.5 1.0 159 9187.46
12. 140 73 1.5 1.0 157 8103.07
13. 147 77 1.3 1.0 156 7258.49
14. 163 97 1.3 1.0 156 8050.37
15. 153 73 1.3 1.0 157 6716.73
16. 150 83 1.5 1.0 159 7778.40
17. 163 97 2.2 1.0 161 8019.07
18. 133 60 1.5 1.0 153 8121.00
19. 167 100 1.3 1.0 155 8111.07
20. 133 73 1.5 1.0 156 8696.15
21. 143 77 1.8 1.0 155 7257.50
22. 163 90 1.7 1.0 159 11053.10
23. 153 73 1.3 1.0 163 6838.28
24. 143 73 1.3 1.0 153 9110.99
25. 153 80 1.3 1.0 152 7596.17
26. 167 93 1.3 1.0 156 9548.85
27. 163 83 1.5 1.0 155 8554.50
28. 143 80 1.7 1.0 160 8694.73
29. 150 87 2.0 1.0 155 8113.03
30. 167 100 1.8 1.0 158 7486.23
31. 137 73 1.2 1.0 158 6197.83
32. 140 73 1.5 1.0 155 7427.83
33. 167 87 1.5 1.0 158 6910.92
34. 153 77 1.5 1.0 150 8616.00
35. 159 73 1.3 1.0 156 7548.40
5
Table 5: Mean values of grain yield and related traits of QOQLITY protein
varieties involved in Variety Trial-2C (QPVT-2C) – Haramaya, 2010
Variety No PHT (cm) EHT (cm) DM Grain yield/ha Rank

(kg)
40 145 80 183 11203.3 1
16 160 75 180 9876.68 2
18 145 70 184 9832.81 3
17 150 75 186 9645.77 4
24 160 75 181 8993.07 5
12 130 70 183 8928.09 6
10 135 75 181 8889.49 7
20 160 75 187 8697.63 8
6 130 70 182 8539.31 9
4 150 80 181 8527.36 10
21 140 55 183 8446.69 11
19 145 45 180 8398.28 12
39 170 90 184 8117.42 13
9 145 55 179 8107.86 14
32 145 55 184 7858.56 15
5 135 65 185 7792.34 16
29 145 75 188 7740.95 17
13 145 65 185 7709.52 18
22 125 75 184 7686.22 19
35 140 65 182 7587.58 20
23 135 65 184 7513.87 21
31 130 75 184 7415.87 22
28 155 75 182 7389.22 23
1 135 75 184 7240.78 24
14 145 55 186 7227.58 25
8 165 85 184 7196.92 26
11 145 65 183 7042.63 27
27 145 75 180 6838.62 28
38 140 65 184 6546.88 29
15 130 70 181 6257.78 30
34 135 70 188 6068.95 31
2 130 55 180 5976.8 32
37 130 65 183 5939.03 33
26 160 75 184 5842.47 34
30 140 55 183 5787.49 35
3 140 70 185 5372.18 36
36 185 80 185 5264.61 37
7 145 65 184 5230.55 38
33 130 75 182 4875.00 39
25 130 60 183 4181.81 40
6
Preliminary Variety Trials
All in all, three different sets were planted with the objective to identify possible genotypes with
their appropriate agronomic practices. The trials under this were planted at Haramaya in
randomized complete block design with 2 replication. The rows were spaced 75 cm and spacing
between the plants was 30 cm. Two seeds per hill were planted and later thinned to one plant per
hill to obtain 44, 444 plants/ha. DAP and urea at the rates of 100 and 150 kg/ha (46kg P2O5 and
87 kg N per ha), respectively, were applied. Half the nitrogen was applied at knee height stage of
the crop plant. Weeding and other cultural practices including application of pesticide to control
borers was done as required. The highlights of results obtained from each of the trials are
depicted below.
Preliminary Variety Trial – 2E (PVT-2E)

Highlights of the results: Seventy four elite genotypes were included in this trial. The
genotypes matured within the range of 181-1933 days indicating that they fall into extra late
maturity group, except genotype No 24 which matured in 174 days. There was no disease
problem and the yield potential of the genotypes ranged from 3366.1-9235.7 kg/ha. Four of these
gave yield over 8000 kg/ha (Table 6).
Preliminary Variety Trial – 2H (PVT-2H)

Highlights of the results: Twenty one genotypes were tested and all the genotypes showed
tolerant reaction to both rust and blight diseases. The maturity days of the genotypes ranged 142-
159 days. The yield potential of the genotypes ranged from 4352.72-7456.75 kg/ha (Table 7).
Preliminary Variety Trial – 2R (PVT-2R)

Highlights of the results: Sixty genotypes tested in this trial showed tolerant reaction to both
rust and blight diseases. The maturity days of the genotypes ranged from 150-162 days with grain
yield ranging from 6888.3-11109.5 kg/ha. Sixteen out of the sixty genotypes produced grain yield
over 8000 kg/ha (Table 8) indicating that these are promising materials to be promoted to the next
stage of variety testing (PVT).
7
Table 6: Mean values of varieties involved in Preliminary Variety Trial-2E (PVT-

2E) – Haramaya, 2010
Variety No PHT EHT Rust Blight DM Grain yield/ha (kg)

47 135.0 80.0 1.8 1.0 187.0 9235.7 1
26 130.0 70.0 2.0 1.5 188.0 8241.2 2
30 145.0 70.0 1.5 1.0 193.0 8183.5 3
27 155.0 80.0 2.0 1.3 187.0 8078.6 4
40 145.0 80.0 1.8 1.5 183.0 7987.5 5
21 160.0 90.0 1.8 1.5 191.0 7959.7 6
16 130.0 75.0 1.8 1.3 185.0 7948.2 7
52 145.0 70.0 2.3 1.5 190.0 7859.1 8
12 160.0 85.0 2.0 1.5 183.0 7825.8 9
22 145.0 70.0 1.8 1.5 187.0 7552.9 10
35 135.0 75.0 1.8 1.3 188.0 7458.1 11
28 140.0 55.0 2.0 1.5 190.0 7222.0 12
65 130.0 70.0 2.0 1.3 187.0 7212.6 13
67 125.0 60.0 2.3 1.5 187.0 7199.6 14
20 150.0 80.0 2.0 1.5 187.0 7168.0 15
17 135.0 75.0 1.8 1.5 185.0 7107.2 16
34 140.0 65.0 2.0 1.3 188.0 7092.7 17
68 145.0 60.0 1.8 1.3 192.0 7036.1 18
18 145.0 80.0 1.8 1.5 191.0 7010.5 19
58 130.0 80.0 1.8 1.3 189.0 6830.5 20
25 135.0 70.0 2.5 1.5 186.0 6823.1 21
4 140.0 70.0 2.0 1.0 190.0 6538.9 22
23 125.0 65.0 1.5 1.5 187.0 6510.4 23
55 120.0 60.0 2.0 1.3 191.0 6476.6 24
41 124.0 80.0 2.3 1.5 183.0 6472.8 25
50 125.0 75.0 1.5 1.3 189.0 6471.1 26
49 130.0 75.0 1.8 1.0 183.0 6461.9 27
33 120.0 65.0 1.8 1.3 186.0 6391.5 28
64 125.0 70.0 1.5 1.3 191.0 6377.4 29
11 145.0 75.0 1.8 1.5 189.0 6347.4 31
31 125.0 33.0 1.8 1.3 187.0 6322.6 32
10 145.0 75.0 2.0 1.3 184.0 6232.7 33
19 120.0 65.0 2.0 1.3 181.0 6167.1 34
70 115.0 70.0 2.0 1.3 186.0 6165.3 35
1 135.0 80.0 1.8 1.5 187.0 6135.1 36
2 140.0 80.0 1.8 1.3 189.0 6073.0 37
37 145.0 86.0 1.8 1.0 187.0 6030.3 38
32 130.0 60.0 1.8 1.5 188.0 5945.7 39
66 150.00 85.0 2.0 1.3 190.0 5865.0 40
73 135.0 70.0 2.0 1.3 186.0 5855.7 41
48 125.0 65.0 2.0 1.0 193.0 5841.4 42
74 140.0 75.0 2.0 1.3 191.0 5779.8 43
8
Table 6 continued...
39 135.0 75.0 1.8 1.5 187.0 5771.4 44

24 145.0 65.0 1.5 1.3 174.0 5733.8 45
6 135.0 80.0 1.8 1.5 187.0 5715.3 46
13 135.0 70.0 2.3 1.0 187.0 5692.0 47
44 145.0 75.0 1.5 1.3 188.0 5593.3 48
62 130.0 75.0 1.8 1.3 187.0 5481.3 49
7 140.0 65.0 1.8 1.0 193.0 5439.2 50
53 110.0 70.0 2.3 1.5 189.0 5394.6 51
3 145.0 85.0 1.8 1.5 190.0 5366.2 52
60 140.0 70.0 2.0 1.3 182.0 5235.0 53
29 125.0 65.0 2.3 1.3 187.0 5215.4 54
54 140.0 70.0 1.5 1.3 188.0 5136.9 55
36 145.0 70.0 2.0 1.3 184.0 5132.3 56
71 135.0 75.0 2.0 1.3 193.0 5108.9 57
57 120.0 55.0 2.0 1.3 183.0 5074.6 58
59 115.0 50.0 2.0 1.0 187.0 5059.8 59
5 130.0 70.0 2.0 1.5 193.0 5033.1 60
38 130.0 50.0 2.0 1.3 187.0 4928.5 61
56 135.0 65.0 1.8 1.3 185.0 4878.8 62
9 150.0 65.0 1.8 1.5 187.0 4847.9 63
15 125.0 70.0 2.0 1.3 193.0 4807.8 64
69 125.0 65.0 1.8 1.3 188.0 4802.7 65
14 120.0 55.0 2.0 1.3 193.0 4712.5 66
72 135.0 80.0 1.8 1.3 181.0 4596.3 67
42 120.0 65.0 1.8 1.3 191.0 4564.4 68
43 145.0 80.0 2.0 1.5 187.0 4257.7 70
46 120.0 75.0 1.8 1.3 186.0 4024.4 71
45 135.0 65.0 1.5 1.3 191.0 3749.9 72
61 125.0 60.0 1.8 1.3 186.0 3733.1 73
63 120.0 55.0 2.0 1.3 191.0 3366.1 74
9
Preliminary Variety Trial-2H (PVT-2H) – Haramaya, 2010
Variety PHT (cm) EHT (cm) Rust Blight DM Grain yield/ha

No
kg Rank
20 165 80 1.5 1.25 157 7456.75 1
8 150 90 1.75 1.25 148 7012.51 2
6 160 80 1.75 1.25 150 6841.61 3
16 155 80 1.5 1.25 150 6218.58 4
13 145 70 1.5 1.25 154 6128.23 5
5 135 65 2 1 150 5894.45 6
19 160 95 1.5 1.25 149 5711.60 7
10 145 75 2 1 157 5593.28 8
11 155 80 1.5 1.25 152 5388.91 9
2 135 75 1.5 1 154 5277.16 10
21 155 90 1.75 1.5 157 5261.27 11
4 145 65 1.5 1 143 5157.05 12
18 130 85 1.75 1 159 4963.56 13
12 125 65 2 1 167 4886.95 14
9 140 75 1.75 1.25 150 4860.06 15
3 155 65 1.5 1 142 4845.71 16
15 140 60 1.75 1.25 142 4836.75 17
14 130 60 1.75 1.5 150 4747.12 18
1 145 75 1.5 1.5 148 4259.50 19
17 175 75 2 1 142 4242.76 20
7 140 65 1.5 1 148 3718.10 21
10
Preliminary Variety Trial-2R (PVT-2R) – Haramaya, 2010
Variety PHT (cm) EHT (cm) Rust Blight DM Grain yield/ha

No kg Rank
49 150 70 2 1 157 11109.50 1
17 160 75 2.25 1.25 157 9352.00 2
27 145 75 2 1.5 155 9240.61 3
23 160 85 1.75 1.25 155 9015.00 4
57 135 70 1.75 1.25 155 8937.30 5
7 150 60 2 1.25 154 8825.55 6
46 160 70 1.5 1 154 8696.50 7
59 130 65 1.5 1 160 8637.90 8
36 145 70 1.75 1 154 8609.22 9
53 140 70 1.75 1.25 153 8563.20 10
13 165 95 1.75 1.25 156 8505.25 11
25 125 60 1.5 1.25 159 8431.15 12
40 135 75 2 1.25 154 8150.88 13
38 185 110 1.75 1.25 156 8136.75 14
44 150 75 2 1 154 8102.50 15
19 120 55 2 1 156 8082.75 16
48 135 65 1.75 1.25 151 7990.05 17
18 135 60 1.75 1.5 156 7907.70 18
56 150 75 2.25 1.25 156 7896.15 19
20 165 85 1.75 1.5 151 7858.70 20
30 140 65 2 1.25 159 7801.95 21
14 150 70 2 1 150 7801.93 22
8 130 60 2 1.75 154 7740.98 23
11 155 75 1.75 1.25 150 7559.90 24
39 135 75 1.75 1 156 7559.60 25
16 160 70 1.75 1.25 153 7476.85 26
32 160 80 2 1.25 154 7345.35 27
9 150 70 2.25 1.5 156 7316.10 28
31 145 75 2.25 1.25 154 7225.85 29
5 110 85 1.75 1 153 7175.65 30
51 135 65 2.5 1.5 154 7026.85 31
34 135 70 1.75 1.25 162 6960.30 32
42 160 80 1.5 1.25 154 6921.10 33
33 120 85 1.75 1.25 157 6888.30 34
3 160 85 2.25 1.25 151 6862.55 35
2 155 80 2 1.25 159 6847.60 36
10 140 65 1.75 1.5 159 6792.60 37
29 135 65 2 1.5 155 6771.70 38
47 140 75 1.75 1.25 157 6728.65 39
6 140 70 2.25 1.5 154 6662.85 40
55 140 75 1.75 1 153 6588.80 41
1 170 80 1.75 1.5 156 6588.60 42
58 150 90 1.5 1 151 6397.05 43
35 130 50 2 1.5 156 6382.09 44
45 130 65 1.75 1.25 154 6351.25 45
15 115 35 1.75 1 151 6327.55 46
11
Table 8 continued...
37 145 65 1.75 1.25 154 6299.00 47

21 125 60 2 1.5 151 6248.20 48
22 155 70 2 1 154 5799.45 49
28 120 55 1.75 1.25 156 5660.20 50
52 140 75 1.5 1.25 155 5564.62 51
54 155 75 2 1.25 157 5468.50 52
12 130 60 2 1 156 5410.80 53
50 125 65 1.75 1.25 155 5263.95 54
24 125 65 1.75 1.25 154 5176.15 55
4 130 45 1.75 1 154 5060.45 56
43 135 60 1.75 1.25 155 5050.75 57
60 150 85 1.5 1 153 4834.97 58
41 120 55 1.75 1.25 154 4631.20 59
26 145 70 2.25 1.5 154 3094.23 60
Highland Maize Variety Trials
The trials included in this group are those designed for the typical highland maize growing areas
of the country including the eastern and western Hararghie highlands. All in all, twelve different
sets comprising of 20 genotypes each were planted with objective to identify possible genotypes
with good grain yield along with their appropriate agronomic practices. They were planted at
Haramaya in a randomized complete block design replicated twice. The rows were spaced 75 cm
and spacing between the plants was 25 cm. Two seeds per hill were planted and later thinned to
one plant per hill to obtain plant stand of 53, 333 plants/ha. DAP and urea at the rates of 100 and
150 kg/ha (46kg P2O5 and 87 kg N per ha), respectively, were applied. Half the nitrogen was
applied at knee height stage of the crop plant. Weeding and other cultural practices including
application of pesticide to control borers was done as required. Army worm and borers were
controlled chemically (malathyion and cymbush were used, respectively). The highlights of
results obtained from each of the trials are as follows.
AMB10PVT1-4
Highlights of the results: The elite varieties included in this trial matured within the range of
168-180 days. Disease incidence during the growing season was negligible. The grain yield
ranged from 2832.13-8174.79 kg/ha (Table 9). Shortage of moisture during flowering time
negatively affected the yield levels of the genotypes.
AMB10PVT2-4
Highlights of the results: The number of days to maturity of the genotypes ranged from 170-
178 days. Disease incidence during the growing season was negligible. The grain yield ranged
from 3791.00-7027.45 kg/ha (Table 10). The yield of the genotypes was not very good which
might have been due to the shortage of moisture experienced by the plants during flowering stage.
AMB10PVT3-4
from 5097.00-8689.90 kg/ha (Table 11). Despite the shortage of moisture experienced by the
plants during flowering stage, four of the genotypes gave yield levels over 7000 kg/ka indicating
the possibility of selecting promising genotypes.
12
AMB10PVT4-4
174 days indicating no significant difference between the genotypes in their maturity duration.
Disease incidence during the growing season was negligible. The grain yield ranged from
4815.01-10230.40 kg/ha (Table 12). Despite the shortage of moisture experienced by the plants
during flowering stage, eight genotypes gave yield levels over 8000 kg/ka indicating the
possibility of selecting promising genotypes.
AMB10PVT1-4 trial -Haramaya, 2010
Variety No PHT (cm) EHT (cm) DM Grain yield

kg/ha Rank
3 135 70 173 8174.79 1
17 115 55 176 8158.77 2
7 125 85 172 7517.58 3
18 140 70 180 7281.78 4
12 140 90 174 7217.6 5
9 145 90 174 7133.46 6
6 135 75 168 6958.25 7
8 145 65 174 6836.32 8
11 120 75 172 6684.56 9
5 110 65 178 6605.09 10
10 115 60 174 6363.55 11
20 155 80 179 6179.5 12
14 140 95 172 5917.76 13
1 125 75 173 5884.42 14
21 135 80 177 5506.27 15
19 130 80 176 4804.96 16
13 85 50 173 4262.25 17
16 120 70 176 4210.5 18
4 120 70 173 4041.02 19
22 140 80 171 3768.17 20
2 100 60 175 3673.28 21
15 125 75 172 2832.13 22
13
kg/ha Rank
1 130 70 172 7027.45 1
9 120 75 173 7016.10 2
8 115 55 171 6890.61 3
19 135 70 173 6872.68 4
20 110 70 173 6360.56 5
2 125 80 174 6275.11 6
10 145 75 172 6152.25 7
16 130 80 173 5995.00 8
12 135 55 173 5842.47 9
13 135 80 173 5837.09 10
11 110 70 171 5689.49 11
22 150 85 179 5636.30 12
15 135 65 174 5621.13 13
14 125 60 173 5591.00 14
21 125 70 170 5518.22 15
4 115 70 172 5472.33 16
6 110 65 174 5438.03 17
18 115 65 173 4808.31 18
3 145 55 175 4752.85 19
5 115 75 175 4106.52 20
17 140 80 172 4083.81 21
7 115 70 174 3791.00 22
AMB10PVT3-4 -Haramaya, 2010
kg/ha Rank
22 155 75 173 8689.90 1
13 150 75 172 8389.92 2
12 145 75 174 8257.36 3
8 145 75 173 8254.86 4
7 135 75 173 7935.28 5
6 140 70 174 7789.95 6
1 135 65 174 7257.52 7
3 155 95 171 7068.09 8
9 125 70 179 6902.44 9
4 165 100 172 6809.22 10
10 135 75 172 6763.56 11
19 140 85 172 6741.81 12
5 150 80 175 6736.43 13
16 130 70 174 6613.21 14
15 140 85 174 6374.90 15
20 145 85 174 6100.29 16
14 145 80 171 5742.67 17
11 125 80 171 5638.10 18
18 150 75 173 5617.18 19
2 125 70 174 5582.76 20
17 130 80 172 5441.97 21
21 135 70 175 5097.00 22
14

kg/ha Rank
12 155 90 172 10230.4 1
10 160 100 172 8827.1 2
5 125 60 172 8733.76 3
4 135 70 175 8489.11 4
2 160 95 170 8378.92 5
22 165 95 174 8338.29 6
7 175 87 173 8219.61 7
19 130 65 173 8148.86 8
9 135 80 174 7687.17 9
17 140 75 173 7449.46 10
18 140 75 172 7332.09 11
16 140 75 172 7322.41 12
8 140 75 172 7182.82 13
21 165 95 173 7097.61 14
14 140 70 173 6800.37 15
6 150 80 174 6695.2 16
15 155 85 173 6397.85 17
3 135 80 173 5918.12 18
11 135 80 173 5849.04 19
13 145 70 172 5797.05 20
1 150 80 170 5739.09 21
20 140 70 174 4815.01 22
AMB10PVT8-4
Highlights of the results: The maturity days of the genotypes ranged 168-182 days indicating
that they fall into late maturity group. Both rust and blight diseases were negligible on these
genotypes. Their grain yield ranged from 4735.76-11431.10 kg/ha. Out of the 20 genotypes
included in this trial, seven of them gave over 8000kg/ha of grain yield (Table 13).
AMB10PVT9-4
Highlights of the results The number of days to maturity of the genotypes ranged from 170-
from 3822.07-7839.55 kg/ha (Table 14). The yield of the genotypes was not very good which
might have been due to the shortage of moisture experienced by the plants during flowering stage.
Despite this, five genotypes gave relatively good grain yield (over 7000 kg/ha).
AMB10PVT10-4
Highlights of the results: Five of the genotypes gave over 7000 kg/ha of grain yield. The
maturity days of the genotypes ranged 171-181 days. All the genotypes showed tolerant reaction
to both rust and blight diseases and the yield potential of the genotypes ranged from 4372.44-
9029.68 kg/ha (Table 15).
15
AMB10PVT13-4
that they fall into late maturity group. Incidence of both rust and blight diseases was negligible.
The grain ranged from 4438.92-9026.69 kg/ha (Table 16). Seven of the genotypes produced grain
yield over 7000 kg/ha indicating that they may by selected for further evaluation and possible
release of commercial cultivar for the agro-ecology (highland maize growing areas).
AMB10PVT17-4
that they fall into late maturity group. Incidence of both rust and blight diseases was negligible.
The grain ranged from 2189.51-9152.42 kg/ha (Table 17). Eight genotypes produced grain yield
over 7000 kg.
MB10PVT18-4
Highlights of the results: The maturity days of the genotypes ranged 171-181 days. Both rust
and blight diseases were negligible on these genotypes. Their grain yield ranged from 2467.85-
9722.38 kg/ha (Table 18).
AMB10PVT22-4
Highlights of the results: The maturity days of the genotypes ranged 168-181 days. Both rust
and blight diseases were negligible on these genotypes. Their grain yield ranged from 5134.82-
9275.28 kg/ha (Table 19). Eight genotypes gave over 7000 kg/ha of grain yield.
AMB10PVT23-4
Highlights of the results: The maturity days of the genotypes ranged 170-183 days showing
that they fall in to the late maturity group of genotypes. Both rust and blight diseases were
negligible on these genotypes. Most of them gave grain yield levels below 6000 kg/ha, except
four genotypes which gave over 7000 kg/ha. This may have been caused by the serious moisture
stress at flowering time.
Variety Verification Trial
Two open pollinated candidate varieties were planted at HU campus, Adele and Tuji-gabissa (one
on station and two on farm) in none replicated trial with plot size of 100 m2 (10 m X 10 m) along
with Gibe-1 as standard check. One of the candidate varieties has been released at national level
by the National Variety Release Standing Committee for commercial production in 2010 and
named as Gibe-2.
16

kg/ha Rank
17 140 85 178 11431.1 1
22 155 95 182 9406.39 2
21 170 90 179 9076.53 3
8 140 75 173 8554.69 4
18 140 75 174 8525.57 5
1 145 80 175 8420.39 6
20 155 70 174 8389.92 7
15 160 95 174 7615.46 8
11 145 85 175 7559.77 9
2 145 85 173 7091.51 10
13 155 95 173 6895.87 11
7 140 80 174 6885.95 12
12 155 90 176 6503.14 13
3 130 75 168 6430.36 14
16 140 75 176 6372.39 15
10 135 80 172 6344.79 16
4 140 80 173 6288.85 17
19 165 85 172 5983.85 18
5 130 70 171 5868.16 19
9 135 75 170 5562.08 20
6 145 80 172 5424.05 21
14 170 100 169 4735.76 22
AMB10PVT9-4 -Haramaya, 2010
Variety No PHT (cm) DM Grain yield

kg/ha Rank
10 110 175 7839.55 1
1 115 173 7725.54 2
22 160 174 7628.01 3
21 145 179 7588.57 4
18 140 173 7387.67 5
12 135 177 6977.85 6
13 115 171 6725.44 7
19 115 172 6528.12 8
15 135 173 6466.93 9
7 120 172 6137.34 10
8 115 173 5965.92 11
14 115 171 5887.28 12
4 135 172 5856.69 13
16 115 171 5783.31 14
17 120 173 5483.92 15
6 130 174 5308.83 16
20 110 178 4960.45 17
11 140 171 4931.88 18
9 140 171 4897.70 19
3 140 174 4733.01 20
2 120 174 4302.52 21
5 130 170 3822.07 22
17

kg/ha Rank
18 140 80 178 9029.68 1
1 140 85 176 4302.52 2
12 130 80 175 7764.5 3
20 120 65 174 7610.09 4
13 135 95 175 7217.48 5
11 135 80 177 7031.87 6
14 160 90 174 6912.96 7
8 130 85 181 6526.69 8
4 125 75 174 6208.54 9
17 145 95 175 6142.81 10
7 140 80 175 6045.67 11
6 165 80 174 5987.44 12
5 145 90 174 5868.16 13
16 150 85 171 5864.58 14
15 140 70 174 5772.91 15
19 165 75 172 5514.4 16
9 135 85 174 5396.08 17
10 130 75 177 4960.57 18
3 110 75 176 4827.58 19
2 130 70 175 4772.21 20
21 130 85 172 4709.57 21
22 185 105 172 4372.44 22

kg/ha Rank
11 125 70 172 9026.69 1
5 150 90 173 8410.59 2
14 140 75 172 7810.92 3
12 140 70 168 7634.11 4
9 180 85 172 7443.36 5
17 135 80 171 7309.39 6
4 130 70 173 7175.77 7
3 125 70 175 6607.84 8
1 160 85 170 6440.63 9
19 135 65 172 6280.37 10
2 130 70 169 6116.39 11
13 180 85 170 6038.83 12
18 110 65 176 5997.95 13
22 130 173 173 5866.13 14
7 145 65 170 5805.42 15
10 150 75 171 5662.48 16
16 125 75 174 5647.66 17
15 145 75 175 5547.74 18
6 155 90 171 5484.76 19
21 120 65 165 5064.07 20
20 115 60 172 4708.75 21
8 130 65 170 4436.62 22
18

kg/ha Rank
10 155 80 178 9152.42 1
2 145 75 174 8821.96 2
21 155 90 176 7766.05 3
1 150 80 176 7786.37 4
8 150 70 171 7653.23 5
22 155 65 178 7221.3 6
6 150 80 168 7195.25 7
9 145 80 170 7035.22 8
19 165 85 168 6733.8 9
12 180 95 178 6554.41 10
13 155 90 168 6392.71 11
18 145 75 170 6378.49 12
14 145 75 167 6066.91 13
11 145 55 170 5867.09 14
17 145 75 170 5774.94 15
3 125 60 176 5753.43 16
20 140 65 167 5609.29 17
15 140 65 167 5294.49 18
5 145 75 170 5267.36 19
16 130 70 169 5252.66 20
7 155 85 167 3283.5 21
4 135 60 166 2189.51 22

kg/ha Rank
12 160 80 176 9722.38 1
10 140 85 178 8620.00 2
19 165 80 176 7425.91 3
18 170 85 174 7401.05 4
21 155 70 180 7278.79 5
16 155 70 174 7231.34 6
20 145 75 175 7167.28 7
8 145 65 176 6784.24 8
9 140 60 175 6770.50 9
14 145 70 173 6397.13 10
17 150 70 176 6265.55 11
2 155 75 174 6242.24 12
11 155 85 174 6212.36 13
22 160 100 181 6103.60 14
4 165 80 173 5665.20 15
1 130 65 172 5557.30 16
5 135 75 173 5507.47 17
15 155 75 177 5192.90 18
7 145 70 171 5133.15 19
3 140 50 177 4719.03 20
6 145 75 174 3769.49 21
13 160 90 175 2467.85 22
19

kg/ha Rank
1 185 110 175 9275.28 1
3 170 95 171 8263.23 2
4 170 80 181 7864.65 3
2 180 110 178 7592.16 4
12 170 100 176 7482.08 5
13 145 80 170 7401.89 6
17 165 90 174 7320.26 7
10 150 90 175 7039.17 8
19 150 90 171 6991.00 9
5 150 95 171 6973.67 10
9 165 85 170 6968.29 11
6 150 95 169 6925.27 12
15 145 85 180 6881.88 13
7 185 95 175 6864.31 14
8 155 90 168 6744.68 15
14 185 120 181 6690.42 16
22 170 85 173 6425.40 17
20 140 70 175 6317.66 18
11 165 95 170 5707.65 19
18 125 85 172 5324.37 20
16 160 85 177 5252.66 21
21 145 85 172 5134.82 22

kg/ha Rank
10 135 70 181 9321.53 1
22 155 85 171 8614.90 2
8 170 75 176 7296.12 3
9 150 75 180 7266.53 4
3 140 80 176 6240.69 5
6 160 85 179 5990.66 6
21 135 80 173 5770.64 7
11 150 90 183 5352.82 8
20 125 85 173 5285.17 9
18 130 65 178 5199.12 10
16 150 80 173 5166.61 11
4 160 110 173 5104.10 12
7 155 90 175 5097.05 13
2 135 80 183 4643.74 14
5 130 80 182 4638.72 15
14 170 85 177 4617.44 16
12 130 70 178 4338.38 17
17 140 75 171 4190.18 18
1 170 100 177 3909.08 19
13 150 65 170 3588.54 20
19 130 65 171 3328.96 21
15 140 70 172 3115.74 22
20
2. Research Activities for 2010/2011 Cropping Season

The research activities under this are new activities approved at national level for the period of
2003-2005 E.C.
Project description
The 2010/2011 research activities include those projects that were designed and approved at
national level for 2003-2005 E.C. These include germplasm enhancement, variety development
and maize technology promotion. The activities for 2010/2011 are as follows.
Germplasm enhancement
Success in maize improvement depends on the existence of genetic variability among the
breeding materials for any trait of interest. Variability can be obtained from exotic and local
sources as well as by the use of cross breeding and selection techniques. Experimental varieties
(hybrids and OPVs) and inbred lines are generated in the breeding nurseries. Thus, availability of
diverse germplasm is essential in a breeding program to guarantee the development of superior
cultivars.
Maize germplasm enhancement can be accomplished by introducing different materials from

various parts of the world, particularly from CIMMYT (the International Maize and Wheat
Improvement Center) and IITA (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture), and evaluating
for local adaptation. Introduced germplasm can either be used for direct release after testing for
local adaptation or selected materials can be used for broadening germplasm base through inbred
line development, formation of OPVs and different types of hybrids under local conditions
(IAR/CIMMYT, 1993; EARO/CIMMYT, 2002). Therefore, the objective of this component is to
enhance the availability of elite germplasm for the development of improved varieties.
Inbred line development and maintenance

Specific objective: To maintain maize inbred lines.
Methodology: One hundred forty five fixed lines will be planted in a single row of 5 meters
long. Controlled hand pollination technique will be employed to self/sib-pollination and
fertilization in each line. The objective is to maintain lines and also for micro-increase of seed of
each population for research purposes. All other cultural practices including pest control will be
conducted as required and in time.
Location: Alemaya University campus
Duration: 2003/2005
Persons responsible: Habtamu Zeleke
Population development and maintenance

The specific objective: To produce and maintain maize breeding populations.
Methodology: Twenty five populations will be planted in a plot size of 15 rows each with row
length of 10 m with the objective to maintain the populations and also for the micro-increase of
seed of each population for research purposes. In each population, hand pollination will be done
using bulk pollen from a minimum of 200 plants in the plot.
Location: Alemaya University campus
Duration: 2010/2011
Persons responsible: Habtamu Zeleke
21
Hybridization
Specific objective: To develop F1 SC experimental yellow hybrid.

Methodology: Twenty five yellow lines will be planted in a plot size of 5 rows each with row
length of 5.1 m with the objective to generate SC hybrid combinations for testing during the
subsequent cropping season (2011/2012). Fertilizers will be applied as per the recommendation
and all other cultural practices will be followed as required.
Location: Haramaya University campus
Duration: 2010/2011
Persons responsible: Habtamu Zeleke and Million Fikresilassie
Experimental variety evaluation
National Variety Trials
Specific objective: To evaluated different both normal and quality protein maize genotypes for
yield and other agronomic traits under eastern Ethiopia condition.
Methodology: Different genotypes both non-QPM and QPM types will be planted with 2-3
replications. The experimental design is alpha lattice (0, 1) or RCB design depending on the
number of entries included in the trials. The plot consist of 1 - 2 rows of 5.1m long with 30 cm
and 75 cm intra and inter row spacing, respectively. During planting, two seeds were planted per
hill and thinned to one plant per hill to obtain plant stand of 44, 444 plants per hectare. Data will
be collected as per national format prepared for this purpose. DAP and Urea at rates of 100, 150
kg/ha, respectively will be applied. All other cultural practices will be followed as required. The
followings are activities to be undertaken.
Activity 1: National Variety Trial-9A

Activity 2 : National Variety Trial -8A
Activity 3: Quality protein National Variety Trial-8B
Activity 4: Preliminary Variety Trial -2B
Activity 5: Preliminary Variety Trial -2D
Activity 6: Preliminary Variety Trial -2E
Activity 7: Preliminary Variety Trial -2F
Activity 8: Preliminary Variety Trial -2J
Activity 9: Preliminary Variety Trial -2K
Activity 10: Preliminary Variety Trial -2N
Activity 11: Preliminary Variety Trial -2S
Activity 12: PVT Preliminary Variety Trial Y(HP)-2T
Activity 13: Preliminary Variety Trial -2U
Activity 14: Preliminary Variety Trial -2V
Activity 15: Quality Protein Maize Variety Trial-8A

Duration: 2010/2011
22
Maize verification trial
Two popcorn varieties will be planted in 10m X 10 m (100 m2) plot each one at on station (HU
campus) and two on-farms at Adele and Tiji-gabissa. There are 13 rows of 10 m long spaced 0.75
m apart. The objective is to present the candidate varieties to National Variety Release
Committee for possible release at national level in 2011/12.
Variety trials from Ambo highland maize project
Specific objective: To evaluated different highland maize genotypes of both normal and quality
protein maize types for yield and other agronomic traits under eastern Ethiopia condition.
Methodology: Different genotypes both non-QPM and QPM types have been planted with 2-3
replications. The experimental design is alpha lattice (0, 1) or RCB design depending on the
number of entries included in the trials. Each plot has been planted in a single 1 row of 5.1m long
with 25 cm and 75 cm intra and inter row spacing, respectively. During planting two seeds were
planted per hill and thinned to one plant per hill to obtain 53, 333 plant stand per hectare. Data
will be collected as per national format prepared for this purpose. DAP and Urea at rates of 100
and 150 kg/ha, respectively will be applied. All other cultural practices will be followed as
required. The activities to be accomplished are as follows.
Activity 1: AMB11PVT1-7
Activity 7: AMB11QPVT10-7
Activity 11: AMB11PVT-17-7
Duration: 2010/2011
Acknowledgement: I would like to thank all the technical and field assistants, particularly Mr.
Degefa Gebissa, who helped in the management of trials and data summarization. The
contribution of all who directly and indirectly facilitated the implementation of the project
activities is highly acknowledged.
23
3. References
Central Statistical Agency (CSA), 2010. Statistical bulletin for Crop Production forecast sample
survey. CSA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
FAOSTAT, 2010. [homepage] [online] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Available from: http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/default.aspx. Date accessed: June 6, 2011.
Ortiz R, Taba S, Chávez Tovar VH, Mezzalama M, Xu Y, Yan J, Crouch, JH., 2010. Conserving
and Enhancing Maize Genetic Resources as Global Public Goods– A Perspective from
CIMMYT. Crop Science 50:13–28.
Rosegrant MW, Msangi S, Ringler C, Sulser TB, Zhu T, Cline SA., 2008. International Model for
Policy Analysis of Agricultural Commodities and Trade (IMPACT): Model Description.
International Food Policy Research Institute: Washington, D.C. Available from:
www.ifpri.org/themes/impact/impactwater.pdf. Date accessed: June 6, 2011.
24
II. Sorghum Research and Extension Activities

By
Ketema Belete (PhD)
Introduction
The sorghum research program at Haramaya University (HU) used to have the mandate of
developing sorghum technologies (varieties, agronomic and crop protection practices, etc.) for
eastern Ethiopia until recently when the Mechara and Fedis Agriculture Research Centers of
ORARI (Oromia Agriculture Research Institute) and Jijiga Agriculture Research Center of
SoPARI (Somali Agro-pastoral and Agriculture Research Institute) were started. In the 1970s, the
Ethiopian Sorghum Improvement Project (ESIP) was started at this institution and coordinated
the National Sorghum Research until 1983 when EIAR (Ethiopia Institute of Agricultural
Research) the then IAR (Institute of Agricultural Research) started to coordinate the national
sorghum research. Currently, the sorghum research at HU is conducting breeding and agronomy
activities at the main campus, i.e., at Haramaya, and other sites such as Babile, Fedis and on
farmers’ field. The activities include the national sorghum breeding trials sent by the National
Sorghum Coordinating Center and those initiated by HU staff.
Thus, completed, ongoing and new activities initiated by HU staff in breeding and agronomy and
summery of the breeding trials from Melkassa, the National Sorghum Coordinating Center will be
reported as follows.
Completed projects
Title of the project: Breeding
Activity 1: Sorghum observation nursery for highland areas of Eastern Ethiopia (set 1)
Activity 2: Sorghum observation nursery for highland and lowland areas of eastern
Ethiopia (set 2)
Initiator/s of the project: Activity 1 and 2: Ketema Belete

Program: Sorghum Research Program
Persons responsible: Activity 1 and 2: Ketema Belete and Temam Hussien
Institution/s responsible: Haramaya Unversity
Locations of experiment: Activity 1: Haramaya; Activity 2: Haramaya and Babile.
Year of start, duration of the experiment: 2010, one year
General and Specific objectives
General objective:
Activity 1 & 2: To identify best performing sorghum variety (ies) .
Specific objective
Activity 1: To identify best performing sorghum variety (ies) for highland areas of eastern
Ethiopia.
Activity2: To identify best performing sorghum variety (ies) for highland and intermediate
elevation areas of eastern Ethiopia.
25
Highlights of result
Observation nursery is the first stage of breeding in pure line selection method of breeding. In this
nursery, genotypes are evaluated visually and selection is based in terms of general agronomic
performance as compared to the standard check and or local sorghum. During the 2010 crop
season, there were 2 activities in the observation nursery. In Activity 1, 100 sorghum genotypes
that were collected from farmers’ field at the end of 2009 crop season were evaluated at
Haramaya. Forty of the 100 were advanced to PVT (preliminary variety trial) on campus. In
Activity 2, 92 genotypes that were in observation nursery during the previous years but needed
more evaluation were used. Sixty and 32 of the 92 were evaluated at Haramaya and Babile,
respectively. The selected genotypes (30 at Haramaya and 15 at Babile) will be advanced to PVT
at the respective sites (Table 21 and 22). The 30 and 15 were selected based on their visual
agronomic performance.
Table 21. Thirty selected entries from 2010 observation nursery at Haramaya
No. Entry Name No. Entry Name

1 Muyra red 4 16 Wegerie red 3
2 Muyra white 2 17 Wegerie red 4
5 Muyra white 5 20 Wegerie white 1
6 Muyra yellow 1 21 Wegerie white 2
7 Sheferie red 1 22 Wegerie white 3
8 Sheferie red 2 23 Wegerie yellow 1
14 Wegerie red 1 29 Wegerie yellow 7
15 Wegerie red 2 30 Wegerie yellow 8
Table 22. Fifteen Selection from 2010 observation nursery at Babile

No. Entry Name No. Entry Name
1 2009 collection # 3 9 2009 collection # 24
8 2009 collection # 21
26
1. Ongoing projects

Activity 1: Regional Varity Trial for Highland areas of eastern Ethiopia
Initiator/s of the project: Activity 1: Ketema Belete and Temam Hussien
Persons responsible: Activity 1: Ketema Belete and Temam Hussien
Institution/s responsible: Haramaya University
Locations of experiment: Activity 1: Haramaya, Adele and Kersa
Year of start, duration of the experiment: 2010, two years.
Status of the project

Activity 1: Six experimental varieties were compared with 3 standard checks and 1 local check. The
varieties that gave high yield were Fendish-5, Wegerie-3 and the standard check Chelenko at
Haramaya, Adele and Kersa, respectively. The 2 varieties (Fendish-5, Wegerie-3) were experimental,
i.e. they have not been released for production. The 3 location mean showed that variety Fendish-5
gave the highest yield and the 2nd variety was Wegerie-3. Data for days to 50% flowering and grain
yield is given on Table 23.
Table 23. Days to 50% flowering and Grain yield (kg/ha) of six and four experimental and
check sorghum varieties, respectively evaluated at Adele, Haramaya and Kersa in 2010 crop
season.
Days to 50% flowering Grain yield (kg/ha)
Sr No Variety Adele Haramaya Kersa Adele Haramaya Kersa
1 Muyra-3 146 144 136 4417 4118 6579
2 Muyra-4 144 151 141 5475 4545 7012
3 Wegere-3 148 149 140 3928 4717 6453
4 Wegere-5 144 141 140 4667 4771 6667
5 Fendisha-2 149 155 144 4320 4133 6354
6 Fendisha-5 153 144 145 3547 4149 4995
7 Muyra-1 148 149 144 4541 4495 6355
8 Muyra-2 150 146 142 4133 5111 5218
9 Chelenko 146 147 139 4259 3535 3536
10 Local check 142 149 144 3760 5158 5581
LSD 11 14 9 1533 ns ns
Title of the project: Agronomy

Activity 1: On-farm evaluation of some dryland legumes in intercropping with
Sorghum varieties for management of striga (Striga spp) in eastern Hararghe.
Persons responsible: Activity 1: Ketema Belete and Tamado Tana
Initiator/s of the project: Activity 1: Ketema Belete and Tamado Tana
Locations of experiment: Activity 1: Fedis
Year of start, duration of the experiment: 2008, two years
Status of the project
This activity was initiated with the major objective of developing agronomic practices that serve to
manage Striga spp. The activity focuses specifically on identifying the best dryland legume that is
more effective to control Striga spp. The activity was initiated with the justification that even though
use of Striga resistant variety is the best method of Striga management, evaluation of crop
management option has advantage for farmers that wish to use the local varieties that are not resistant
to Striga.
27
Three dryland legumes (common bean, cowpea and groundnut) were intercropped with two sorghum
varieties (Striga resistant variety ‘Gubiye’ and a susceptible variety ‘Teshale’). The local susceptible
sorghum variety was not used because of its late maturity as compared to “Gubiye’. The legumes were
intercropped between rows of sorghum and between sorghum plants within row to identify a best
method of intercropping.
Eventhough this experiment was started three years ago, different incidences have delayed the
completion of the study; for example, the weather was not conducive for the appearance/infestation of
Striga in 2009.
2. New projects
Activity 1. Preliminary Variety Trial (PVT ) for highland areas of eastern
Ethiopia
Activity 2. Preliminary Variety Trial (PVT ) for intermediate elevation areas of
eastern Ethiopia
Initiator/s of the project: Activity 1, and 2: Ketema Belete
Persons responsible: Activity 1 and 2: Ketema Belete, Temam Hussine. & Jemal Abdulahi
Year of start and duration of the experiment: Activity 1 & 2: 2011, one year
Justification/Background information
Activity 1 & 2:
Both of these activities are Preliminary Variety Trials (PVTs ). PVT is the first replicated yield trial to
evaluate the performance of sorghum germplasm (variety) that has been collected from farmers’ field.
The germplasm that will be in PVT are selection from observation nursery. The best varieties
(germplasms) obtained from PVT will be advanced to regional variety trial (RVT). The experimental
entries in PVT and RVT are compared with standard check (the latest released variety) and local
check (a farmer’s variety in the area where the trial is conducted). The best RVT as compared to
standard checks will be released for production by the national variety release committee (NVRC).
General and Specific objectives:

General objective:
Activity 1 & 2: To identify high yielding and best performing sorghum variety
(ies) .
Specific objective:
Activity 1: To identify high yielding and best performing sorghum variety (ies)
for highland areas of eastern Ethiopia.
Activity 2: To identify high yielding and best performing sorghum variety (ies)
for intermediate elevation areas of eastern Ethiopia.
Planned activity (Give number for the activities (if any) example Activity 1 nursery;
Activity 2 preliminary variety trial …)
Methodology
Activity 1:
There will be two sets. Each set consist of 20 experimental sorghum entries and 4 checks (Muyra-1,
Muyra-2, Chelenko and local sorghum). RCBD with 3 replications will be used for each set. Each plot
will consist of 3 rows of 5m length. The spacing will be 75 cm by 20 cm. Recommended agronomic
practice will be used. The middle row will be harvested for yield; the outer rows will serve as border
rows. The following data will be collected at appropriate time. The data will be: days to 50%
28
flowering, days to 100% flowering, plant height, disease and insect incidence/damage, bird damage
and overall plant aspect, plot yield, grain yield and 100 kernel weights.
Activity 2:
There will be one set consisting of 15 experimental sorghum entries and 2 checks (IS 9392 and local
sorghum). RCBD with 3 replications will be used for each set. Each plot will consist of 3 rows of 5m
length. The spacing will be 75 cm by 20 cm. Recommended agronomic practice will be used. The
middle row will be harvested for yield; the outer rows will serve as border rows. The following data
will be collected at appropriate time. The data will be: days to 50% flowering, days to 100%
flowering, plant height, disease and insect incidence/damage, bird damage and overall plant aspect,
plot yield, grain yield and 100 kernel weights.
Duration and Locations: Activity 1: One year, Haramaya University main campus,
Activity 2: One year, Babile.
Output of activity 1: Sorghum varieties to be advanced to regional variety trial (RVT).
Output of activity 2: Same as Activity 1.
Budget (total):
Activity 1: 20, 000 Birr
Activity 2: 15, 000 Birr
Budget source: Haramaya University
Title of the project: AGRONOMY

Activity 1: Effects of Intra and inter row spacing on sorghum production
Initiator/s of the project
Activity 1: Ketema Belete and Nigusie Dechassa.
Persons responsible: Ketema B, Nigusie D. Temam H. & Jemal A.
Year of start and duration of the experiment: Activity 1: 2011, two years.
Intra and inter row spacing is one of the important agronomic practices for crop production. The
current recommended spacing of 75x20cm is based on experiments of tall and late maturing sorghum
varieties. The appropriateness of this spacing for short and early maturing sorghum varieties has not
been investigated. Thus, the current study is aimed at comparing the current recommended spacing
with others using short and early maturing sorghum varieties.
General objective: To study the effect of different pant spacing for sorghum.
Specific objective:
To determine the best intra and inter row spacing for short sorghum variety production
Methodology
The treatment will consist of inter and intra spacing those are lower than the recommended (i.e.75 x
20cm).There will be six inter- and intra- row spacing. These will be: 75x20cm, 75x15cm, 65x20cm,
65x15cm, 55x20 cm, 55x15cm, 45x20cm and 45x15cm. The gross plot size will be 4 mx3, 4 mx3.25
m, 4 mx3.3 m and 4 mx3.15 m for 75, 65, 55 and 45 cm inter row spacing, respectively. The number
of rows will be 4, 5, 6 and 7 for 75, 65, 55 and 45 cm inter row spacing, respectively. The net plot size
for all treatment will be 3m by 1.50m. At each location, appropriate released sorghum varieties will be
used. The varieties will be ‘Teshale’ at Babile and Striga resistant variety Gubiye at Fedis. The
following data will be collected at appropriate time. The data will be: number of plants after thining
and at harvest, days to 50% flowering, days to 100% flowering, plant height, disease and insect
incidence/damage, bird damage and overall plant aspect, plot yield, grain yield and 100 kernel weight.
29
Duration: Two years, at Babile and Fedis

Output: Appropriate inter and intra row spacing for early maturing and short sorghum varieties will
be identified.
Budget (total): 30, 000 Birr per year
Budget source: Government
30
III. Common bean research Activities
By
Bulti Tesso
Introduction
Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is the second most important pulse crop, next to faba bean
(Vicia faba L.) in terms of the number of producers, crop area, and total production at the national
level as well as in Hararghe (CSA, 2010). In Hararghe, common bean is widely grown under
intercropping systems with sorghum and maize in diverse agro-ecologies, usually two seasons in a
year (i.e., belg and meher). The major bean market classes preferred in the region are small reds, large
seeded beans, red mottled beans, and white pea (navy) beans, where the latter is produced mainly for
market.
Despite the importance of the crop in Eastern Ethiopia, its productivity is constrained by different
biotic and abiotic factors. Moisture stress in the lowlands such as Babile and Fedis, and high severity
of different fungal and bacterial diseases in the high potential areas such as Haramaya, Hirna and
similar environments, are the major factors that limit bean production in the region. In addition to
these, low soil fertility and bean stem maggot (BSM) are important constraints in most bean
producing areas of Hararghe, though the per cent yield loss due to these factors in this region is not
yet quantified.
The bean research program of Haramaya University has been conducting regional variety trials on the
major common bean market classes for the last two decades to develop high yielding, disease
resistant, and moisture stress tolerant varieties that also meet the consumers’ and market criteria. The
variety trials have been conducted at four research stations (Haramaya, Hirna, Babile, and Fedis) that
represent the different bean production environments of east and west Hararghe zones. In addition,
pre-verification and verification trials have been occasionally conducted on 10 farmers’ fields in
representative districts of the two zones.
In variety development efforts made hitherto, six common bean varieties that fulfil the
aforementioned breeding objectives have been released between 1997 and 2008 (Table 24). As a
continuation of this variety development process, four regional variety trials (RVTs) were completed
in 2010, and eight new activities were proposed (6 in breeding, 1 in pathology, and 1 in
socioeconomics) during the same year.
The completed RVTs have been conducted at the four research stations mentioned above for the last
three years (2008, 2009, & 2010). The rainfall during the 2009 cropping season was not sufficient for
the crop, due to which low yields were obtained during this season. Nevertheless, six new candidate
varieties, two from each of three different market classes have been identified and recommended
based on their average performance across years and locations. These candidate varieties will be
verified on farmers’ fields at several representative localities in 2011 main season. Application has
been submitted to the national variety release committee to evaluate these candidate varieties on
verification plots by September/October 2011 in accordance with the national variety release
procedure.
In addition to the regional variety trials, up to eight collaborative national variety trials on common
bean and cowpea have been conducted every year at Haramaya and Babile.
This report presents the results of the four completed regional variety trials and brief descriptions of
the new activities proposed for 2011. Moreover, the major constraints facing the common bean
research program are outlined in the report.
31
Table 24: Common bean varieties released by Haramaya University for Eastern Ethiopia (1997
to 2008)
Variety Name Growth Habit Seed color/size Days to Yield (t/ha) Year
maturity On-station On-farm Released
Gofta (G-2816) Type IIIa Cream/large 90-100 2.5-4.0 1.5-3.0 1997
Ayenew (GLP x 92) Type IIIa Pinto/large 90-100 2.0-3.5 1.5-2.8 1997
Haramaya (G-843) Type IIIb Cream/medium 100-110 2.5-4.0 1.8-2.7 2006
Chercher (STTT-165-96)* Type IIa Pea bean (navy) 95-105 2.2-3.0 1.5-2.5 2006
Dursitu (G-811) Type IIa Red/small 95-105 2.4-4.0 1.8-3.0 2008
Kufanziq (MX-8754-9M) Type IIIa Pinto/large 80-90 2.5-4.0 1.8-3.2 2008
*= Chercher was tested for canning quality in Italy (Rome) before it was released. Its protein content is around
25-26% based on laboratory analysis conducted at ILRI (Bulti, 2007).
1. Completed Projects in 2010

Four sets of regional variety trials, representing four different market classes (Large Seeded Bean,
Red Mottled Bean, Large Red Bean, and White Pea Bean), were conducted at four locations
(Haramaya, Hirna, Babile, and Fedis) for three years (2008- 2010) in eastern Ethiopia. All of these
were completed in 2010 and the results of each trial are separately presented in the following sections.
Large Seeded Bean Regional Variety Trial (RVT)
Materials and methods
Ten large seeded bean genotypes advanced from pre-regional variety trial in 2007 have been tested
along with two standard checks [(Kufanziq (Mx-8754-9M) and Goberasha (ICA-15541)] at four
locations for three years (2008 to 2010). Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three
replications was used at each location. The plots consisted of four rows of four meter length with
inter- and intra-row spacing of 40 cm and 10 cm, respectively. The experimental fields were managed
as per the standard field plot techniques, and standard agronomic data and disease severity scores
were recorded at each location in each year.
At pod filling and physiological maturity stages, field performance evaluations have been conducted
to assess the actual field performances of the genotypes, in addition to yield data. Yield data were
adjusted to 10%1 seed moisture basis in order to offset weight variations due to varying moisture
contents. The data were analyzed with Proc GLM procedure of the SAS 9.0 software. Combined
analyses of variance over environments were performed after homogeneity of error variances were
confirmed using Bartlett’s test.
Results and recommendations
Combined analysis of variance over locations and years has shown very highly significant (P<0.001)
differences among genotypes for grain yield, days to flowering, days to maturity, pods per plant, seeds
per pod, plant height and 100 seed weight. The location and year main effects as well as their
interaction were also very highly significant for most of these traits. The location x variety effect was
very highly significant, except for pods per plant and seeds per pod. Similarly, the year x variety
effect was highly significant, except for seeds per pod and grain yield (Table 27).
1
Readers are advised to use 14% as standard seed moisture for common bean. In this report, 10% is used
merely due to known reasons related to the sensitivity of the particular moisture meter used for measuring
the seed moisture contents of the genotypes reported herein.
32
Yield performances of the genotypes across environments

The mean yield at each location (averaged over years), and the overall mean across years and
locations is shown in Table 26 below. The genotypes GLP-2, RXR-10, K-132, and AFR-708 have
shown better performances than Goberasha, the standard check, based on yield data. However,
Kufanziq had out yielded these genotypes due to its early maturity, which favoured it in seasons of
moisture stress, and due to its Type III growth habit. Usually, genotypes with Type III growth habit
have higher yield potential than those with Type I or Type II growth habits. However, GLP-2, RXR-
10, K-132, and AFR-708 have additional advantages over Kufanziq in terms of seed size, seed
colour, and preferred growth habit. The mean values of some agronomic characters across all
environments and their standard errors are given in Table 25.
Field performance evaluation

Based on the field evaluation, RXR-10 was the best in overall performance under all environments,
followed by K-132 and AFR-708. These three genotypes were almost free from all of the major bean
diseases common in Hararghe- CBB, rust, anthracnose, ALS, halo blight, web blight, and root rots;
even at Hirna site, which is highly conducive for disease development. Hirna may be considered as a
‘natural screening laboratory for bean diseases’ based on close observations made over the last few
years. On the other end of the field performance ranking were the genotypes NGuankuNGuanku,
Ranjonomby, Selina-97, Kirundo and Jesca, which were found to be highly susceptible to CBB at
all locations in all years (data not shown).
Despite its disease susceptibility, the genotype Ranjonomby, originally bred in Madagascar, has
large round white seeds of the Alubia market class, which has high export value. Therefore, this
genotype can be used in crossing programs to improve the seed sizes of the released small white pea
bean (navy beans) varieties, including Chercher, Awash Melka, and Chore so as to enhance their
market value.
Similarly, despite their disease susceptibility, Jesca and Kirundo have performed well at some
locations in some years, especially at the moisture stressed site (Babile). Therefore, these genotypes
may be included in the short rainy season (Belg) trial due to their early maturity (especially Jesca),
and due to the relatively low disease pressure in the belg season (March to May/June).
Recommendation
After final screening for cooking quality related traits in the laboratory, RXR-10 and K-132 were
recommended for verification and release in 2011/12. The variety release application has been
submitted to the national variety release committee (NVRC) in May 2011. Therefore, these candidate
varieties will be planted on verification plots in 2011 and will be evaluated by the technical team to be
assigned by the NVRC by September/October, 2011.
In addition, GLP-2, which was released by Melkassa research centre in the same year (2010), can be
used in Hararghe due to its good yield potentials, large seed size and attractive seed colour. However,
it may not perform well in areas where Angular Leaf Spot (ALS) is prevalent due its susceptibility to
this disease.
33
Table 25: Mean and standard error (se) values of agronomic traits in large seeded bean
variety trial (LSBRVT) over four locations and three years (2008- 2010) in eastern
Ethiopia
Days to Plant Height Days to Pods/plant Seeds/pod HSW (g)

Flowering (cm) Maturity
Variety Mean* se Mean* se Mean* se Mean* se Mean* se Mean* se
GLP-2 47.09 0.70 34.97 1.73 91.03 1.27 7.89 0.70 3.47 0.13 44.64 0.64
PPVA 8 46.97 0.62 31.13 1.49 90.33 1.30 8.19 0.67 3.94 0.14 37.14 0.87
NGuankuNguanku 43.82 0.58 28.38 1.37 86.31 1.09 6.31 0.47 3.53 0.14 41.31 0.93
K-132 45.76 0.55 32.45 1.72 91.03 1.23 7.47 0.56 3.64 0.13 40.19 0.79
Ranjonomby 43.12 0.62 31.48 1.61 86.56 1.17 6.89 0.48 3.78 0.15 36.71 1.02
Jesca 42.48 0.64 30.58 1.41 85.33 1.11 6.22 0.37 3.72 0.15 41.72 1.28
AFR-708 45.48 0.56 33.98 1.71 89.75 1.37 7.89 0.53 3.50 0.12 41.53 1.01
Selina-97 45.12 0.64 31.61 1.30 89.36 1.29 6.75 0.39 4.06 0.13 38.67 0.96
RXR-10 47.33 0.69 34.52 1.58 90.75 1.31 7.42 0.62 4.06 0.16 41.65 0.97
Kirundo 44.00 0.59 33.42 1.51 88.36 1.28 7.33 0.53 3.72 0.15 37.58 1.15
Kufanziq (check) 42.06 0.76 29.88 1.47 85.31 1.11 9.14 0.73 4.11 0.15 34.44 0.52
Goberasha (check) 46.00 0.54 32.07 1.55 91.17 1.29 7.19 0.54 3.94 0.15 41.39 0.71
* mean values are based on 36 observations (4 locations x 3 years x 3 replications)
** se = standard error of the mean
Table 26: Mean grain yield (kg/ha) of genotypes in large seeded bean variety trial at
four locations over three years (2008 – 2010)
Genotype Mean yield (kg/ha)* Overall mean**

Haramaya Hirna Babile Fedis
GLP-2 2281.67 2349.66 667.18 1035.34 1583.5b
PPVA 8 1725.47 1587.21 603.51 848.36 1191.1cde
NGuankuNguanku 1170.32 958.01 656.60 679.55 866.1e
K-132 2171.70 2471.99 576.08 1058.73 1569.6b
Ranjonomby 1681.39 1243.71 558.24 664.05 1036.8de
Jesca 1909.98 1499.48 1146.39 735.27 1322.8bcd
AFR-708 2221.81 2098.58 593.09 1039.34 1488.2bc
Selina-97 1776.15 1432.38 578.03 859.23 1161.4cde
RXR-10 2152.64 2474.34 626.68 985.33 1559.7b
Kirundo 1766.51 1089.07 486.52 743.55 1021.4de
Kufanziq (check) 2792.41 3071.01 752.59 1413.50 2007.4a
Goberasha (check) 2172.37 1954.31 616.11 1096.99 1459.9bc
*Average of 3 years x 3 replications= 9 observations per mean; **Average of 4 locations x 3 years x 3
replications =36 observations per mean; Means followed by the same letter in a column are not significantly
different from each other
34
Red Mottled Bean Regional Variety Trial (RMBRVT)
Ten red mottled bean genotypes advanced from pre-regional variety trial in 2007 have been evaluated
along with two standard checks (RAB- 484 and Goberasha) at each of the four locations for three
years (2008- 2010) in RCBD with three replications. Field plot techniques, field performance
evaluation, data collection, and data analyses were conducted in the same way as described above.
Combined analyses over locations and years have shown very highly significant differences among
genotypes for grain yield, days to flowering, days to maturity, pods per plant, seeds per pod, plant
height and 100 seed weight. The main effects of location and year as well as their interaction were
also very highly significant (P<0.001) for all measured traits.
35
Table 27: F-values and their significance levels for the various sources of variations in combined ANOVA of large seeded bean regional
variety trial (LSBRVT)
Source of variation df a F- Values

Days to Days to Plant height Pods/plant Seeds/pod 100 SW Yield
flowering maturity
Location 3 526.52*** 651.63** 529.34*** 249.54*** 50.89*** 164.98*** 224.16***
Rep (Location) 8 2.30* 21.24*** 1.92ns 0.36ns 1.32ns 1.29ns 1.11ns
Year 2 369.87*** 711.19*** 8.11*** 129.62*** 52.86*** 122.76*** 22.78***
Year x Location 6 (5/4) 83.25*** 154.16*** 86.05*** 17.22*** 16.24*** 24.27*** 15.18***
Year x Rep (Location) 16 (14/12) 7.26*** 22.52**** 0.78ns 1.16ns 1.05ns 1.92* 1.60ns
Variety 11 69.74*** 47.00*** 9.52*** 8.24*** 4.58*** 44.28*** 17.22***
Location x Variety 33 8.60*** 9.69*** 2.03*** 2.42ns 0.86ns 4.90*** 3.74***
Year x Variety 22 4.54*** 2.69*** 2.98** 0.92*** 0.69ns 8.85*** 1.55ns
Year x Location x Variety 66 (55/44) 3.01*** 3.11*** 2.28*** 1.57** 0.87ns 4.02*** 1.37*
Error 264 (242/220)
CV (%) 2.40 2.27 10.70 23.28 16.96 5.69 33.90
*, **, ***= significant at 5%, 1%, and 0.1% levels, respectively; ns = non-significant (P>0.05)
a
Degrees of freedom values shown in parentheses correspond to days to flowering and plant height, and hundred seed weight, respectively, due to missing data.
36
The location x variety interaction effect was also very highly significant for all of the measured traits
except for seeds per pod. Similarly, the year x variety effect was very highly significant for days to
flowering, days to maturity and plant height (P<0.001); highly significant for grain yield (P<0.01);
significant for pods per plant (P<0.05), and non-significant for seeds per pod. The location x year x
variety three - way interaction was very highly significant for most of the traits except for the number
of seeds per pod (Table 30).
Yield performances of genotypes across environments

The genotypes ECAB 0081, CAL-143, ECAB 0060, ECAB 0023, ECAB 0019, and ECAB 0043
had better average yield performances than the standard checks as well as the other genotypes in the
trial (Table 29). Although ECAB 0081 and CAL-143 were the best yielders, they were not
recommended for release due to their high susceptibility to common bacterial blight (CBB). The rest
of the above genotypes were resistant to all bean diseases prevalent in the region, in addition to their
good yield potentials. Moreover, they possess the preferred seed characteristics in the region (large,
red mottled type). The mean values of important agronomic traits of all genotypes in the trial are
shown in Table 28.
Field performances evaluation

The actual field performances of the genotypes tested in this trial were evaluated at all locations in all
years based on plant vigour and uniformity, pod load, growth habit and pod clearance, disease
incidence and severity, and maturity duration. Accordingly, the genotypes ECAB 0060, ECAB 0023,
ECAB 0019, and ECAB 0043 have consistently shown excellent field performances at all locations in
all seasons. Besides, these genotypes are resistant to the major bean diseases prevalent in the region,
have up-right growth habit with high pod clearance, and possess the highly preferred red mottled seed
types, all of which are the main farmers’ variety selection criteria in Hararghe.
The genotype ECAB 0097 also has many desirable traits such as early maturity, stand uniformity, up-
right growth habit, pod clearance, disease resistance, and stay green characteristics. Based on field
performance, CAL-143 and ECAB 0081 were also good in other aspects, but they suffer from high
CBB severity, due to which they were not selected. These genotypes may however be used in crossing
programs to improve their disease resistance in the future. Generally, clear positive associations were
observed between yield data and the actual field performances of the genotypes. As shown in Table
29, the genotypes that have shown excellent field performances were also better than the checks in
grain yield.
Recommendation
After final discrimination by cooking quality test in the laboratory, ECAB - 0023 and ECAB - 0060
were recommended for verification, and the variety release application has been submitted to the
National Variety Release Committee (NVRC). Thus, these genotypes will be verified on farmers’
field in the 2011 planting season, and would be evaluated by the technical team of the national variety
release committee in September/October 2011.
ECAB 0043, ECAB 0019, and ECAB 0047 were included in the newly proposed red mottled bean
regional variety trial for further testing, due to their many desirable characteristics.
37
Table 28: Mean and standard error (se) values of agronomic traits in red mottled bean
variety trial (RMBRVT) over four locations and three years (2008- 2010) in eastern
Ethiopia
Genotype Days to Days to Plant height Pods/plant Seeds/pod 100 SW (g)

Flowering Maturity (cm)
Mean* se Mean* se Mean* se Mean* se Mean* se Mean* se
ECAB 0063 48.12 0.61 92.42 1.51 36.97 1.58 7.19 0.55 3.67 0.13 44.15 1.01
ECAB 0023 47.52 0.73 90.19 1.44 35.28 1.94 9.64 0.84 3.61 0.14 32.37 0.67
ECAB 0060 46.79 0.47 92.00 1.40 36.01 2.02 7.64 0.56 3.61 0.13 47.83 1.12
ECAB 0047 48.18 0.72 91.39 1.49 37.25 1.76 8.78 0.77 3.44 0.13 34.90 0.66
ECAB 0097 47.70 0.67 90.19 1.41 34.83 1.72 7.56 0.52 4.11 0.16 34.61 1.02
CAL-143 46.42 0.57 91.61 1.43 35.53 1.92 7.83 0.49 3.64 0.13 47.91 1.10
ECAB 0043 48.79 0.63 92.25 1.59 34.87 1.60 7.58 0.56 3.94 0.13 42.85 1.05
ECAB 0019 48.18 0.58 89.78 1.46 32.04 1.72 7.39 0.54 4.25 0.15 36.02 1.28
ECAB 0081 47.18 0.55 91.50 1.43 36.42 2.09 7.58 0.57 3.61 0.13 51.15 1.12
SIMAMA 46.48 0.56 89.14 1.28 34.63 1.55 7.06 0.43 3.83 0.17 39.34 0.91
RAB 484 43.27 0.55 86.75 1.33 30.58 1.71 7.67 0.49 3.92 0.14 44.77 1.19
(check)
Goberasha 47.09 0.48 91.36 1.40 32.27 1.40 7.14 0.43 3.94 0.13 42.02 0.89
(check)
*= the mean values are based on 36 observations (4 locations x 3 years x 3 replications)
Table 29: Mean grain yield (kg/ha) of genotypes in red mottled bean regional variety
trial at four locations over three years (2008 – 2010)
Genotype Mean yield (kg/ha)* Overall mean**

Haramaya Hirna Babile Fedis
ECAB 0063 2335.54 2212.10 683.81 747.82 1494.82edf
ECAB 0023 2503.00 2758.94 737.44 764.01 1690.85abcd
ECAB 0060 2680.82 2712.88 738.29 860.86 1748.21abc
ECAB 0047 2234.71 2027.13 623.81 733.55 1404.80ef
ECAB 0097 2577.47 2329.89 613.66 821.66 1585.67abcde
CAL-143 2715.02 2681.70 785.77 980.28 1790.69ab
ECAB 0043 2862.67 2279.47 674.43 664.51 1620.27abcde
ECAB 0019 2566.88 2658.80 567.25 782.37 1643.83abcde
ECAB 0081 2708.05 2985.50 751.53 854.37 1824.86a
SIMAMA 2097.14 1583.59 575.20 771.37 1256.82f
RAB 484 (check) 2504.44 2097.33 676.17 985.21 1565.79abcde
Goberasha (check) 2312.00 2199.94 653.71 837.71 1500.84cdef
*Average of 3 years x 3 replications (9 observations per mean), **Average of four locations x 3 years x 3
replications =36 observations per mean; means followed by the same letter are not significantly different from
each other.
38
Large Red Seeded Bean Regional Variety Trial
Ten red seeded bean genotypes advanced from pre-regional variety trial in 2007 have been evaluated
along with two standard checks (RAB-484 and red kidney) at the four locations for three years (2008-
2010) in RCBD with three replications. Field plot techniques, field performance evaluation, data
collection, and data analyses were conducted in the same way as described above (Large Seeded
Bean Regional Variety Trial)
Combined analysis of variance over locations and years has shown very highly significant differences
among genotypes for all of the measured traits. Similarly, the effects of location, year, and location x
year interaction were very highly significant (P<0.001) for all traits. However, the year x variety
interaction effect was not significant for grain yield and number of pods per plant, indicating that the
differences among the genotypes were consistent across years for these traits (Table 33).

The average grain yields of the genotypes across years and locations are given in Table 32. In across
12 environments overall yield performance, ECAB 0203 has out yielded both standard checks,
followed by ECAB 0247. The standard check (RAB-484) was found to be highly susceptible to
diseases, especially CBB at all locations. Its relative yield advantage over some of the genotypes in
the trial is due to its earliness, which gave it an advantage at the moisture stressed sites (Babile and
Fedis). The mean values of important agronomic characters across all environments and their standard
errors are given in Table 31.

The actual field performances of the genotypes tested in this trial were evaluated at all locations in all
years based on plant vigour and uniformity, pod load, growth habit and pod clearance, disease
incidence and severity, and maturity. The genotypes ECAB 0267, ECAB 0203, ECAB 0242, ECAB
0247, and ECAB 0236 were proved to be the best genotypes in their performances at all locations in
all years. They were free of diseases and have the preferred growth habit in the region (up right), and
high pod clearance. Moreover, ECAB 0267 and ECAB 0242 have very attractive seed colour, size
and shape- ECAB 0242 has large red kidney shaped seeds; ECAB 0267 has large red, plump long
seeds. Varieties with such seed characteristics are not released in Ethiopia hitherto, and these are
expected to be much preferred by producers and consumers.
39
Table 30: F-values and their significance levels for the various sources of variations in combined ANOVA of red mottled bean regional
variety trial (RMBRVT)

flowering maturity
Location 3 443.37*** 2147.09 *** 850.92*** 466.31*** 48.59*** 383.63*** 987.16***
Rep(Location) 8 2.34* 3.01** 1.77ns 2.45** 0.90ns 1.22ns 3.10**
Year 2 156.82*** 370.80*** 74.38*** 154.35*** 60.76*** 143.61*** 101.22***
Year x Location 6 (5/4) 114.64*** 1048.56*** 42.47*** 33.83*** 11.21*** 73.32*** 43.11***
Year*Rep(Location) 16 (14/12) 3.34*** 5.06*** 1.99* 1.94* 1.51ns 0.46ns 1.06ns
Variety 11 38.25*** 43.48*** 12.37*** 9.86*** 5.33*** 275.09*** 9.20***
Location x Variety 33 8.01*** 5.67*** 3.86*** 3.43*** 0.82ns 5.86*** 3.16***
Year x Variety 22 3.25*** 3.73*** 2.97*** 1.68* 0.93ns 12.75*** 2.19**
Year x Location x Variety 66 (55/44) 2.48*** 3.31*** 1.80** 1.69** 1.24ns 6.43*** 1.56**
Error 264 (242/220)
CV (%) 2.68 1.62 9.78 18.26 16.40 4.52 20.40
*, **, ***= significant at 5%, 1%, and 0.1% levels, respectively
a
40
Despite its good field performance and disease resistance, ECAB 0236 was not selected due to its
light (pale) red seed colour, which is not preferred in the region. However, such genotypes, which
lack only one or a few desirable traits while possessing other important traits, should be incorporated
in the crossing program in order to improve their weaknesses and to utilize their desirable traits for
improving other varieties lacking those traits.
Recommendation
Based on field performance evaluation, average grain yield across environments, and cooking quality
test, ECAB 0203 and ECAB 0247 were recommended for verification. The variety release
application has been submitted to the National Variety Release Committee (NVRC). Thus, these
genotypes will be verified on farmers’ fields in the 2011 planting season, and would be evaluated by
the technical team of the national variety release committee in September/October 2011.
Table 31: Mean and standard error (se) values of agronomic traits in large red bean
regional variety trial (LRBRVT) over four locations and three years (2008- 2010) in
eastern Ethiopia
Genotype Days to Days to Plant height Pods/plant Seeds/pod 100 SW (g) Yield (kg/ha)
flowering maturity (cm)
Mean Se Mean Se Mean Se (±) Me Se Me Se Mean Se Mean Se
(±) (±) an (±) an (±) (±) (±)
ECAB 0287 47.03 0.55 90.83 1.40 33.69 1.80 7.39 0.59 3.58 0.13 38.87 1.11 1403 140.8
ECAB 0203 47.94 0.76 91.42 1.34 35.82 1.50 7.86 0.57 3.78 0.13 45.05 1.14 1644 169.0
ECAB 0242 47.61 0.60 90.72 1.49 32.90 1.40 7.03 0.54 4.31 0.16 39.40 0.87 1547 161.1
ECAB 0247 47.64 0.67 90.83 1.43 34.16 1.48 7.31 0.52 4.19 0.12 40.23 0.91 1611 137.5
ECAB 0281 46.85 0.68 90.11 1.33 33.48 1.63 7.22 0.53 3.97 0.15 37.27 0.85 1334 128.0
ECAB 0236 48.67 0.60 91.42 1.44 32.86 1.50 6.92 0.53 4.11 0.16 39.84 0.96 1480 138.0
ECAB 0267 49.67 0.78 92.69 1.53 35.02 1.67 6.69 0.48 3.83 0.14 41.86 1.00 1442 147.8
ECAB 0217 47.85 0.64 91.25 1.50 31.87 1.38 7.25 0.59 4.03 0.18 37.80 0.85 1370 167.2
ECAB 0204 47.85 0.60 91.14 1.45 31.96 1.45 7.50 0.56 4.25 0.19 39.66 1.16 1382 149.7
ECAB 0279 47.67 0.57 91.61 1.51 33.66 1.56 7.39 0.56 4.31 0.12 37.57 1.02 1525 161.8
RAB 484 43.91 0.71 88.58 1.39 30.78 1.64 7.36 0.52 3.86 0.16 44.86 1.24 1580 153.0
(check)
Red Kidney 43.52 0.65 88.17 1.29 29.37 1.20 5.14 0.32 3.83 0.15 44.06 1.15 1088 104.2
(check)
*= the mean values are based on 36 observations (4 locations x 3 years x 3 replications)
41
Table 32: Mean grain yield (kg/ha) of genotypes in large red bean regional variety trial at four locations over three years (2008 – 2010)
Genotype Haramaya Hirna Babile Fedis Overall

mean**
2008 2009 2010 2008 2009 2010 2008 2009 2010 2008 2009 2010
ECAB 0287 2248.12 1317.67 1959.82 3052.18 2045.56 1784.77 568.58 535.61 629.39 1391.05 435.04 874.01 1403.48ab
ECAB 0203 2643.01 1329.47 2745.33 2943.19 2887.10 2465.52 566.08 674.54 775.60 1229.58 606.03 856.90 1643.53a
ECAB 0242 2509.89 2697.05 2409.90 2866.61 2265.09 1824.83 420.19 577.86 618.36 1212.82 422.85 738.04 1546.96ab
ECAB 0247 2377.15 2053.30 2538.07 2653.91 2422.29 1896.33 647.80 714.00 987.87 1574.31 552.61 911.49 1610.76ab
ECAB 0281 1850.99 1611.25 2434.10 2029.20 2116.97 1778.69 390.86 630.16 705.50 1186.21 500.89 771.68 1333.88bc
ECAB 0236 2119.39 2243.21 2516.77 2443.69 2036.83 1853.28 433.91 546.59 1032.21 1112.54 620.14 806.44 1480.42ab
ECAB 0267 1409.61 1977.15 2857.63 2700.08 2282.57 1754.44 657.48 527.47 461.28 933.60 863.90 877.25 1441.87ab
ECAB 0217 1981.86 1584.00 3405.47 2797.21 1661.57 1567.61 568.44 615.06 435.79 1012.52 348.06 459.00 1369.72ab
ECAB 0204 2554.26 2296.48 2352.67 1919.53 1870.93 1833.55 531.26 508.65 479.19 1261.50 377.49 597.07 1381.88ab
ECAB 0279 2599.47 2075.30 2976.76 2621.21 2189.33 1870.63 502.99 625.93 482.12 1072.76 511.20 770.05 1524.81ab
RAB 484 2266.41 2124.99 2501.86 2627.57 2102.02 2338.59 566.25 658.26 723.32 1483.35 560.14 1004.22 1579.75ab
(check)
Red Kidney 1658.43 1411.11 2368.49 1301.76 1556.03 1259.93 486.73 533.74 376.96 980.49 638.66 481.59 1087.83c
(check)
*= means at each location are averages of three replications
**= the overall means are averages of 36 observations; means followed by the same letter in a column are not significantly different from each other.
42
Table 33: F-values and their significance levels for the various sources of variations of combined ANOVA of large red bean regional
variety trial (LRBRVT)

flowering maturity
Location 3 444.87*** 3045.71*** 781.16*** 334.77*** 76.63*** 219.88*** 627.21***
Rep (Location) 8 43.31*** 11.60*** 2.11* 1.67ns 1.55ns 1.87ns 1.64ns
Year 2 118.00*** 893.36*** 6.22** 121.91*** 46.73*** 164.78*** 28.58***
Year x Location 6 38.18*** 411.12*** 104.61*** 28.52*** 23.20*** 82.30*** 23.05***
Year x Rep (Location) 16 48.21*** 10.38*** 2.61*** 0.49ns 0.69ns 0.47ns 1.29ns
Variety 11 67.64*** 27.23*** 11.52*** 7.39*** 5.41*** 43.66*** 6.54***
Location x Variety 33 8.48*** 8.35*** 2.74*** 1.48* 1.69* 4.92*** 2.46***
Year x Variety 22 4.18*** 7.18*** 1.65* 1.32ns 1.78* 5.17*** 1.43ns
Year x Location x Variety 66 2.52*** 3.18*** 1.58** 1.42* 1.46* 4.18*** 1.54**
Error 264/242/220
CV (%) 2.30 1.60 9.56 1.50 15.02 5.36 24.58
*, **, ***= significant at 5%, 1%, and 0.1% levels, respectively; ns= non-significant (P>0.05)
a
43
White Pea Bean Regional Variety Trial
Ten white pea bean genotypes advanced from pre-regional variety trial in 2007 have been evaluated
along with three standard checks [Chore (STTT-165-92, Chercher (STTT-165-96), and Awash Melka
(PAN-182)] at the four locations for three years (2008- 2010) in RCBD with three replications. Field
plot techniques, field performance evaluation, data collection, and data analyses were conducted in
the same way as described above (Large Seeded Bean Regional Variety Trial).
The variety main effect was very highly significant (P<0.001) for days to flowering, days to maturity,
plant height, and 100 seed weight, while it was highly significant (P<0.01) for grain yield. The effects
of location, year, and location x year interactions were very highly significant for most of the
measured traits. However, the location x variety interaction effect was very highly significant only for
days to maturity, plant height and 100 seed weight, and significant (P<0.05) for grain yield. Year x
variety interaction was very highly significant only for days to maturity and 100 seed weight, while it
was highly significant for grain yield (Table 36).

The average grain yields of the genotypes at each location, and the overall mean across 12
environments (4 locations x 3 years) are given in Table 35. The genotypes HRS 545, ECAB 0607
and ECAB 0621 were the best yielders compared with the other test genotypes, though statistically at
par with the checks. The mean values of some agronomic characters across all environments and their
standard errors are given in Table 34.

The actual field performances of the genotypes tested in this trial were evaluated at all
locations in all years based on plant vigor and uniformity, pod load, growth habit and pod
clearance, disease resistance, and maturity duration. Accordingly, the genotypes ECAB 0621,
ECAB 0607, and HRS 545 have consistently shown excellent field performance at all
locations in all seasons, and were free of the major bean diseases in the region. Noticeably,
the same genotypes selected based on actual field performance were found to be the best in
yield as compared with the other test genotypes.
Recommendation
HRS 545, ECAB 0621, and ECAB 0607 are recommended for verification based on field
performance and average grain yield. Moreover, HRS 545 has been reported to have high iron
content, based on the study conducted in Kenya, and this is one of the major breeding objectives
currently. However, as white pea beans are primarily produced for export, their canning quality
should be tested before application for release is to be submitted.
44
Table 34: Mean and standard error (se) values of agronomic traits in white pea bean regional variety trial (WPBRVT) over four
locations and three years (2008- 2010) in eastern Ethiopia
Genotype Days to flowering Days to Plant height Pods/plant Seeds/pod 100 SW (g) Yield (kg/ha)
maturity (cm)
Mean Se (±) Mean Se (±) Mean Se (±) Mean Se (±) Mean Se (±) Mean Se (±) Mean Se (±)
ECAB 0632 51.77 1.09 99.18 1.74 34.73 1.52 11.25 1.10 4.78 0.19 21.18 0.79 1576 163.2
ECAB 0609 52.13 1.17 98.61 1.65 34.61 1.70 10.39 0.98 6.22 1.38 21.27 0.88 1519 151.2
ECAB 0626 51.70 1.14 99.27 1.56 35.36 1.55 11.67 1.05 4.94 0.19 22.08 0.66 1579 158.7
ECAB 0619 52.53 1.15 98.82 1.49 35.05 1.67 10.31 0.88 4.67 0.20 20.24 0.83 1460 143.4
ECAB 0621 52.20 1.16 98.21 1.55 35.90 2.08 10.92 0.97 4.75 0.18 21.45 0.85 1614 165.4
ECAB 0627 52.60 1.17 98.12 1.48 35.08 1.64 10.53 1.03 4.75 0.21 21.60 0.82 1594 157.3
ECAB 0607 52.30 1.16 98.42 1.60 36.92 2.05 11.50 1.08 4.58 0.19 21.67 0.94 1616 166.5
ECAB 0618 52.27 1.17 98.61 1.79 33.74 1.51 10.44 0.90 4.72 0.20 20.03 0.57 1434 156.8
ECAB 0624 52.90 1.13 99.52 1.68 35.96 1.86 9.92 0.79 4.83 0.18 20.33 0.77 1524 155.8
HRS 545 52.77 1.18 98.12 1.79 32.95 1.94 10.25 0.91 4.86 0.21 20.05 0.82 1708 182.5
Chore (STTT-165-92) (check) 53.13 1.25 100.3 1.76 35.65 2.13 10.83 0.88 4.64 0.17 20.62 0.85 1690 165.2
Awash Melka (PAN-182) 52.33 1.09 98.67 1.74 32.90 1.88 10.58 0.94 4.92 0.19 19.20 0.62 1717 195.4
(check)
Chercher (STTT-165-96) 54.61 1.29 102.3 1.90 40.41 2.66 11.00 1.16 4.17 0.25 21.03 0.45 1660 223.2
(check)
Se = standard error of the mean
45
Table 35: Mean grain yield (kg/ha) of genotypes in white pea bean regional variety trial at four locations over three years (2008 – 2010)
Genotype Haramaya Hirna Babile Fedis Overall

mean**
2008 2009 2010 2008 2009 2010 2008 2009 2010 2008 2009 2010
ECAB 0632 2720.58 1906.28 2002.85 3646.29 2193.08 1680.04 671.40 698.55 608.09 1013.50 1070.53 699.93 1576
ECAB 0609 2391.31 2187.14 2235.68 2865.84 2298.16 1726.25 644.14 713.18 549.16 1259.34 612.61 749.70 1519
ECAB 0626 3141.33 2154.48 1998.97 2958.11 2431.18 1492.80 650.32 742.94 559.78 1062.81 908.27 849.30 1579
ECAB 0619 1469.04 2326.46 2122.82 2836.98 2655.09 1395.57 702.44 756.71 382.95 852.88 1120.31 898.59 1460
ECAB 0621 2793.81 2362.09 2170.29 3449.25 2310.92 1533.18 617.64 759.45 311.27 973.39 955.02 1136.20 1614
ECAB 0627 2539.96 1991.36 2254.29 3484.18 2071.15 1848.20 699.55 730.36 619.23 1290.94 781.22 820.00 1594
ECAB 607 3035.93 2050.39 1609.36 3522.55 2240.28 2107.86 706.62 712.63 538.51 1088.82 774.41 1008.10 1616
ECAB 0618 1541.28 2508.65 1728.63 3010.96 2752.57 1296.06 640.07 729.44 438.03 961.73 595.75 1007.30 1434
ECAB 0624 2510.68 2396.40 1912.35 2721.76 2626.32 1454.29 617.90 693.09 290.66 1272.02 903.65 885.53 1524
HRS 545 1837.06 3201.53 2024.98 3054.57 3188.18 2185.11 582.37 589.78 446.60 1087.23 628.83 1669.38 1708
Chore (STTT-165-92) (check) 3135.28 2754.66 2288.66 2924.58 2186.88 2053.49 588.21 625.08 370.34 1278.00 961.55 1116.37 1690
Awash Melka (PAN-182) 2478.62 2220.35 2468.11 3371.03 2947.94 2313.12 679.04 575.69 487.89 1293.14 624.16 1150.26 1717
(check)
Chercher (STTT-165-96 - 3491.47 2287.75 - 2449.71 2115.99 - 433.01 470.08 - 572.01 1461.10 1660
(check)
*= means at each location are averages of three replications
**= the overall means are averages of 36 observations; means followed by the same letter are not significantly different from each other.
46
Table 36: F-values and their significance levels for the various sources of variations in combined ANOVA of white pea bean regional variety
trial (WPBRVT)

flowering maturity
Location 3 1795.11*** 1486.61*** 818.11*** 508.67*** 7.57*** 175.88*** 649.66***
Rep (Location) 8 1.51ns 7.31*** 1.11ns 1.67ns 0.87ns 1.10ns 2.84**
Year 2 901.51*** 307.28*** 53.87*** 90.30*** 3.90* 655.75*** 63.47***
Year x Location 6/4/5 467.42*** 310.65*** 16.34*** 29.18*** 7.76*** 216.63*** 23.53***
Year*Rep (Location) 16/12/14 3.01*** 2.73*** 2.88*** 2.66*** 1.09ns 1.18ns 3.65***
Variety 12 3.60*** 2.82*** 5.28*** 1.67ns 1.17ns 12.81*** 2.26**
Location x Variety 36/35/ 1.28ns 2.44*** 3.05*** 1.75** 1.08ns 2.48*** 1.46*
Year x Variety 23 1.36ns 2.93*** 1.42ns 1.22ns 1.08ns 3.15*** 2.26**
Year x Location x Variety 69/46/57/58 1.89*** 1.71** 1.41* 1.16ns 1.00ns 2.87*** 1.62**
Error 256/232/258/280/234
CV (%) 2.23 2.20 10.49 23.20 49.25 6.59 24.89
*=significant (P<0.05), **= highly significant (P<0.01), ***= very highly significant (P<0.001)
a
Degrees of freedom values shown in parentheses are due to missing data for days to flowering and plant height/ and for hundred seed weight
47
2. New Projects Proposed for 2011

On-farm and on-station verification of candidate common bean varieties
Background
Six common bean varieties that have shown superior performance across 12 environments (3 years x 4
locations) as compared to the standard checks have been identified from three of the completed regional
variety trials, i.e. two candidate varieties from each of the three completed trials (Large Seeded Bean
Regional Variety Trial, Red mottled Bean regional Variety Trial, and Large Red Bean Regional
variety Trial). The identified candidate varieties were: RXR-10 & K-132 from large seeded bean;
ECAB 0023 & ECAB 0060 from the red mottled, and ECAB 0203 & ECAB 0247 from the large red
bean regional variety trial. These have been recommended for release for the major bean growing areas of
Hararghe. According to the National Variety Release policy of Ethiopia, these candidate varieties should
be planted on larger verification plots, both on the research stations at which the regional variety trials
were conducted and at a minimum of two on-farm sites around each research station for evaluation by the
technical committee to be assigned by the National Variety Release Committee.
Objectives
• To verify the performances observed in regional variety trials on farmers’ fields

• To obtain farmers’ assessment and perception about the candidate varieties
• To fulfill the standard formality for assessment by the national variety release committee so as to
get official approval of release and registration
The candidate varieties will be planted on 4 research stations (Haramaya, Hirna, Babile, and Fedis), and at
10 on-farm sites along with their respective standard checks in July 2011. Non-replicated plots of 10 m x
10 m will be used at each site. The cultural practices will be applied as per the standard procedures for
common bean, and data will be collected on grain yield and other agronomic traits as well as on disease
severity. Moreover, farmers’ perceptions and preferences will be assessed. The candidate varieties will be
evaluated by a technical committee to be sent by the national variety release committee in September or
October 2011.
Initiator: Bulti Tesso

Persons responsible: Bulti Tesso, Ibsa Aliyi, and Woinshet Feleke
Duration: one year (2011)
Expected Output: At least three new varieties will be released by April 2012
Budget (total): 100, 000 birr
Budget source: PABRA (Pan African Bean Research Alliance)
48
Speckled Bean Regional Variety Trial
Background
Speckled beans have large attractive seeds with white background and red or brown stripes (speckles) on
the testa. They are highly preferred for local consumption, in addition to their potential. However, no
variety of this market class has been released yet for Hararghe, and even at the national level, except one
variety that was introduced through technology shopping and registered for production. In 2010 cropping
season, nine genotypes of this market class with promising performances in agronomic traits and disease
resistance were selected from the national variety trials at Rare. These should be further evaluated in
multi- environment regional variety trial to identify high yielding and disease resistant speckled bean
varieties for the region.
Objective: To develop high yielding and disease resistant speckled bean varieties with acceptable
agronomic characters and culinary quality traits.
Nine genotypes will be planted along with the standard check (Cranscope) in RCBD with three
replications at four locations (Haramaya, Hirna, Babile, and Fedis) for two years (2011 & 2012
cropping seasons). Field plot techniques will be carried out as per the standard procedures. Data
will be collected on all pertinent agronomic traits, and actual field performance evaluation and
disease severity scoring will be conducted at each location every year.

Persons responsible: Bulti Tesso, Ibsa Aliyi and Woinshet Feleke
Duration: two years (2011-2013)
Expected Output: At least two candidate varieties will be identified for verification by 2013
Budget (total): 100, 000 Birr for two years
Budget source: PABRA (Pan African Bean research Alliance)
Red Mottled Bean Regional Variety Trial
Background
Red Mottled beans have large seeds with red background and white spots on the testa. They are highly
preferred for local consumption as well as for export to regional markets such as Kenya and Uganda.
However, no variety of this market class has been released yet for Hararghe. In 2010 cropping season,
five genotypes of this market class beans with promising performances in agronomic traits and disease
resistance were selected from the national variety trials at Rare. In addition, four genotypes with desirable
traits and promising performances were maintained from the completed trials for further testing. These
genotypes should be further evaluated in multi- environment regional variety trial to identify high
yielding and disease resistant red mottled bean varieties for the region.
Objective: To develop high yielding and disease resistant red mottled bean varieties with acceptable
49
Five genotypes selected in 2010 from the national variety trial and the four genotypes maintained from
the completed regional variety trials in 2010 will be planted along with the new standard check (ECAB
0056) in RCBD with three replications at four locations (Haramaya, Hirna, Babile, and Fedis) for two
years (2011 & 2012 cropping seasons). Field plot techniques will be carried out as per the standard
procedures, and data will be collected on all pertinent agronomic traits. Actual field performance
evaluation and disease severity scoring will be conducted at each location every year.

Large Red Seeded Bean Regional Variety Trial
Background
In 2010 cropping season, six large red seeded bean genotypes with promising performances in agronomic
traits and disease resistance were selected from the national variety trials at Rare. In addition, three
genotypes with desirable traits and promising performances were maintained from the completed trials for
further testing. These genotypes should be further evaluated in multi- environment regional variety trial to
identify high yielding and disease resistant large red seeded bean varieties for the region.
Objective: To develop high yielding and disease resistant large red seeded bean varieties with acceptable
Six genotypes selected in 2010 from the national variety trial and three genotypes maintained from the
completed regional variety trials in 2010 will be planted along with the standard check (Red Kidney) in
RCBD with three replications at four locations (Haramaya, Hirna, Babile, and Fedis) for two years (2011
& 2012 cropping seasons). Field plot techniques will be carried out as per the standard procedures. Data
will be collected on all pertinent agronomic traits, and actual field performance evaluation and disease
severity scoring will be conducted at each location every year.

50
Small Red Seeded Bean Regional Variety Trial
Background
In 2010 cropping season, 12 small red seeded bean genotypes with promising performances in agronomic
traits and disease resistance were selected from the national variety trials at Rare. These genotypes should
be further evaluated in multi-environment regional variety trial to identify high yielding and disease
resistant small red seeded bean varieties for the region.
Objective: To develop high yielding and disease resistant small red seeded bean varieties with acceptable
Twelve small red seeded bean genotypes selected in 2010 from the national variety trial will be planted
along with the standard check (Dursitu) in RCBD with three replications at four locations (Haramaya,
Hirna, Babile, and Fedis) for two years (2011 & 2012 cropping seasons). Field plot techniques will be
carried out as per the standard procedures. Data will be collected on all pertinent agronomic traits, and
actual field performance evaluation and disease severity scoring will be conducted at each location every
year.

Survey of Major Diseases and Insect Pests of Common Bean in Eastern Ethiopia
Background
Common bean production is constrained by a number of bacterial and fungal diseases as well as insect
pests. New races of the pathogens are expected to emerge over time, especially under the changing
climatic conditions. Monitoring the diversity of pathogen races prevailing in an area is important to
device appropriate breeding strategy for developing varieties with broad based resistance.
Objectives
• To know the major types of diseases and insect pests present in major bean growing areas of
eastern Ethiopia
• To analyze the racial diversity and ecological distribution of these pests in eastern Ethiopia
A field survey will be conducted in all bean growing districts of eastern Ethiopia. Infected plant and seed
samples will be collected for each disease. The samples will be taken to laboratory and isolation, culturing
51
and characterization will be done as per the standard procedures. Standard procedures as to be
recommended by the entomologists will be used for insect pest collection and characterization.

Persons responsible: Bulti Tesso, Prof Chemeda Fininsa, Dr. Amare Ayalew, Ibsa Aliyi Woinshet
Feleke, and Haimanot Bizuneh
Duration: one year (2011/12)
Expected Output: The type, ecological distribution in eastern Ethiopia, and racial composition of
important pathogens and insect pests of common bean will be known
Budget (total): 75, 000 Birr
A survey of Current Production Status of Common Bean in Eastern Ethiopia
Background
Common bean is the most widely grown among the lowland pulses in eastern Ethiopia. It is produced
from low to high altitude ranges in belg and main cropping season under diverse cropping systems,
mainly intercropping with maize and sorghum. However, current information on the acreage, total annual
production, seasonal distribution of production, and productivity levels of existing varieties under various
cropping systems is lacking. This information is important to update the research strategies to meet
current demands.
Objectives
To generate current information on acreage, total annual production, seasonal distribution of production,
and productivity levels of existing common bean varieties in eastern Ethiopia
Methodology
Secondary data on the parameters mentioned under the objectives will be collected from district offices of
the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural development in eastern and western Haraghe zones.
Initiator: Bulti Tesso and Temesgen Keno

Persons responsible: Bulti Tesso, Temesgen Keno and other technical staff
Duration: one year (2011/12)
Expected Output: Current information on area, production and productivity of common bean in
Hararghe will be generated
Budget (total): 60, 000 Birr
Capacity Building for Molecular Marker Assisted Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.):
Breeding for Diseases Resistance at Haramaya University, Ethiopia
Justification
Common bean is the most important of all low land pulses in Ethiopia. It occupies a total crop area of
267,069 hectares, with total annual production of 329,775.5 tons in 2009 (MoARD, 2009). However, its
productivity is low due to severe biotic and abiotic (moisture stress and low soil fertility) stresses.
52
Diseases are the most important biotic constraints that cause significant yield losses, of which common
bacterial blight (CBB), anthracnose, rust, and angular leaf spot (ALS) are the major ones prevalent in
bean production environments of Ethiopia.
Bean breeding has been underway for the last four decades in Ethiopia, solely through the conventional
methods. About 38 varieties have been released nationally, but only few of these are currently in
production. Indeed, some of the adapted commercial varieties are almost out of production at present due
to high level of susceptibility to CBB, anthracnose and rust. Generally, frequent breakdown of resistance
in released varieties and variable reaction of the same genotype under different agro ecologies is
becoming evident, which suggests the presence of different races, and /or the emergence of new races of
the pathogen as well as the absence of broad-based resistance in the varieties.
Kelly and Miklas (1999) have emphasised the importance of indirect selection for race-specific genes
using molecular markers, and have presented a detailed account of the application of marker assisted
selection (MAS) for developing durable resistance through gene pyramiding and combining QTL of
major effects. Pyramiding of race-specific genes can be realized with the help of certain physiological
races of the pathogen and with DNA markers linked to the respective specific genes for resistance
(Genchev et al., 2010). For this purpose, a list of available RAPD markers linked to major disease
resistance genes in common bean have been presented by Kelly and Miklas (1999), who have also
indicated the advantage of RAPD-derived SCAR markers in overcoming the limitations of RAPD
markers (i.e., non-reproducibility between laboratories) for MAS. These markers (RAPD and SCAR)
have been successfully used in breeding for resistance to CBB (Kelly and Miklas, 1999; Fourie, 2004.),
anthracnose (Vallejo and Kelly, 2009; Genchev et al., 2010), macrophomina root rot (Hernández-
Delgado1 et al., 2009), as well as for rust.
However, bean breeders in Ethiopia could not benefit from these modern technologies due to lack of
laboratory facilities and trained staff in this area. The main focus of this project is, therefore to launch an
efficient marker assisted common bean breeding program through capacity building in terms of staff
training, provision of laboratory facilities (molecular biology and pathology), and screen house to
facilitate phenotyping activities under controlled condition.
Objectives of the project
The overall objective of the project is to launch a molecular marker assisted efficient bean breeding
program in Ethiopia, through laboratory capacity building and training of local scientists. The specific
objectives are:
• To furnish one molecular biology and one pathology laboratory with equipment and kits required
to apply MAS for breeding common bean for disease resistance.
• To construct one screen house for facilitating screening activities under controlled environment.
• To train one local bean breeder at PhD level in the area of molecular plant breeding/MAS, and
two local staffs at MSc level (1 in plant breeding and 1 in plant pathology).
• To develop at least three high yielding and adapted common bean varieties that are resistant to
CBB and Anthracnose through marker assisted selection.
• To generate basic information on the genetic profiles of some advanced and adapted common
bean genotypes with respect to disease resistant genes, and
• To characterize and document the extent of diversity in physiological races of anthracnose and
common bacterial blight in Ethiopia.
53
Brief outline of the project
Breeding for diseases resistance using MAS will be the primary focus of this project. Common bacterial
blight (CBB) and anthracnose will be emphasized due to their major importance in Ethiopia. The main
scientific activities to be implemented and procedures to be followed to realize the project’s objectives are
briefly outlined as follows.
1. Identification of the adapted cultivars that are to be improved for resistance to CBB and
anthracnose
2. Identification and assembling of resistance gene sources (germplasm) representing both Andean
and Middle American gene pools- consideration of gene pool is important due to gene pool
association of some resistance genes and the gene pool specificity of some pathogen races (Kelly
and Miklas, 1999, Miklas et al., 2006).
3. Exploring the genotypic profiles of resistant gene sources (using SCAR or RAPD markers linked
to known resistance genes) to know how many, and which specific resistance genes/QTL are
present and/or absent in each genotype (gene source). Campa et al. (2009) have reported the
presence of 13 anthracnose resistance genes (Co-1 to Co-13) in common bean. Moreover,
Genchev et al. (2010) have reported that the three specific gene loci (Co-1, Co-2 and Co-4)
provide protection of common bean against all races of Colletotrichum lindemuthianum identified
worldwide. Singh (1999), citing from various sources, has reported the quantitative and
qualitative inheritance patterns of CBB resistance, which involves one or more genes with major
effects and five to eight genes or QTL with small effects. Hence, knowing which of these genes
are present in the proposed population is important to make planned crosses with predictable
results.
4. Assaying the genetic profiles of susceptible adapted cultivars (using SCAR or RAPD markers
linked to known resistance genes) to know which specific resistance genes are lacking in the
cultivars. This would be useful for objectively selecting appropriate parents that carry those
specific genes; and to determine the type of crosses to be made in order to combine the desired
resistance genes in a single plant.
5. Characterization of pathogen race diversity will be conducted by surveying, sample collection,
isolation and culturing. All bean production environments of Ethiopia will be considered for this
purpose. Breeding for disease resistance requires a thorough knowledge of the genetic sources of
resistance, racial composition of the pathogens, and the genetic basis of host-pathogen interaction
(Chahal and Gosal, 2002). The presence of 78 races of anthracnose (Colletotrichum
lindemuthianum) worldwide has been reported (Genchev et al., 2010). Similarly, several isolates
of the two strains of CBB, caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. Phaseoli (Xap and Xapf
strains) have been reported in different sources. However, no detailed information is available in
Ethiopia. Generating this information is important for planning future gene pyramiding priorities.
6. Investigation of resistance gene x pathogen race (isolate) interaction will be done. This requires
preparation of pure cultures of the isolates, systematic inoculation to plants carrying known
specific genes, creation of artificial epiphytotics, and scoring of the reactions. This would be
important for effectively deploying resistance gene combinations for durable resistance against
the prevailing virulent races.
7. Using the information generated from 1 – 6 above, carefully selected crosses will be made
(details are given under full description of the project below).
8. F1 will be grown, 2- 3 or more back crosses will be made, and subsequent generations will be
grown with intermittent inoculation and screening using standard procedures.
9. Marker assisted selection (MAS) will be applied to identify and select plants carrying the desired
complement of parental genes for crossing to adapted susceptible cultivars, for backcrossing, and
for final confirmation.
54
Finally, lines with confirmed multiple-race resistance will be evaluated in multi-location trials for all
economic traits, after which seeds will be multiplied and disseminated to farmers.
Full description of the project
Traits to be emphasized
Common Bacterial Blight (CBB) and anthracnose will be emphasized due to their major importance in
Ethiopia. Though MAS is going to be used for CBB and anthracnose, simultaneous improvement for rust
resistance could be achieved since the proposed resistant parents for CBB and anthracnose are also
resistant to rust.
Populations to be used
Cultivars to be improved for CBB and anthracnose resistance
Four adapted varieties will be improved for CBB and anthracnose resistance. The varieties and
their descriptions are given in Table 37.
Table 37: Varieties to be involved in trials for improved resistance to anthracnose and CBB
Variety Seed type Growth habit Susceptible to
Red Wolaita small red IIb CBB, Anthracnose, rust
Ayenew (GLP x 92) pinto IIIa CBB
RAB-484 red kidney IIa CBB, Anthracnose
Mexican-142 navy IIIa CBB, Anthracnose , rust
In addition to the above, some susceptible genotypes in advanced yield trials, which otherwise possess
highly valued commercial seed types, may be included (e.g., Ranjonoby- a large white seeded cultivar
(alubia type).
Sources of resistance (for both CBB and anthracnose)

More than 20 genotypes that have consistently shown moderate to very high (i.e., no visible symptom) of
resistance to CBB, anthracnose, rust, ALS and other diseases under different environments (locations and
years) are available in our bean breeding program. Six of these are released varieties while the rest are in
the advanced multi-location yield trials of different market classes. All were originally introduced either
as germplasm nurseries from CIAT, or from regional breeding programs in Kenya or Tanzania through
the East and Central African Bean Research Network (ECABREN).
However, there is no information on the specific resistance genes or QTLs present in these genotypes. But
this information is important to (1) select the best combinations of parents that could provide as many
resistance genes as possible, (2) for predicting the probability of the desired genotype at each generation,
thus to raise the minimum required population to maximize that chance, and (3) to make well planned
crosses by avoiding unnecessary crosses. That is, if single crosses can combine all the required resistance
genes, there would be no need for double crosses. This would reduce the cost and the time required to
achieve the required objectives.
Therefore, our first job will be to characterize the proposed parental populations using molecular marker
analysis. SCAR and/or RAPD markers (or any other best markers as to be recommended by Prof Paul
Gepts, University of California, Davis), linked to known resistance genes/QTL for anthracnose and
CBB resistance will be used. The adapted susceptible varieties will also be included in molecular marker
analysis to know the specific resistance genes/QTL lacking in each. Then, the smallest possible number of
genotypes that together capture all of the resistance genes/QTLs identified in the analysed population will
55
be selected as gene sources. This will be separately considered for CBB and anthracnose resistance. When
two or more genotypes with the same resistance gene combinations are observed, those that are more
similar to the cultivars to be improved with respect to other traits will be selected. The locally available
potential gene sources are listed below.
Table 38: locally available potential gene sources for the study of varietal resistance to
anthracnose and CBB.
Genotype Seed type/ Market class Growth habit
ECAB-0267 Radical (oval/round red ) IIb
ECAB-0236 Light red kidney (LRK) IIb
ECAB-0242 Red kidney IIb
ECAB-0203 Red kidney IIb
ECAB-0047 Brown speckled IIIa
ECAB-0023 Red mottled IIb
ECAB-0043 Red mottled IIIa
ECAB-0019 Red mottled IIa
RXR-10 Red kidney IIb
K-132 Red speckled IIb
AFR-708 Red speckled IIb
SAB-681 Red speckled IIb
SAB-690 Red speckled IIb
SER-78 Small red II
SER- 194 Small red II
Dursitu (DOR-811) Small red IIb*
Haramaya (G-843) Medium, cream (mulatinho) IIIb*
Ibado (AFR-722) Red mottled IIa*
Kufanzik (Mx-8754-9M) Pinto IIIa*
Gofta (G-2816) Cream (mulatinho) IIIa*
Chercher (STTT-165-96) Small white (navy) IIa*
Dresden Small white**
Rooba-1 Cream (mulatinho) IIa*
Goberasha Red mottled IIa*
Ikinimba Small black IIb
*= released varieties ** reported to have two genes at the CO-2 locus for anthracnose resistance in
Bulgaria (Genchev et al., 2010)
In addition, known CBB and anthracnose resistance sources may be introduced if possible (e.g., XAN-
159 and GN # 1 Nebr. sel. 27 for CBB resistance, and AB 136 and G 2333 for anthracnose resistance).
Markers to be used
RAPD and RAPD-derived SCAR markers linked to known resistance genes and QTL (for CBB) are
available (Kelly and Miklas, 1999). The four SCAR markers (SU91, BC420, SAP6, and BC409) linked
to four different QTL for CBB resistance have been successfully used in South Africa (Fourie, 2004). For
anthracnose also, RAPD and SCAR markers linked to the resistance genes (CO-1, CO-2, CO-3, CO-42,
CO-5, and CO-6) are available (Kelly and Miklas, 1999). Genchev et al. (2010) have successfully used the
repulsion phase RAPD marker OF10530 (GGAAGCTTGG) for the presence of Co-1gene in selected lines;
and also two SCAR markers linked to Co-2 gene (SCAreoli and SQ4), and one SCAR marker (SY20830C)
linked to Co-4 gene. The sequences of the markers are available. However, whether we are going to use
these and/or other markers will be decided in consultation with Prof Paul Gepts, University of California
Davis.
56
Phenotyping methods to be used

After the genetic profiles of parental populations are known by molecular marker analysis and
the pathogen race diversity is characterized, systematically selected crosses will be made in a
stepwise manner. Assuming that different resistance genes are dispersed in different parents, the
following procedures are tentatively proposed. However, this may be subject to modification
depending up on how the resistance genes are distributed among the resistant genotypes, which
will be known after molecular marker analysis.
The proposed steps are described below

1. Two different crossing programs will be designed, one for CBB and the other for anthracnose.
However, if the selected parents are found to be the best for both traits, the following four steps
(steps 2- 5 below) will be common for both.
2. For each trait (i.e., CBB and anthracnose resistance), single crosses between pairs of selected
resistant parents will be made. The parents for each single cross will be selected based on the
marker information,
3. Double crosses will be made between the resulting F1s to assemble as many resistance genes as
possible. Segregation is expected in the resulting double cross progeny because each of the F1s of
the single crosses could be heterozygous for the loci for which the two parents differ from each
other. The progeny plants will be inoculated with mixed races of the pathogen under controlled
condition, and susceptible plants will be discarded.
4. Resistant plants from the above step will be subjected to molecular marker analysis to identify
plants that carry the full set of resistance genes contributed from all parents. Plants carrying all
of the n resistance genes/QTLs will be selected for crossing with the adapted but susceptible
varieties; where n is the total number of resistance genes/QTLs contributed from all parents
involved in the crosses.
5. From the remaining double cross progeny plants, those carrying resistance gene combinations
from two or more parents in addition to desirable combinations of other traits will be tagged
(based on marker data) and harvested separately. Then, their F2 and subsequent generations will
be handled as per the pedigree selection procedure. New high yielding lines may result from this
population due to transgresive segregations that combine the positive features of all the
contributing parents.
6. Resistant plants carrying n genes (selected in step 4 above) will be crossed to the adapted
susceptible cultivars that are to be improved for disease resistance. Segregation is expected in
the resulting F1 generation because, the susceptible adapted parent is assumed to be recessive at
many of the resistance gene loci (if resistance is dominant), while the donor parent is
heterozygous (derived from double cross). Again, inoculation with mixed races will be
conducted, and susceptible plants will be discarded immediately.
7. Resistant F1 plants that carry all resistance genes from the donor parent will be identified using
molecular markers
8. The selected F1 plants will be backcrossed to the susceptible recipient parent. The resulting BC1
plants will be evaluated as in step 6 above, and selected plants will be backcrossed to the
recurrent parent to produce BC2 plants, to recover about 75% of the genotype of the adapted
parent. However, the number of backcrosses may vary for the different adapted varieties
depending up on the magnitude of their differences from the donor parent.
9. BC2- F2 seeds will be space planted, inoculated with mixed races of the pathogen under field
condition, and evaluated for disease reaction. Plants combining high level of resistance with the
required traits of the adapted parent will be selected and harvested separately.
57
10. BC2-F3 progeny rows will be grown and evaluated under high disease pressure as in step 9 above,
and highly resistant superior plants resembling the adapted parent will be selected among and
within progenies.
11. BC2-F4 & BC2-F5 generations will be grown at hot spot site and screened under high disease
pressure, as in steps 9 and 10 above; selection will be conducted among and within families as
well as within progenies in each family.
12. At BC2-F6, after homozygousity is confirmed, resistant plants will be selected and subjected to
molecular marker analysis to confirm that the resistance genes have been effectively transferred.
Based on the marker data, plants carrying from 1 to n resistance genes will be identified and
tagged.
13. From each of the plants carrying from 1 to n genes, 4 to 5 plants will be grown in screen house in
pots filled with sterile soil. These will be inoculated with different races of the pathogens,
separately and in mixtures of all possible combinations. The susceptible and resistant parents
will be included as checks. Standard methods, procedures, and materials will be used for
inoculum preparation and inoculation. For CBB, inoculum will be applied to different plant
organs (leaves and pods separately since resistance is assumed to be differently controlled in
these organs) (Kelly and Miklas, 1999). Disease severity will be scored on 1 – 9 scale (1 =
completely resistant, no disease symptom and 9 = highly susceptible).
The following information could be generated from the above 13 step

The individual effect of each resistance gene against each pathogen race,
• The combined effects of two or more genes when present together (or epistatic interactions) could
be known. All possible combinations of the n genes could be investigated if all of the
theoretically possible genotypes carrying 1, 2, . . . n genes are included
• The virulence of each pathogen race, and resistance gene x race interaction could be understood
14. Finally, lines carrying the maximum number of resistance genes, possibly all of the n genes from
the original resistant parents, and resembling the adapted parent in other aspects will be bulked to
constitute the improved version of the adapted variety after their resistances to all races are
confirmed. This will be evaluated for at least one season at multiple locations along with the
resistant and susceptible parents as checks. After confirmation, seeds will be multiplied and
distributed to producers. In addition, if highly resistant and promising lines that do not resemble
the adapted parent are obtained, these will be included in yield trials as new breeding lines.
The same procedures will be followed for the improvement of the different adapted parents.
Remark: The procedure given above is only tentative. It is subject to modification based on the genetic
profiles of the donor parents. Moreover, techniques that may be specific for CBB or anthracnose will be
applied accordingly.
Summary of key phenotyping activities and methods
1. Segregation ratios of resistant to susceptible plants will be calculated from double crosses, F1,
BC1, BC2, and BC2-F2 generations- different levels of resistance may be observed depending on the
number of genes present in each genotype; especially for CBB resistance, which is quantitatively
controlled.
2. Inoculation with mixed races of the pathogen and screening will be applied at double cross
progeny, BC1, BC2, BC2-F2 to BC2-F5 generations.
3. Systematic inoculation to plants carrying known gene combinations, from 1 to n genes, with
individual races as well as with all possible combinations of races under controlled condition will
be made at BC2- F6 after molecular marker analysis.
58
4. At each generation (BC2-F2 to the final step), resistant and susceptible genotypes will be included
a s checks
5. All inoculation and evaluation procedures will be applied as per standard methods for CBB and
for anthracnose
6. Appropriate temperature and relative humidity that favour disease development will be
maintained during inoculation in screen house
Molecular markers will be used at four stages

1. To know the resistance genes present in the proposed parental populations (for selecting best
donor parents);
2. To select double cross progeny plants that carry the total complement of genes contributed from
all parents- for crossing to the adapted susceptible parent;
3. To select BC1 plants that carry the total complement of genes contributed from all parents- for
back crossing to the adapted susceptible parent, and
4. At BC2-F6 to identify homozygous lines that carry the total complement of genes contributed from
all parents to constitute the improved versions of the adapted parents, after confirming resistance
by exposing to all the available pathogen races.
5. In addition to the above, SSR markers may be used for molecular characterization of pathogen
race diversity after initial phenotypic characterization using standard methods.
Infrastructure
Physical
Available
i. Laboratory spaces are available for plant pathology and molecular biology laboratories.
ii.Land is available for screen/green house construction.
iii.Four permanent research stations are available, including hot spot areas for disease
screening.
iv. Common bean research program has its own field office and small hand tools required
for field operations
Required
Screen house/green house with full environmental control
Equipment
1. Standard set of items to equip:-

• one molecular biology laboratory (list attached)
• one pathology laboratory (list attached)
2. Sensitive balance
3. Seed moisture tester (for common bean)
4. Computer with printer
Consumables, kits, and chemicals
a. For molecular biology laboratory (list attached)

b. For pathology laboratory (list attached)
c. For crossing and screening activities
• Crossing kits (forceps, needles, tweezers, tags/labels, etc.)
• Green house pots, Seed bags, Stationery materials
59
3. Collaborative National Projects

In addition to the regional variety trials, we also collaborate with the national bean research program
(Melkassa) in conducting the national variety trials at Haramaya (Rare) and at Babile. Accordingly, five
national variety trials have been conducted at rare and Babile in 2010, and we expect to receive eight
new collaborative national variety trials in 2011.
Summary
Four sets of regional variety trials- large seeded bean, large red, red mottled and white pea bean regional
variety trials that have been tested over three years (2008- 2010) at four locations in eastern Ethiopia
were completed in 2010. Moreover, eight new research activities were proposed during the same year.
From the completed regional variety trials, six new candidate varieties have been recommended for
verification and release. The recommended varieties are RXR- 10 and K-132 from the large seeded bean
regional variety trial, ECAB 0060 and ECAB 0023 from the red mottled bean regional variety trial, and
ECAB 0203 and ECAB 0247 from the large red seeded bean regional variety trial. Similarly, the
genotypes ECAB 0621, ECAB 0607, and HRS 545 were recommended from the white pea bean regional
variety trial, but the verification of these genotypes will be pending until canning quality test is
conducted.
The recommendation of the new candidate varieties was based on their average yield performances across
environments, in combination with the results of actual field performance evaluation. Generally,
continuous field performance monitoring has been very effective for easy identification of the best
genotypes.
From the new proposed activities, six are in breeding/pathology, one in pathology, and one in
socioeconomics disciplines.
Constraints
The major constraints of the bean research program are the following.
1. Lack of technical assistants: currently, only one breeder and one field assistant are working in
the program.
2. Lack of seed storage: we share one small building with the high land pulses research program at
Rare for all purposes. This is highly crowded and suffocated, and germplasm introduced from
abroad could not be stored for more than a year under this condition.
3. Shortage of vehicle: In the past, we had one Toyota Pick-Up for our research program. Currently
however, only three vehicles are available for research at the University level. The problem is
especially evident at pick periods, mainly at planting and harvesting times when all research
programs compete for the limited number of vehicles. As this is a cross cutting issue across all
research programs, we suggest that the university has to plan to solve this problem if it has to
continue with its strong position and reputation in the national research system.
60
Acknowledgement
The successful completion of the reported completed trials was due to the hard work of Mr. Ibsa
Aliyi, who has been a technical assistant in bean research program, and now a graduate assistant serving
in the same program, and Ms. Woinshet Feleke, a hardworking and experienced field assistant.
These trials were conducted by the financial support we obtained from ECABREN/PABRA through the
CIAT-Uganda administration. I would like to extend sincere thanks to the CIAT Uganda Office, to
ECABREN and to PABRA for their genuine support. I am also very grateful to the national bean program
of Ethiopia (Melkassa) for the limited support provided to us, and for the limited germplasm that we have
been getting.
Finally, I would like to forward my sincere thank to the office of the Research and Extension, Haramaya
University, for enabling us to accomplish our routine research activities as planned by providing vehicle
and other facilities.
References
Bulti, T. 2007. Yield and Canning Quality Attributes of Navy Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), MSc
Thesis, Haramaya University
Campa A., R. Giraldez, J.J. Ferreira. 2009. Theor. Appl. Genet., 119: 1011-1018.
Chahal, G.S. and S.S. Gosal. 2002. Principles and Procedures of Plant Breeding: Biotechnological and
Conventional Approaches. Alpha Science International Ltd., Pang Bourne, England
CSA (Central Statistical Agency). 2010. Agricultural Sample Survey: Report on Area and Production of
Crops (Private Peasant Holdings, Meher Season), Volume IV, Statistical Bulletin No. 446, Addis
Ababa, May 2010
Fourie, D. 2004. Bacterial diseases of dry beans in South Africa with special reference to common
bacterial blight and its control. PhD Dissertation, Department of Micro Biology and Plant
Pathology, University of Pretoria
Genchev, D., P. Christova, I. Kiryakov, M. Beleva and R. Batchvarova. 2010. Breeding of common bean
for resistance to the physiological races of anthracnose identified in Bulgaria. Biotechnol. &
Biotechnol. Eq., 24(2): 1814-1823
Hernández-Delgado, S., M.H. Reyes-Valdés, R. Rosales-Serna and N. Mayek-Pérez. 2009. Molecular
markers associated with resistance to Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goid. in common bean.
Journal of Plant Pathology, 91 (1): 163-170
Kelly, J.D and P.N. Miklas. 1999. Marker Assisted Selection, pp. 93-132. In: Singh, S.P. (ed.) Common
Bean Improvement in the Twenty-First Century. Vol.7. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Boston, London
Miklas P. N., J. D. Kelly, S. E. Beebe and M. W. Blair. 2006. Common bean breeding for resistance
against biotic and abiotic stresses: From classical to MAS breeding. Euphytica, 147: 105-131
MoARD (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of Ethiopia). 2009. Crop Variety Register.
Issue No. 12. June, 2009, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Singh, S. P. 1999. Integrated genetic improvement. pp. 133-165. In: Singh, S.P. (ed.) Common Bean
Improvement in the Twenty-First Century. Vol.7. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Boston, London
Vallenjo, V. IN ADDITION, J.D. Kelly. 2009. New Insights into the Anthracnose Resistance of
Common Bean Landrace G 2333. The Open Horticulture Journal, 2: 29-33, Michigan State
University, Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
61
IV. Highland Pulses Research Activities

By
Million Fikreselassie , Habtamu Seboka1, Kindie Tesfaye2 and Tadesse Gizaw1
1
Abstract
Field experiments were conducted from 2006 to 2010 cropping season at Haramaya, Boreda and Hirna to
develop and promote high yielding, stress tolerant and widely/specifically adapted faba bean, field pea
and fenugreek varieties with desirable agronomic and quality traits for western and eastern Hararghe.
Different materials for each crop (faba bean, field pea and fenugreek) were grown in RCBD with four
replications. Data on yield and yield attribute traits were collected and analyzed. One of the achievements of
the research program was registration and release of one each of Faba bean (Gachena) and Field pea
(Meti) varieties which are high yielding, disease resistant and adapted to eastern highland of Ethiopia,
particularly for Hararghe. Three Faba beans Regional Variety Trials (Set- I, Set- II and Set- III) were
conducted at Haramaya, Boroda and Hirna. The analysis of variance revealed that except one material in
FBRVT III none of the accessions outsmarted the check in seed yield. Besides, Haramaya University also
conducted collaborative experiments with EIAR. Faba bean National Variety Trial, Large and Small
seeded faba bean variety trial were among experiments which EIAR coordinated and Haramaya
University is involved in the undertaking of the experiments. Analysis showed that except for seed yield
statistical differences were observed in some agronomic traits among the tested materials. In Field pea
Regional Variety Trial set I and II statistical difference was observed in seed yield and other agronomic
traits. Regarding Fenugreek Regional Variety Trial conducted at Haramaya and Hirna, significant
difference was observed among the tested entries for days to flowering and maturity, stand count at
harvest and 1000 seed weight. This indicated that the tested materials are significantly different among
themselves in these traits. Thus, the materials tested in the entire experiment will be maintained for
further breeding program.
Introduction
Crop diversification and lowering inputs are major drivers for sustainable agricultural policy. Pulse crops
can contribute positively to these two policy goals because, as a consequence of biological nitrogen
fixation, they require minimal inputs while acting as a very effective break crop in a cereal dominated
rotation. Pulse crops are also an efficient source of plant-derived protein for food and animal feed. In
Ethiopia, three pulse crops (Faba bean, Field pea and fenugreek) occupies an area of 759,782.79 hectares
with a grain yield of 8.74 million quintals and its productivity is 11.71 quintal/ ha across the country
(CSA, 2011).
The mid and high-altitudes of western and eastern Hararghe are one of the pulse growing regions of the
country. It lies between 1800-3000 m.a.s.l and its annual rainfall ranges from 700 to 1100 mm. and has
suitable environmental and soil conditions for highland pulse crops production. Boreda, Hades, Hirna,
Bedessa etc. are some of the districts producing highland pulses crops such as faba bean, field pea, chick
pea, lentil and fenugreek. The pulses production and productivity in these areas is constrained by several
biotic and abiotic stresses, of which lack of improved varieties, shortage of certified seeds, diseases such
as rust, powdery mildew and root rot, insect pests such as aphids and low soil fertility are the major ones.
In addition to these stresses, now a day, the influence of climate change and population growth is
significantly threatening pulse production than before and becoming a major challenge to food security.
The effect of climate change could be manifested by shift in the onset and offset of the main rainy season
in most parts of the country and change in weather condition which resulted in poor performance of the
given variety in certain agro-ecology. For example, the current pulse varieties adapted to these agro-
ecologies may not be suitable for production due to the resulting short duration of rainy season, changes
62
in planting time and the emergence of new diseases, weeds and insect pests favored by the changing
environmental conditions.
Therefore, to overcome the existing production constraints and tackle newly emerging challenges,
continuous highland pulse research is required to develop high yielding, pest resistance/tolerant, excellent
in other agronomic traits, high quality, and widely adapted varieties that suit different cropping systems
and farming conditions. Moreover, adequate seeds of released varieties should be made available to small
scale farmers and commercial producers.
The principal aim of the breeding and genetics research on highland pulses is generally to contribute to
the general development policy of the nation by increasing production, productivity and thereby
increasing income-generation capacity for the farmer through developing high-yielding and stable
varieties with disease resistance. Consistent to the general objectives stipulated in the highland pulse
crops research strategy, the specific objectives is to develop and promote high yielding, stress tolerant and
widely/specifically adapted faba bean, field pea and fenugreek varieties with desirable agronomic and
quality traits for western and eastern Hararghe. This report, therefore, presents brief description of major
achievements of the program, the result of completed experiments conducted within the past five years
(2006 to 2010), challenge/constraints encountered at different levels and future directions to strengthen
the program.
Major achievements
The highland pulse research program of the university registered and released one each variety for Faba
bean (Gachena) and Field pea (Meti) in 2008 cropping season which are high yielding and disease
resistance varieties for eastern highland of Ethiopia, particularly for Hararghe. Brief description of these
released varieties is shown hereunder.
Gachena (EH91001-13-2) was released by the University after fulfilling the requirements set by the
National Variety Release committee for production in Eastern highlands of the country, primarily in areas
with altitude range of 2000 to 3000 m.a.s.l. and average annual rain fall of 700 to 1000 mm. It is typically
characterized by average seed yield of 17 to 30 q/ha and 11 to 28q/ha on research and farmer fields,
respectively.
Meti (NI-21) was released by the University for Production in the Eastern highland of the country
primarily in areas with 1800 to 3000 m.a.s.l. and average annual rain fall of 700 to 1000 mm. It is
typically characterized by average seed yield of 22 to 25 q/ha and 9 to 22q/ha on research and farmer
fields, respectively.
Seeds of these varieties have been distributed for small scale farmers through seed unit of the University
in collaboration with different government offices and NGOs working on developments and agricultural
sectors. The varieties are well performed in the region and farmers benefited from it by maximizing their
production and productivity.
Completed Projects
Faba bean Yield Trial
Under this category of experiments, results for different sets of Regional Variety Trial (RVT) was
presented and discussed. The main objective was to identify superior phenotypes/entries with combined
desirable agro-morphological and quality traits. To attain the objective, randomized complet block design
was used for each set of the experiments. Each material has been sown at a seed rate of 190 kg/ha in a
63
plot of six rows of 40-cm width and 5m length. The materials have been evaluated for both agro-
morphological and quality traits. The comprehensive results are as shown hereunder.
Faba bean Regional Variety Trial-I
Design and Treatment: Nine genotypes along with one standard check, CS 20 DK and a local check
were included in three different locations and two cropping seasons (2007 and 2008) in RCBD with three
replications.
Locations: Haramaya, Boroda and Hirna
Summary of results
As indicated in Table 39, there is no significant difference between seed yield of the tested materials at all
environments/locations.
Table 39. Mean of seed yield of faba bean Regional Variety Trial-I conducted at different
location in 2007 and 2008 cropping seasons.
2007 2008
Trt. Name Rare Boroda Hirna Rare Boroda Hirna Mean
EH00083-6-2 1022.47 519.33 818.13 768.23 1052.20 915.13 849.25
EH00126-4 865.40 574.70 630.70 711.33 974.07 764.77 753.49
EH00021-1 721.27 769.13 763.80 572.77 1092.50 785.90 784.23
EH99016-4 1080.13 894.87 638.73 743.07 1125.37 864.97 891.19
EH98084-3 881.43 691.40 674.83 657.97 824.90 882.63 768.86
EH99034-1 1033.50 860.70 452.30 598.67 1032.33 663.83 773.56
EH00098-7 766.43 1090.93 588.20 554.13 948.57 673.70 770.33
CS 20 DK 964.53 908.53 627.43 735.60 1302.67 899.33 906.35
Local Check 1154.57 890.93 565.90 514.30 1343.40 642.83 851.99
Mean 943.30 800.06 640.00 650.67 650.67 788.12 745.47
LSD (5%) ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
CV% 21.67 51.66 21.47 17.02 20.32 13.14 27.08
Ns, None significant at 5%
Faba bean Regional Variety Trial-II
Design and Treatment: Ten genotypes along with two standard checks, Degaga and CS 20 DK and a
local check were included in three different locations in 2008 cropping seasons in RCBD with three
replications.
Summary of results
The materials tested did not significantly differ among themselves in seed yield at all
environments/locations (Table 40).
64
Table 40. Mean of seed yield of faba bean Regional Variety Trial-II conducted at different
location in 2008 cropping season.
Trt. Name Rare Boroda Hirna Mean
EH9011-22-3-3 742.6667 940.10 1021.83 901.53

Degaga 840.3 939.97 983.40 921.22
EH99057-4 855.7333 923.97 910.83 896.84
EH96048-1 537.8 886.57 795.87 740.08
EH00095-1 478 685.37 679.73 614.37
EH98097-1 665.9333 1021.20 838.20 841.78
EH96049-11 809.3667 877.27 886.50 857.71
EH96050-1 545.5333 1037.83 822.77 802.04
CS 20 DK 752.5333 869.23 801.50 807.76
Local Check 3790.133 1010.73 869.97 1890.28
Mean 1001.80 919.22 861.06 927.36
LSD (5%) ns ns ns ns
CV% 166.83 25.38 14.04 105.33
Ns, None significant at 5%
Faba bean Regional Variety Trial III
Design and treatment: Twenty-five genotypes along with one standard check, Tesfa and local check were
included and evaluated in three different locations and three cropping seasons (2006, 2007 and 2008) in
RCBD with three replications.
Summary of results
The combined analysis of variance revealed that there was no significant difference in seed yield among
the tested accessions across locations and years. However, the analysis of variance at specific location and
year revealed that one genotype significantly out-yielded the other tested genotypes in seed yield
(982kg/ha) at Hirna in 2007 cropping season. This experiment showed that Haramaya to be the most
suitable and potential environment with the highest grain yield recorded (618-1112 kg/ha). In this
environment, interaction between genotypes and environment was also observed (Figure 1).
65
Figure 1: Mean of seed yield of twenty five faba bean accessions (FRVT-III) tested at three
locations and cropping seasons.
Faba bean National Variety Trial (Large seeded)
Design and Treatment: Sixteen genotypes along with the standard checks, Gebelcho & Moti, were
conducted in RCBD with four replications in 2010 cropping season.
Location: Haramaya
Summary of Results
Although some recorded variables showed significant difference among the tested genotype, none of the
materials out-yielded the best standard checks, Gebelcho and Moti in seed yield (Table 41). Significant
difference with the traits days of maturity, plant height and 1000 seed weight was observed among the
materials.
66
Table 41: Mean performance of Faba bean National Variety Trial (Large Seeded) trial at
Haramaya during 2010/11 cropping season
Variety DF DM Rust PH PPP SPP STD TSW YLD
(g/Plot)
MOTI 43 121.7 3.50 115.60 8.50 3.00 46.750 775.85 884.02

EK01001-5-1 44.5 123.2 4.00 102.50 10.50 3.00 49.750 940.17 911.67
EK01001-8-1 45.5 125.5 3.00 122.00 10.70 3.00 52.500 1017.10 1254.95
EK01001-9-2 45.5 125.5 4.00 109.80 12.50 3.00 45.000 988.45 1130.82
EK01001-10-5 43 123.2 4.50 114.70 13.50 3.20 43.000 1015.95 1118.37
EK01004-2-1 44.5 124.7 5.00 114.50 8.20 3.00 48.250 1007.97 1112.40
EK01006-7-1 44 125.5 5.00 108.30 9.00 3.00 47.750 921.05 936.67
EK01015-1-1 45.5 124.7 4.00 113.90 10.20 3.00 46.500 954.85 1009.27
EK01019-2-1 44.5 126.2 5.00 121.50 10.70 3.20 51.250 1003.02 1003.47
EK01019-7-5 43.5 124.7 3.50 119.90 11.00 3.20 51.750 954.60 1203.45
EK01024-1-1 45 124.7 4.00 108.50 9.20 3.00 40.750 891.32 1009.55
EK01024-1-2 44 124.7 3.00 107.90 12.70 3.00 47.250 988.45 1104.77
EK01002-1-1 44.5 123.2 3.50 115.00 11.00 2.70 46.500 1026.45 1090.12
EK01021-4-1 43.5 123.2 4.50 108.30 10.50 3.00 49.250 939.07 949.07
EK01004-2-1 43.5 124.7 3.50 111.10 7.70 3.00 46.000 965.70 963.15
GEBELCHO 44.5 126.2 3.50 108.10 11.70 3.20 54.250 891.55 1024.75
Mean 44.28 124.48 3.97 112.60 10.48 3.03 47.906 955.10 1044.16
LSD Ns 3.39 1.88 13.84 Ns Ns Ns 113.99 Ns
CV (%) 3.12 1.27 22.48 5.80 29.26 10.75 13.34 5.63 20.14
DF= Date of 50% flowering, DM= Date of 90% physiological Maturity, PH= Plant height in cm, PPP= Number of
pods per plant, SPP= Number of seeds per pod, STD= Stand count in percentage, TSW= thousand seed weight in
gram, YLD= Seed yield
Faba bean National Variety Trial (Small seeded)
Design and Treatment: Twenty genotypes along with the standard check, Degaga, were planted in
RCBD with four replications in 2010 cropping season.
Location: Haramaya
Summary of Results
Significant differences were observed among the tested entries for days to flowering and 1000 seed
weight (Table 42). This indicated that the tested entries are genetically significantly different for these
traits.
67
Table 42: Mean performance of Faba bean National Variety Trial (Small Seeded trial) at
Haramaya during 2010/11 cropping season
Variety DF DM Rust PH PPP SPP STD TSW YLD

(g/Plot)
EK01023-1-2 44.0 120.5 4.5 113.2 12.0 3.0 53.00 887.12 1036.57
EK01012-1-3 43.5 120.5 2.7 111.7 11.2 3.0 58.25 818.92 1108.20
EK01019-7-1 45.0 124.0 3.0 121.9 14.5 3.2 53.00 789.90 1343.90
EK01019-7-2 43.5 121.3 2.7 108.4 11.2 3.0 57.50 832.80 928.60
EK01019-7-3 45.0 118.5 3.5 100.2 12.5 3.2 53.50 793.77 716.55
EK01019-7-6 44.3 124.8 4.4 107.1 13.7 3.5 65.97 812.62 1325.48
EH00128-3 43.5 125.5 2.8 110.1 12.0 3.5 48.25 838.37 1055.42
EH00126-4 43.0 123.3 3.0 108.1 12.0 3.0 52.00 857.47 1073.40
EKCSR02002-3 45.0 125.5 3.0 123.8 16.0 3.0 54.25 822.77 1187.00
EKLSS 2009-2 45.0 119.8 3.2 89.1 14.7 13.7 49.20 780.83 883.12
EKLSS 2022-1 43.5 118.5 2.7 104.3 14.7 3.0 43.75 710.00 764.80
EH00005-6-1 44.5 120.5 3.0 111.9 13.7 2.7 57.50 679.75 1178.22
EH00014-1 44.5 122.0 3.5 116.5 13.2 3.0 60.75 691.82 1295.40
EH00014-3-1 45.0 125.5 2.7 114.9 17.5 3.0 53.25 740.97 1134.72
EH00053-1 44.0 124.8 2.7 118.7 18.5 3.0 54.00 735.05 1270.00
EH00105-2 43.5 124.8 3.2 118.2 13.0 3.2 52.00 750.15 1314.52
EH00016-2 45.0 117.4 4.4 99.4 10.3 3.2 61.31 724.75 595.02
EH00012-4 45.0 123.5 4.0 116.0 15.5 3.0 63.50 821.25 1040.27
EKLSS01009-2-1 45.0 124.8 2.5 116.0 17.2 3.2 49.25 715.12 1225.85
DEGAGA 45.0 120.5 2.5 118.6 12.2 2.7 54.00 614.20 1116.42
Mean 44.34 122.30 3.20 111.41 13.78 3.61 54.71 770.88 1079.67
LSD 1.43 Ns Ns Ns Ns Ns Ns 187.53 Ns
CV (%) 1.57 3.86 278.00 13.59 37.28 132.60 119.73 11.67 39.21
DF= Date of 50% flowering, DM= Date of 90% physiological Maturity, PH= Plant height in cm, PPP= Number of
pods per plant, SPP= Number of seeds per pod, STD= Stand count in percentage, TSW= thousand seed weight in
gram, YLD= Seed yield
Field pea Yield Trials
Under this experimental category, Field Pea Regional Variety Trial (FPRVT) of different sets are
included. The main objective was to identify superior field pea phenotypes/entries with combined
desirable agro-morphological and quality traits. Randomized completely block design was used for each
set of the experiment. Each entry has been sown at a seed rate of 150 kg/ha in a plot of six rows of 20-cm
width and 5m length. The materials have been evaluated for both agro-morphological and quality traits.
The comprehensive results are given as follow.
68
Field pea Regional Variety Trial II
Design and Treatment: Twelve genotypes along with one standard, Tegengech and local checks were
included in three different locations and two cropping seasons (2007 and 2008) in RCBD with three
replications.
Summary of results
The field pea accessions evaluated in this experiment showed significant variability in terms of seed yield.
The maximum seed yield (1142 kg/ha) was recorded for the germplasm EH96026-1-4 and the minimum
(853kg/ha) for the germplasm EH99004-2 with the overall mean seed yield of 1005kg/ha (Figure 2).
Work plan
The materials tested in the entire experiment will be promoted and maintained for further
breeding program.
Figure 2: Mean of seed yield of ten field pea accessions (FpRVT-II) conducted at three
locations and two cropping seasons.
Field pea Regional Variety Trial-III
Design and Treatment: Ten genotypes along with one each for standard check, Tegengech and
local check were included in three different locations and two cropping seasons (2006 and 2008)
in RCBD with three replications.
69
Summary of result
The combined analysis revealed that there was highly significant difference among the tested
materials in seed yield. However, none of the tested materials out yielded the standard check,
Tegegnech (1235kg/ha). Under this experiment, Boroda was the most suitable and potential
environment with the highest grain yield range of 1114-1159 kg/ha (Figure-3).
Figure 3: Mean of seed yield of ten field pea accessions (FpRVT-III) conducted at three
locations and two cropping seasons.
Fenugreek Trial
Fenugreek Regional Variety Trial was conducted during the 2010 cropping season. The main objective
was to identify fenugreek germplasm which has superior phenotypes/entries with combined desirable
agro-morphological and quality traits. Each entry has been sown at a seed rate of 30 kg/ha in a plot of six
rows of 20-cm width and 4m length. The materials have been evaluated for both agro-morphological and
quality traits. The comprehensive result is illustrated hereunder.
Fenugreek Regional Variety Trial
Design and Treatment: Twenty five genotypes along with the local check were conducted in
simple lattice design in 2010 cropping season.
Locations: Haramaya and Hirna
70
Summary of Results
Significant difference were observed among the tested entries for days to flower and maturity, stand count
at harvest and 1000 seed weight (Table 43). This indicated that the tested entries are significantly
different genetically among each other. This result is based on the data taken from the single location,
Haramaya. The trial planted at Hirna experimental site was failed due to late planting.
Work plan
The materials will be maintained for further breeding utilization for specific traits.
Constraint and challenges
Absence of suitable experimental station where the crops expresses their maximum genetic potential is
one of the challenges that the team faced.
Future prospective
Development of different technologies of mid- to high-land pulse crops (faba bean, field pea, chick pea,
lentil and fenugreek) which are suitable for the Eastern part of the country’s agro-ecology so as to
contribute to the general development policy of the nation.
71
Table 43: Mean performance of Fenugreek Regional Variety Trial at Haramaya during 2010/11 cropping season
Acce. DE STDE DF DM MLDW Rust BLgt PH PPP SPP STD TSW YLD
1 4.6 51.6 39.0 122.6 3.6 1.3 2.0 66.4 55.3 14.6 42.0 17.7 388.1
2 4.6 49.6 39.0 121.6 6.3 2.3 2.6 64.8 71.3 15.0 40.0 17.8 603.8
3 5.0 50.6 38.3 124.0 5.6 3.3 2.6 56.6 50.3 13.3 43.0 19.6 394.4
4 4.3 52.0 39.0 123.0 5.0 1.7 1.6 58.7 50.6 13.6 42.6 18.4 387.1
5 4.6 51.6 39.0 120.3 6.3 2.3 2.3 67.8 93.3 12.0 45.6 16.9 564.6
6 4.6 53.3 37.0 120.3 2.6 2.3 2.3 61.4 63.3 14.0 46.0 19.1 497.1
7 4.3 36.3 38.6 122.6 4.3 2.0 2.0 68.0 73.6 12.3 45.6 19.1 583.1
8 4.6 46.3 39.0 120.3 6.3 3.0 2.3 65.8 65.6 14.6 42.6 16.2 536.0
9 4.0 54.3 37.0 119.0 6.3 1.7 2.3 63.6 65.6 14.0 48.3 17.6 579.5
10 4.6 48.0 39.0 124.0 6.3 2.7 2.6 68.8 85.3 15.0 38.6 17.9 578.4
11 4.6 52.3 38.3 122.6 2.6 2.0 2.0 65.3 76.3 14.0 42.0 20.4 460.8
12 4.6 45.6 38.3 121.6 6.3 2.7 2.6 61.7 79.3 13.6 41.3 18.3 445.9
13 4.3 52.3 37.0 126.3 3.6 2.0 2.3 61.4 63.6 13.0 44.0 20.2 483.5
14 4.6 49.3 39.0 123.6 5.6 1.7 2.0 61.5 81.6 12.3 36.6 18.9 486.2
15 4.6 52.6 39.0 122.6 5.0 1.3 2.0 64.2 54.0 14.0 50.3 19.1 579.2
16 4.3 47.0 38.3 120.3 4.3 2.3 2.3 66.3 67.0 15.3 42.3 18.6 526.2
17 4.6 48.0 37.6 124.0 5.0 2.3 2.3 63.8 62.0 15.0 39.6 18.6 1684.1
18 4.6 47.3 39.0 125.0 2.3 2.3 2.0 66.3 70.3 13.0 34.6 21.6 471.4
19 4.3 50.6 39.0 126.3 4.3 2.0 2.0 60.0 76.6 13.3 42.0 19.4 529.4
20 4.6 47.6 39.0 126.0 5.0 2.3 2.6 65.7 75.0 12.3 41.6 17.9 522.8
21 4.3 51.0 38.3 122.6 5.6 2.3 2.3 67.7 63.3 14.0 45.3 18.0 512.2
22 5.0 53.3 39.0 123.0 5.6 1.7 2.3 59.7 65.0 14.3 47.6 18.2 490.3
23 4.3 50.3 38.3 124.0 0.6 1.3 2.0 59.1 55.3 13.3 48.0 20.4 470.3
24 4.6 50.0 37.0 125.0 4.3 3.0 2.3 62.3 70.6 13.0 44.0 18.5 623.4
25 4.3 49.6 39.0 122.6 3.0 2.3 2.0 68.2 69.3 14.6 43.6 17.9 586.7
Mean 4.51 49.62 38.44 122.93 4.63 2.17 2.22 63.80 68.14 13.74 43.08 18.65 559.37
LSD Ns Ns 0.62 2.43 1.06 Ns Ns Ns Ns Ns 4.78 0.82 Ns
CV (%) 10.37 12.38 1.62 1.97 22.8 59.32 21.59 8.66 24.46 10.38 11.09 4.41 83.07
DE= Date of emergence, STDE= Stand count at emergence, DF= Date of 50% flowering, DM= Date of 90% physiological Maturity, MLDW= Powdery mildew, Blgt= Blight,
PH= Plant height in cm, PPP= Number of pods per plant, SPP= Number of seeds per pod, STD= Stand count in percentage, TSW= thousand seed weight in gram, YLD= Seed
yield
72
References
CSA (Central Statistical Authority), 2011. Agricultural sample survey, Report on area and
production for major crops (private peasant holdings, meher season). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
73
V. Potato research activities

By
Tekalegn Tesgaw
Completed Project
Medium Maturing Improved Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) Variety for Eastern
Ethiopia
Abstract
An improved potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) variety, Bubu (CIP-384321-3), is developed by Root
and Tuber Crops Improvement Program of Haramaya University, Ethiopia and approved by the
National Variety Release Committee in 2011. The performance of the variety was evaluated at five
locations in the eastern part of Ethiopia from 2006 to 2009. The mean performance of Bubu over
locations and years indicated that it gave 11.5% more tuber yield over the standard checks
(Herchassa and Gabissa). Although it is not stable for tuber yield, it exhibited high sensitivity to
environmental change and adaptation to high-yielding environments. Bubu is a medium maturing
variety with tuber size and shape preferred by the farmers. The taste of boiled tubers is classed as
very good by the farmers. The variety is recommended for highlands of Eastern and Western
Hararghe with an altitudes ranging from 1650-2330 meter above sea level.
Key words: Hararghe, Potato, Stability, Tuber yield
Introduction
Ethiopia is known to have suitable edaphic and climatic condition favourable for high quality potato
production. About 70% of the available agricultural land is situated at an altitude range of 1800-2500
m above sea level with annual rainfall of 600 mm which is conducive for high quality ware and seed
potato production. However, the national average yield is approximately 10.5 tons/ha, which is very
low compared to the world average of 16.4 tons/ha (FAOSTAT data, 2004). A lack of well-adapted
potato cultivars to the different agro-ecological zones of the country is the most crucial factor
accounting for this low yield. To tackle this problem, the Potato Improvement Program of Haramaya
University was established in 1975 with the major objective of developing widely adaptable, high
yielding stable potato varieties with good resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. To achieve this, the
program has been introducing potato germplasms having wider genetic base from the International
Potato Centre (CIP) and testing them across locations. After five years of successive trials, the
program managed to release one new high yielding and late blight tolerant potato variety (Bubu)
with the approval of National Varity Release Committee.
Origin and pedigree
The variety Bubu (CIP-384321-3) was introduced from International Potato Center (CIP) and had
gone through multi locational trials in the eastern part of the country. The test results proved that it is
the best varieties for regional release.
74
Main morphological characteristics of the varieties are depicted in Table 44 and Table 45
below.
Table 44: Major morphological characteristics of medium maturing improved potato

varieties
Variety Growth Vigour Plant height Flower Days to
habit (cm) color
Flowering Maturity
Bubu Erect Intermediate 66.8 Pink 41 99
Table 45: Tuber characteristics of medium maturing improved potato varieties

Variety Tuber Eye depth Skin colour Tuber shape Tuber size
set/hill distribution
Bubu High Shallow White Flat round Medium - large
Yield performance and stability

The new variety, Bubu and two standard checks (Herchassa and Gabissa) were tested at Haramaya,
Langie, Kulubi, Hirna and Alberekete in 2008 and 2009 (Table 46 and 47). The mean performance
of Bubu over locations and years indicated that it gave 11.5% more tuber yield than the standard
checks (Table 48).
Table 46: Total tuber yield (ton/ha) of Bubu and two standard checks tested at
different locations, 2008
Variety Tuber yield (ton/ha) Mean Over the
Haramaya Langie Kulubi Hirna Arberekete checks
Bubu 36.91 27.10 22.32 36.55 36.91 31.96 12.14%
Herchassa 31.11 31.92 31.11 31.92 27.94 30.80
Gabissa 32.19 25.16 26.94 25.16 21.53 26.20
Table 47: Total tuber yield (ton/ha) of Bubu and two standard checks tested at
different locations, 2009
Bubu 34.09 22.73 26.99 37.20 44.28 33.06 9.59%
Herchassa 30.07 23.57 24.67 35.84 42.74 31.38
Gabissa 31.40 20.98 21.98 34.22 36.18 28.95
Table 48: Two years average (2008 and 2009) total tuber yield (ton/ha) of Bubu and
two standard checks tested at different locations
Bubu 35.50 22.53 29.97 32.15 40.41 32.11 11.55%
Herchassa
30.59 24.28 27.89 33.88 35.34 30.39
Gabissa 31.80 21.11 24.46 29.69 28.85 27.18
75
According to Perkins and Jinks (1968) a genotype having a mean higher than the overall mean, a
regression coefficient (βi) close to unity and deviation from regression coefficient (S2di) equaling
zero considered to be superior for the character considered. Bubu is found to be unstable for tuber
yield and it was average responsive to changing environments and better adaptable to high yielding
environments (Table 49).
Table 49: Estimates of stability parameters for tuber yield (ton/ha) of Bubu and the
standard checks
Variety Mean root yield Regression Deviation from
(ton/ha) coefficient (βi) regression (S2di)
Bubu 32.11 1.06 ns 45.95++
Gabissa 27.02 0.93** 4.60++
Herchassa 29.99 0.96** 15.66++
ns, ** = Not significantly different from unity at 5% and significantly different from unity at 1 %
probability level, respectively. ++= Significantly different from zero at 1 % probability levels.
Reaction to major disease

The average of three years late blight record (Table 50) indicated that Bubu is tolerant to the disease.
Table 50: Late blight reaction of Bubu in comparison with the checks
Variety 2007 2008 2009 Mean
Bubu 2 2 2 2.0
Herchassa 4 4 5 4.3
Gabissa 3 4 5 4.0
Table 51: Key to late blight recording

Scale 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
% foliage attack 0 3 10 25 50 75 90 97 100
Quality attributes
Bubu is a medium maturing and high yielding potato variety with tuber size and shape preferred by
the farmers. The taste of cooked tubers is classed as very good by the farmers around Haramaya area
(Table 52).
Table 52: Taste and physical characteristics of boiled tubers of Bubu

Variety Cooking Peeling Flesh Flesh Flavour After boiling
ability ability colour texture Integrity Darkening
Bubu Quick Easy Cream Waxy Very Skin surface No
good slightly
cracked
Adaptation
Bubu is recommended for highlands of Eastern and Western Hararghe with an altitudes ranging from
1650-2330 meter above sea level.
76
Acknowledgment
The author acknowledge Dr. Nigussie Dechassa, Mr. Teriessa Jaletta, Dr. Berga Lamaga, Dr.
Solomon Yilma and Dr. Hilemicheal Kidanemariam for their unreserved effort to make Root and
Tuber Crops Improvement Program one of the strongest programs in the University during their
tenure as program coordinators. Special thanks to Mr. Berhanu Dessie, Mr. Jemal Mustefa, Mrs
Meymuna Essa, Mrs. Almaz Tamiru, Mrs. Abeba Habte and others who contributed directly or
indirectly to the development of this variety.
Reference
FAOSTAT DATA. 2004. Agricultural data. Provisional 2003 Production and Production Indices
Data. Crop primary. (http://apps.fao.org/default.jsp)
Perkins, J.M., and Jinks, J.L., 1968. Environmental and genotype-environmental components of
variability. III. Multiple lines and crosses. Heredity, 23, 339-356.
Solomon, Y., 1987. Review of Potato Research Program in Ethiopia. In: Godfrey-Sam, A. and
Bereke-Tsehay, T. (eds.), Proceedings of First Ethiopian Horticultural Crops Workshop.
IAR, Addis Ababa.
Dedication
This variety is dedicated in memory of my friend the late Wondimeneh Assefa who passed away on
April 21, 2011. He was hardworking, dedicated, generous, and loveable individual in our institution,
Haramaya University. He has contributed a lot to the development of this variety as a result of his
position as head of Technical and Maintenance Division. The name Bubu for the new variety is his
nickname that I used to call him while he was with us in this world.
77
VI. Soil and Water Management Research Activities
By
Anteneh Argaw
1. Ongoing Projects
Evaluation of selected isolates of Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. Vicea nodulating Faba bean
(Vicia faba L.) in Harareghe highland
Abstract
Faba Bean is among the most important cool-season pulses grown in Ethiopia. The productivity in
Ethiopia is very low due to nitrogen (N) deficiency of most Ethiopian soils. Application of bio-
fertilizer is increasing the yield in Ethiopia. Therefore, the objective of this study was to assess and
evaluate symbiotic effectiveness of effective rhizobia isolates on yield and yield components of faba
bean cultivated in eastern Ethiopian soils. Accordingly, we have characterized more than 72 isolates
collected from major faba bean growing area of Ethiopia under control condition. Of the collected
isolates, the top eight symbiotically highly effective rhizobia isolates have been selected for further
symbiotic effectiveness characterization under field conditions. Analysis of data generated from field
study showed significant difference among treatments in grain and biomass yield. Isolates HUFBR4
and HUFBR 5 increased the grain yield of faba bean with as much as 55 and 51% over un-
inoculated and unfertilized plants. Hence, this finding indicated that Rhizobium inoculation is
important in faba bean production system in the experiment area.
Introduction
Faba Bean and field pea are among the most important cool-season pulses grown in Ethiopia. They
are essential part of the dietary protein sources for most Ethiopians. Faba bean is the first most
important pulse in Ethiopia in terms of production and area coverage. According to the report of
CSA (2009), from about 1,585,236 of land under pulses 538,820 ha was occupied by faba bean,
which is about 34% of the land under pulses with annual production of 6,959,837 quintals. Despite
its importance, however, the productivity of the pulse crop is below 1 ton/ha, and the yield usually
fluctuates depending upon many factors and it is far below the potential for the crop. This is due to
low soil fertility, smallholder farming and limited access to external inputs (Amare, 1987; EARO,
2000). One of the most important factors of soil fertility is nitrogen (N) deficiency of most Ethiopian
soils (Desta and Angaw, 1986). Most farmers in the developing countries such as Ethiopia are
resource poor and cannot afford the required inputs, mainly in the form of chemical N fertilizers.
Legume-Rhizobium has been exploited elsewhere as a substitute for N fertilizers (Aynabeba et al.,
2001). Inoculation with highly effective rhizobia, a common practice in agricultural production
(Catroux et al., 2001), requires survival and establishment of inoculated rhizobia in the soil
environment (Da and Deng, 2003).
The present experiment was therefore, undertaken with the objective to assess and evaluate
symbiotic effectiveness of effective rhizobia isolates on yield and yield components of faba bean
cultivated in eastern Ethiopian soils.
78
Material and methods
Sources of bacterial isolates

Well characterized rhizobia nodulating faba bean under greenhouse condition on sand and soil
cultures was obtained from Haramaya University, Bio-fertilizer Research and Production Center.
Experimental sites
The study of the effect of inoculation of rhizobia on faba bean growth was conducted at Haramaya
experimental fields.
Soil sampling and analysis
A soil sample (0-30 cm) was collected at random from each experimental site before and after
planting. A sub sample of the composite was air-dried, sieved through a 2 mm screen and analyzed
for important soil physico-chemical properties. The native rhizobial population nodulating faba bean
was estimated using a fresh soil sub-sample according to the most probable number (MPN) method
(Vincent, 1970).
Seed sources and biofertilizer preparation
Seeds of improved faba bean (var. Gachena) were obtained from Haramaya University Highland
Pulses Improvement Project.
Field experiment
In each experimental field, trial was carried out using selected highly effective eight rhizobia
nodulating faba bean isolates. The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design.
All treatments were replicated three times. There are ten (10) treatments, which consists the
following combinations:
T1-Rhizobium inoculum1; T2-Rhizobium inoculum2; T3-Rhizobium inoculum3; T4-Rhizobium
inoculum4; T5-Rhizobium inoculum5; T6-Rhizobium inoculum6; T7-Rhizobium inoculum7; T8-
Rhizobium inoculum8; T9-Positive control (with starter nitrogen i.e. 20 KgN ha-1); T10-Negative
control (with no chemical and bio-fertilizer application)
Results and Discussion
At the initial phase of the experiment, more than 72 isolates collected from major faba bean growing
areas of Ethiopia were characterized under control condition. Of the collected isolates, the top eight
symbiotically highly effective rhizobia isolates have been selected for further symbiotic effectiveness
characterization under field conditions. Field experiments were carried out at Haramaya University
experimental sites on fababean using the eight selected isolates of rhizobia collected from central and
eastern highland of Ethiopia (Table 53.). Even if there was no significant difference of nodule
number and nodule dry weight due to rhizobial inoculation, inoculation significantly improve the
grain and biomass yield. Isolates HUFBR4 and HUFBR 5 increased the grain yield of faba bean by
as much as 55 and 51%, respectively over un-inoculated and unfertilized plants. The nitrogen
fertilizer treated plants recorded significantly lower nodule number and nodule dry weight as
compared to the negative control. The result therefore, clearly revealed that inoculation is very
important input for faba bean production in Haramaya area and could enhance the practice of organic
farming. The table below shows yield and yield components of the different treatments.
79
Table 53. The effect of inoculation on yield and yield components of faba bean
TRT SL (cm) NT/pl NN/pl NDW/pl(gm) SDW (gm) TB(QT/ha) GY(Qt/ha)
HUFBR1 119.40a 2.00ab 340.67a 1.7677a 74.20bcd 100.7ab 37.4ab

HUFBR2 118.63a 2.33ab 379.67a 1.2537ab 72.33bcd 90.7bc 33.3ab
HUFBR3 114.70a 2.33ab 219.00bc 0.7681b 75.03bc 77.3d 36.0ab
HUFBR4 127.80a 1.67b 217.33bc 1.0780ab 64.83cd 100.3ab 42.6a
HUFBR5 113.43a 2.00ab 302.33ab 0.9684b 73.63bcd 95.3abc 43.3a
HUFBR6 109.90a 2.00ab 218.67bc 1.2687ab 89.23a 83.3cd 33.3ab
HUFBR7 112.33a 1.67b 318.33a 0.8248b 96.83a 93.6abc 33.0ab
HUFBR8 129.57a 2.00ab 400.00a 1.1913ab 72.97bcd 97.3ab 37.0ab
-VE CON. 109.00a 2.67a 218.67bc 0.8171b 61.23d 83.6cd 28.0b
+VE CON. 124.47a 2.33ab 188.00c 0.8185b 84.83ab 103.6a 26.0b
CV (%) 12.4 27.0 21.4 44.2 10.5 7.7 20.5
LSD 25.06 0.97 105.31 0.8175 13.73 12.2 12.29
a,b,c
Means within the same column bearing different superscript letters are significantly differentfrom each
other; TRT- treatment; SL-shoot length; NN/pl-nodule number per plant; NDW-nodule dry weight per plant;
TB-total biomass; GY-grain yield
References
Amare Abebe (1987). Effect of inoculation and nitrogen fertilization on yield of common bean in
Ethiopia. In: Proceedings of a Workshop on Bean Research in Eastern Africa. Mukono,
Uganda, June 22-25, CIAT African Workshop Series 152-159.
Ayneabeba Adamu, Fassil Assefa, Asfaw Hailemariam and Endashaw Bekele (2001). Studies of
Rhizobium inoculation and fertilizer treatment on growth and production of Faba bean
(Vicia faba) in some ‘yield-depleted’ and ‘yield-sustained’ regions of Semien Shewa.
SINAT: Ethiop. J. Sci. 24(2):197-211.
Catroux, G., Hartmann, A. and Revellin, C. (2001). Trends in rhizobial inoculants production and
use. Plant soil 230: 21-30.
Central Statistical Authority (CSA) (2009). Estimation of area production and yield of crops for
2007/2008 and 2008/2009 Meher season. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Da H. N. and Deng, S. P. (2003). Survival and persistence of genetically modified Sinorhizobium
meliloti in soil. Appl. Soil Ecol. 22: 1-14.
Desta Beyene and Angaw Tsige (1986). The response of pulse crops to N and P fertilizers.In: Soil
Science Research. Proceedings of the First Soil Science Research Review Workshop, Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia, 11-14 Feb.
Vincent, (1970). ‘A manual for the practical study of root-nodule bacteria.’ International Biological
Programme Handbook Number 15. (Blackwell Scientific Publications: Oxford).
80
Evaluation of selected isolates of Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. Vicea nodulating Field

pea (Pisum sativum L.) in Harareghe highland
Abstract
Field pea is the third most important pulse crop in Ethiopia. The productivity in Ethiopia is very low
due to nitrogen (N) deficiency of most Ethiopian soils. Application of bio-fertilizer is increasing the
yield of field pea in Ethiopia. Therefore, the objective of this study was to assess and evaluate
symbiotic effectiveness of effective rhizobia isolates on yield and yield components of field pea
cultivated in eastern Ethiopian soils. Therefore, more than 55 isolates collected from major field pea
growing area of Ethiopia were characterized under control condition. Among these, the top eight
characterization under field conditions. Analysis of data generated from field study showed
significant difference among treatments in all investigated parameters except shoot length. Isolates
HUFPR1 increased the grain yield of field pea by 31% over un-inoculated and unfertilized plants.
Hence, the result of the present experiment indicates that Rhizobium inoculation is important in field
pea production system in the experiment area.
Introduction
Field pea is the third most important pulse crop in Ethiopia after faba bean and chickpea, in terms of
both area and total annual production. According to CSA (2009), field pea covers about 230,749 ha
of the total arable land with a total production of 267,093 tons. Despite its importance, however, the
productivity of the field pea is below 1 ton/ha, and the yield fluctuates based on environmental
condition and is far below the potential. This is due to low soil fertility, smallholder farming and
limited access to external inputs (Amare, 1987; EARO, 2000). One of the most important factors of
soil fertility is nitrogen (N) deficiency of most Ethiopian soils (Desta, and Angaw, 1986). Most
farmers in the developing countries such as Ethiopia are resource poor and cannot afford the required
inputs, mainly in the form of chemical N fertilizers. Legume-Rhizobium has been exploited
elsewhere as a substitute for the N fertilizers (Aynabeba et al., 2001). Inoculation with highly
effective rhizobia, a common practice in agricultural production (Catroux et al., 2001), requires
survival and establishment of inoculated rhizobia in the soil environment (Da and Deng, 2003).
Thus, an experiment was conducted with the objective to assess and evaluate symbiotic effectiveness
of effective rhizobia isolates on yield and yield components of field pea cultivated on eastern
Ethiopian soils.
Material and Methods

Well characterized rhizobia nodulating field pea under greenhouse condition on sand and soil
cultures was obtained from Haramaya University, Biofertilizer Research and Production Center.
Experimental sites
The study of the effect of inoculation of rhizobia on field pea growth and yield was conducted at
Haramaya experimental field.
A soil sample (0-30 cm) was collected at random from each experimental site before and after
planting. A sub sample of the composite was air-dried, sieved through a 2 mm screen and analyzed
for important soil physico-chemical properties. The native rhizobial population nodulating field pea
was estimated using a fresh soil sub-sample according to the most probable number (MPN) method
(Vincent, 1970).
81
Seed sources and bio-fertilizer preparation

Seeds of improved field pea (var. Metti) were obtained from Haramaya University highland Pulses
Improvement Project.
Field experiment
In each experimental field, trial was carried out using selected highly effective eight rhizobia
nodulating field pea isolates. The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design.
All treatments were replicated three times. There are ten (10) treatments, the treatments consists of:
T1-Rhizobium inoculum1; T2- Rhizobium inoculum2; T3- Rhizobium inoculum3; T4- Rhizobium
inoculum4; T5- Rhizobium inoculum5; T6- Rhizobium inoculum6; T7- Rhizobium inoculum7; T8-
control (with no chemical and biofertilizer application).
During the initial phase of the experiment, more than 55 isolates collected from major field pea
growing areas of Ethiopia were characterized under control condition. Among these, the top eight
characterization under field conditions. Field experiment at Haramaya experimental sites were
carried out on field pea using eight selected isolates of rhizobia collected from central and eastern
highland of Ethiopia (Table 54). Analysis of variances indicated significant difference among all
treatments in all investigated parameters 9P<0.05), except shoot length. Isolates HUFBR1 increased
the grain yield of field pea by 31% over un-inoculated and unfertilized plants. The nitrogen fertilizer
treated plants scored significantly lower nodule number and nodule dry weight as compared to
negative control. Therefore, the result suggested that inoculation is very important input for field pea
production in Haramaya area and it could enhance to practice organic farming.
Table 54. The effect of inoculation on yield and yield components of field pea
TRT SL (cm) NN/pl NDW/pl (gm) SDW (gm) TB(Qt/ha) GY(qt/ha)

HUFPR1 163.37a 167.00bc 0.400abc 45.52ab 106.0a 23.00a
HUFPR2 166.53a 99.33cd 0.477a 31.76bcde 88.0bc 18.66bc
HUFPR3 159.97a 256.33a 0.552a 36.00abc 99.3ab 20.00ab
HUFPR4 155.30a 93.67cd 0.292bcd 33.69abcd 90.3bc 19.67ab
HUFPR5 160.97a 171.00bc 0.451ab 47.69a 86.3bc 19.33b
HUFPR6 165.97a 168.33bc 0.283cd 35.12abc 92.3abc 18.33bc
HUFPR7 138.75a 191.67ab 0.268cd 20.87de 93.0abc 18.33bc
HUFPR8 157.03a 221.00ab 0.289cd 32.69bcde 90.6abc 20.33ab
-VE CON 157.30a 83.67d 0.203d 18.56e 84.0bc 17.66bc
+VE CON 177.07a 62.33d 0.174d 28.80cde 82.6c 15.33c
CV (%) 14.5 30.2 27.5 25.0 9.8 10.9
LSD 39.79 78.55 0.160 14.20 15.4 3.57
a-e
Means within the same column bearing different superscript letters are significantly different from each
other; TRT- treatment; SL-shoot length; NN/pl-nodule number per plant; NDW-nodule dry weight per plant;
TB-total biomass; GY-grain yield.
82
References
Ayneabeba Adamu, Fassil Assefa, Asfaw Hailemariam and Endashaw Bekele. (2001). Studies of
Rhizobium inoculation and fertilizer treatment on growth and production of Faba bean (Vicia
faba) in some ‘yield-depleted’ and ‘yield-sustained’ regions of Semien Shewa. SINAT:
Ethiop. J. Sci. 24(2):197-211.
Central Statistical Authority (CSA). (2009). Estimation of area production and yield of crops for
Desta Beyene and Angaw Tsige (1986). The response of pulse crops to N and P fertilizers. In: Soil
83
2. New Projects
Assessment and evaluation of need of inoculation of effective rhizobia isolates for
Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in Ethiopia soils
Background and Justification
Common bean is widely cultivated in areas with attitude range of 1400-2000, as a sole crop or inter
cropped with sorghum, maize and other. The Rift valley contributes to 48% out of 163,688 ha and
55% of 1,384,216 quintals production of the country (Teshale et al., 2006). The Hararghe highland is
also one of the major common bean producing areas in the country (Wortmann and Allen, 1994). It
is estimated to cover 267,069 ha of land with a production of 1 ton per ha (CSA, 2009). It is
becoming important as short duration crop because of the recurrent late onset and early termination
of rainfall in these areas.
The yield is extremely low due to low soil fertility, smallholder farming and limited access to
external inputs (Amare 1987; EARO, 2000). One of the most important factors of soil fertility is
nitrogen (N) deficiency of most Ethiopian soils (Desta and Angaw, 1986). Most farmers in the
developing countries such as Ethiopia are resource poor and cannot afford the required inputs,
mainly in the form of chemical N fertilizers. Legume-Rhizobium has been exploited elsewhere as a
substitute for the N fertilizers (Aynabeba et al., 2001). Inoculation with highly effective rhizobia, a
common practice in agricultural production (Catroux et al., 2001) requires survival and
establishment of inoculated rhizobia in the soil environment (Da and Deng, 2003). Therefore,
biological nitrogen fixation should be more exploited to increase nitrogen for common bean
cultivation in Ethiopia. To our knowledge, two preliminary studies have reported the presence of
rhizobia nodulating common bean in Ethiopian soils (Anteneh, 2007; Belaineh, 2009). Moreover,
Anteneh (2007) indicates the presence of highly effective rhizobia nodulating common bean in
Eastern Ethiopia soils. Identification of effective locally adapted strains could be useful in the
development of inoculant strains which can survive longer in agricultural soil and hence reduce the
need for inoculant application each growing season. This will improve soil fertility and reduce the
need for fertilizer. Therefore, this experiment is initiated with the following objectives.
Objective
To assess and evaluate symbiotic effectiveness of effective rhizobia isolates on yield and yield
components of groundnut cultivated in eastern Ethiopian soils.
Materials and Methods

Well characterized rhizobia nodulating common bean under greenhouse condition on sand and soil
cultures will be obtained from Haramaya University, Biofertilizer Research and Production Center.
The isolates have been verified under laboratory and greenhouse condition at Haramaya University.
Experimental sites
The study of the effect of inoculation of rhizobia on common bean growth will be conducted
separately at Fedis and Haramaya experimental fields. These are located in Eastern Ethiopia,
Harareghe Highland.
Soil samples (0-30 cm) will be collected at random from each experimental site before and after
planting. A sub sample of the composite will be air-dried, sieved through a 2 mm screen and
84
analysed for important soil physico-chemical properties such as soil pH, EC, available P, total N,
exchangeable bases (Na, Ca, Mg, K), B, Mo, total P (organic P and inorganic P), CEC and soil
texture following the procedure indicated in Sahlemedhin and Taye (2000). The native rhizobial
population nodulating common bean will be estimated using a fresh soil sub-sample according to the
most probable number (MPN) method (Vincent, 1970).
Seeds of improved common bean cultivars will be obtained from Melkasssa agricultural Research
Center or Haramaya University lowland Pulses Improvement Project. Whereas, the local varieties
currently cultivated by local farmers' are used as local cultivars.
Bio-fertilizer from highly effective rhizobia will be prepared 1 month prior to seeding by adding 30
ml rhizobial culture (grown to log phase in Yeast extract Mannitol broth containing 108 of bacteria
ml-1 of culture) to 200 g sterile vermicompost prepared from Parthinium weeds. These will be well
mixed and incubated for 14 days at 270C (Pryor et al., 1998). Then seeds will be planted manually to
a depth of 1 cm.
Field experiment
In each experimental field, trial will be carried out using selected highly effective eight rhizobia
nodulating common bean isolates. The experiment will be laid out in a randomized complete block
design. All treatments will be replicated three times. There are ten (10) treatments, the treatments
consists of:
T1-Rhizobium inoculum1; T2- Rhizobium inoculum2; T3- Rhizobium inoculum3; T4- Rhizobium
inoculum4; T5- Rhizobium inoculum5; T6- Rhizobium inoculum6; T7- Rhizobium inoculum7; T8-
control (with no chemical and bio-fertilizer application).
All seeds will be surface sterilized with alcohol followed by 5% H2O2 to avoid bradyrhizobial
contamination and then washed five times using sterilized water as indicated in Vincent (1970). Seed
inoculation will be performed before sowing, using 10gm Kg-1 seed (to make approximately 1 x 106
bacterial cells/seed). For inoculated treatment, rhizobia biofertilizers will be separately mixed to the
seeds with a 15% (w/v) sucrose solution to increase adherence. All plots will be fertilized with
phosphorus fertilizer at the rate of 46 KgP2O5 ha-1 as TSP whereas 20 KgN ha-1 as urea will be
applied for positive control plots.
Data to be collected
Composite soil samples before planting will be collected for soil physico-chemical analysis and
enumeration of resident rhizobia nodulating common bean
At late flowering and early pod setting stage, numbers of nodule/plant, nodule dry weight/plant,
nodule color, leaf color, shoot dry weight; total plant nitrogen and total plant phosphorus will be
recorded.
The following parameters will be collected at harvesting time, such as total biomass ha-1, grain yield
ha-1, number of seed pod-1 and number of pod plant-1
Days to emergency, flowering and maturity will be recorded
Six months after harvesting, soil samples will be collected separately from each plot, then important
soil physico-chemical and soil biological properties will be analyzed following the procedure
indicated above.
Expected output
• The grain yield production of common bean in Eastern Ethiopia is increased.

• The cost of production incurred by the poor farmers is reduced.
• The disturbed soil environment due to continue use of chemical fertilizer is
rehabilitated.
85
• The acceptance of agricultural product in foreign marker is increased.

• Knowledge, perception and attitude of the concerned policy makers, regional
government and all the stake holders towards the sustainable and organic farming
system are changed.
• Foreign currency allocated for importing chemical fertilizer are reduced, instead the
foreign currency generated from importing organic agricultural crops is enhanced.
• Finally, compost prepared from Parthinium weed is used as carrier for bio-fertilizer,
which can contribute to the control of Parthinium propagation.
Principal Investigator:- Anteneh Argaw, Bulti Tesso and Ayele Akuma

Duration of the experiment:- 3 years
86
References
Anteneh Argaw (2007). Symbiotic and Phenotypic characterization of rhizobia nodulating Common
bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) isolated from Eastern Ethiopia Soils. M.Sc. Thesis, Addis
Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Asefaw Hailemariem and Angaw Tsige (2006). Biological Nitrogen Fixation Research on Food
Legumes in Ethiopia. In: Workshop on Food and Forage Legumes of Ethiopia, pp 172-
176,(Kemal Ali, Seid Ahmed, Surendra Beniwal, Gemechu Kenneni, Rajandra S. Malhotra
and Khaled Makkouk eds). ICARDA, Aleppo,Syria.
Belaineh Mekonnen (2009). Characterization of acid soil tolerant common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris
L.) rhizobia isolated from Jimma soils. M.Sc. Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia.
Mitiku Haile (1990). Preliminary studies of biological nitrogen fixation by haricot bean on two soil
types in Hararghe, Ethiopia. In: Proceedings of the Second Regional Workshop on Bean
Research in Eastern Africa, Nairobi, Kenya.
Pryor, H. N., Lowther, W. L., McIntyre, H. J. and Ronson, C. W. (1998). An inoculant Rhizobium
strain for improved establishment and growth of hexaploid Caucasian clover ( Trifolium
ambiguum). N Z J Agric Res 41:179–189
Sahlemedhin Sertsu and Taye Bekele (2000). Procedures for soil and plant analysis. National Soil
Reseach Center. EARO. pp.70-76.
Teshale Assefa, Habtu Assefa and Paul Kimani (2006). Development of Improved Haricot bean
Germplasm for the Mid and Low-altitude sub-humid Agro-ecologies of Ethiopia. In:
Workshop on Food and Forage Legumes of Ethiopia, pp 87-94, (Kemal Ali, Seid Ahmed,
Surendra Beniwal, Gemechu Kenneni, Rajandra S. Malhotra and Khaled Makkouk eds).
ICARDA, Aleppo,Syria.
Wortman, C. W. and Allen, D. J. (1994). African bean production environments: their
detention, characteristics, and constraints. In: Net work on bean research in Africa.
Occasional paper series number 11, Dare salaam, Tanzania, CIAT. p.47.
87
Effect of Biological DAP (Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae and phosphate

solubilizing Bacterium) on Faba bean (Vicia faba L.) Production in Eastern Ethiopia
Highland
Faba Bean and field pea are some of the most important cool-season pulses grown in Ethiopia. They
are essential part of the dietary protein requirement of most Ethiopians. Faba bean is the first most
important pulse in Ethiopia in terms of production and area coverage. According to the report of
CSA (2009), from about 1,585,236 of land under pulses 538,820 ha was occupied by faba bean,
which is about 34% of the land under pulses with annual production of 6,959,837 quintals. Despite
its importance, however, the productivity of the pulse crop is below 1 ton/ha, which fluctuates and is
far below the potential. This is due to low soil fertility, smallholder farming and limited access to
external inputs (Amare, 1987; EARO, 2000). The most important factor of soil fertility is nitrogen
and phosphorus deficiency of most Ethiopian soils. Nitrogen and Phosphorus are essential nutrients
required by both plants and microorganisms, their major physiological roles are the accumulation
and release of energy during cellular metabolism.
Phosphorus is generally deficient in most natural soils, because it is fixed as water insoluble iron and
aluminum phosphates in acidic soils or calcium phosphate in alkaline soils. Similarly, the low
productivity of crops in acidic soils in Ethiopia can mainly be attributed to the deficiency of
phosphorus (Taye and Hofer, 1993). Thus, in order to solve such problems and achieve high yields
requires heavy use of chemical fertilizers. However, ontinuous and excess use of chemical fertilizers
and other agrochemicals to increase yield may lead to ground water contamination and depletion of
soil nutrients, eventually resulting in reduction of crop yield. The extensive use of chemical
fertilizers in agriculture is currently under debate due to environmental concern and fear for
consumers’ health. Consequently, there has recently been a growing level of interest in
environmentally friendly sustainable agricultural practices and organic farming systems. As a result
emphasis has then been paid to the possibility of greater utilization of unavailable P forms by the
action of biological organisms. Bacteria and fungi have been reported to be active in solubilizing
insoluble inorganic phosphate with high efficiency (Gaur, 1990). Asfaw (2003) investigated that,
acidic soils of Ethiopia harbored with highly efficient phosphate solubilizing microorganisms.
The objective of the present investigation is therefore:

To explore the effect of biological DAP (dual inoculation of Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae
and PSB) species on faba bean yield

Rhizobium (Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae) nodulating faba bean and PSB will be obtained
from Haramaya University, Biofertilizer Research and Production Center. PSB isolates have been
proved as highly efficient inorganic PSB under laboratory and greenhouse experiment. Whereas,
highly efficient rhizobia nodulating faba bean have been verified under laboratory and field
condition at Haramaya University, Experiment site.
Experimental sites
The study of the effect of dual application of Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae and PSB on faba
bean growth will be conducted separately at Boreda, Girawa and Alberekete field conditions. These
are located in Eastern Ethiopia, Harareghe Highland.
88

analysed for important soil physico-chemical properties such as soil pH, EC, available P, total N,
texture following the procedure indicated in Sahlemedhin and Taye (2000).
The native rhizobial population nodulating faba bean will be estimated using a fresh soil sub-sample
according to the most probable number (MPN) method (Vincent, 1970). The number of resident
inorganic phosphate solubilizing microorganisms will be evaluated using Pikovysikaya's medium
following somasegrane and Hoben (1994).
Seeds of improved faba bean cultivars will be obtained from Kulumsa agricultural Research Center
and Haramaya University Highland Pulses Improvement Project. Whereas, the local varieties
currently cultivated by local farmers' will be used as local cultivars.
Both Rhizobium and PSB bio-fertilizers will be prepared 1 month prior to seeding by adding 30 ml
Bacterium culture (grown to log phase in appropriate culture broth containing 108 of bacteria ml-1 of
liquid culture) to 200 g sterile vermicompost prepared from Parthinium weeds. These will be well
mixed and incubated for 14 days at 27oC (Pryor et al., 1998). Then Seeds will be planted manually to
a depth of 1 cm.
Field experiment
In each experimental field, one trial will be carried out using selected highly effective Rhizobium
leguminosarum bv. viciae nodulating faba bean and PSB isolates. The experiment will be laid out in
a split plot design. All treatments will be replicated three times with inoculation and chemical
fertilizer treatments in the main plot whereas, improved and local varieties as the subplots. There are
eight (8) treatments, the treatments consists of:
T1-PSB inoculum (phosphate solubilizing bacteria); T2-Recommended phosphate fertilizer (46
KgP2O5 ha-1); T3-Rhizobium inoculum (well characterized Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae);
T4-Recommended starter nitrogen fertilizer (20 KgN ha-1); T5- PSB inoculum + Rhizobium
inoculum; T6- PSB inoculum + 20 KgN ha-1; T7- Rhizobium inoculum + 100 Kg TSP ha-1; T8-
With no chemical and biofertilizers application
All seeds will be surface sterilized with alcohol followed by 5% H2O2 to avoid rhizobial
bacterial cells/seed). For dual inoculated treatment, both phosphate and Rhizobium biofertilizers will
be mixed at the same time to the seeds with a 15% (w/v) sucrose solution to increase adherence.
Fertilizer at the rate of 46 KgP2O5 ha-1 as TSP and 20 KgN ha-1 as urea will be applied according to
the treatment layout.
a. Composite soil samples before planting for soil physico-chemical and enumeration of
resident rhizobia nodulating faba bean and total number of inorganic phosphate solubilizing
microorganisms
b. At late flowering and early pod setting stage of cultivated field pea, numbers of nodule/plant,
nodule dry weight/plant, nodule color, leaf color, shoot dry weight, total plant nitrogen and
total plant phosphorus will be recorded.
c. The following parameters will be collected at harvesting time, such as total biomass ha-1,
grain yield ha-1, number of seed pod-1 and number of pod plant-1
d. Days to emergency, flowering and maturity will be recorded
89
e. Six months after harvesting, soil samples will be collected separately from each plot, then
important soil physico-chemical and soil biological properties will be analyzed following the
procedure indicated above.
Expected output
• The grain yield production of faba bean in Eastern Ethiopia is increased.

• The disturbed soil environment due to continue use of chemical fertilizer will be
rehabilitated.
system are changed.
Principal Investigator:- Anteneh Argaw, Million Fikresillase, Yemane Girma and Ayele
Akuma
References
Amare Abebe(1987). Effect of inoculation and nitrogen fertilization on yield of common bean in
Uganda, June 22-25, CIAT African Workshop Series 152-159
Asfaw Hailemariam (2003). Isolation, identification and characterization of phosphate solubilizing
microorganisms (PSM) from Ethiopian soils. EJAS 5(1):57-68.
EARO (2000). Lowland pulses research strategy. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, pp.1-39.
Gaur A C (1990). Phosphate Solubilizing Micro-Organisms as Bio Fertilizers. Omega scientific
publishers, New Delhi, India 11 pp.
Sahlemedhin Sertsu and Ahmed Ali (1983). Phosphorus sorption characteristics of some Ethiopian
soils. EJAS 34:28-40.
Somasegaran, P. and Hoben, H. J. (1985). Hand Book for Rhizobia – Methods in Legume Rhizobium
Technology. Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, Germany.
Taye Bekele and Hofner, W. (1993). Effects of different P-fertilizers on yield of barley and rapeseed
on reddish brown soils of the Ethiopian highlands. Fertilizer Research 34:243-250.
90
Effect of Biological DAP (Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae and phosphate

solubilizing Bacterium) on Field pea (Pisum sativum) Production in Eastern Ethiopia
Highland
Field pea is the third most important pulse crop in Ethiopia after faba bean and chickpea, in terms of
both area and total annual production. According to CSA (2009), field pea covers about 230,749 ha
of the total arable land with a total production of 267,093 tons. Despite its importance, however, the
productivity of the field pea is below 1 ton/ha, and the yield fluctuates depending on environmental
condition, and is far below the potential. This is due to low soil fertility, smallholder farming and
limited access to external inputs (Amare, 1987; EARO, 2000). The most important factor of soil
fertility is nitrogen and phosphorus deficiency of most Ethiopian soils. Nitrogen and Phosphorus are
essential nutrients required by both plants and microorganisms, their major physiological roles are
the accumulation and release of energy during cellular metabolism.
Phosphorus is generally deficient in most natural soils, because it is fixed as water insoluble iron and
aluminum phosphates in acidic soils or calcium phosphate in alkaline soils. Similarly, the low
productivity of crops, in acidic soils in Ethiopia, can mainly be attributed to the deficiency of
phosphorus (Taye and Hofer, 1993). In order to solve such problems and achieve high yields, heavy
application of chemical fertilizers is required. Continuous and excess use of chemical fertilizers and
other agrochemicals to increase yield may lead to ground water contamination and depletion of soil
nutrients, eventually resulting in reduction of crop yield. The extensive use of chemical fertilizers in
agriculture is currently under debate due to environmental concern and fear for consumers’ health.
Consequently, there has recently been a growing level of interest in environmentally friendly
sustainable agricultural practices and organic farming systems. As a result, emphasis has been paid
to the possibility of greater utilization of unavailable P forms by the action of biological organisms.
Bacteria and fungi have been reported to be active in solubilizing insoluble inorganic phosphate with
high efficiency (Gaur, 1990). Asfaw (2003) investigated that acidic soils of Ethiopia harbored with
highly efficient phosphate solubilizing microorganisms. Thus, there is a need to identify and use
these microorganisms to improve crop yield grown on such problematic soils.
The objective of the present investigation is:

To explore the effect of biological DAP (dual inoculation of Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae
and PSB) species on field pea yield

Rhizobium (Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae) nodulating field pea and PSB will be obtained
from Haramaya University, Biofertilizer Research and Production Center. PSB isolates have been
proved as highly efficient inorganic phosphate solubilizing Bacterium under laboratory and
greenhouse experiment. Whereas, highly efficient Rhizobium nodulating field pea have been verified
under laboratory and field condition at Haramaya University Experiment site.
Experimental sites
The study of the effect of dual application of Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae and PSB on field
pea growth will be conducted separately at Boreda, Girawa and Alberekete field conditions. These
are located in Eastern Ethiopia, Harareghe Highland.
91
analyzed for important soil physico-chemical properties such as soil pH, EC, available P, total N,
texture following the procedure indicated in Sahlemedhin and Taye (2000).
The native rhizobial population nodulating field pea will be estimated using a fresh soil sub-sample
according to the most probable number (MPN) method (Vincent, 1970). The number of resident
inorganic PSB will be evaluated using the method of Pikovysikaya's medium following the
procedures outlined by Somasegrane and Hoben (1994).

Seeds of improved field pea cultivars will be obtained from Kulumsa agricultural Research Center
and Haramaya University Highland Pulses Improvement Project. Whereas, the local varieties
cultivated currently by local farmers' will be used as local cultivars.
Both Rhizobium and PSB bio-fertilizers will be prepared 1 month prior to seeding by adding 30 ml
Bacterium culture (grown to log phase in appropriate culture broth containing 108 of bacteria ml-1 of
liquid culture) to 200 g sterile vermicompost prepared from Parthinium weeds. These will be well
mixed and incubated for 14 days at 27oC (Pryor et al., 1998). Then seeds will be planted manually to
a depth of 1 cm.
Field experiment
In each experimental field, one trial will be carried out using selected highly effective Rhizobium
leguminosarum bv. viciae bacterium and PSB isolates. The experiment will be laid out in a split plot
design. All treatments will be replicated three times with inoculation and chemical fertilizer
treatments in the main plot whereas, improved and local varieties as the subplots. There are eight (8)
treatments, the treatments consists of:
T1-PSB inoculum (phosphate solubilizing bacteria); T2-Recommended phosphate fertilizer (46
KgP2O5 ha-1); T3-Rhizobium inoculum (well characterized Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae);
T4-Recommended starter nitrogen fertilizer (20 KgN ha-1); T5- PSB inoculum + Rhizobium
inoculum; T6- PSB inoculum + 20 KgN ha-1;T7- Rhizobium inoculum + 100 Kg TSP ha-1;T8-With no
chemical and biofertilizers application.
All seeds will be surface sterilized with alcohol followed by 5% H2O2 to avoid rhizobial
bacterial cells/seed). For dual inoculated treatment, both phosphate and Rhizobium biofertilizers will
be mixed at the same time to the seeds with a 15% (w/v) sucrose solution to increase adherence.
Fertilizer at the rate of 46 KgP2O5 ha-1 as TSP and 20 KgN ha-1 as urea will be applied according to
the tretament layout.
a. Composite soil samples before planting for soil physico-chemical and enumeration of
resident rhizobia nodulating field pea and total number of inorganic phosphate solubilizing
microorganisms.
b. At late flowering and early pod setting stage of cultivated field pea, numbers of nodule/plant,
nodule dry weight/plant, nodule color, leaf color, shoot dry weight, total plant nitrogen and
total plant phosphorus will be recorded.
c. The following parameters will be collected at harvesting time, such as total biomass ha-1,
grain yield ha-1, number of seed pod-1 and number of pod plant-1.
d. Days to emergency, flowering and maturity will be recorded.
92
e. Six months after harvesting, soil samples will be collected separately from each plot, then
important soil physico-chemical and soil biological properties will be analyzed following the
procedure indicated above.
Expected output
• The grain yield production of field pea in Eastern Ethiopia is increased.

• The cost of production incurred by the poor farmers is reduced
• The disturbed soil environment due to continue use of chemical fertilizer will be
rehabilitated.
system are changed.
Principal Investigator:- Anteneh Argaw, Million Fikresillase, Yemane Girma and Ayele Akuma
References
Uganda, June 22-25, CIAT African Workshop Series 152-159
Asfaw Hailemariam (2003). Isolation, identification and characterization of phosphate solubilizing
microorganisms (PSM) from Ethiopian soils. EJAS 5(1):57-68.
Gaur A. C. (1990). Phosphate Solubilizing Micro-Organisms as Bio Fertilizers. Omega scientific
publishers, New Delhi, India 11 pp.
strain for improved establishment and growth of hexaploid Caucasian clover (Trifolium
ambiguum). N. Z .J . Agric Res 41:179–189
Sahlemedhin Sertsu and Ahmed Ali (1983). Phosphorus sorption characteristics of some Ethiopian
soils. EJAS 34:28-40.
Somasegaran, P. and Hoben, H. J. (1985). Hand Book for Rhizobia – Methods in Legume Rhizobium
Technology. Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, Germany.
Taye Bekele and Hofner, W. (1993). Effects of different P-fertilizers on yield of barley and rapeseed
on reddish brown soils of the Ethiopian highlands. Fertilizer Research 34:243-250.
93
Assessment and evaluation of need of inoculation of effective Bradyrhizobium isolate

for Groundnut (Arachis hypogeal L.) in Eastern Ethiopia soils
Compared to other oil crops, Groundnut is a recent introduction to Ethiopia. The crop is widely
grown in the eastern part of the country i.e. Hararghe (Yebio et al., 1987). Its production was
gradually expanded to the eastern, western and north-western lowlands of Ethiopia (Getinet and
Nigussie, 1992), and to some extent in the south (Elias, 1992). In Ethiopia, Groundnut is cultivated
predominantly by the traditional and undeveloped farming community under rain-fed conditions. It
occupies about 41,761 hectares of land with a corresponding gross annual production of about 46,
887 metric ton (CSA, 2009). The yields of groundnut in Ethiopia compared to other countries are
very low i.e. below 1.1 ton ha-1 as compared to average yields on a global scale of about 1.52 ton ha-
1
. With good management practices, the yield can be increased to about 3.0 ton ha-1 (CSA, 2009;
FAOSTAT, 2009). The data shows that the yield of Groundnut in Ethiopia is extremely low mainly
due to low soil fertility, smallholder farming and limited access to external inputs (Amare, 1987;
EARO, 2000). One of the most important factors of soil fertility is nitrogen (N) deficiency of most
Ethiopian soils (Desta and Angaw, 1986).
Most farmers in the developing countries such as Ethiopia are resource poor and cannot afford the
required inputs, mainly in the form of chemical N fertilizers. Legume-Rhizobium has been exploited
elsewhere as a substitute for the N fertilizers (Aynabeba, 2001). Inoculation with highly effective
rhizobia, a common practice in agricultural production (Catroux et al., 2001), requires survival and
establishment of inoculated rhizobia in the soil environment (Da and Deng, 2003). Studies carried
out by the National Soil Survey Project (NSSP, 1990) by the then Alemaya University of Agriculture
(now Haramaya University) clearly revealed that inoculations with rhizobia have improved the yield
of legume crops in Ethiopia (Mitiku, 1990; Asfaw and Angaw, 2006). Therefore, biological nitrogen
fixation should be more exploited to increase nitrogen for pulses cultivation in Ethiopia. The result
of Okito et al. (2004) estimated that by using the natural 15N abundance techniques, the contribution
of symbiotic nitrogen fixation (SNF) was 40.9 kg ha-1 for groundnut and the proportion of N derived
from SNF (%Ndfa) ranged between 49 and 58%.
Identification of effective locally adapted strains could be useful in the development of inoculant
strains which can survive longer in agricultural soil and hence reduce the need for inoculant
application each growing season. Ayele (2010) indicated the presence of highly effective
bradyrhizobia nodulating groundnut in Eastern Ethiopia soils. Inoculation recommendations may be
made depending on the populations, competitiveness and effectiveness of the indigenous rhizobia in
the soil. So far, we have characterized more than 60 isolates collected from Harerghe soil under
control condition. Among these isolates, the top eight symbiotically highly effective bradyrhizobia
isolates have been selected for further symbiotic effectiveness characterization under field
conditions.
The objective of this study will be therefore:

To assess and evaluate symbiotic effectiveness of effective bradyrhizobia isolates on yield and yield
components of groundnut cultivated in eastern Ethiopian soils.

Well characterized rhizobia nodulating groundnut under greenhouse condition on sand and soil
cultures will be obtained from Haramaya University, Bio-fertilizer Research and Production Center.
The isolates have been verified under laboratory and greenhouse condition at Haramaya University.
94
Experimental sites
The study of the effect of inoculation of rhizobia on common bean growth will be conducted
separately at Fedis and Babille experimental fields. These are located in Eastern Ethiopia, Harareghe
Highland.

analyzed for important soil physico-chemical properties such as soil pH, EC, available P, total N,
texture following the procedure described by Sahlemedhin and Taye (2000). The native rhizobial
population nodulating groundnut will be estimated using a fresh soil sub-sample according to the
most probable number (MPN) method (Vincent, 1970).

Seeds of improved common bean cultivars will be obtained from Werer Agricultural Research
Center or Haramaya University lowland oil crop Improvement Project. Whereas, the local varieties
currently cultivated by local farmers' will be used as local cultivars.
Bio-fertilizer from highly effective bradyrhizobia will be prepared 1 month prior to seeding by
adding 30 ml Bradyrhizobium culture (grown to log phase in Yeast extract Mannitol broth containing
108 of bacteria ml-1 of culture) to 200 g sterile vermicompost prepared from Parthinium weeds.
These will be well mixed and incubated for 14 days at 27oC (Pryor et al., 1998). Then Seeds will be
planted manually to a depth of 1 cm.
Field experiment
In each experimental field, trial will be carried out using selected highly effective eight
bradyrhizobia nodulating groundnut isolates. The experiment will be laid out in a randomized
complete block design. All treatments will be replicated three times. There are ten (10) treatments,
the treatments consists of the following combination:
T1-Bradyrhizobium inoculum1; T2- Bradyrhizobium inoculum2; T3- Bradyrhizobium inoculum3; T4-
Bradyrhizobium inoculum4; T5- Bradyrhizobium inoculum5; T6- Bradyrhizobium inoculum6; T7-
Bradyrhizobium inoculum7; T8- Bradyrhizobium inoculum8; T9-Positive control (with starter nitrogen
i.e. 20 KgN ha-1); T10-Negative control (with no chemical and biofertilizer application).
All seeds will be surface sterilized with alcohol followed by 5% H2O2 to avoid bradyrhizobial
bacterial cells/seed). For inoculated treatment, Bradyrhizobium bio-fertilizers will be separately
mixed to the seeds with a 15% (w/v) sucrose solution to increase adherence. All plots will be
fertilized with phosphorus fertilizer at the rate of 46 KgP2O5 ha-1 as TSP whereas 20 KgN ha-1 as urea
will be applied for positive control plots.
a. Composite soil samples before planting will be collected for soil physico-chemical
analysis and enumeration of resident bradyrhizobia nodulating groundnut.
b. At late flowering and early pod setting stage, numbers of nodule/plant, nodule dry
weight/plant, nodule color, leaf color, shoot dry weight, total plant nitrogen and total
plant phosphorus will be recorded.
95
c. The following parameters will be collected at harvesting time, such as total biomass
ha-1, grain yield ha-1, number of seed pod-1 and number of pod plant-1.
d. Days to emergency, flowering and maturity will be recorded.
e. Six months after harvesting, soil samples will be collected separately from each plot,
then important soil physico-chemical and soil biological properties will be analyzed
following the procedure indicated above.
Expected output
• The grain yield production of groundnut in Eastern Ethiopia will be increased.

• The disturbed soil environment due to continues use of chemical fertilizer will be
rehabilitated
• The acceptance of agricultural product in foreign marker will be increased.
government and all the stakeholders towards the sustainable and organic farming
system will be changed
Principal Investigator:- Anteneh Argaw, Yemane Girma, Amare Kebede and Ayele Akuma
Duration:- 2 years
96
References
Asefaw Hailemariem and Angaw Tsige (2006). Biological Nitrogen Fixation Research on Food
Legumes in Ethiopia. In: Workshop on Food and Forage Legumes of Ethiopia, pp 172-
176,(Kemal Ali, Seid Ahmed, Surendra Beniwal, Gemechu Kenneni, Rajandra S. Malhotra
and Khaled Makkouk eds). ICARDA, Aleppo,Syria.
Ayele Kumalo (2010). Evaluation of Symbiotic effectiveness Rhizobia with Groundnut (Arachis
hypogaea L.) in Eastern Hararghe, Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis, Haramaya University, Ethiopia.
Getnet Alemaw and Nigussie Alemayehu (1992). Production and Research on OilSeeds in Ethiopia.
In: Oilseeds research and Development in Ethiopia. Proceeding of the first National Oilseeds
workshop. 3-5 December 1991, IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, pp. 5-12.
Mitiku Haile (1990). Preliminary studies of biological nitrogen fixation by haricot bean on two soil
types in Hararghe, Ethiopia. In: Proceedings of the Second Regional Workshop on Bean
Research in Eastern Africa, Nairobi, Kenya.
Okito, A., Alves, B., Urquiaga. S. and Boddey, R. M. (2004) Isotopic fractionation during N2 fixation
by tour tropical legumes. Soil Biol Biochem 36:1179–1190
Reddy, K. N. and Zablotowicz, R. M. (2003) Glyphosate-resistant soybean response to various salts
of glyphosate and glyphosate accumulation in soybean nodules. Weed Sci 51:496–502
Yebio, W., Seme, D., Asfaw, Z., Amare, A., Abebe, T. and Beniwal, B. (1987). Research on
Groundnut Pigeonpea and Chickpea in Ethiopia. In Summary Proc. Consultative Group
Meeting for Eastern and Central African Regional Research on Grain Legumes (Groundnut
Pigeonpea and Chickpea), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. http://faostat.fao.org/, verified in
December 06, 2009.
97
Soil Fertility Assessment and Soil Test Based Phosphorus Calibration for some Major
Crops in Selected areas of East Hararge Zone of Oromia National Regional State,
Eastern Ethiopia.
Justification/Background
At present, the issue of soil productivity has become global concern. According to Brady and Weil
(2008), the two major interactive problems are widespread hunger and malnutrition, and the
deterioration of quality of the environment resulting from injudicious attempts made to alleviate
hunger and malnutrition. The quality, management and conservation of world’s soils are critical
elements in the rectification of the stated problems. The evidence is clear that the soils’ natural
ability to supply sufficient nutrients has decreased with the higher plant productivity levels
associated with increased human demand for food (Tisdale et al., 1993). Cognizant of this very fact,
Heluf (1995) stated that the challenge to agricultural scientists and farmers today is how and where
to produce enough food crop to feed the alarmingly growing world population.
The quest for increased and sustainable productivity to much with population growth has been a
central issue in agriculture for as long as crops have been grown and its stark significance is seen
today in areas of Africa that are suffering from frequent drought and the consequent famine (Rowell,
1994). According to the same author, in countries with a capacity for excess food production,
maintenance of soil fertility is a requirement for both economic and environmental viability of their
farming system, with production matched to national needs and export demands. Soil fertility is not
just a problem of nutrient deficiency. It is a problem of soil physico-chemical and biological
degradation. The problem relates the linkage between poverty and land degradation, often perverse
national and global policies with respect to incentives and institutional failures (Verchot et al., 2007).
General
To assess soil fertility status, and calibrate phosphorus fertilizers for some major food crops.
Specific
• To evaluate and characterize the fertility status of the soils as the basis for planning a
nutrient management program.
• To map soil fertility status for some soil parameters,
• To formulate effective and integrated soil fertility management scenario for the study area,
• To predict the probability of obtaining a profitable response to fertilizer application, and
• To calibrate phosphorus fertilizer.
Soil Fertility assessment
Methodology
Locations of the study site (longitude and latitude), altitude, meteorological data, size of the site and
other relevant information wherever possible will be collected. The information/data on soil, types of
crops, livestock, rainfall, irrigation water and plant nutritional factors related problems constraining
crop production and management to be collected will include land use/cultivation history, nutrient
management system, and other soil and crop related management factors. Formal and informal
interview approaches will be used to attain some primary data. Literature review, and reports and
other office documents from relevant development sectors or services will be utilized to gain
secondary data about the study site.
98
A preliminary soil survey and field observation will be carried out using the topographic map (1:
50,000) of the study area. Prior to the actual field work, tentative sampling units will be fixed based
on map. The sampling units will be set and distributed in such a way that all the sampling units
appropriately represent the study site. The history of each sampling site including fertilization, slope,
management practices, drainage, surface soil colour, and other relevant data which are expected to
affect soil fertility will be collected. Slope gradient and elevation of the study area are measured
using clinometer and altimeter. Soil colour will be recorded by Munsell Soil Colour Chart.
Based on the field observation and soil survey, similar sampling units (in terms of surface soil
colour, slope, drainage, management practices and the like) of the study area are demarcated on the
ground by the help of geographic positioning system. Soil samples will be collected by opening
profiles. Soil samples are mainly taken from cultivated lands and certain fallow/uncultivated lands (if
exist) for control. The soil samples collected from the study area will be air dried, crushed, and
passed through different sieve size and analyzed for various physico-chemical parameters.
Appropriate statistical procedures such as analysis of variance, general linear model procedure of the
statistical analysis system software will be employed.
Duration and Locations of activities

(1 Year, 2011/12) Amensis, and Damota Jallala (Haramaya) sub-catchments
Output of activity 1
Inventory and rating of macro- and micro- nutrients and soil fertility maps
Soil test based Site-crop specific phosphorus calibration
Methodology
The second phase of the study will be site-crop specific fertilizer response experiment for some
major food crops (maize and sorghum for Amensis and Damota Jallala- sub-catchments,
respectively) on farmers’ field after characterization of soil fertility status of the study area. Since it
is participatory research with farming community model farmers, who can offer their farm plots for
the experiment will be voluntarily selected and trained. Identification of major crops and production
constraints will be done during field observation. Different fertilizer levels will be employed in the
experiment with three replications in a randomized complete block design on carefully selected farm
lands. Appropriate field layouts and experimental procedures will also be strictly followed.
Appropriate statistical procedures such as analysis of variance, general linear model procedure of the
statistical analysis system software will be employed.
Duration of Activity and Locations

(2012/13-2014/15) Amensis and Damota Jallala- subcatchmens
Output of activity 2
Guideline for site-crop specific fertilizer recommendations
Budget (total): 353,900
Budget source: EIAR
Initiator/s of the project: Teferi Taddesse
Persons responsible: Heluf G/kidan, Kibebew Kibret, Bobe Bedadi, Nigussie Dechassa,
Tewodros Bezu
Institution/s responsible: HU, EIAR
Year of start and duration of the experiment: 2011/12-2014/15
99
VII. Forestry Research Activities
1. Completed Projects
Effects of Lantana camara and Senna siamea green manures and inorganic fertilizer on
soil fertility and maize yield
By
Lisanework Nigatu (PhD, Assoc. Prof); Muktar Mohammed (MSc)
Abstract
An experiment was conducted at Tullo district, in kira kufis Peasant Association near the town of
Hirna to evaluate the effect of Lantana camera (lantana) and Senna siamea (senna) green manure
and inorganic fertilizer on soil fertility and maize yield. A randomized complete block design with
four replications was used. Green manures from senna and lantana were each applied to cropping
area at rates of 2.5 and 5 tonnes per hectare. Commercial fertilizer was applied at the recommended
rate. Control plots received inputs. Data on Maize yield and some soil nutrients were analysed using
simple descriptive statistics. The results revealed that the incorporation of green manures of senna
and lantana in to the soil of maize plots increased the maize yield by 1540 and 640 kg per hectare
higher than the control plot, respectively. Similarly, both senna and lantana green manure treated
plots had higher Organic matter, total nitrogen and available phosphorus concentration compared
to the control plot and slightly higher/ similar to commercial fertilizer plot. The findings could be
encouraging to use these green manures in plots of small holder farmers who may not economically
afford to use solely commercial fertilizers. It should also be noted that these findings in any way
recommend that use of green manures in farming plots replace use/application of inorganic
fertilizers to boost maize crop productivity. Moreover, a scale up of the technology is suggested on
large number of small holder farmers’ plots to consolidate the findings and assess its dissemination
and adoption to wider farming community.
Introduction
Continuous removal of nutrients in crop harvest has resulted in soil fertility decline and decrease in
crop yields in most farmlands of Tullo district, West Oromia of Ethiopia. Nutrients removed by
harvest are usually greater than the amount returned as fertilizer (Nair, 1993; Young 2002). There is
an urgent need to increase the use of external inputs to reverse the negative nutrient balance and
increase food production. This nutrient replenishment may be achieved through use of mineral
fertilizers or organic inputs, or a combination of both depending on their availability and the level of
nutrient deficiency (Palm et al., 1997; Jama et al, 2000). As elsewhere in Sub-Saharan Africa, the
use of commercial fertilizers on crop lands in Tullo district has generally been restricted to only a
few farms or endowed with resources and with high off-farm income. The majority of the small
holder farmers, on the other hand, have lacked the financial resources to purchase sufficient
fertilizers to replace soil nutrients exported with harvested crop products. As a result, soil fertility has
declined, yields of staple food crops are typically low (Snchez et al 1997).
In order to improve soil fertility and increase crop yield per unit of farm land, Organic resources,
particularly use of green manure, are often proposed as alternatives to commercial mineral fertilizers
(Snchez et al., 1997; Gachengo et al, 1999). Traditional organic materials such as crop residues and
animal manure, however ca not by themselves reverse soil fertility decline because they are usually
not available in sufficient quantities on most farms, they are low in nutrients, and their processing
100
and application are labour demanding (Palm et al., 1997). In addition, some organic materials have
competitive uses, such as fodder for livestock. Most of the plants used for green manure are
leguminous species; although there is evidence that several non leguminous plants accumulate as
much nitrogen as in their foliage as legumes and that these also have high level of phosphorus (Palm
et al., 1997; Gachengo et al, 1999; Jama et al, 2000). Among these leaves of the plant species Senna
siamea and Lantana camara have been known to improve the soil fertility and organic matter of the
farm lands when applied as green manure. In Tullo district, these plant species usually grow near
small holder farms or around farmer’s homestead. The objective of this study was to investigate the
effect of Senna siamea and Lantana camara green manure and inorganic fertilizer on maize crop
yield and soil fertility of the farmland.
The study was conducted at Tullo district, in kira kufis Peasant Association near the town of Hirna,
420 km east of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The area receives biomodal (February-March and June-
September) rainfall of 1100 mm per year. The major soil is vertisol and mixed farming system is the
occupation of the farming community.
Field Experiment and data analysis

A field trial was established to compare maize yields and soil nutrients availability resulting from
applications of green manures of Senna siamea (senna) and Lantana camara (lantana) and
recommended fertilizer. Both green manures consisted of leaves collected from nearby the
experimental farm site. A randomized complete block design with four replications was used. Green
manures from senna and lantana were each applied to cropping area at rates of 2.5 and 5 tonnes per
hectare. Commercial fertilizer was applied at the recommended rate. Control plots received neither
green manure nor commercial fertilizer. Maize (hybrid: Pioneer) was sown at the spacing of 0.30 m
by 0.75 m. Hand weeding is done twice in each growing season. Crop residues were removed at
harvest to reduce confounding effects from additional organic inputs of different qualities. Maize
crop agronomic data were collected and evaluated. Soil was sampled to 30 cm depth before planting
and after harvest at four locations in each plot. These samples were bulked and were analysed for the
physico-chemical properties following standard procedures (Sahlemedhin, 2000; Okalebo et al.,
2002). For this report, simple descriptive statistics such as mean and percentages were used to
analyse the agronomic and some major soil parameters.
Results and discussion
In this report, only results of maize grain yield are considered to reveal the effect of senna and
lantana green manures on crop production and status of soil fertility. The increase in maize yields
where senna and lantana green manures had been applied was startling and exciting (Figs 4 & 5).
Plots with recommended fertilizers had maize yields of only 337 Kg per hectare higher than the
control plot. But where senna and lantana had each been applied at the rate of 5 tonnes per ha the
maize yields were 1540 and 640 kg per hectare, higher than the control plot, respectively. Similarly,
both senna and lantana green manure treated plot had higher Organic matter, total nitrogen and
available phosphorus concentrations (Table 55 & 56) compared to the control plot and slightly
higher/similar to commercial fertilizer plot.
The study revealed that variation in the quality of the organic materials added as green manures can
be accounted for maize grain yield and soil total N and available P. Maize yield was found to be
highest in senna green manure treated plots compared to lantana green manure treated plot. This
101
might be due to faster decomposition and nutrient release of senna green manure compared to
lantana.
A = control, C= 5 tonnes of senna/ ha, G= 2.5 tonnes of senna/ha and J= recommended fertilizer rate
Figure 4. Effect of senna green manure and commercial fertilizer on maize grain yield
on small holder farmer plot of Kira Kufise PA, Hirna, Tullo district
A = control, B= 5 tonnes of lantana/ ha, F= 2.5 tonnes of latana/ha and J= recommended fertilizer rate
Figure 5. Effects of lantana green manure and commercial fertilizer on maize grain
yield on small holder farmer plot of Kira Kufise PA, Hirna, Tullo district
Earlier studies have also indicated that green manure of senna decomposition and the subsequent
nutrient release into soil have been documented to be faster ((Palm et al., 1997; Jama et al, 2000).
There is, however evidence that several non leguminous plants such as tithonia, lantana, etc
accumulate as much nitrogen in their leaves as legumes and that these also have very high levels of
phosphorus (Jama et al, 2000). Similar to that reported here, Phosphorus added in 5 tonnes dry
weight ha-1 of green manure of lantana released high P concentration into the soil (12.5 Kg P ha-1)
while similar quantity of plant material from senna released 10.5 Kg P ha-1 (Gechengo et al., 1999).
102
The current result showed that the maize grain yield from both senna and lantana green manure
treated plots resulted in higher maize grain yields and soil nutrients compared to the plot without
green manure or recommended commercial fertilizer. The findings could be encouraging to use these
green manures in plots of small holder farmers who may not economically afford to use solely
commercial fertilizer. However, the maize grain yield recorded in this study was lower than those
from similar studies elsewhere (Palm, 1995; Palm et al., 1995; Jama et al., 2000). This point out the
quality of the organic input, just not the amount of nutrient added affects nutrient availability
patterns and crop productivity.
Table 55. Effects of senna green manure and commercial fertilizer on soil organic
matter, total nitrogen and available phosphorus on small holder farmer plot of Kira
Kufise PA, Hirna, Tullo district
Treatment % OM % Total N Av. P (ppm)

A 3.47 0.210 59.61
C 3.98 0.342 65.50
G 3.80 0.294 64.83
J 4.07 0.252 65.76
A = control, C= 5 tonnes of senna/ ha, G= 2.5 tonnes of senna/ha and J= recommended
fertilizer rate
Table 56. Effect of lantana green manure and commercial fertilizer on soil organic
matter, total nitrogen and available phosphorus on small holder farmer plot of Kira
Kufise PA, Hirna, Tullo district
Treatment % OM % Total N Av. P(ppm)

A 3.47 0. 210 59.61
B 4.58 0. 298 70.87
F 3.79 0. 252 65.70
J 4.07 0. 252 65.76
A = control, B= 5 tonnes of lantana/ ha, F= 2.5 tonnes of latana/ha and J= recommended fertilizer rate
Conclusions
The effects of senna and lantana green manures on the soil fertility and maize yield were investigated
on small holder farmer plots of Kira Kufise Peasant Association, Hirna, Tullo district. The results of
this study showed that the maize grain yield from both senna and lantana green manure treated plots
appear to result in higher maize grain yields and soil nutrients compared to the plot without green
manure (control) or recommended commercial fertilizer. The incorporation of green manure of senna
and lantana into the soil of maize plots increased the maize grain yield by 1540 and 640 kg per
hectare higher than the control plot, respectively. Similarly, both senna and lantana green manure
treated plots had higher Organic matter, total nitrogen and available phosphorus concentration
compared to the control plot and slightly higher/ similar to commercial fertilizer plot. The findings
could be encouraging to use these green leafy manures in plots of small holder farmers who may not
economically afford to use solely commercial fertilizer. It should also be noted that these findings in
any way suggest that use of green manure in farming plots replace use/ application of inorganic
fertilizers to boost maize crop productivity. Moreover, a scale up of the technology is suggested on
large number of small holder farmers’ plots to consolidate the findings and assess its dissemination
and adoption to wider farming community.
103
References
Gachengo, C.N., A.,Palm, C.A.,Jama, B. and Othieno, C. (1999).Tithonia , and senna green manures
and inorganic fertilizers as phosphorus sources for maize in western Kenya. Agroforestry
Systems 44:21-36.
Jama, B, Palm, C.A., Buresh, R.J, Gachengo, C.N.,Nziguheba, G. And Amadalo, B. (2000). Tithonia
diversifolia as green manure for soil fertility improvement in western Kenya: A Review.
Agroforestry Systems 49, 201-221.
Nair, P.K. R. (1993). An Introduction to Agroforestry. Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp499.
Okalebo, J.R., Gathua, K.W. and Woomer,P.L. (2002). Labratory methods for Soil and Plant
Analysis: A Working Manual. 2nd ed. TSBF-CIAT and SACRED Africa, Nairobi, Kenya. pp
128
Palm, C.A. (1995). Contribution of agroforestry treesto nutrient requirements of intercropped plants.
Agroforestry Systems 30: 105-124
Palm, C.A., Myres, R.J.K and Nandwa, S.M.(1997). Combined use of organic and inorganic nutrient
sources for soil fertility maintenance and replenishment. In: Buresh, R.J, Sanchez P.A.,
Calhoun F (eds.) Replenishing Soil Fertility in Africa:SSSA Special Publication No. 51:193-
217, SSSA, Madison, USA.
Sahlemedhin Sertu and Taye bekele (2000). Procedures for soil and Plant Analysis. National Soil
Research Center. EARO. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp. 110
Sanchez, P.A., Shepherd, K.D., Soule, M.J., Place, F.M, Buresh, R.J., Izac, A.M., MoKwunye, A.U.,
Kwesisga, F.R,Ndiritu, C.N and woomer, P.L. (1997). Soil fertility replenishment in Africa:
an investment in natural resource capital. In: Buresh, R.J, Sanchez P.A., Calhoun F (eds.)
Replenishing Soil Fertility in Africa:SSSA Special Publication No. 51:1-46, SSSA, Madison,
USA.
Young, A. (2002). Agroforestry for Soil Mangement. 2nd ed. CABI Publishing. pp320
104
2. Ongoing Projects
Studies of the root distribution and production, mycorrhizal colonization and soil
properties under five multipurpose trees used in agroforestry
Initiator/s of the project: Lisanework Nigatu (Dr.); Muktar Mohammed (MSc.) and L.M. Pant
(Prof.),
Highlights of achievements: Data were collected for the last four years. Analysis of data and
interpretation of results will be done after the final year of the project, i.e. 2012.
Studies on the use of plantations with indigenous and exotic species on degraded land
in the eastern highlands of Ethiopia
Initiator/s of the project: Lisanework Nigatu (Dr.), Muktar Mohammed (MSc.) and Heluf
G/Kidan (Prof)
Highlights of achievements: The project started in 2005, planned for five to ten years and is on its
5 the year since establishment of the plantation. Analysis and interpretation of results of data collected
so far is in progress.
3. New projects
Green manure for increased productivity of agricultural crops
Several agro-forestry technologies such as taungya system, windbreaks, green manure, fodder bank,
woodlots, alley cropping, home-garden practices etc have been developed by several national and
international agro-forestry research institutions since the 1970s. Despite the availability of these
technologies, very limited agro-forestry activities are observed on farmers’ fields in Ethiopia. Such
agro-forestry technologies can contribute to the economic and environmental performances of
Ethiopian farming systems. Generally, in Ethiopia the potential of agro-forestry in addressing the
problems of integrated rural development, energy, animal feed, soil fertility climate change issues
through agro-forestry development are not encouraging. The low adoption of the technologies could
be due to, among others, the lack of demonstration of the technologies and knowledge for
implementing them.
The effectiveness of green manure application on crop productivity has been demonstrated in an on
station research in some places, especially in areas where soil fertility is poor. Despite that the
adoptions of this technology in these areas are not seen on farmers' fields due to lack of information
and knowledge exchange between the researchers and farmers. Therefore, in this activity we propose
to demonstrate and evaluate the application of green manure as a promising agro-forestry technology
to improve the fertility of the farm lands and increase crop productivity.
Objective
To Evaluate and demonstrate the effectiveness of green manure application on productivity of

agricultural crops on farmer managed fields
105
Methodology
Three farmers from two PAs will be selected to implement an experiment with various fertilizer
types and levels. In an experiment with RCBD, the following treatments will be tested: Control,
recommended fertilizer Rate, 2.5 tons (6.25 Kg/5m2) and 5 tons(12.5 Kg/5m2) of Sena siamea and
Lantana camara green leaf manure will be applied in replicate plots and the maize crop yields will
be compared.
Locations of activity 1: Hirna, Western Hararghe

Budget (total): 150,000 ETB
Budget source: EIAR
Initiator/s of the project: Lisanework Nigatu
Persons responsible: Muktar Mohammed (MSc) (HU) and Yitebitu Moges (PhD) (EIAR)
Institution/s responsible: Haramaya University and EIAR (FRC-Agro-forestry Project)
Year of start and duration of the experiment: Commences in July 2011 and ends in June 2016.
Domestication of high priority indigenous plant species in selected pastoral and agro-
pastoral areas, Ethiopia (Mega Project)
Introduction
Woody species provide products such as fuel wood, timber, food, gum and resin, medicines, etc. that
millions of people in developing countries depend on. Woody plant species also provide important
environmental and cultural services, including the provision of shade to crops and people, soil
improvement, erosion control and heritage values. However, many woody plant species are
threatened and declining (Belcher and Schreckenberg 2007, Rönnbäck et al. 2007, FAO, 2009,
Tabuti et al., 2010). Woody plant species domestication is thought to be one of the remedies for
reversing the problem of degradation of Woody plant species. Tree domestication includes a range of
many activities – exploration and collection of natural or anthropogenic populations, evaluation and
selection of suitable species and provenances, developing propagation techniques, breeding,
multiplication and dissemination of germplasm, development of management techniques, utilization
and tree-product marketing, and the development and dissemination of relevant technical
information. The process of tree domestication involves the identification, production, management
and adoption of desired germplasm to meet farmer-driven or market-led needs. The domestication
strategies used for individual species vary according to their functional use, biology, target
environment, and the domesticator-researcher or farmer (Roshetco and Verbist 2000).
Objective
General Objective
To domesticate high priority indigenous fruit, fodder, medicinal and salt tolerant woody plant species
thereby enhance tree planting and to address the food, feed and health problems in the selected
pastoral and agropastoral areas.
Specific
• To identify and prioritize woody plant species for domestication, determine planting scheme
preferences,
• Investigate the experiences of the local people in their uses, tree establishment and management
and determine the role of woody plant species and their products in household economy.
106
• To investigate the phenology of the target fruit and fodder Woody plant species and determine
their seed production capacity
• To determine the germination and storage behaviors of seeds of the target species
• To determine the nutrient content of the food and feed parts of the selected Woody plant species
• To design appropriate nursery techniques, determine the nursery life, and produce high quality
seedlings from selected individuals
• To select best performing individuals simultaneously both on station and on farm for the areas
• To develop better ways of pre and post harvest handling techniques of fruits,
• To equip the local people with tree nursery and silvicultural skills and disseminate the
information generated through the project for furthering tree domestication and planting.
Methodology
Semi structured interview and group discussions will be conducted to determine the preference of the
local people for woody plant species and agroforestry practices and prioritize the woody plant
species based on their socio-economic and ecological benefits. A stand where a good number of
individuals of the target species are found will be identified. A total of 10 adult trees in each stand of
a species will be marked. Trees Time of flower, bud initiation, flowering, fruit bud initiation and
fruiting and fruit maturation will be recorded. Fruits from 10 to 15 adult trees of each of the target
species will be collected and processed, and seeds bulked. Sample of 100 seeds will be taken from
the bulked seedlot, and the germination potential of each species without any seed pretreatment, seed
moisture content, 1000-seeds weight and purity will be assessed. Nutritive analysis will be conducted
on the basic methods of Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) (AOAC 1990, Miller-
Ihli 1996). Participatory selection of 15 to 25 best individuals of the target species will be conducted.
Selected individuals will be marked, and seed collection will be carried out. Root to shoot ratio and
nursery life of getting appropriate plantable seedling size (50 cm) will be assessed and compared.
The on-farm experiment will be established in farmers’ field. The design of the on farm experiment
will depend on the availability of the planting space and on farmers’ preference on planting scheme
(parkland with differing number of trees per hectare, boundary planting, home garden etc.). At least
250 seedlings for each species will be planted in 25 households in each farming community.
Appropriate techniques of harvesting and post-harvest handling will be developed based on local
communities existing knowledge and integration with modern techniques and methods following
Ramadhani (2002) and Saka et al. (2004) with the necessary modification according to the product
types which will be identified in this study.
Planned activity
•Wild edible, medicinal and salt tolerant multipurpose plant species identification,
prioritization, indigenous knowledge and socioeconomic investigation
• Investigation on phenology and seed production capacity
• Determination of seed germination and storage behaviour
• Nutrient content analysis
• Design appropriate nursery techniques, determine the nursery life, and produce high quality
seedlings
• On-station and on-farm performance evaluation
• Pre and post harvest handling techniques
Year of start and duration of the experiment: July, 2011, Five years
Budget (total): 1.2 million ETH birr
Budget source: FRC (EIAR) and Haramaya University
107
References
Belcher, B., & Schreckenberg, K. (2007). Commercialization of non-timber forest products: a reality
check. Development Policy Review, 25, 355e377.
Chikami, B., O. Eyog-Matig, and D. Kweka. 2005. Regional Consultation on indigenous fruit trees
in Eastern Africa Research Institute, Nairobi.
Cotton, C.M. 1996. Ethnobotany: Principles and Applications. John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
Chichester, England.
Desta S and D L Coppock. 2004. Pastoralism under pressure: Tracking system change in southern
Ethiopia. Human ecology 32(4):465-486.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). (2009). State of the World’s forests 2009. Rome: Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Greenfield, H. and D.A.T. Southgate. 2007. Food composition data; production, management and
use, 2nd ed. FAO, Rome.
Hawk, P.B., B.L. Oser and W.H. Summerson. 1947. Practical physiological chemistry. Blakiston,
Philadelphia, pp. 579.
Kejela Gemtessa, Bezabih Emana and Waktole Tiki. 2005. Livelihood Diversification in Borana
Pastoral Communities of Ethiopia-Prospects and Challenges. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Martin, G. J. 1995. Ethnobotany: A ‘People and Plants’ Conservation Manual. Chapman and Hall,
London, pp. 268.
Oba, G and D G Kotile. 2001. Assessment of landscape level degradation in southern Ethiopia:
Pastoralists verses ecologists. Land Degradation and Development 12: 461-475.
Oba, G. 1998. Assessment of Indigenous Range Management Knowledge of the Borana Pastoralists
of Southern Ethiopia, GTZ, Boranan Lowland Pastoral Development Programme.
Ramadhani T. 2002. Marketing of indigenous fruits in Zimbabwe. Socio-economic Studies on Rural
Development, Vol 129. Wissenschaftsverlag Vauk. Kiel, Germany.
Rönnbäck, P., Kautsky, N., Pihl, L., Troell, M., Söderqvist, T., & Wennhage, H. (2007). Ecosystem
goods and services from Swedish coastal habitats: identification, valuation, and implications of
ecosystem shifts. Ambio, 36, 534e544.
Roshetco J and Verbist B (2000). Tree Domestication. ICRAF, southeast Asia, Bogor, Indonesia.
Tabuti JRS, Muwanika VB, Arinaitwe MZ and Ticktin T (2010). Conservation of priority woody
species on farmlands: A case study from Nawaikoke sub-county, Uganda. Applied Geography
31: 456-462.
Tekelheimanot, Z. 2008. The role of indigenous fruit trees in sustainable dryland agriculture in
eastern Africa. In: (eds Akinnifesi, F.K., R.R.B. Leakey, O.C. Ajayi, G. Sileshi, Z.
Tchoundjeu, P. Matakala and F.R. Kwesiga). Indigenous fruit trees in the tropics:
domestication, utilization and commercialization), CABI International, Oxfordshire,
Cambridge.
108
Wild edible, medicinal and salt tolerant multipurpose plant species identification,
prioritization, indigenous knowledge and socioeconomic investigation
Methodology
Semi structured interview and group discussions will be conducted to determine the preference of the
local people for woody plant species and agroforestry practices and prioritize the woody plant
species based on their socio-economic and ecological benefits.
Duration of Activity: two years
Output of activity:
• Report on species identification, prioritization and socioeconomic importance of the species
Investigation on phenology and seed production capacity
Methodology
A stand where a good number of individuals of the target species are found will be identified. A total
of 10 adult trees in each stand of a species will be marked. Trees Time of flower bud initiation,
flowering, fruit bud initiation and fruiting and fruit maturation will be recorded.
Duration of the project: three years
Output: Flowering and fruiting phenology of target species known. Seed production capacity of
natural stands of target species known.
Determination of seed germination and storage behavior
Methodology 1 (detailed methodology 1)

Fruits from 10 to 15 adult trees of each of the target species will be collected and processed, and
seeds bulked. Sample of 100 seeds will be taken from the bulked seedlot, and the germination
potential of each species without any seed pretreatment, seed moisture content, 1000-seeds weight
and purity will be assessed.
Duration of Activity 1: four years
Output of activity 1: Appropriate germination techniques and storage methods determined
Nutrient analysis

Nutritive analysis will be conducted by employing the basic methods of Association of Official
Analytical Chemists (AOAC) (AOAC 1990, Miller-Ihli 1996).
Output of activity 1: Nutrient content of the target food and feed species determined
Nursery experiment

Participatory selection of 15 to 25 best individuals of the target species will be conducted. Selected
individuals will be marked, and seed collection will be carried out. Root to shoot ratio and nursery
life of getting appropriate plantable seedling size (50 cm) will be assessed and compared.
Duration: three years
Output of activity 1: Appropriate nursery techniques developed for the target Woody plant species
109
On-station and on-farm performance evaluation

The on-farm experiment will be established in farmers’ field. The design of the on farm experiment
will depend on the availability of the planting space and on farmers’ preference on planting scheme
(parkland with differing number of trees per hectare, boundary planting, home garden etc.) At least
250 seedlings for each species will be planted in 25 households in each farming community.
Duration: four years
Output: Best performing individuals selected from each of the target species
Pre and post harvest handling techniques

Appropriate techniques of harvesting and post-harvest handling will be developed based on local
communities existing knowledge and integration with modern techniques and methods following
Ramadhani (2002) and Saka et al. (2004) with the necessary modification according to the product
types which will be identified in this study.
Duration of Activity 1: two years
Output of activity 1: Develop better techniques for pre and post harvest handling of fruits
Project output compilation and dissemination
Methodology
Trainings on nursery techniques, tree planting and management, agroforestry and rehabilitation
techniques will be conducted.
Duration: Five years
Output: Knowledge of local community in seedling preparation, tree planting and management
improved and information on domestication disseminated.
Budget (total): 1.2 million ETH birr
Budget source: FRC (EIAR) and Haramaya University
110
Screening Salt Tolerant Tree Species in selected Pastoral and Agro-pastoral areas of
Eastern Ethiopia
Initiator/s of the project: Lisanework Nigatu (PhD),Tigist Gebremichael (MSc) and ,Teferi
Taddesse (MSc)
Persons responsible: Lisanework Nigatu (PhD), Tigist Gebremichael (MSc) and Teferi Taddesse
(MSc)
Institution/s responsible: Haramaya University and Forest Research Center
Year of start and duration of the experiment: 2011, three years
Salinity is the most common problem in arid and semi-arid regions as a result of irrigation and/or
rising water tables (Rahnama et al., 2011). Worldwide, over 350 million ha have been classified as
saline (Rengasamy, 2006) and hence, restoration of salt affected soils is becoming a global concern
(Beauchamp et al., 2009; Islam, 2009; Niknam and McComb, 2000). According to Asfaw and Itanna
(2009), salt affected soils are dominant in Rift Valley and lowlands of Ethiopia. The possible
solution is either by use of physical practice by increasing irrigation frequency and leaching,
choosing appropriate irrigation methods, cyclic use of multi-quality waters, fertility management and
amendments of soils or biological practice by attainment of salt tolerant species and cultivating
through biological approaches. However, the physical practices are not economically feasible.
Therefore, there is a need to concentrate on the biological approach.
Agro-pastoral society livelihood is mainly dependent on subsistent farming and livestock production
which is highly affected by different biotic and abiotic environmental stresses, among which soil
salinity is the most important abiotic factor that affects plant growth and productivity (Munns, 2002).
In area of low rainfall, salts accumulate because percolating moisture is insufficient to wash out salts.
In order to improve the livelihood of the agro-pastoralist community seeking solution for dryland
soil salinity is among the primary once. Amongst the biological measures for the management of salt
affected lands, plantation of woody perennials is an important approach. Planting suitable salt
tolerant tree species on saline lands not only provide the green coverage to the soil but also give
good economical returns to the farmers (Shirazi et al., 2006). Among these adapting salt tolerant
plant species is perhaps the best option for economic utilization of salt-affected soils for the time
being, because it is a low-input technology, is easily understood and adapted by farmers, and
involves no foreign material or technical input. Therefore, selecting salt tolerant plant species is
amongst the best options to tackle soil salinity and in long term enhance herbage and browse
productivity of the land. There are differences in tolerance among species and cultivars as well as
among different plant growth parameters (Katerji et al., 2004). Thus, identification of tree species
that are salt tolerant and that have multiple ecological functions and economical values reduce the
effect of salinity and increase productivity of a land while improving biodiversity values.

General objective
The general objective of this study is to select salt tolerant and economically viable tree species and
distribute to the agro-pastoral society.
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Specific objectives
The specific objectives are:
• To identify various salt tolerant multipurpose tree species,
• To reclaim soil salinity problems biologically by using the selected tolerant tree species
and evaluate the agroforestry potentials of the selected species, and
• To disseminate and adapt the identified species in similar agro-pastoral areas of the
country.
Planned activity
Tree species prioritization

Three pastoral and agropastoral localities will be selected from Hararghe zone and Somalia regional
state each. From each community 40-50 households will be selected for the study. Semi-structured
and structured questionnaires will be prepared. Interviews with the selected respondents will be
conducted to determine the economic and social values of various tree species
Duration of Activity and Locations of activity: 1 year, three localities in Hararghe zone and
three localities in Somalia National regional state
Output of activity: Report on species prioritization based on socio-economic importance
Budget (total): 50, 000 ETB
Budget source: EIAR
Methodology
After field observation and determination of sampling units, soil samples will be taken and analysed
in the laboratory for various soil chemical and physical properties from each locality. In the mean
time, the salinity/sodicity of the soil will be determined. Then the values will be used as a baseline
for the germination trial.
Duration of Activity and Locations of activity: 1 year, Haramaya University, Hararghe zone and
Somali region
Output of activity: Generation of information on some soil properties
Budget source: EIAR
Determination of salt tolerance based on seed germination
Methodology
The selected multi-purpose tree seeds will be subjected to various salt levels in a completely
randomized design with three replications under laboratory condition. Based on rate of germination
and days to germination the tolerance of trees will be determined and the best performing species
will be selected for further trial under nursery conditions.
Duration of Activity and Locations of activity: 1 year, Haramaya University
Output of activity: Muti-purpose salt tolerant species determined
Budget source: EIAR
112
Nursery experiment
Methodology
Representative soil samples of each locality will be used for pot bed experiment. The experiment
will be laid in a randomized complete block design under four replications. The performance of the
species based on their various physiological parameters will be evaluated for verification of their
tolerance. Tree seedlings with good performance will be selected for further transformation for on-
farm trial.
Duration of Activity and Locations of activity: 1.5 years, Haramaya University
Output of activity: Generating information on salt tolerant multi-purpose tree species for future use
Budget (total): 90, 000 ETB
Budget source: EIAR
On-farm Performance evaluation
Methodology
The established tree seedlings at Haramaya University will be transformed in to individual’s farm
plots for the purpose of on-farm trial. The design will depend upon the availability of planting space
and farmer’s preference on planting method. Various physiological parameters will be conducted
Duration of Activity and Locations of activity: 1.5 years; Hararghe zone and Somali region
Output of activity: Best performing individual trees selected from each of target species
Budget source: EIAR
Project output compilation and dissemination
Methodology
Trainings and workshops on multi-purposes salt tolerant tree species, stabilization techniques, soil
salinity management using biological measures and reclamation of salt affected soils will be
conducted. The training will be assisted by training materials. The output of the project will be
compiled in local languages and disseminated.
Duration of Activity and Locations of activity: December, 2013 through June, 2014; Haramaya
University, Hararghe zone and Somali region
Output of activity: Knowledge of local community in soil salinity status, soil salinity management
through tree plantation and multipurpose salt tolerant tree plantation, and information on reclamation
of salt affected soils
Budget source: EIAR
113
VIII. School of Animal and Range Sciences Completed Research

Activities
Assessment of camel production practices in Berhale Woreda, Afar Region
By
Kassahun Ahmed, Mohammed Yusuf Kurtu and Mengistu Urge
Abstract
A study was carried out in Berhale Woreda, Afar Region in 5 kebeles by interviewing 90 randomly
selected households (HHs) employing a semi-structured questionnaire. Furthermore, 20 purposively
selected households were monitored. All interviewed HHs are transhumance and practices seasonal
migration.The overall objective of the study was to assess the existing camel production practices.
Majority of the interviewed HHs (70%) possess camels and goats. The primary objective of camel
rearing of the HHs is income generation. Most of the activities related to camel production were
done by adult male. Major source of feed of camels is browsing trees. Half of the HHs (52.2%) use
river as a water source. All HHs practice traditional camel identification methods. The total
numbers of animals of the monitored HHs were decreased by 4.6 %, with in the monitoring period.
The monitored HHs practiced separated class browsing management for female and male camels.
All monitored HHs do not provide supplementary feed to camels. The entire monitored HHs keeps
calves in fenced house, but adult camels are kept in open fence. It was recorded that the camels take
long time in browsing plant species of “Merkato” (Acacia melifera), “Mederto” (Cordia sinensis)
and “Garmo” (Acacia nubica) trees. A camel drunk 52.6±1.91 and 71.6±3.07 liter of water when
offered at an interval of 3 and 5 days, respectively. A camel consumed 0.27±0.02 kg of salt once
during the monitoring period. In the study area, there are one local and one well structured recently
built functional livestock market centre. Average number of camels on a market day was 9.5±1.18, of
which 7.7±0.71 are male and 2.8±0.48 are female camels. The gross camel off take rate during the
monitoring period was 9.3%. The highest and lowest price of female camel were 6025±366 and
4125±383 birr, respectively. The corresponding prices for males were 4933±249 and 3066±249 birr.
On average a camel weighed 412.3±10.14 kg. Average copulation time was 23±1.87 minutes. All
monitored HHs allowed the calves to suckle colostrum and provides tree leaves of “Merkato’’
(Acacia melifera) at stall. Pneumonia “Buhu” was the only disease occurred during the monitoring.
Seventy-five percent of the monitored HHs practiced milking during morning and evening. On
average, the camel owner obtained 7.13±0.52 liters of milk per day from a camel (early lactation).
All interviewed HHs strongly believed that camel milk and meat have medicinal value for different
diseases. Camel milk processing is not practiced by the monitored households, and meat is preserved
by sun drying. It was confirmed that a camel can carry 247.5±9.92 kg of wheat or 24±0.66 local salt
blocks (‘ganfure’), and camels travels 50 and 75km/day with and without load, respectively (about 8
hours travel/day). The community reported to have Indigenous knowledge and strong tie with the
camels. Recurrent drought, disease, feed and water shortages were the major constraints to camel
production, and this leads to dramatic reduction in camel population in the study area. So,
implementing appropriate development plan to improve feed and water availability, camel disease
control and educating pastoralists on improved camel production practices should be considered to
improve camel productivity in the study area.
Key word: camel production; traditional practice; household
114
Introduction
The camel (Camelus dromedarius), due to its unique anatomical, physiological and behavioral
adaptive features is well suited to hot arid and semi-arid areas of the world. The camels provide
almost all sources of food, power, cash, prestige, and means of storing wealth for pastoralists. In
general, subsistence and sustenance of most of the pastoralists is based mainly on camel (Zeleke and
Bekele, 2001). The dromedary camel is the most numerous in the arid areas of Africa, particularly in
the arid lowlands of eastern Africa namely Somalia, Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya and Djibouti. The
majority of the camels in Ethiopia are found in eastern part of the country. Camels are of great
interest for the low land people and pastoralists in particular and uniquely adapted to the lowland of
Ethiopia and contribute significantly to the food security of the pastoral households (Alemayehu,
2002).
The study conducted by Tezera (1998) shows that researches that have been carried out, for example,
in Somalia Region were few. Available information on camel production was based on a few days of
field trips or observations made in veterinary clinics or slaughter houses. Studies conducted in Afar
Region also indicated the paucity of information concerning socio-cultural and economic importance
of camels and opportunities of this species in marginal and fragile ecosystems. These have a negative
impact on the research and development interventions (Alemaya University, 2003). The information
on camel production especially in north eastern Ethiopia is inadequate, and thus the data appears to
be less conclusive since important information on camel production practices are not properly
reported and analyzed (Tezera, 1998). This situation is a reality in Afar Region too. On the other
hand, global climate, particularly that of the sub-Saharan Africa is rapidly changing at rates that are
unpredictable in recent human history. The camel, which has peculiar adaptive characteristics to such
changing environmental conditions, is considered to be an appropriate species to sustain lives of
millions of pastoralists threatened by the changing climates.
For better utilization of unexploited economic potential of the camel resources in a sustainable
way as well as to upgrade and to promote camels production practices in the study areas, it is
timely and relevant to assess the existing camel production practices as well as to come up
with possible recommendations since such types of study have not been carried out in the study
areas. Therefore, the objective of the study was to assess the existing camel production practices in
Berhale Woreda of Afar Region.
Location of the study area

The study was conducted in Berhale Woreda, Afar Regional State. It is located at 8o 40' 13'' to 14o
27' 29'' N and 39o 51' 13'' to 42o 23' 03'' E latitude and longitude, respectively. The total area of the
regional state is estimated to be around 100,860 sq km (ANRSPAPRDB, 2008). The climate of the
region is hot with maximum temperature of 45 oC in August and minimum temperature of 20 oC in
January. The altitude ranges from 116 m below sea level to 1500 m above sea level (ANRSAO,
2000). Estimated livestock population of the region is 2.38 million cattle, 884 thousand camels, 4.4
million goats, 2.5 million sheep, 189 thousand donkeys, 3,345 mules, 898 horses and 69 thousand
poultry (CACC, 2004).
Data collection procedures

Informal survey and group discussions were conducted with clan ‘gosa’ leaders, pastoralists, focal
persons (religious and kebele administrators), development agents and agricultural experts before the
115
HH survey. The information obtained in the group discussion and informal survey was used for
preparation of questionnaire. The questionnaire was tested and the necessary adjustments were made
prior to the actual survey data collection. Five trained field assistants were involved in the data
collection process with close and daily supervision of the researcher. Data were collected at HH
level. Survey data collection was made when camel owners were available for interviewing. The
survey objectives were explained and discussed with kebele administrators and with each HH to get
permission and appropriate information in advance of the interview and in order to ensure their co-
operation. From each kebele, community leaders and students who were familiar with the area were
used as facilitators for data collection. Both primary data (HH characteristics, camel production
practices, feed resources, feeding and watering, housing, reproduction and breeding, selection and
culling management, calf rearing, health and disease, major socio-economic functions of camels,
productivity (milk and meat), marketing, constraints and opportunities of camels, and secondary data
(administrative boundary, agro-economic conditions, and physical data (rainfall, temperature,
topography, vegetation, geology), human and livestock number and agricultural land, total number of
available schools and health station, marketing facilities and market outlets, road networking were
collected. Primary data sources were the HH heads, group discussion and data obtained through
monitoring. Whereas, the secondary data were collected from respective regional and district
governmental and non-governmental organizations.
Data Management and Statistical Analysis

Statistical package for Social Sciences version 12 (SPSS, 2003) was used for the analysis of the
survey and some of the monitoring data after checking, correcting, and coding of the collected data.
Descriptive statistics such as frequency, percentage, mean and standard error of means were used for
presentation of the results of the survey and monitoring. Indices were calculated to provide ranking
of the constraints of camel production practices and purpose (aim) of keeping camels in the study
area. Index of camel production constraints and purposes of camel keeping were calculated. First a
weighted value was given for each constraint/aim based on their rank (4 for the 1st constraint/aim, 3
for the 2nd constraint/aim, 2 for the 3rd constraint/aim and 1 for the 4th constraint). The number of
HHs response for a particular constraint was multiplied by a given weighted value. Then the rank
was given by dividing the value of each constraint to the total sum of all constraints.
Mode of life and households studied

All of the households (HHs) involved in the survey (100%) are transhumance. These indicate that
there are no nomadic pastoralists in the study area. The pastoralists in the present study area have a
permanent home, to which they return each year, but some members of the community take the flock
and herd away from their permanent settlement for some part of the year, unlike nomadic mode of
life where pastoralists do not have permanent home, but move from place to place with their herds
and the whole family.
Crop farming activities in the study area

Out of the 90 HHs interviewed only 14 (15.6%) were involved in crop farming activity, and the
majority of HHs (84.4%) did not practice crop farming. Among those HHs who were involved in
crop farming, most of them (63.3%) started farming within the last five years. Maize, sorghum,
vegetables (Tomato) and fruits (Mango) were crops grown in the area. Maize and tomato ranked the
first and the second major crops, respectively in their coverage and importance. The current finding
is in line with the report of Beruk and Tafesse (2000) who noted that the majority of pastoral
population are livestock raisers whose food security is highly associated to their livestock, and only
few agro-pastoralists produce crop through opportunistic farming.
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Family labor allocation for camel production

As shown in Table 57, more than half the interviewed HHs (62.2%) reported that women’s were
involved only in calf rearing activity. Apart from this, women had no role in milking, herding and
marketing of live camels with the exception that they involved in the preparation of milking
equipment. It seems that camel management activities were left to males among Berhale Afars’. The
reason behind why females are not involved in camel milking as perceived by the respondents was
many folds. One of these was that women’s observe menstruation and if she milk camels, the teat of
the camel will get infected and the milk become out of use. Secondly, it is believed that milking
requires enormous energy, which makes it difficult for females to milk camel. Another reason
mentioned by the respondents was that the lactating camels do not allow women to milk them and do
not give milk to women who have breast like camels teats. This is explained by a pro-verb that says
“kuna angale koo mayyaxagel” which means “The camel said, no body, who have teats like me,
will milk me.” The pro-verb is used to tell and convince the daughters not to practice camel milking.
To tell that the daughters are not allowed milking the camel, Berhale Afars’ have another strong pro-
verb “Inna carra baaxuwa koo tixile woo baxuwa” meaning “if the daughters milk the camel, she
will receive a great punishment and she will never repeat the same mistake again.” Generally,
because of cultural reasons, role of females in camel management in the present study area was
limited. In addition to this, females had no power in decision making process for selling and
slaughtering of camels unless that camel was acquired from her family. The current result agrees
with that reported by EARO (2003), which noted that women have no role in selling camel and they
do not own camel in Afar culture. In contrast to Afar culture, women have full involvement in all
camel husbandry activities among Somali and Oromo (Borena) pastoral communities (Kebebew and
Bekele, 2001).
Acquisition of animals, herd composition and trend

The majority of the HHs (70 %) had camels and goats, followed by those who possess either only
camels or goats, and donkeys (Table 58). The main source of animal’s acquisition was relatives
(father and grandfather), partner (her or his friends’ contribution), purchase from the market and
female family (after wedding the female family offer animals (camels) to their daughter to strengthen
their livelihood). The number of animals and type depend on the status of the family. Accordingly,
44 HHs (48.9%), 33 HHs (36.7%), 10 (11.1) and 3 (3.3) were obtained livestock from relatives,
from relatives and purchased from market, purchased from market only, and relatives, partner and
purchased during wet season, respectively.
Table 57. Role of women, adult males and children in camel production among households
surveyed in Berhale woreda (n=90).
Role of
Role of adult Role of
adult male
Female (%) Children (%)
Activity (%)
Calf rearing only 62.2
No role 27.8 91.1
Milking, herding, marketing of live animals, &
93.3 3.3
calf rearing
Milking, herding & marketing of live animals 6.7 3.3
Milking, herding, marketing of live animals, calf rearing &
2.2
milking equipment preparation
Calf rearing & milking equipment preparation only 6.7
Milking equipment preparation only 3.3
n = number of respondents
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Acquisition of animals, herd composition and trend

The majority of the HHs (95.6%) indicated that animals and specifically camel population decreased
as compared to previous years because of drought (98.8%) and disease (1.2%). Drought was the
major cause for negative population growth of camels. ANRSRA (2009) also noted that camel
population in Afar Region has been decreasing from time to time due to recurring drought. Kebebew
and Bekele (2001) also reported that livestock population in Afar, Somalia and Borena decreased
during 1990-2000 and the composition of livestock was shifting to small stock, particularly goats.
Table 58. Composition of animals owned by the surveyed pastoral households in Berhale
woreda (n = 90)
Animal composition Pastoral Agro-pastoral Over all
Percent of Percent of owned Percent of

owned HHs HHs (n = 14) owned HHs
(n =76) (n = 90)
Camels and goats 75.0 46.2 70.0
Camels, Goats & Donkeys 7.9 15.4 8.9
Camels only 7.9 7.7 7.8
Goats only 3.9 14.3 5.6
Camels, Goats & Sheep 2.6 7.7 3.3
Camels, Goats, Donkeys & Sheep 1.3 7.7 2.2
Camels, Goats, Donkeys, Sheep & Cows 1.3 1.1
Camels, Goats, Donkeys & Cows 7.7 1.1
n = number of respondents
Objectives of camel rearing

Pastoralists reported that the primary, secondary and tertiary objectives of camel rearing in the area
were for income, food (milk and meat production), and wealth and prestige value, respectively,
followed by transportation and renting purpose (Table 59).
Female camels were used for breeding to get calf and to obtain milk while male camels were used
for transportation and sale. Male camels in the present study area were mainly used for transportation
of salt from Assale (salt deposit area). The present result agrees with the work of Alemayehu (2002)
who indicated that members of different communities used to exchange male camels for transport
and female camels for milk. Wilson (1976, 1989) also reported that camels are used to transport salt
from the Danakil depression to the highland of Tigray.
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Table 59. Objectives of camel rearing among the surveyed households of Berhale woreda (n =
90)
Aim of rearing Aim category Total Index Rank
Primary Secondary Tertiary weight
Income generation 53 1 18 179 0.33 1st
Food (Milk & Meat) 20 29 38 156 0.28 2nd
Wealth and prestige 15 39 0 123 0.2 3rd
Transportation 2 20 28 74 0.14 4th
Rent 0 1 3 5 0.009 5th
Bank (security) 0 0 2 2 0.004 6th
Draft power 0 0 1 1 0.002 7th
n = number of respondents, Index of purposes (aim) of camel keeping was calculated. First a weighted value
was given for each aim based on their rank (3 for the 1st aim, 2 for the 2nd aim, and 1 for the 3rd aim). The
number of respondent HHs for a particular aim was multiplied by a given weighted value. Then the ranks were
given by dividing the value of each constraint to the total sum of all constraints.
Camel breed types

Eighty five HHs (94.4%) reported that there was no camel breed types in the study area, but the rest
5 HHs (5.6%) believed in the presence of camel breed types by classifying them based on their
function (milk, meat and transportation) and source (camel obtained from grandfather, father). Based
on the perception of pastoralists, the camel breeds which were available in the area are small in size
than other areas (example, Somalia). This is attributed to the long year selection practice of camel for
milk purpose and adaptation to the hot environmental condition of the study area as a survival
mechanism.
Camel management practices
Management priority provided to different classes of camels

The majority (58.9%) of respondents reported that they give priority to husbandry practices, such as
giving rest to adult female camels than other classes of camels in the herd. Female camels were
given rest during night around home, but the males stay in browsing area. This may be because
female camels provide milk for the pastoralists and calves. The breeding stocks were also
accompanied the milking camels. Thirty HHs (33.3%) indicated that they provide equal attention to
all classes of camels. The rest 7 HHs (7.8%) provide special care to adult male camel only. The
current result agrees with the report of ILCA (1990) which indicated that pastoralists give priority to
female camels and they have high proportion of female animals in the herd. This is thought to help
stabilize milk production by off-setting the longer calving interval characteristics of camel.
Camel feed and feeding

Major source of feed of camels as reported by 89 HHs (98.8%) was browsing/grazing trees and grass
species during the wet season. Almost all HHs (98.8%) reported browsing trees as the only major
feed source for camels during the dry season (Table 60). The current result agrees with the report of
Kebebew and Bekele (2001) who indicated that browsing species are the major feed source for
camels and camels browse this species in the dry season and graze grasses and browse on trees and
bushes during the wet season.
119
Camel breeding and reproduction
Male camel breeding and reproduction

Based on the response of the pastoralists, average age of the male camels at 1st service and full
sexual maturity in the study area was 4.8±0.07 and 5.6 ±0.08 (Mean±SE) years, respectively. Within
one breeding season a bull can mate with 30.5±1.68 (Mean±S.E) she camels during wet season. The
current result was within the range reported by Ahmed (2002) who indicated that a male camel can
usually mate with up to 70 females in one season. But, the number of camels to be mated depends on
the availability of feed, the number of female camels to be mated in the herd and the sexual desire of
the bull. On average, a camel stays 32.4±1.64 (Mean±S.E) minutes during mating. The time gaps
vary depending on the experience and provision of assistance to the bull which can vary from 5 to 60
minutes.
Female camel breeding and reproduction

According to the respondent pastoralists, average 1st breeding age and age at first calving of female
camel were 4.8±0.08 and 5.7±0.08 years, respectively. During the 27-30 productive years, she camel
can give birth to 12.7±0.12 calves. The number of calves from a camel varies from 8 to 20.
According to the respondents, average gestation length of camels was 12.1±0.04 months. Most of the
HHs said that on average camels live 37.5±1.1 years and it ranged 15 to 90 years. The calving
interval of a camel was reported to be 23.8±0.2 months and varied from 18 to 26 months.
Calf management practices

About ninety nine per cent (98.9%) HHs allowed calves to suckle colostrum milk. In addition to
colostrum milk provision, some of the respondents indicated that they practiced cleaning the new
born calves, such as removing the mucus, giving air by cleaning and nose breathing in cases of
difficulty in breathing, and tying the hair of hump in upright position to avoid the sliding of the hump
in one direction. The current result is not in accordance with that reported by EARO (2002) and
Alemayhu (2002) who indicated that many of the Afar pastoralists do not allow the newborn to
suckle colostrums milk, because of the believe that this milk is stored from the day the camel dried–
off till she delivered and it causes illness to the calf. Moreover, Alemayhu (2002) reported that new
born calves are never allowed to suckle before the complete expulsion of the placenta, and
particularly the Kereyu pastoralists believe that colostrum consumed before expulsion of placenta
will poison the calf.
Camel milk and meat production
Camel milk production

Majority of the HHs (68.9%) practice milking twice a day (morning and evening) and, the rest 24
(26.7%), 3 (3.3%) and 1(1.1%) practices milking three times (Morning, evening & at 10 am), four
times (Morning, evening, at 10 am and 10 pm) and one time (only morning), respectively. The
current result is in accordance with that reported by Kebebew and Bekele (2001) who noted that
milking frequency of camels ranges from 2 to 7 times in Afar and Kereyu, 2 to 4 times in Somali
Region while in Borana and Bale only two times milking were practiced.
As indicated in Table 61, the majority of the HHs on average obtained 3.2±0.09 and 3.2±0.11 liter of
milk in the morning and evening milking, respectively during the wet season. The result indicated
that the daily milk offtake was above 6 liters when camels were milked only twice a day. The above
result could be influenced by the experience of the milker, the climatic condition (temperature), feed
availability, the season and the behavior of the camel. The current result is supported by Zeleke and
Bekele (2001) who reported that the mean milk offtake from camel in Afar Region is 6.3 liter/day.
120
Table 60. Major browse and grass species and their seasonal availability as reported by the
respondents in Berhale Woreda
Plant Plant name Season of Rank in order of
type Name of plant & availability availability and
grasses in Afar Scientific name importance
language
Trees Mederto Cordia sinensis ** Wet & dry 1st
Merkato Acacia mellifera** Wet & dry 2nd
Kusura Zizyphus spina-christi** Wet & dry 3rd
Garmo Acacia nubica** Wet & dry 4th
Serkayto Ziziphus spina –Christi Wet & dry 5th
Dawyto Rhamnaceae Wet & dry 6th
Eebto Acacia tortilis** Wet & dry 7th
Serawto Chloris pycnothrix** Wet & dry 8th
Surkuhto Wet & dry 9th
Tekible Wet & dry 10th
Edito Salvadora persica** Wet & dry 11th
Haduguto Acacia seyal** Wet & dry 12th
Garsa Dobera glabora** Wet & dry 13th
Grasses Bonkot Amaranthus spp***/** Wet season 1st

Wet season
Bohole Paspalidium desertorum*** 2nd
Oiyla Tephrosia unifora** Wet season 3rd

Hambuka Abutilon anglosmaliae Cufod *** Wet season 4th
Alaito Eragrostis aspera** Wet season 5th
Scientific names of the plants as identified by **Yosef, 2007, *** Kidane, 2005.
Camel meat production

Majority of the HHs (83.3%) used male camels for slaughtering purpose. The rest 16.7% of the HHs
used adult male and female camels. Most of the HHs (91.1%) slaughtered camels within the age of
5-7 years, but the rest 8.9 % slaughtered camels at old age and when the camels were not more useful
for other purposes. The present result is similar to Melaku and Feseha (2001) who reported that
about 91% of the slaughtered camels in Somali Region were adult male camels. The practices of
slaughtering adult males was related to the believe that the female will not give birth to a male calf if
the calf is slaughtered at an early age. Females were slaughtered only if they were unproductive. In
the present study area, all HHs (100%) practice camel slaughtering in the forest and stony areas,
because there is no abattoir and the slaughtering process need huge areas. The HHs use rope, knife,
axe and ‘Gele’ (‘Gele’ is Afar cultural knife) to immobilize and to slaughter camel. Out of 90 HHs, 8
121
of them (8.8%) estimated the amount of meat obtained from a camel to be equivalent to 12 goats’
meat.
Table 61. Milk offtake (liters) and lactation length from camels at different times of milking
among thesurveyed HHs in Berhale woreda
Milking time N Minimum Maximum Mean SE
Morning 90 1 6 3.2 0.09
Evening 89 2 10 3.2 0.11
At 10:00- 12:00 27 2 5 3.1 0.16
Dim night 3 3 5 3.7 0.67
Lactation length (months) 90 9 18 12.2 0.12
N= number of respondents
Importance of camel and camel products
Medicinal value of camel milk

As shown in Table 62, all HHs (100%) believed and reported that camel milk had great medicinal
value for different diseases such as internal parasites, tuberculosis, stomach pain, snake bite,
poisonous food, diabetes and blood pressure. Most of the pastoralists strongly believed that camel
milk is especially used to cure stomach pain and gastritis. Twelve HHs (12.2%) reported that they
heard about the medicinal value of camel milk against HIV, but they have never seen it, whether it is
true or not. The present result is supported by the findings of Zeleke and Bekele (2001) who
indicated that almost all pastoralists believe that camel milk has medicinal value and as a result they
use it for treating malaria, jaundice, gastrointestinal disorders and strong cough (pneumonia).
Guakhar and Bernand (2004) reported that consumers appreciated medicinal properties of camel
milk.
Table 62. Medicinal value of camel milk as reported by the surveyed households in Berhale
woreda (n = 90)
Disease type Percent of the respondent
Internal parasite (stomach pain) 36.7
Stomach pain & gastric 26.7
Stomach pain, tuberculosis & to decrease fat, gastric, snake biting,
11.2
poisonous food, Blood pressure
Gastritis 5.6
Stomach pain & for all 4.4
For all disease 3.3
Stomach pain & tuberculosis 3.3
Stomach pain & snake biting 3.3
Stomach pain, gastric & snake biting 3.3
Snake biting 2.2
n = number of respondents,
Medicinal value of camel meat

Apart from its nutritional value, the pastoralists believe that camel meat especially the liver was used
to cure different types of disease including malaria and pneumonia. In addition, they believe that a
person who consume camel milk and meat become very strong. They said that “always a camel
122
herder will be the winner during fighting compared to goat and cattle herder”, to emphasise that
products of camel make consumers stronger and healthy. The pastoralists reported that the body of a
person consuming camel meat become fatty after a year and the skin becomes very strong, not easily
damaged. This result agrees with Kurtu (2004) who reported that camel meat was claimed by the
Somali people to have a remedial effect for at least 13 different kinds of diseases, including
hyperacidity, hypertension, pneumonia, and respiratory diseases and also has an aphrodisiac
property.
Conclusion
Positive attitudes and experience of the people towards camels as compared to other livestock
species, separate browsing management practices, migration strategy, camel selection and calves
colostrums suckling practices, and the traditional camel identification practices have positive impact
and create favourable ground to design improvement strategy of the traditional camel production
activities in the area so as to improve pastoral livelihood. Lack of experience to market camel
products (meat and milk), and some of the traditional production practices such as having little or no
roll of female family member on camel production, and traditional camel slaughtering practices are
some of the harmful practices that need to be improved.
123
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125
Assessment of some critical mineral elements in feed, non conventional mineral

supplements and serum of camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Jijiga district
Temesgen Desalegn, Mohammed Yusuf Kurtu and Solomon Melaku
Abstract
The study was carried out in Jijiga district of Somali National Regional State of Ethiopia. The objectives
of the study were to assess indigenous knowledge of pastoralists on mineral nutrition of camels, critical
mineral contents of the camel feed, indigenous mineral sources and critical mineral concentration in
blood serum of camels and to evaluate effects of season on mineral concentration of forages, and in
blood serum. Data regarding feed resources, indigenous mineral sources, and pastoralists’ perception on
mineral nutrition of camels were collected using structured questionnaires from 80 households, by group
discussions and visual observations. Following the survey, dominant and preferably browsed forage
species, mineral soils and mineral waters and serum were collected to analyze the chemical composition
of the samples. The t-test was employed to see the effects of season on the mineral composition of forages
and in blood serum of camels. Two-way ANOVA was used to examine differences between season and
location of indigenous mineral supplements of camels. In the study area, the major sources of camels feed
are browse species. Common indigenous mineral supplements of camels in the study area were mineral
soils and mineral water in addition to table salt. The majority of the pastoralists offer camels’ with table
salt and mineral soils during the wet season and let them drink mineral water in the dry season. The
mean concentration of Ca, Mg, K, Fe, Zn, Mn and Cu in the sampled forages was higher than the lower
recommended levels of these elements for ruminants in both the wet and dry seasons. However, the mean
concentration of Na and P were lower than the recommended level for ruminants. Effect of seasons were
found significant for Ca, Mg, Mn, and Zn (P<0.05), Cu (P<0.01), P and Fe (P<0.001) with higher
concentrations in the wet season. Mineral soils of both locations (Biya’ada and Golajo’o) in both seasons
could not fulfill the requirements of camels for Ca, Mg, K, P, Zn and Cu. However, the mineral soils of
both locations could be used as supplements for Na, Mn and Fe in the wet season. High concentration of
Fe (P<0.05), K (P<0.01), and Ca, Mg, Na, Mn (P<0.001) was observed in wet season and low
concentration of Zn (P<0.01) and Cu (P<0.01) was observed in the wet season in the mineral soils. High
concentration of Mn (P<0.01) and Na (P<0.001) was observed in mineral soil in Biya’ada. In mineral
soils, the interaction effect between seasons and locations was not significant except for Ca, Na and Fe.
The mineral waters of Golajo’o and Biya’ada can contribute to the daily macro minerals requirements of
410kg camel by about 8.6 to 15% Ca, 1.3 to 1.8% Mg, 20.1 to 38.3% Na, 1.2 -1.6 to <0.001% K and
<0.0001% P in both locations, while their contribution of trace minerals are 7.87 to 9.03% Fe, 6.12 to
18.5% Mn, 2.09 to 2.22% Zn and 8.0 to 8.7% Cu, respectively. High (P<0.01) concentration of Mg was
observed in mineral water during the wet season. Interaction between seasons and locations of mineral
water was significant (P<0.05) for Mn with higher concentration in the wet season in Biya’ada. The
mean concentration (mEq/L) of macro minerals in wet and dry season ( Ca (5.91, 4.79), Mg (2.29, 1.14),
Na (192.31, 169.79) and K (4.79, 5.60) ) and the mean (µg/dl) of micro minerals in the wet and dry
season ( Fe (76.0, 80.0), Zn (113.08, 92.84), Cu (75, 61.58) and Mn (30, 20) ) in the serum of camels in
the present study are within the ranges of the previous reports except for P (mg/dl) (1.38, 1.08), which
was very low compared to values reported in other studies. This lower concentration of P in the serum of
camels could be attributed to the deficiency of P in the forages and indigenous supplements of mineral
salts in the study area. Correlation among, forage, indigenous mineral supplements and serum of camel
were weak and insignificant in both the wet and dry seasons. It was concluded that the camels in the
study area get adequate amount of Ca, Mg, K, Na, Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu mineral elements, either from
forages and /or from indigenous mineral supplements, but mineral sources are deficient for P. Therefore,
producers are advised to supplement P, but with the consent of professionals for the amount to be offered.
Key word: Camel; Mineral; Serum, Salt water and soils
126
Introduction
The one humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) in Ethiopia as elsewhere in dry lands of Africa and
Asia are the main sources of milk for millions of pastoralists (Wilson, 1989; Gebremariam, 1989).
They are important for the pastoralists to be recognized as a true member of the community
(Kaufmann and Binder, 2002). Camels not only sustain life on a day-to-day basis for many people
living on the fringe of subsistence, but also serve as depository of wealth and a security against
unknown future (Wilson, 1998).
In eastern Ethiopia, including the Somali Regional State and Eastern Hararghe, livestock production
including camel rely on browse and grazing on open range lands. As pastoralism is the dominant
feature in these areas, livestock are moved from place to place in search of grazing pasture and water
as season changes. Natural pasture or vegetation therefore constitutes the sole diet of camels or
livestock under pastoral systems where the pasture or the natural vegetation is often of poor quality.
Though the usefulness of forage is basically determined by the daily net energy intake, maximum
performance of camel is only possible if the diet contains sufficient energy, protein, minerals and
vitamins.
It is common knowledge that animals require certain essential minerals for maintenance and
production, but camels rarely receive mineral supplementation. On the other hand, the animals that
rely on forages for their mineral needs hardly satisfy the entire mineral requirement from forage
intake (Miles and McDowell, 1983). Kabaija and Little (1988) have noted that forage from the
rangeland areas in Ethiopia were deficient in several essential minerals, specially sodium,
phosphorus and copper in that order.
Information on the concentration of critical minerals in feeds, indigenous mineral supplements and
serum is crucial pre-requisite for improvement of the mineral deficiencies of animal diets for the
improved performance. Although camel is an important domestic animal species in countries like
Ethiopia that possess a large number of pastoralists and agro-pastoralist population, little has been
done on the nutritional status of their feeds in general and mineral status of camel serum in
particular. Therefore, this study was designed to assess some critical mineral elements in feed,
indigenous supplementary sources of minerals and serum of camels
Study Area Description

The study was conducted in the Somali National Regional State in Jijiga Woreda. Geographically
Jijiga district lies at 8o 44’N longitude and 40o 22’E latitude (NAE, 1984). The average elevation of
the woreda is 1803 meters above sea level (Hailu, 2008).
Methods of survey data collection

The study on feed resources, non-conventional mineral supplements of camels, indigenous
knowledge of pastoralists on mineral nutrition of camels and constraints of camel production were
conducted by implementing single visit survey and interviewing 80 respondents using structured
questionnaires. Following survey, 20 dominant and preferably browsed forage species, 8 composite
mineral soils, 8 composite mineral waters and serum samples from 20 male camels aged 5-9 years
were collected to analyze their mineral composition.
127
Analytical procedures
Forage samples were analyzed for DM and ash according to the AOAC (1995). The mineral
concentrations (Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu) in forages were analyzed by using an atomic
absorption spectrophotometry (Model 210 VGP, USA). The soil samples were analyzed for both
physical and chemical properties. Soil texture was determined by hydrometer method after
destroying OM and disposing the soil with a dispersing agent known as sodium hexametaphosphate
that oxidizes the OM present as cementing agent to separate the soil mass into its primary particles.
The pH and EC of the mineral water were measured by using pH and EC meter (Model 118A-9-
300D, Belgium). The mineral concentrations (Mg, Na, K, Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu) in mineral waters
were analyzed by using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Model 210 VGP, USA).
The separated serum was de-protienized using 10% trichloroacetic acid (TCA) and 0.1% of
Lanthanum solution for determination of both critical macro and micro minerals
spectrophotometrically as described by Fick et al. (1979).
Statistical Analysis
Data collected from survey were analyzed using the descriptive statistics of the Statistical Package
for Social Science (SPSS) version 13. Index was calculated to provide ranking of the constraints of
camel production in the study district. Index was calculated as Index = Sum of (3x number of
households who ranked first + 2x number of households who ranked second + number of households
who ranked third) for each constraint within a study areas divided by sum of (3x number of
households who ranked first + 2x number of households who ranked second + 1x number of
households who ranked third) for all of the constraints within the study areas. The t-test was used to
evaluate the effect of seasons on the mineral composition of forages that were browsed by camels
and the blood serum of camels. The data obtained on mineral composition of indigenous mineral
sources was subjected to analysis of variance based on the model for complete randomized design
for factorial arrangement with 2 (seasons) by 2 (locations) using the General linear Model (GLM)
procedures of the Statistical Analysis System (SAS, 2002). The statistical differences between means
were estimated by LSD test.
Almost 100% of the respondents (Table 63) stated that camels in all study areas depend on browses
both during the dry and wet seasons. This result is in line with that reported by Dessalegn (1984),
Tezera (1998) and Ahmed (2002) who reported that source of feed for camels is mainly woody
vegetation. In all study areas camels are not supplemented except for mineral salts as camels are
basically free ranging animals. Naturally, camels are opportunistic feeders in which they can be 90%
browsers (Schwartz, 1992) and even 99% browsers (Dessalegn, 1984) or they can be 100% grazers,
if the browse species are completely unavailable (Schwartz, 1992). Similarly, Wosene (1991)
reported absence of supplementation practice for Ogaden camels. The main sources of water for
camels are rivers, streams, wells and birkas and watering frequency was mostly 8 to 15 days interval
in dry season (35%) and may not take to drink water during rainy season (55%) in the rainy season.
The major constraints of camel production in Jijiga woreda were diseases, feed and water shortages,
predators, recurrent drought, shortage of veterinary services and labor.
128
Table 63. The major feed sources of camel on seasonal basis in Jijiga woreda
Season
Feed resources Wet Dry

N=80 % N=80 %
Browsing 78 97.5 80 100
Grazing 2 2.5 0 0.0
Fallow land 0 0.0 0 0.0
Crop residues 0 0.0 0 0.0
N= Number of respondents
Location of Indigenous Mineral Supplements of Camel

Mineral soils and mineral waters were the common indigenous sources of mineral supplements to the
camels in the study areas, in addition to table salt. Pastoralists purchased table salt form Jijiga town
and offer to camel monthly during wet season, but the amount offered per head is not known since
the purchased salt, is distributed to the animal. They also take camels to indigenous mineral sources
at regular basis to lick mineral soils and/or drink mineral waters. Wilson (1984) reported that
pastoralists know the places where indigenous mineral sources and salty plants are found in their
areas. Some areas are naturally better provided with salt than others in the form of saline wells, salt
earths or salty plants (halophytes).
The majority of the pastoralists offer table salt and mineral soil during the wet season and allow them
to drink mineral water in the dry season. This result was concurrent with the reports of Tezera (1998)
and Ahmed (2002). Ahmed (2002) reported that camels do not prefer table salt or mineral soil in the
dry season, which is not supported by the result of the present study.
Perceived Mineral Deficiency Signs in Camels

Pastoralists identified several signs indicative of mineral deficiency in camels. In order of
importance, reduced feed intake, reduced milk yield, restlessness and chewing construction (woody)
materials were perceived as the top four mineral deficiency signs, and better appetite, higher milk
yield, good temperament and physical changes as the most important indicators of adequate
supplementation of minerals. Kaufmann (1998) and Kuria et al. (2004a) noted that Rendille
pastoralists of Kenya recognizes inadequate rumen fill, reduced milk yield and licking of urine as the
three top mineral deficiency symptoms in camels.
Macro and micro mineral concentration in forages

The mean concentration of macro minerals in forages during the wet and dry seasons are presented
in Table 64. The mean micro minerals concentration (in ppm) in the browse species were Fe (340,
97.65); Mn (162.6, 82.86); Zn (73.62, 56.73) and Cu (19.43, 12.18) in the wet and dry seasons,
respectively. Based on the lower limits of ruminants’ requirements (McDowell and Arthington,
2005), the mean concentration of Ca, Mg, K, Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu in forages were higher than the
lower recommended levels in both the wet and dry seasons. This signifies their adequacy for
different classes of camels. Similarly, in a study on chemical composition of grasses, legumes and
browses in Kenya, Dougall (1963) and Dougall et al. (1964) found that browse species provide the
richest source of calcium. El Shami et al. (1990) also reported that the mineral content of the browse
plants is adequate in Ca, Mg and K for browsing animals.
129
Table 64. Ash, DM and macro-minerals concentration (%) in browse species of camel as
related to seasons
Wet Dry
Mean±SE Mean±SE Significance level
Minerals
DM 90.96±0.31b 92.13±0.30a *
a b
Ash 13.36±0.93 10.34±1.01 *
Calcium 1.91±0.26a 1.26±0.26b *
Deficient 0 0
Magnesium 0.48±0.05a 0.32±0.03b *
Deficient 10 25
Potassium 2.03±0.23a 1.46±0.20a ns
Deficient 5 15
Sodium 0.12±0.01a 0.09±0.01a ns
Deficient 65 85
Phosphorus 0.12±0.01a 0.04±0.006b ***
Deficient 100 100
a, b
= Means within a row not bearing a common superscript differ significantly; ns=not significant;
*=P<0.05;
**=P<0.01; ***=P<0.001; DM= Dry matter; SE=Standard error; Deficient=percent of the forage samples
deficient in a given elements.
However, the mean concentration of Na and P were lower than the established recommended levels
for ruminants, indicating deficiency of these minerals in forages in the study areas. Similarly,
McDowell et al. (1984) in a review of mineral contents of feed sources noted that P is deficient in 46
tropical countries of Latin America, South-East Asia and Africa. Based on established minimum
requirements (0.11-0.34%) of P for ruminants (ARC, 1980), Woldu (1984) reported that 25% of
browse samples were deficient in P. Phosphorus concentration in forages was (P<0.001) higher in
the wet season than the dry season. Effects of seasons were found significant for Ca, Mg and Mn
(P<0.05), Zn and Cu (P<0.01), P and Fe (P<0.001), with higher concentration in the wet season.
Potassium and Na concentrations were similar between seasons (P>0.05), though numerically higher
concentrations were observed in the wet season.
Macro and micro mineral concentration in mineral soils

The mean concentration of macro minerals in mineral soils (in %) in the wet and dry seasons were
Ca (0.24, 0.04); Mg (0.18, 0.04); K (0.025, 0.004); Na (2.18, 0.12); P (in ppm 4.83, 7.46). The micro
minerals (in ppm) were Fe (60.78, 28.17); Mn (91.0, 34.68); Zn (1.52, 29.44) and Cu (2.09, 8.02) in
the wet and dry seasons, respectively. The mineral soils collected from both locations (Biya’ada and
Golajo’o) in both seasons contained P in a concentration extremely lower than the critical level
established for ruminants. Thus, the mineral soils collected from both locations in both seasons could
not be used as phosphorus supplement for camels. This is in agreement with the findings of Kabaija
and Little (1987), Kabaija (1989), Mohammed et al. (1989), Fikre (1990) and Sisay et al. (2007) who
reported low level of phosphorus in mineral soils from different parts of Ethiopia.
Macro and micro mineral concentration in mineral water

The mean concentration (ppm) of macro minerals in mineral water from Golajo’o and Biya’ada
during the wet and dry season were Ca (74.39, 127.43); Mg (7.29, 10.30); K (0.93, 27.55); Na
(105.98, 197.42); and P (0.03, 0.04), respectively. The micro elements in Golajo’o and Biya’ada
were Fe (0.68, 0.78); Mn (0.44, 1.33); Zn (0.30, 0.32) and Cu (0.23, 0.25) in wet and dry season,
respectively. Location difference for Ca (P<0.01), K (P<0.05), Na (P<0.01) and Mn (P<0.001) were
130
found significant with higher concentration in Biya’ada. Seasonal variation significantly affected
(P<0.01) the concentration of Mg with higher concentration in the wet season. Interaction between
seasons and location of mineral contents of mineral water was significant for Mn (P<0.05) with
higher concentration in the wet season in Biya’ada. Phosphorus concentration of mineral waters from
both sources is extremely low to contribute to the recommended daily requirements of average 410
kg camel. The estimated contribution of P from both sources is less than 0.0001%.
Macro and micro mineral concentration in camel serum

The mean concentration of macro minerals in the serum of camels in the wet and dry seasons
(mEq/L) were Ca (5.91, 4.79); Mg (2.29, 1.14); K (4.79, 5.60); Na (192.31, 169.79); and P (mg/dl)
(1.38, 1.08). Blood serum trace elements (µg/dl) in the serum of camels in the wet and dry seasons
were Fe (76.0, 80.0); Mn (30.0, 20.0); Zn (113.08, 92.84) and Cu (75.0, 61.58). Higher concentration
of Mg (P<0.001) and Na (P<0.05) was observed in the serum of camels in the wet season and higher
(P<0.05) concentration of K was observed in the dry season. Comparing the mineral concentration in
the serum of camels in the present study with values reported in literature, the current values are
within the ranges of the previous reports from different countries except for P. Phosphorus
concentration in the current report is lower than the literature values reported by different authors.
This lower concentration of P in the serum of camels could be attributed to the deficiency of P in the
forages and indigenous supplements of mineral salts in the study area.
Conclusion
From this study, it could be concluded that the principal feed sources of camels in Jigjiga district
come from browse species. The major constraints of camel production in the areas were disease, feed
and water shortage, predator, recurrent drought, inadequate veterinary services and labor. Pastoralists
had strong awareness about the importance of minerals to camels and they supplement minerals from
various sources like table salt, mineral soil and/or mineral water on regular basis. From this study, it
can be also concluded that camels can obtain adequate amounts of Ca, Mg, K, Na, Fe, Mn, Zn and
Cu from browses, table salt and indigenous mineral supplements like mineral soils and mineral
waters. However, phosphorus was limiting in supply from these sources, as evidenced in the low
concentration of the mineral in the serum of camels. Thus, camels in the study district should be
supplemented with phosphorus from other sources. Finally, the following recommendations are
made: the mineral status of forages, non conventional mineral supplements and camels’ serum in
different camel producing areas and bioavailability of the mineral elements in both forages and
indigenous mineral supplements should be studied. Furthermore, all biologically essential mineral
elements of camels in both sexes should be assessed.
131
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133
Isolation of lactic acid bacteria from fermented camel milk and evaluation of their
suitability for the production of cultured Ergo
Araya Abraham, Eyassu Siefu, Zelalem Yilma, Mohammed Yusuf Kurtu
Abstract
The experiment was conducted at Holetta Agricultural Research Center Dairy Laboratory and
Sebeta National Veterinary Laboratory with the major objectives of isolation of lactic acid bacteria
(LAB) and characterization of the isolated LAB to use for preparation of cultured Ergo. Samples
used for this experiment (n= 20) was traditionally prepared fermented camel milk (Ititu) collected
from nomadic camel herders living in the Eastern low land parts of Oromia Regional State known as
‘Tulu Dimitu’. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were isolated using diluted samples taken from 10-8
decimal dilutions by plating on MRS and M17 agar. A total of 267 LAB were isolated and sub-
cultured to obtain pure culture. Isolates were confirmed by Gram’s staining, catalase reaction and
cellular morphology and subjected to other physiological tests. Based on this result, isolates were
classified as 54.5% gram-positive and catalase-negative, 58% rods and 42% cocci and spherical-
shaped. Only Gram-positive and catalase-negative was further characterized using different
biochemical tests. Accordingly, Lactic acid bacteria groups were identified as Lactobacillus (58%),
Lactococcus (26%) and Enterococcus groups (16%). These bacteria groups were identified to
species level based on carbohydrates fermentation profiles. Based on this, Lactobacillus were
identified as Lb. plantarum (32%), Lb. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus (17%), Lb. salivarius (9%), and
Lactococcus groups, such as Lc. lactis ssp. Lactis (18%) and Lc. lactis subsp. Cremoris (7%) and
Enterococcus such as E. faecalis (17%). Species also evaluated for acid production and they
showed medium and slow acidification potential, with higher acidity (1.25%) recorded for
Lb. salivarius species. The results of this experiment revealed that, no significance variation
(P< 0.05) in aroma and sourness observed between and within the products. However, there was a
significant variation (P< 0.05) in appearance between and within the products, and higher mean
score of 5.9 ± 1.0 in appearance was recorded for Ergo sample prepared without starter culture and
lower mean value 4.9 ± 1.0 for Ergo sample prepared with starter culture (ESWS) prepared using Lb
lactis subsp. lactis culture. On the other hand, it was observed that Ergo sample prepared without
starter culture (ESWOS) significantly differ (P< 0.05) in taste from Ergo samples prepared using
starter cultures, with higher mean score of 6.1 ± 0.8 and lower mean score of 4.3 ± 1.7 recorded
for ESWOS and Ergo sample prepared using Lb. delbrueckii subsp. Bulgaricus culture, respectively.
The mean microbial counts of camel milk prepared traditionally (Ititu), Ergo samples prepared
using starter cultures and without starter cultures showed no significant variation (P<0.05) for
aerobic mesophilic bacteria count and coliforms count. However, ESWOS significantly different
(P<0.05) in yeast and moulds content, with higher mean value of 5.99 ± 0.34. Gross compositional
quality of fore-mentioned products showed, significant variation (P<0.05) in fat (%), in total solids
and SNF content among the products, with highest and lowest mean values of 4.94 ± 0.89 and 3.32 ±
0.19 recorded for ESWOS and Ergo samples prepared without using starter cultures, respectively. It
can be conclude that, LAB species had been played a considerable role in fermentation. Hence, the
present study recommended that a considerable attention should be given for further research on
their multifunctional role during the fermentation process and their possible use as starter culture in
small-scale dairy industries.
Keyword: lactic acid bacteria; Ititu; Starter culture
134
Introduction
The camel (Camelus dromedarius) is an important livestock species uniquely adapted to hot arid
environments. It is mainly found in the arid areas of Africa, particularly in the arid lowlands of
Eastern Africa namely Somalia, Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya and Djibouti. In Ethiopia, it plays an
important role as a primary source of subsistence in the arid and semi-arid eastern lowland areas that
are not suitable for crop production and where other livestock species hardly thrive. Because of its
outstanding performance where browse and water are limited, pastoralists rely mainly on camels for
their livelihood. In these areas, camels are mainly kept for milk production and camel produce milk
for a longer period of time even during the dry season when milk from cattle is scarce (Bekele et al.,
2002).
Camel milk contains all the essential nutrients in proportion similar to that of cows’ milk. It contains
5.5 % fat, 4.5 % protein, 3.4 % lactose, 8.9 % SNF, 0.9 % ash and 85.6 % water. It is also rich in
vitamin C. This is important from nutritional standpoint in areas where fruits and vegetables
containing vitamin C are scarce and thus the most valuable food resource in the arid and semi-arid
zones (Wilson, 1984). In the eastern part of Ethiopia, camel milk is mainly consumed in its raw state
without being subjected to any sort of processing treatment (Eyassu,1999).This observation is in line
with that reported earlier by Yagil (1982) and Alhadrami (2003) who indicated that camel milk is
consumed fresh in most camel rearing societies. Consumption of raw camel milk should be of major
concern from public health point of view. A recent report from Morocco indicated that higher levels
of total aerobic count, enterococci, fecal coliforms and Staphylococcus aureus were detected in raw
camel milk and suggests the potential hazard associated with consumption of raw camel milk
(Benkerroum et al., 2003). Similarly, Zahran and Al-Saleh (1997) isolated Bacillus,
Corynebacterium, Micrococcus, Streptococcus, Staphylococcus and Pseudomonas species from raw
camel milk produced in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Under warm conditions, raw camel milk does not keep for long and actually its fermentation appears
to be a means to preserve it. The fermentation ability of camel milk is said to be lower than that of
cow milk and it takes longer time to be fully fermented. It is thus difficult to make products such as
butter and cheese from camel milk. However, there are fermented camel milk products having
various names in various parts of the world.
Understanding of the traditional fermentation and preservation methods of camel milk is a key for
development of appropriate strategies of processing and handling of camel milk to increase its shelf
life (Eyassu, 1999). Unlike other domestic animals, little studies were undertaken on camel milk and
no work has been done on isolation of lactic acid bacteria from fermented camel milk in Ethiopia.
With this background, the purpose of this study was to generate information on lactic acid bacteria
from traditionally fermented camel milk (Ititu) that will help to develop suitable starter cultures that
involve in improving the physico-chemical, microbiological and sensory qualities of dairy products
in the future.
Camel milk Sample Collection

Samples of traditionally fermented camel milk ‘Ititu’ used for the experiment were collected from
nomadic camel herders in eastern parts of Oromia regional State, especially known as Wolechita
Tulu Dimitu Kebele located at about 140 km east of Addis Ababa on the way to Metehara. The area
receives 550 mm average rainfall/annum and situated at altitude that ranges from 740-960 m.a.s.l and
135
has a mean annual temperature of 28°C (Halcrow and Partner, 1989). A total of twenty samples aging
3 days were purchased from ten nomadic camel herders and collected (500 ml from each household)
four times during the study period using sterile bottles to avoid contamination and transported
quickly in an icebox to the dairy microbiology laboratory of Holetta Research Center and Sebeta
National Veterinary Laboratory, where the analysis was performed. Samples were maintained in a
refrigerator adjusted at 4 oC during the period between collection and analysis. The analysis was
begun within 10-12 h of sample collection.
Laboratory analysis and sensory evaluation

The data for the microbial counts, gross chemical composition and sensory properties were collected.
Gross chemical composition, microbial counts, isolation of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) from and
acidification activity of the isolated LAB were carried out using standard laboratory procedures. A
total of six cultured Ergo samples were produced in the laboratory under controlled condition by
using the isolated LAB species as starter culture and compared with a control Ergo samples prepared
without a starter culture, but prepared under exactly the same condition. Milk samples were
individually inoculated by thermophilic (Lactobacillus plantnaum, Lactobacillus solitaries,
Lactobacillus debrueckii subspecies burglaries) and mesophilic (Lactococcus lactis , Lactococcus
lactis subspecies cremoris and Enterococcus faecalis). LAB starters were incubated at a temperature
of 43 and 30 degree centigrade, respectively. Finally the isolated LAB were used as starter
subspecies cultures for the production of cultured Ergo from camel milk and the effect of these
isolates was determined following standard procedures.
Descriptive analysis was done to assess the parameters using SPSS program (Statistical Package for
Social Science) version 10. The analysis of variance was employed for quantitative data and the
significant differences between means were determined using Duncan Multiple range test.
The experiment was conducted using a completely randomized design (CRD). Before analysis,
the microbial counts were transformed to logarithmic values. Moreover, chart line were plotted to
show change in pH and percent lactic acids of Ergo samples during 72 h fermentation.
The Traditionally fermented camel milk (Ititu) had an average values of 5.99 ±0.29 pH, 0.91%±0.14
titratable acidity, 4.9±0.89 fat, 3.0% ±0.32 protein, 12.8%±1.19 total solids, 0.8%±0.10 total ash
and 7.9%±1.48 SNF. This average value was much higher than the mean of pH of 3.8 2±0.49
reported for Sudanese fermented camel milk. And also higher than values ranged between 3.9-4.0
and values ranged 4.2-5.1 was reported for fermented camel milk. Shalash (1979), on other hand
reported higher values for fresh camels' milk which ranged 6.5–6.7. Titratable acidity (expressed as
lactic acid %) measured for all samples has average value of 0.91±0.14 (Table 65). This mean value
was much lower than reported by R i h a d e t a l . ( 2 0 0 8 ) , w h o r e p o r t e d the mean values
of 2.24% ±0.68% acidity for Sudanese traditionally prepared fermented camel milk.
136
Table 65. Grouping of the lactic acid bacteria isolated from traditionally fermented
camel’s milk (Ititu) based on carbohydrate fermentation
Group Isolates Suggested species Ratio (%)

1 Lactobacillus (58%) Lb. plantarium 32%
Lb. salivarius 9%
Lb. delbrueckii bulgaricus 17%
2 Lactococcus (25%) Lc. lactis subsp. lactis 18%
Lc. lactis subsp. cremoris 7%
3 Enterococcus (17%) E. faecalis 17%
A total of 267 colonies grown on MRS and M17 agar which were plated by the traditional fermented
camel milk Ititu were picked randomly and subjected to morphological biochemical tests. Based on
the preliminary screening test, 146 isolates (54%) were characterized as Gram-positive, catalase-
negative, rods and cocci/spherically shaped and considered as presumptive LAB. These isolates
(Table 65) were then characterized to genus level based on physiological tests and grouped into the
general Lactobacillus (58%) Lactococcus (25%) and Entrococcus (17%). Finally, the isolates were
identified as Lactobacillus Plantarum (32%), Lactobacillus salivarius (9%), Lactobacillus
delbrueckii subspecies bugaricus (17%), Lactobacillus lactis subspecies lactis (18%), Lactococcus
lactis subspecies cremoris (7%), and Entrococcus faecalis (17%). The percentage of Lactococcus
lactis subspecies cremoris was lower as compared to Lactococcus lactis subspecies lactis (Table 1).
This observation is in accordance with the result obtained by Moreno and Busani (1990) who
reported greater number of Lactococcus lactis subspecies lactis compared to Lactococcus lactis
subspecies cremoris in raw milk samples, and from Dahi and butter samples in India (Padmanabha-
Reddy et al., 1994). The result of Enterococcus faecalis in the present study is similar to that isolated
from other types of products, such as from goat’s milk (Cheriguene et al., 2007) and from fermented
products (Benkerroum et al., 2003), who reported that these species were able to metabolize the
majority of sugars.
The acidification activity tests of the isolated LAB species showed that none of the species was
found to be fast acid producers as they did not reduce the pH of the growth medium to a target final
pH value of 4.6 within 12 h of fermentation. However, among the tested species the acid production
tare of Lactobacillus salivarius was significantly higher (P<0.5) than the other LAB species at over
72 h incubation period followed by Lactobacillus plantarim (1.17%), and Lactobacillus delbruckii
subspecies bulgaricus and they are classified as medium acid producers. Kandler and Weiss (1986)
also characterized Lactobacillus salivarius and reported their important capacity of acidifying
activity. However, Ahmed et al. (2006) reported different observation from the present study in that
the highest acid production was recorded for a medium (skim milk) fermented Lactobacillus
delbrueckii subspecies bulgaricus, with the time earlier than 24 h incubation.
On the other hand, Lactococcus lactis subspp lactis and Lactococcus lactis subspecies cremoris were
classified as slow acidifiers because they reduced the pH of the growth medium to the target final pH
values of 4.6 and 4.18, respectively nearly at the end of fermentation period of 72 h and attained a
final titratable acidity value of 1.28% and 1.16%, respectively. Francesca et al. (2005) and Rashid et
al. (2007) reported different observation such as Lactococcus lactis subspecies lactis isolated from
traditional fermented milk showed fast acid producing ability at early 24 h of incubation.
Enterococcus faecalis was also classified as slow acidifier but the amount of acid it produced
(1.14%) was significantly lower (P<0.05) compared to the other species in this group.
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Analysis of laboratory made on Ergo samples showed that at any given time pH values of all
cultured Ergo samples were lower (P<0.05) than that of the control. Titrateable acidity values were
also higher (P<0.0.5) for cultured Ergo samples than control throughout the fermentation period. In
addition, average fat, total solids, total ash and SNF contents of cultured Ergo samples were
(P<0.05) higher than the control Ergo. The average fat content (%) obtained in both Ergo samples
were within the range reported in fresh camel milk (2.8-3.6%) by Dirar (1993). On the other hand,
total solids content showed higher average value than reported by the same author. Average protein
(%) content of the Ergo samples was in line with values (%) reported previously by Yasin and Wahid
(1957, 2 to 5.5%), and Knoess (1976, 2.6 to 5.5) for fresh camel milk.
The aerobic mesopholic bacteria count (AMBC) of cultured Ergo samples (Table 66) showed no
significant (P>0.05) difference between Ergo samples and the control. However, coliform and yeast
and mould counts in all cultured Ergo samples was significantly lower (P<0.05) than the control.
This suggests the advantage of using LAB culture for reduction of coliform and yeast and mould
numbers in cultured Ergo. The yeast and mould count (YMC) of Ergo samples made using
Lactobacillus salivarius was significantly (P<0.05) lower than in other cultured Ergo samples as
well as the control. Similarly, the cultured Ergo samples made using the isolated LAB species as
starter culture had significantly (P<0.05) lower coliform count and YMC ( except ESWS-13) as
compared to the traditional fermented camel milk (ititu).Thus, based on their activities (acidification
during fermentation and inhibition of the growth of undesirable microorganisms) the isolated LAB,
Lactobacillus salivarius, Lactobacillus delbrueckii subspecies bulgaricus and Lactococcus lactis
could be used as potential candidates in the development of starter cultures for the production of
fermented camel milk in the future.
Table 66. Average microbial load (Log cfu/ml ± SD) of laboratory made Ergo samples and
traditionally fermented camel milk product (Ititu).
Mean ± SD
Parameter ESWOS ESWS TFCM
Aerobic mesophilic bacteria 9.65 ± 0.14b 9.38 ± 0.60b 9.74 ± 0.19b
Coliforms 6.55 ± 0.60b 6.28 ± 0.90b 6.66 ± 0.21b
Yeast and moulds 5.62 ± 0.98ab 4.66 ± 0.88b 5.99 ± 0.34a
Means average with different superscript within the same rows are significantly different at p <0.05;
TFCM: Traditional fermented camel milk, ESWOS: Ergo samples prepared without starter cultures,
ESWS: Ergo samples prepared using starter cultures. SD: Standard Deviation.
The results of the sensory analysis showed significant (P<0.05) difference in appearance and taste
between cultured Ergo samples produced using the isolated LAB species as starter culture and the
control (made without starter culture). The control Ergo sample had higher scores for taste and
appearance (6.1±0.8 and 5.9± 1.0, respectively) compared to the respective values for cultured Ergo
samples. The cultured Ititu produced using Lactobacillus plantarum had taste scoring comparable
with the control Ergo whereas the cultured Ergo produced using Lactobacillus salivarius had
comparable score for appearance with the control. No significant differences in aroma and sour
scores were observed between the cultured Ergo samples and the control.
Conclusion
Based on the finding of the this study, it is concluded that traditionally fermented camel milk (Ititu) is
a good niche for the existence of diverse LAB species, since LAB groups have been relatively
dominated the total microflora involved in the fermentation of Ititu. However, the result obtained for
other microbial groups indicates that Ititu is not trouble-free, since the hygienic conditions were poor
during production, collection, and handling of camel milk. Even though, Ititu samples prepared
138
without starter culture relatively show higher mean scores in appearance and taste. Therefore, the
present study, concluded that higher mean score for Ititu samples prepared without starter culture
could be due to two reasons, firstly, the panelists involved in sensory evaluation seems doughty to
evaluate Ititu samples prepared using starter culture as good as Ititu prepared without starter culture
by associating it with fear on health aspect. Secondly, these panelists may have no as such
experience in tasting such a product, particularly camel milk. From actual experiment, the present
study recommended that it is of paramount importance to use these species as a starter culture for
fermentation of camel milk and other small-scale dairy industries. Moreover, a considerable attention
should be given to stimulate further research on multifunctional roles of LAB during fermentation
and also need to encourage investigating the fundamental and main functional role of yeasts in the
fermentation process.
References
Alhadrami, G. A., 2003. Camel. In: Encyclopedia of Dairy Sciences (Roginski H, Fuquay J W and
Fox P F, editors), pp. 616-623. Amsterdam: Academic Press.
Bekele T, Zeleke M and Baars, R. M.T., 2002. Milk production performance of the one humped
camel (Camelus dromedarius) under pastoral management in semi-arid eastern Ethiopia.
Livest. Prod. Sci. 76: 37-44.
Benkerroum, N., Boughdadi, A., Bennani, N. and Hidane, K. 2003. Microbiological quality
assessement of Moroccan camel’s milk and identification of predominating lactic acid
bacteria. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 14: 645-648.
Eyassu Seifu, 1999. Handling, preservation and utilization of camel milk and camel milk products in
Shinile and Jijiga Zones, Eastern Ethiopia. Intl. J. Livest. Res. for Rural Dev., 19 (6): 1-9.
Halcrow, S.W. and Partner, 1989. Master Plan for the Development of Surface Water Resource in
the Awash Basin. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Rashid, M.H., K. Togo, M. Ueda and Miyamoto, T., 2007. Identification and Characterization of
lactic acid bacteria isolated from traditional fermented milk ‘Dahi’ in Bangladesh. World J.
Microbiol. Biotechnol., 23, 125-133.
Wilson, R.T., 1984. The camel. Longman, UK.123-176p.
Yagil, R., 1982. Camels and camel milk. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper Number 26.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome.
139
Growth Performance, Carcass Trait and Skin/Leather Quality of Indigenous and

Cross bred (Dorper x Indigenous) F1 sheep
By
Tsegay Tekleberhan, Mengistu Urge, Yoseph Mekasha
Abstract
An experiment was conducted to evaluate growth performance, carcass trait and skin/leather quality
of local (Blackhead Ogaden and Hararghe Highland) and cross breed (Dorper x Blackhead Ogaden
and Dorper x Hararghe Highland) F1 lambs at two levels of supplementation. The two diets were
native grass hay ad libtum +150 g concentrate mix [Wheat Bran (WB) and noug seed cake (NSC), at
a ratio of 2:1](D1) and native grass hay ad libtum + 350 g concentrate mix (D2) in stall feeding.
Water and salt lick were available ad libtum. Twelve each cross bred lambs (Dorper x Blackhead
Ogaden, Dorper x Hararghe Highland) and pure breed Blackhead Ogaden and Hararghe Highland
lambs with an average live weight of 17.53±0.48 kg (mean±SD) and age of 6-8 month at the start of
the experiment were used. The experiment design was a completely randomized design in a factorial
arrangement (four breeds and two levels of diet). Six lambs per breed were randomly assigned to
each diet. The growth trial lasted for a period of 90 days and three lambs from each treatment were
randomly taken and slaughtered for carcass and skin/leather quality analysis. Pure Hararghe
Highland lambs (B2) had higher (P<0.001) DMI (90.04±1.37), g DM/kg W0.75compared to Dorper x
Haraghe Highland (B4). Those lambs fed D2 had significantly higher (P<0.05) DMI, g DM/kg W0.75
than (D1). Feed efficiency was significantly higher (P<0.05) in Dorper x Hararghe Highland
compared to pure Blackhead Ogaden lamb. Lambs fed D2 were found to be more (P<0.001) efficient
compared to D1. Dorper x Hararghe Highland had significantly higher average daily gain
(69.44±4.09 g), empty body weight, hot (12.98±0.54) and cold carcass weight (12.63±0.54 kg) and
dressing percentage on slaughter body weight base than pure Haraghe Highland and Blackhead
Ogaden lambs. Average daily gain, slaughter body weight, empty body weight, hot and cold carcass
weight and dressing percentage was significantly higher in lambs consumed D2 than D1. Carcass
weight loss after chilling was significantly higher (5.72±0.33 %) (P<0.01) in Blackhead Ogaden
than the other lamb breeds. Total edible proportion (TEP) was not affected by lamb breeds as well
as diet levels. Tail weight was significantly higher (P<0.001) in Blackhead Ogaden compared to
cross breeds. Tail weight was not significantly (P>0.05) affected by diet levels. Dorper x Hararghe
Highland recorded significantly higher carcass measurements such as carcass length (CL), anterior
buttock circumference (ABC) and carcass conformation, buttock width (BW) and shoulder width
(SW) than both pure breed lambs. Whereas, leg length, posterior buttock circumference, thoracic
circumference and chest width were statistically similar between Dorper x Hararghe Highland and
pure Blackhead Ogaden. Lambs supplemented with higher level of concentrate performed
significantly better than those consumed D1 in carcass measurement. Percent lean was significantly
higher (P<0.05) in Dorper x Haraghe Highland than Blackhead Ogaden lamb, but did not differ
from Hararghe Highland lamb. Whereas no breed effect was detected on % bone. Pure Blackhead
Ogaden recorded significantly higher % fat than both crosses. Both crosses had higher (P<0.01)
lean: fat ratio than pure Blackhead Ogaden, but did not differ from local Hararghe Highland lamb.
Carcass composition was not affected by diet level. Skin grading by mass (kg) was not affected by
breed. Size/Area (dm2) was significantly higher (P<0.05) in the cross breeds than the pure breeds.
Skins of pure breeds and crosses were categorized in to small and medium size, respectively
according to specification of Ethiopian Standard Authority. Grading by defects was affected by lamb
breeds. Hence, Hararghe Highland received the highest (1) grade and Blackhead Ogaden received
the lowest score (4) according to specification of Ethiopian standard authority. Chemical quality of
skin/leather fat and chrome oxide content was not affected by breed as well as diet level. Physico-
mechanical quality of skin/leather tensile strength, percentage elongation at break, tear load,
140
distension and strength of grain was similar between native and cross bred. But, skin thickness was
significantly higher in D2 compared to D1. The result of the present experiment suggests that
crossing Dorper with pure Hararghe Highland improved growth, linear measurement, conformation
and major carcass traits. However pure Blackhead Ogaden tended to perform similar to crosses in
some parameters measured indicating the possibility of improving this breed without cross breeding.
All lamb breeds produced leathers with quality parameters acceptable for industrial processing
indicating that cross breeding did not affected skin/leather quality.
Key words: carcass, cross breeding, growth, sheep, skin/ leather quality.
Introduction
Small ruminants (sheep and goats) have a unique niche in small holder agriculture since they require
small investments; have shorter production cycles, faster growth rates and greater environmental
adaptability as compared to large ruminants. They are important protein sources in the diets of the
poor and help to provide extra income and support survival for many farmers in the tropics and sub-
tropics (FAO, 2002).
Despite the huge number, nearly 25.9 million (CSA, 2010), and genetically diverse sheep population
in Ethiopia (DAGRIS, 2006), off-take is very low and estimated to be 33% (EPA, 2002). In addition,
the on-farm productivity of local sheep in smallholder production systems is low, this is because the
local sheep breeds grow slowly and reach sexual maturity at old ages and produce smaller carcasses
(Tembley, 1998). Moreover, data collected on the carcass weight of various breeds of indigenous
sheep showed low (10 kg/sheep) productivity potential (FAO, 1996). This is because of many
constraints, among which scarcity of feed, slow growth rate, high percentage of mortality (Tibbo,
2006) has been reported to be the major limiting factors. Under such scenario, sheep in Ethiopia
provide more than 30% of all domestic meat consumption and generate cash income from exports
mainly as live animal and meat and skins (CSA, 2004). In order to increase the current contribution,
improvement of small ruminant production both in quantity and qualities is needed with the
objective to achieve self-sufficiency in meat consumption for increasing human population and to
meet the demand for the export market (Solomon et al., 1991) by addressing at least the major
constraints to small ruminant production.
To improve the existing indigenous sheep productivity, many attempts have been made so far.
However, the cross breeding efforts that were conducted did not bring a significant change mainly
because of sustainability problem and less involvement of the producers in the program. Recently, an
effort is going on to improve the indigenous breed of sheep through cross breeding. The Ethiopian
sheep and Goat Productivity Improvement Program (ESGPIP) launched cross breeding program of
indigenous sheep with Dorper with the aim of improving sheep productivity in Ethiopia and to
contribute to the enhanced economic development and food security in the country. The present
experiment was therefore, conducted with the objectives to investigate growth performance, carcass
traits, chemical and physico-mechanical skin/leather quality of indigenous and crossbreed (Dorper x
indigenous) F1 lambs.
Description of the Study Area

The experiment was conducted at Haramaya University goat Farm experiment house. The University
is located on the eastern escarpment of the Rift valley at about 520 km East of Addis Ababa, at
latitude of 9o 26’, longitude of 42o 03’ and altitude of 1980 m.a.s.l. It has 780 mm of rain fall during
141
the cropping season and the mean annual maximum and minimum temperature are 23.4 and 8.25 oC,
(AUA, 1996).
Experimental Feeds and Feeding

Grass hay harvested from Haramaya University campus was used as source of roughage. The
concentrate diets were wheat bran and noug seed cake mixed in 2:1 ratio, respectively, on dry matter
basis and provided to lambs at 8:00 am and 4:00 pm in equal proportion. All animals were fed hay
ad libitum and got free access to clean drinking tap water and mineral lick. The concentrate
supplement was offered in a separate trough as per the pre-designed treatment. Lambs were given the
hay ad libtum and the intake of hay was adjusted at an interval of every four days.
Experimental Design and Treatments

A 4×2 (breed with diet, respectively) factorial arrangement with completely randomized design
(Table 67) was used to conduct the experiment. Six lambs per breed were randomly assigned to each
diet. The initial body weights of the experimental animals were determined by two consecutive
weighing after overnight withdrawal of feed and the average of the two days were taken as the initial
weight. The experimental diets employed were the following:
D1 (Diet one): Hay ad libtum + 150 g/head/day of the concentrate mix (Low level of
supplementation).
D2 (Diet two): Hay ad libtum + 350 g/head/day of the concentrate mix (High level of
supplementation).
Table 67. Treatment combinations of the experiment involving four breeds and two level of
Supplementation.
x* B1 B2 B3 B4
D1 B1D1 B2D1 B3D1 B4D1
D2 B1D2 B2D2 B3D2 B4D2
*4×2 Factorial experiment, D1= diet one: 150 g (2:1 wheat bran-noug seed cake concentrate mix); D2= diet
two: 350g concentrate mix; B1= Blackhead Ogaden lambs; B2=Hararghe Highland lambs; B3= Dorper x
Blackhead Ogaden lambs ; B4= Dorper x Hararghe Highland lambs
Data Collection
Feed intake and Body weight change

Feed offered and refused were measured daily to determine the daily DM intake. DM intake was
determined by subtracting the amount of DM in the refusal from that consumed. Feed dry matter was
determined in laboratory by drying sample at 105°C for 24 h in an oven. Body weight measurements
were taken every 10 days after overnight withdrawal of feed by using standard weighing balance.
Body weight changes were determined as a difference between the final and initial weights divided
by feeding days. Feed conversion efficiency was calculated as a proportion of average daily gain to
daily feed DM intake.
Carcass evaluation
At the end of the growth experiment, three lambs were randomly selected per treatment and
transported using truck well prepared to restrain animals and bedded with thick layers of grass during
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evening to Mojo export slaughter house. The lambs were rested at the abattoir for five days and
slaughtered within three consecutive days. Each day, one lamb per treatment was slaughtered. The
lambs were slaughtered at an age of between 9-11 months. The lambs were weighed after overnight
withdrawal of feed, but with access to water. Animals were slaughtered as per the requirement of the
abattoir. The lambs were slaughtered and dressed down using standard commercial techniques.
Empty body weight (EBW) was calculated as slaughter body weight minus gastro-intestinal tract
contents. The hot carcass comprised the body after removing the skin, head, forefeet, hind feet and
all the viscera and fat depots (scrotal fat, pelvic, kidney and gut fat (omental + mesenteric fat) were
removed. Hot carcass weight (HCW), dressing percentage (DP) (calculated as hot or cold carcass
weight as a percentage of slaughter body weight (SBW) or empty body weight (EBW) was recorded.
Cold carcass weight (CCW) was recorded after 24 hours of chilling at 4 °C in cold room of the
abattoir and cooling shrinkage was calculated as the percentage of the difference between HCW and
CCW divided by HCW. The total edible proportion (TEP) was calculated as SBW minus the
contents of gastro-intestinal tract, skin, head, feet and lungs and trachea.
Cold carcass was suspended with hind legs on the eight hock gambre of constant width (20cm) and
carcass and conformation measurements were recorded. Carcass length (from caudal edge of the last
sacral vertebrae to the dorso-cranial edge of the atlas), hind leg length, posterior and anterior buttock
circumference, circumference of thorax, chest and shoulder width were measured by a measuring
tape in cm (Fisher & De Boer, 1994). Carcass compactness was defined as the ratio of cold carcass
weight to carcass length (Webb, 1992). Cold carcass was split in to two halves along the dorsal mid-
line with a band saw. The left half of the carcass was partitioned into fore and hind quarter at the rib
section between 12 and 13 and the weight was recorded. The left half of each carcass was dissected
into lean, fat, bone and each component was weighed and used to estimate the whole carcass
composition. The weights of each of the left carcass components to the ratio of left side were
multiplied by cold carcass weight to reflect full carcass composition.
Grading and Skin/Leather Quality Evaluation
Grading, chemical and physico-mechanical quality of skin/leather

After lambs were slaughtered, their skin was flayed carefully. Since the skin was not shipped to the
tannery within the recommended four hours because of practical reason, wet salting method was used
to prevent skin from putrefaction and quality deterioration until it was transported to the Ethiopian
Leather and Leather Products Technology Institute (LLPTI) for further processing. During wet
salting, the procedure used was in accordance to Ethiopian standards authority. Before spreading the
salt, skins were cleaned according to Ethiopian Standard Agency Code (ESB.J6.003.). The amount of
salt used was 50% of the mass of fresh skins. The salts were gently and proportionally spread on the
flesh side of the skin and skins were rolled carefully and kept in well cleaned shade.
Grading of skins by mass

Raw skins of the lambs were weighed before salting. After recording the mass of each lamb’s skin, it
was graded into its mass category according to specification of the Ethiopian Standard Agency Code
(ESB.J6.008).
Grading skin by size

Size of the pickled pelt skins of experimental lambs were determined by using square method to
measure the size (surface area) of each skin by putting it on a plastic sheet. Each pickled pelt skin
was graded individually in to its size category in accordance with the specification of Ethiopian
Standard Authority Code (ESB.J6.008).
143
Grading of skins by appearance/defects

Defects were identified by the model tannery department staff and third year students of garment in
the LLPTI. Result were summarized from the two groups and graded according to the Ethiopian
Standard Authority Code (ESB.J6.008).
Chemical quality of skin
Fat content
The fat content of the moisture free samples were determined using standard Soxhlet extraction
method IUC/4. The fat content was extracted from the samples by using the solvent dichloromethane.
The process was allowed until the fat was completely extracted, at least for 5 hours. After the solvent
was distilled from the flask, the extracted materials were dried at 102±2oC to constant weight.
Samples were re-dried if the reduction in weight was more than 0.1% of its original weight. The total
drying time was not allowed to exceed eight hours. The formula for determination of fat and other
soluble substances by dichloromethane is as follows:
Chrome-oxide content
The chrome-oxide content (Cr2O3) of the leather was determined from the leather ash, by oxidizing
the leather ash followed by iodometric titration of hexavalent chromium ions according to IUC/8.
Physico- mechanical skin/leather quality

Processing of skin was performed using LLPTI recipe prepared for sheep skin according to the
following main steps: Soaking, liming, deliming, bating, degreasing, pickling, tanning,
neutralization, re-tanning, dying, sammying, drying and finishing. The finished lamb garment
leathers were taken to LLPTI physical laboratory and conditioned at 20±2 oC under 65% ±5 relative
humidity for 48 h prior to physico-mechanical testing according to guidelines of ISO-2419 (2005).
Triplicate samples were taken from each skin parallel (horizontal) or perpendicular (vertical) to the
backbone prior to physico-mechanical testing and sampling site were determined in accordance to
IUP/2 or ISO-2418 (2002).
Tensile strength and percentage elongation

Tensile strength and percentage elongation were determined using test method of International
Organization for Standardization, ISO-3376 (2002). Sampling method and sampling location were
according to ISO 2418 2005 and ISO 2418 2002, respectively. The formula used is:
Tear load
Average tear load/arthemetic mean and tear resistance was determined using test method of
International Organization for Standardization ISO 3377 (2002) and ISO 3376 (2000), respectively.
Samples were conditioned according to ISO 2419 (2002). Sampling method and sampling location
were according to ISO 2418 (2005) and ISO 2418 (2002), respectively. Thickness of samples was in
accordance with ISO 2589 (2002).
144
Distension and strength of grain

Distension and strength of grain were determined by the ball burst test using a lastometer. The test
method used was International Organization for Standardization (ISO 3379 (2005) or IUP/40.
Circular samples were taken for the tests and, sampling method and sampling location were
according to ISO 2418 (2005) and ISO 2418 (2002), respectively.
Thickness of lamb skin

Thickness of lamb skins were measured using a standard type measuring gauge.
Shrinkage temperature
Samples for shrinkage temperature were taken from individual animals and pooled per breed for
laboratory analysis. Shrinkage temperature of leather was determined using test method IUP /16 or
ISO 3380 (2002). Thickness of sample was determined in accordance with ISO 2589 (2002).
Data on feed intake, growth rate, feed conversion efficiency, body weight change, carcass, non
carcass characteristics and skin/leather parameters were analyzed using SAS (2002). No significant
breed by diet class interaction was noted for growth rate and most carcass traits. Thus, the main
effects were presented and discussed. Initial weight was included as a covariate for slaughter
weights, EBW, carcass weights. Mean differences were tested using Tukey.
Dry Matter Intake

Dry matter intake (DMI) of experimental lambs is given in Table 67. Total feed intake in g/d, % BW
and g/kgw0.75 (metabolic body weight) was significantly affected by breed and diet. Accordingly,
Hararghe Highland lambs had higher (P<0.001) DMI in terms of metabolic body weight than Dorper
x Hararghe Highland lambs, but did not differ from Dorper x Blackhead Ogaden as well as pure
Blackhead Ogaden. This is because of the fact that the pure Hararghe Highland lambs had lower
final live weight than the Dorper x Hararghe Highland (Table 68). Different from this, Canton et.al.
(2009) observed similar DMI in g/kgw0.75 between pure Pelibuey and Pelibuey x Dorper. Pure
Hararghe Highland lambs fed urea treated maize Stover and supplemented with 250 g/d concentrate
had higher DMI in terms of metabolic body weight than recorded in the present study (Hirut, 2008).
The difference may be due to the differences in the quality of the basal feed used, animal factors
(age), rate of passage of particulate matter, rates of degradation of experimental feeds used and the
prevailing temperature and humidity (Van Soest, 1982 and Nsahalai et al., 1996). Likewise, higher
level concentrate supplemented lambs have significantly higher (P<0.05) DMI per metabolic body
weight than those supplemented with low level (Table 68). This may be due to difference in level of
supplementation.
In line with the present finding, previous result reported that higher level of supplementation could
increase the supply of nitrogen to the rumen microbes that can bring a positive effect by increasing
microbial population and efficiency, thus enabling them to increase the rate of fermentation of
digesta and feed intake (Van Soest, 1994; Rehrahie et al., 2003). The current result showed that the
crossbreds consumed similar amount of feed per kg metabolic body weight, but gained better than
the locals, which is not in agreement with the general conclusion that improved breeds require much
more feed per unit of gain.
145
Body Weight, Growth Rate and Feed Conversion Efficiency

Body weight, average daily gain and feed conversion efficiency of lambs are presented in Table 69.
The effect of breed and diet on average body weight gain, final body weight, and feed efficiency
were highly significant (P<0.001). The growth rates recorded were in the range of 39.17-69.44
g/day/head. Dorper x Hararghe Highland breeds recorded significantly higher (P<0.01) average daily
gain (g) compared to the pure Hararghe Highland and Blackhead Ogaden lambs. Previous research
reported that Dorper lambs had higher average daily gain (ADG) than Dohne Merino and Merino
lambs. Schoeman et al. (1993) also obtained higher ADG for Dorper between 200-300 days of age
than the crossbreds used in the present experiment. This is because of the large frame size and
muscling of the breed with high development rate and high-quality carcass. (Cloete et al., 2000;
Burke and Miller, 2002, 2004). These characteristics of Dorper, therefore resulted in better
performance of the crossbreds obtained from indigenous versus Dorper. Basson et al., (1970) and
VonSeydlitz, (1996) reported that Dorper-sired lambs gained weight more rapidly than Karakul- and
Damara-sired lambs from birth to harvest, confirming the result of the present experiment.
Average daily gain was significantly affected by diet levels. Accordingly, lambs supplemented with
higher level of concentrate had higher (P<0.001) average daily gain than low level of concentrate.
Likewise, lambs under higher level of supplementation had higher (P<0.01) final body weight
compared to low level of concentrate. Besides to other growth variables, feed efficiency is also
affected by diet levels. Consequently, lambs fed higher level of concentrate were found to be more
(P<0.001) efficient compared to those supplemented with low level of concentrate.
Table 68. The effect of breed and diet on total dry matter and nutrient intake of local and cross
bred lambs (LSMEAN±SE)
Parameter Effect of Breed Effect of Diet
B1 B2 B3 B4 SL D1 D2 PSE SL
ab b ab a b a
TDMI (g/d) 787.0 735.4 784.9 841.6 * 733.8 840.6 13.53 ***
DMI (%Bw) 4.03ab 4.47a 3.91bc 3.50c *** 3.86 4.10 0.08 ns
DMI(g/kg w0.75) 84.72ab 90.04a 82.58ab 77.29b ** 80.33b 86.97a 1.37 *
OM (g/d) 657.0ab 613.6b 648.9ab 704.4a * 611.0b 701.0a 11.3 ***
CP (g/d) 109.7 105.6 108.9 117.0 ns 87.8b 132.8a 3.6 ***
ASH (g/d) 78.6ab 72.5b 77.5ab 85.3a ** 77.9 79.1 1.3 ns
NDF (g/d) 487.6ab 448.0b 480.2ab 530.9a ** 490.8 482.6 8.5 ns
ADF (g/d) 297.7ab 272.6b 293.0ab 325.0a ** 303.9 290.3 5.4 ns
ADL (g/d) 58.6ab 54.1b 57.8ab 63.6a ** 58.0 59.1 1.0 ns
a-c
= values in the same raw with different superscripts are significantly different; ADF = acid detergent fiber; ADL = acid
detergent lignin; B1= Pure Blackhead Ogaden sheep; B2 = Pure Hararghe Highland lamb B3 = Dorper x Blackhead
Ogaden; B4 = Dorper x Hararghe Highland; CP = crude protein; D1=hay adlibtum+150 gram concentrate mix (2:1 wheat
bran to noug cake) D2 = hay adlibtum+350 gram concentrate; DMI = dry matter intake; * P<0.01 ; ** P<0.01 ; ***
P<0.001; NDF = neutral detergent fiber; OM = organic matter; PSE=Pooled standard error of mean, SL = significance
level; TDMI = total dry matter intake;
Carcass characteristics
Carcass components of indigenous and cross bred lambs are presented in Table 70. The statistical
result showed significant difference between pure and cross bred lambs on many carcass
characteristics. Dorper x Hararghe Highland breed (B4) had higher (P < 0.05) slaughter body weight
(SBW) than the pure Hararghe Highland (B2), but recorded similar SBW with Blackhead Ogaden
lamb breeds (B1). This may be due to highest growth rate and final live weight of B4. No significant
difference was observed in slaughter body weight between the two cross as well as locals. Compared
to local Ethiopian sheep breeds, the crosses used in the present experiment had higher SBW (Hirut,
2008 and Emebet, 2008).
146
Table 69.The effect of breed and diet on growth rate and feed conversion efficiency of local and
cross bred lambs (LSMEAN±SE).
Parameters Effect of Breed Effect of Diet
IBW (kg) 17.25bc 14.56c 17.54b 20.75a *** 17.62 17.43 0.48 ns
FBW (kg) 20.92bc 18.08c 23.29b 27.00a *** 20.54b 24.10a 0.66 **
ADG (g) 40.74b 39.17b 63.89ab 69.44a ** 32.43b 74.19a 4.09 ***
a ab ab b a
FCR 34.37 27.69 14.57 13.16 * 32.5 12.44b 2.91 ***
FCE 0.04b 0.05ab 0.08ab 0.08a ** 0.04b 0.08a 0.004 ***
a,b,c
= values in the same raw with different superscripts are significantly different, ADG = average daily gain;
B1= pure Blackhead Ogaden lamb; B2 = pure Hararghe Highland lamb; B3= Dorper x Blackhead Ogaden;
B4= Dorper x Hararghe Highland lamb; D1= hay adlibtum+150 gram mix (2:1) wheat bran to noug seed cake
D2 = hay adlibtum+350 gram mix (2:1) wheat bran to noug seed cake. FBW = final body weight; FCE = g
gain/ g intake;; FCR = g intake/g gain; IBW = initial body weight; ns P>0.05; *P<0.05 **P<0.01; ***P<0.001;
PSE= pooled standard error; SL = significance level;
Dorper x Hararghe Highland had greater (P<0.01) empty body weight (EBW) than pure Hararghe
Highland and Blackhead Ogaden lambs. However, EBW between crossbreds as well as local breeds
was similar (P>0.05) (Table 70). The EBW previously reported for the local breeds was in agreement
with the present result (Emebet, 2008 and Hirut, 2008). The hot carcass weight (HCW) and cold
carcass weight (CCW) ranged from 7.95 to 12.98 and 7.70 to 12.63, respectively, and followed the
same trend as that of EBW in which Dorper x Hararghe Highland had highest (P<0.01) HCW and
CCW than the pure Hararghe Highland and Blackhead Ogaden lambs. This might be due to the
higher slaughter and empty body weight of B4. Available evidences indicate that the majority of
Ethiopian sheep breeds have lower carcass weight when slaughtered following feedlot finishing and
at age of less than one year (FAO, 1996), the age at which the present animals were slaughtered. The
current result, therefore, indicates that carcass weight can be improved through appropriate and
planned cross breeding.
147
Table 70. The effect of breed and diet on carcass characteristics of local and cross bred lambs
(LSMEAN ± SE).
Effect of Breed Effect of Diet

Parameters B1 B2 B3 B4 SL D1 D2 PSE SL
ab b ab a b a
SBW (kg) 21.17 19.17 22.67 27.00 * 20.33 24.67 0.94 *
EBW (kg) 16.37b 15.05b 17.92ab 21.80a ** 16.04b 19.53a 0.76 *
HCW (kg) 9.10b 7.95b 10.25ab 12.98a ** 8.78b 11.36a 0.54 *
b b ab a b
CCW (kg) 8.60 7.70 9.91 12.63 ** 8.43 11.0a 0.54 *
a b b b
Chilling loss (%) 5.72 3.22 3.26 2.72 ** 4.20 3.26 0.33 ns
HDP (SBW ) 42.81b 41.29b 44.94ab 48.17a ** 42.75b 45.86a 0.78 *
ab b ab a
HDP (EBW ) 55.27 52.62 57.12 59.47 * 54.32 57.91 0.96 ns
CDP (SBW ) 40.38b 39.96b 43.47ab 46.87a ** 40.97b 44.38a 0.82 *
CDP (EBW) 52.14ab 50.93b 55.27ab 57.84a * 52.05b 56.05a 0.99 *
TEP (% SBW) 49.46 49.63 50.72 55.13 ns 49.66 52.82 1.05 ns
Tail (kg) 0.30a 0.13c 0.20b 0.10c *** 0.18 0.19 0.02 ns
LH (kg) 4.28b 3.85b 4.98ab 6.32a ** 4.22b 5.50a 0.27 *
Hind quarter (kg) 4.02b 3.60b 4.74ab 6.10a ** 3.91b 5.31a 0.28 **
Forequarter (kg) 4.49b 4.10b 5.24ab 6.53a ** 4.43b 5.75a 0.27 *
a-c
= values in the same raw with different superscripts are significantly different, *P<0.05;**P<0.01; ***
P<0.001; ns P>0.05 B1=pure Black head Ogaden lamb; B2= pure Haraghe Highland lamb; B3= Dorper x
Black head Ogaden; B4= Dorper x Hararghe highland lamb; D1=hay adlibtum+150 gram mix ; D2=hay
adlibtum+350 gram mix (2:1)wheat bran to noug seed cake; EBW=empty body weight; CCW= cold carcass
weight; CDP= cold dressing percentage; HCW= hot carcass weight; HDP= hot dressing percentage; LH= left
half carcass; SBW= slaughter body weight; TEP= total edible proportion;
Weight loss after chilling was significantly higher (P<0.01) in pure Blackhead Ogaden than the other
group. It was reported that the lower the carcass fat coverage, the higher the shrinkage lose would be
(Kempster et al., 1981; Kassahun, 2000; Ameha, 2007). Although the Blackhead Ogaden sheep has a
high localized fat coverage, mainly around the ramp, the overall fat coverage of the carcass is
observed to be lower. Thus, the high chilling lose recorded in this breed could be due to the lower
carcass fat coverage on the majority of the carcass body. Dorper x Hararghe Highland has
numerically lower shrinkage losses than the others, which may indicate the better carcass fat
coverage demanded by export abattoirs.
Dressing percent (DP) is an important tool for evaluating carcass merit. According to the result of the
present study, DP on hot carcass weight base (HDP) ranged from 41.3 to 48.2 and 52.6 to 59.5% on
SBW and EBW basis, respectively (Table 70). Dorper x Hararghe Highland had the highest (P<0.01)
HDP on SBW basis than both pure Hararghe Highland and Blackhead Ogaden lambs. In agreement
with the current study, Bruke et al. (2003) reported that Dorper sired lambs (such as Dorper x
St.Croix) had higher DP than pure St.Croix breed. HDP on EBW basis was also higher (P < 0.01) in
Dorper x Hararghe Highland compared to pure Hararghe Highland, but did not differ from pure
Blackhead Ogaden lambs.
Cold dressing percentage (CDP) ranged from 39.96 to 46.87 and 50.93 to 57.84 % on SBW and
EBW basis, respectively (Table 70). Dorper x Hararghe Highland breed had higher (P < 0.01) CDP
on SBW basis than pure Hararghe Highland and Blackhead Ogaden lambs (Table 70). There was no
statistically significant difference between crossbreds as well as between locals. Dorper x Hararghe
148
highland had also higher (P<0.05) CDP on EBW basis than Pure Hararghe Highland lambs, but not
significantly different (P>0.05) from pure Black Head Ogaden lambs.
Total edible proportion (TEP) was not affected by lamb breeds (P>0.05; Table 70). Tail weight was
affected by lamb breeds. Accordingly, pure Blackhead Ogaden had the highest (P<0.001) tail weight
than the other breeds. This was expected result, because Blackhead Ogaden lamb accumulates more
fat in the tail as anatomical adaptation to the arid-semi arid environment. Pure Hararghe Highland
and Dorper x Hararghe Highland have lower (P<0.001) tail weight than Dorper x Blackhead Ogaden
breeds.
Carcass traits were also affected by diet levels (Table 70). Accordingly, lambs supplemented with
higher level of supplementation had higher (P<0.05) SBW, EBW, HCW and CCW than those
supplemented with low level of concentrate. However weight loss after chilling was not affected by
diet level. DP was also affected by the diet level, with the exception of HDP on EBW basis. As a
result, lambs supplemented with high level of concentrate have higher (P<0.05) HDP on SBW and,
CDP on SBW and EBW basis, respectively than the low level concentrate supplemented group. In
line with the present result, previous work (Payne and Wilson, 1999) reported a usual increase of DP
with increasing proportions of concentrates in the ration. Tail and TEP was not affected (P>0.05) by
the diet level.
Carcass measurement and conformation of local and their crossbred lambs is given in Table 71.
Dorper x Hararghe Highland breed had the longest (P<0.001) carcass length than the pure breed
Hararghe Highland and Blackhead Ogaden lambs. However, carcass length between the crossbred as
well as between the local breeds was not significantly different. Although no literature is available
on carcass measurement of local Ethiopian sheep breeds and their crosses, the present result
indicated that crossbreeding can increase carcass of the local breeds. Hind leg length was affected by
lamb breeds in which Dorper x Hararghe Highland had higher hind leg length, posterior buttock and,
thoracic circumference (P<0.05, for all) than pure Hararghe Highland, but did not differ from pure
Blackhead Ogaden. Dorper x Hararghe Highland lambs had also the highest (P<0.01) anterior
buttock circumference than pure Hararghe Highland and Blackhead Ogaden lambs. There was no
significant difference on leg length, posterior and anterior buttock circumference and thoracic
circumference, between crossbreds as well as between local breeds.
Table 71. The effect of breed and diet on carcass and conformation measurement of local and
cross bred lambs (LSMEAN±SE)
CL (cm) 40.50b 41.83b 46.83ab 52.33a *** 44.00 46.75 1.25 ns
LL (cm) 29.67ab 27.67b 32.50ab 34.83a * 29.25b 33.08a 0.92 *
PBC (cm) 51.00ab 46.83b 55.00ab 57.83a * 49.58b 55.75a 1.40 *
ABC (cm) 43.33b 40.83b 50.67ab 55.33a ** 43.17b 51.92a 1.67 **
ab b ab a
TC (cm) 58.00 53.50 58.67 63.17 * 56.08 60.58 1.18 ns
ab b a a b a
BW(cm) 9.00 6.67 11.17 11.00 * 7.67 11.25 0.66 **
SW (cm) 4.83b 4.50b 6.16ab 8.00a * 4.92 6.83 0.50 ns
CW 5.67ab 4.67b 7.50ab 8.33a * 5.42b 7.67a 0.50 *
CCI (g/cm) 212.67 185.06 209.86 240.16 ns 189.47b 234.40a 7.84 **
a,b
= values in the same raw with different superscripts are significantly different, *P<0.05;** P<0.001; ns
P>0.05; B1= pure Blackhead Ogaden lamb; B2= pure Hararghe Highland; B3 = Dorper x Blackhead
Ogaden; B4 = Dorper x Hararghe Highland lamb; CL = carcass length; LL= leng length; PBC = posterior
buttock circumference; ABC = antriour buttock circumference; BW = buttock width; CCI = carcass
compactness index; CW = chest width; D1= hay adlibtum+150 gram mix (2:1) wheat bran to noug cake D2 =
hay adlibtum+350 gram mix (2:1)wheat bran to noug seed cake SW = shoulder TC = thoracic circumference.
149
Carcass conformation is an important visual criterion that has effect on the perceived market value of
a carcass. Subjective conformation assessment however, can be misleading, since its estimate of
meat yield can deviate by about 10% from the actual yield (Bruwer, 1984, as cited by Ameha, 2007).
Hence, objective carcass conformation measurements are important to avoid subjectivity. In the
present study, objective assessments of carcass conformation measurements were conducted the
result indicated that both crossbreds had higher (P<0.05) Buttock width (cm) than both pure breeds.
Shoulder width was higher (P<0.05) in Dorper x Hararghe Highland compared to pure Hararghe
Highland and Blackhead Ogaden lambs. This result could be due to the wider shoulder of pure
Dorper breed. Dorper x Hararghe Highland had higher (P<0.05) chest width than pure Hararghe
Highland, but similar to Blackhead Ogaden. However, buttock, shoulder and chest width were not
significantly (P<0.01) differ between the crosses as well as the locals. As opposed to other
conformation variables, carcass compactness index was similar (P>0.05) among the lamb breeds.
Previous work showed that the shorter the carcass length the higher the carcass compactness
(Mourad et al., 2001; as cited by Ameha, 2007).
Carcass length (CL) was not affected (P>0.05) by diet levels. Similar to breed effect, some carcass
measurement and conformation were affected (P<0.05) by diet levels. Accordingly, lambs fed the
high level of concentrate supplement have longer leg length; wider posterior and anterior buttock
circumference, buttock and chest width than low level concentrate supplemented groups. Unlike the
breed effect, thoracic circumference and shoulder width were not affected by the diet levels. Lambs
fed higher level of supplementation have higher (P<0.01) carcass compactness than low level
concentrate supplemented groups indicating that carcass compactness is mainly affected by the plane
of nutrition than breed.
Carcass Composition
Body composition in terms of dissectible components (muscle, fat and bone) change as animals
grows from birth to maturity and follows the order that the growth of bone reaches its peak first,
followed by muscle and adipose tissues, respectively (Orr, 1982; Enyew, 1999; Snowder et al.,
1994). The results of percent lean, fat and bone and lean: bone, lean: fat and meat: bone ratios in the
current study are shown in Table 72. Significant difference (P<0.05) was observed between lamb
breeds in the estimated whole carcass composition of lean and fat. Accordingly, Dorper x Hararghe
Highland lamb had higher (P<0.05) percentage lean than Blackhead Ogaden lamb, but did not differ
(P>0.05) significantly from pure Hararghe Highland lamb. On the other hand, pure Blackhead
Ogaden lamb has higher (P<0.05) percentage fat than both crosses, but did not differ from pure
Hararghe Highland lamb (Table 71). However, percent bone was similar (P>0.05) among lamb
breeds. No significant differences between crosses as well as locals were observed for percentage of
lean. In contrast to the present result, Kassahun (2000) observed no significant differences (P>0.05)
in lean to fat ratio between Menz and Horro sheep carcasses after 123 days of fattening. However,
the two breeds studied by Kassahun (2000) had differed significantly (P<0.01) in their bone
composition. As breed is known to influence carcass composition, differences in carcass merits
between breeds is likely to govern the choice and development of breeds for specific production
objectives. The present experiment showed that Hararghe Highland x Dorper, in particular and the
crossbreds in general may be the choice for market niches that require lean meat.
Generally, the result obtained in the experiment is expected, since the animals were slaughtered at
younger age (10 months) and the level of the supplement is not that high to allow the animal to store
body fat. Significant differences of lean:fat ratio was observed between lamb breeds. Accordingly,
both crosses had higher (P<0.01) lean:fat ratio than pure Blackhead Ogaden lamb, but did not differ
from pure Hararghe Highland (Table 72). This is because Blackhead Ogaden sheep had lower lean
and higher fat (inter and intra) than the rest breeds. Literature presented lower lean:fat ratio in
150
indigenous sheep breed (3.1:1 for local Menz and 3.3:1 for Horro sheep) carcasses compared to the
value recorded in the present study (Kassahun, 2000). The sheep breeds used by Kassahun (2000)
were slaughtered at mature age (one year and seven months), as a result tends to deposit more fat and
lower lean percentage. Thus, the difference in lean to fat ratio is due to the difference in slaughter
age and breed of sheep used. The value of carcasses is mostly determined by the lean (muscle) to
bone ratio (Anous, 1991). Nonetheless, the current result revealed no significant difference in
lean:bone between crosses and pure breeds. In contrast to this, Kassahun (2000) observed
significantly different (P<0.05), lean:bone ratios in which Menz sheep has higher lean:bone ratio
compared to Horro.
The major non genetic factor influencing carcass composition is nutrition. Percentage of lean was
significantly different between diet levels. Accordingly, lambs supplemented with low level of
concentrate have leaner (P<0.001) carcass as compared to lambs fed high level of concentrate. In line
with the present finding Ameha (2007) reported that goats fed low level of concentrate produce leaner
carcass than high level group. Similarly lambs fed low level of concentrate have higher (P< 0.01)
lean:fat and lean:bone than lambs fed high level of concentrate. However, despite the numerical
difference percent of fat, percent of bone and meat: bone was not different between diet levels.
Table 72. The effect of breed and diet on carcass composition of local and cross bred lambs
(LSMEAN ± SE).
B1 B2 B3 B4 PSE SL D1 D2 SL
% lean 61.5b 65.4ab 68.3ab 74.9a 4.03 * 83.6a 51.4b ***
% bone 22.9 23.2 22.7 20.8 0.90 ns 24.6 20.2 ns
% fat 13.1a 11.2ab 9.7b 9.6b 0.50 * 10.9 12.0 ns
Ratio
Lean : bone 2.7 2.8 3.0 3.6 0.16 ns 3.5a 2.6b **
Lean : fat 4.7b 6.1ab 7.2a 7.8a 0.29 ** 7.6a 5.2b **
Meat : bone 3.3 3.3 3.4 4.1 0.13 ns 3.9 3.1 ns
a, b
= values in the same raw with different superscripts are significantly different * P<0.05;**P<0.01; ns P>0.05;
B1= pure Blackhead Ogaden lamb; B2 = pure Hararghe Highland lamb; B3= Dorper x Blackhead Ogaden; B4=
Dorper x Hararghe Highland lamb; D1= hay adlibtum+150 gram mix (2:1) wheat bran to noug cake; D2 = hay
adlibtum+350 gram mix (2:1)wheat bran to noug seed cake.
Skin Quality Parameters
Grading of skin by mass

There is no significant difference (P>0.05) in the weight of raw skin between local and crossbred
lambs as well as diet levels (Table 73). According to the Ethiopian Specification for lamb skin (code
ES B.J6.003), the skins of all breeds of sheep used in the present experiment were categorized into
extra heavy group based on their mass. Since marketing of fresh skin is based on their mass, the
result obtained here showed that skins from both indigenous and cross breeds were of high value.
151
Table 73. Grading of raw skins in relation to mass in local and cross bred lambs based on
specifications of Ethiopian Quality Standards Agency (LSMEAN±SE).
Parameter Weight of lamb skin (g)
Extra light Light Medium Heavy Extra heavy
( ≤ 600) (610 -900) (910- 1200) (1200- 1500) (1510 -1800)
Effect Breed
B1 _ _ _ _ 1733.3 ± 135.8
B2 _ _ _ _ 1666.7 ±120.2
B3 _ _ _ _ 1933.3 ± 88.2
B4 _ _ _ _ 2066.7 ± 145.3
Effect of Diet
D1 _ _ _ _ 1725 ± 97.80
D2 _ _ _ 1975 ± 78.94
01= Extra light; 02 = light; 03 = Medium; 04 = Heavy; 05 = Extra heavy; B1 = pure Blackhead Ogaden lamb;
B2 = pure Hararghe Highland lamb; B3= Dorper x Blackhead Ogaden; B4= Dorper x Hararghe Highland
lamb; D1= hay adlibtum+150 gram mix (2:1) wheat bran to noug cake D2 = hay adlibtum+350 gram mix (2:1)
wheat bran to noug seed cake
Chemical Quality of Leather
Fat and chrome-oxide content of leather

The amount of natural fat from different sides of the skin varies between 4-50% in sheep skins, 2-
12% in cattle hides, and it depends on breed, age and sex of the animal (Bitilisli et al., 2004). The
natural fat content of pelt lamb skin in the present experiment after degreasing (reducing the natural
fat content) ranged from 0.13-0.38% (Table 74). The current result revealed that the fat content of
the lambs were by far lower than the above range. This might be attributed to the procedure of
determining the natural fat content (i.e. after degreasing). In the tannery, the low fat content of skin
obtained after degreasing in all lamb breeds is an indication of better quality leather (Sarkar, 1991).
The fat content of pelt lamb skin after degreasing were not significantly different (P>0.05) among
lamb breeds as well as diet level.
Similar to the natural fat content characteristics of lamb skin, the chrome-oxide (Cr3O2) content of
crust leather was not significantly affected (P>0.05) by lamb breed as well as diet level (Table 74). In
the present study, similar (P>0.05) absorption capacity of all lamb breeds skin during processing
with chrome tanning was recorded. The result showed that chrome level was above the minimum
requirement for garment leather as recommended by BASF (1984), generally the present result
confirmed that lamb garment leather possessed chrome- oxide content above 3.5 %, which is
acceptable quality requirement for sheep garment.
Table 74. The effect of breed and diet on fat and chrome-oxide content of local and cross bred
lambs (LSMEAN ± SE).
Effect of Breed Effect of Diet
Parameter
B1 B2 B3 B4 D1 D2
Fat (%) 0.38 ± 0.18 0.26 ± 0.12 0.13 ± 0.06 0.29 ±0.27 0.14 ±0.04 0.39 ±0.11
Cro3 (%) 5.92 ±0.20 7.24 ±0.55 6.92 ±0.67 7.23 ± 0.03 7.08 ±0.47 6.58 ±0.25
Cr2o3= chrome oxide content; B1= pure Black head ogaden; B2= pure Hararghe Highland; B3= Dorper x
Blackhead Ogaden; B4= Dorper x Hararghe Highland lamb; D1=hay adlibtum+150 gram mix (2:1) wheat bran
to noug cake D2=hay adlibtum + 350 gram mix (2:1) wheat bran to noug seed cake
152
Physico-mechanical Test of Skin/Leather

Dorper x indigenous lamb breeds in the present study have tensile strength that is comparable to the
pure hair type Dorper, but higher than pure wool type Dorper. Generally, all lamb breeds produced
leather that had quality required by the leather industry (BASF, 1984). According to BASF (1984),
the minimum tensile strength for lamb garment should be 12 N/mm2 and the acceptable range for
percentage elongation is 40–80%. The result for both parameters is within the recommended values
for all sheep breeds used in this study. Generally, the present finding indicates that the lamb
genotypes evaluated could be used to produce leather with acceptable tensile strength and elasticity
for the leather industry. Diet has no significant effect (P>0.05) on tensile strength and percentage
elongation. However, high level of concentrate supplementation resulted in numerically better tensile
strength and percentage elongation of lamb skin. This may indicate that higher supplementation
would improve the physical test of the leather than lower level of supplementation.
Conclusion
The result of the study indicated that both breed and diet contributed to differences in growth rates,
carcass measurements and characteristics. Among breeds, Dorper x Hararghe Highland has better
growth rates, and heavier body compared to pure Hararghe Highland and Blackhead Ogaden breeds.
The fat content of both cross breeds was lower compared to pure Blackhead Ogaden. This is an
important trait which meets the present demand of export market. Carcass measurements and
conformation are also better in Dorper x Hararghe Highland compared to pure Hararghe Highland and
Blackhead Ogaden. Therefore, the study result indicated that Dorper x Hararghe Highland breed was
relatively better than pure Hararghe Highland and Blackhead Ogaden considering most of the
economically important traits. Whereas, pure Blackhead Ogaden was comparable to both crosses in
some carcass traits. Hararghe Highland had lower carcass value and was assumed to be a less
physiologically matured genotype. All lamb genotypes studied produced leathers with chemical and
physico-mechanical characteristics compatible with the quality standards required by the leather
industry, though the native lamb breeds tended to produce slightly higher quality leather than the
crossbreds. Overall assessment of the present result leads to the conclusion that crossing Hararghe
Highland with Dorper improved growth and carcass traits, but crossing Blackhead Ogaden sheep
with Dorper did not appear impressive since the pure Blackhead Ogaden tend to perform similar to
the crosses in some economically important traits. Crossing the current indigenous breeds with hair
type Dorper did not result in a significant loss in leather quality.
153
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155
Comparative performance evaluation of Hubbard classic and cobb-500 commercial

hybrid broilers fed ration containing imported or local protein balancer
By
Zena Kidane, Mengistu Urge, and Tadele Dessie
Abstract
The comparative performance of Hubbard Classic and Cobb 500 broilers fed ration containing
imported or local protein balancer was evaluated at Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center. The
objectives of the study were: (1) to compare the performance of Cobb 500 and Hubbard Classic
broiler hybrids under intensive management and to evaluate the feeding value of locally formulated
(LPB) and imported protein balancers (IPB); (2) to evaluate the effect of genotype and nutrition on
growth performance and carcass characteristics; (3) to compare the costs of broiler meat production
by using the two commercial hybrid broilers and locally formulated or imported protein balancers in
the ration. A total of 270 (135 from each breed ) day old unsexed chicks with uniform average group
weight for each genotype were randomly distributed using Completely Randomized Design (CRD) in
to 18 pens each with 15 chicks, representing three types of experimental rations, each with three
replications. The experimental rations used were control ration and rations containing LPB and IPB
which were formulated to contain 5% of the total ration both during the starter and finisher phases.
The experiment lasted for 49 days, during which mortality, dry matter intake (DMI) and body weight
change were measured. At the end of the experiments, 4 broilers (two male and two female) from
each replication were selected and humanely slaughtered for carcass evaluation. Partial budget
analysis was undertaken to evaluate the economic benefits of using locally formulated or imported
protein balancer in the ration of the two broiler strains. Data were subjected to analysis of variance
for all parameters considered. The results obtained indicated that, Mean total and daily DM intake
during the entire experimental period was significantly higher (P<0.05) for the ration containing
IPB (4283.1g and 87.4g ) as compared to the control (3920.4g and 80.0g) and ration containing
LPB (3915.2g and 79.7g). Mean daily CP intake of the experimental chicks during the whole
experimental period was significantly (P<0.001) higher for the birds kept on the ration containing
IPB (18.8g) as compared to those consumed the ration containing LPB (15.6g). Although Hubbard
Classic birds consumed significantly higher (P<0.01) amount of DM (50.5g/bird/day), CP
(11.2g/bird/day) and ME (174.8 Kcal/kg DM/bird/day) during the starter period, no significant
(P>0.05) difference was observed in the average DM, CP and ME intake among the two strains
during the finisher phase as well as the entire experimental period. Average daily and total body
weight gain during the entire experiment was significantly (P<0.001) higher for the birds kept on the
ration containing IPB (41.15 g/bird/day) as compared to that consumed the ration containing LPB
(31.55 g/bird/day). Day old chicks from Hubbard Classic breeder flock had significantly (P<0.001)
higher initial body weight (37.36g), although no significant (P>0.05) difference in the average daily
and total body weight gain was observed during the finisher and the whole period of the experiment.
Birds subjected to ration containing IPB were found to be more efficient as measured by lower DM
intake per unit of body weight gain. Over the course of the entire experiment, no significant
difference was observed in dry matter conversion ratio among the two strains. Birds kept on the
ration containing IPB produced significantly (P<0.01) higher dressed weight (1749.8g) and
significantly (P<0.001) higher average eviscerated weight (1571.3g). Genotype had no influence on
yield and proportion of major carcass parts. The amount of money (Birr) spent for the purchase of
feed required to bring about 1kg live weight gain was significantly higher (P<0.05) for the ration
containing IPB (14.0). Cost of feed consumed/kg live weight gain for Hubbard Classic broiler was
not significantly (P>0.05) different from that of Cobb 500. Based on the results of the present study
it can be concluded that the inclusion of IPB in to broiler ration might be economically considered
as beneficial as compared to the LPB and the result was even more promising for the Hubbard
Classic commercial hybrid broilers since the profit obtained from rearing of this breed was higher.
156
Performance of broilers that consumed diet containing LPB is lower than the control and IPB fed
chicks for most of the parameters measured. Crude protein content of LPB is high, but ration
containing LPB has the least CP, for reasons we couldn’t understand, which could also partly
contribute to the low performance of the broilers on the ration containing LPB. Thus, the
composition and quality of LPB containing ration should be rechecked before commercialization of
the formula feed.
Key words: Exotic broiler breed; broiler; protein balancer
Introduction
The poultry meat industries have remained to be one of the most successfully growing industries of
agriculture in the world (Bremner and Johnson, 1996). Chicken account for about 75% of the world
poultry meat production, while the remaining 25% distributed almost equally between turkeys and
other avian species such as ducks, geese, quails, guinea fowls and other domesticated birds
(Sainsbury, 1992).
The demand for meat in the developing world has been increasing annually due to growing
population, rising income and urbanization (Haan, 2003). The fastest way of meeting the growing
demand for protein of animal origin is through increasing the productivity of livestock and poultry
products at affordable prices by lowering the cost of production to bring animal protein within the
reach of more people who badly need it (Teguia and Beynen, 2005). As a matter of fact, introduction
of exotic breeds of chicken into different parts of Ethiopia have been conducted over the last five
decades and the trend is increasing in almost all parts of the country. Such massive introduction of
exotic blood into different corners of the country is conducted via distribution of fertile eggs, day-old
chicks, crossbred pullets and exotic cockerels. In line with this, the EIAR has been working on
enhancing the genetic basis of the commercial broiler industry through introduction of parent stock
focusing on evaluation under standard regimens on research station conditions and development of
associated packages of production technologies (EIAR, 2009). Hubbard Classic broilers are among
the most recently introduced commercial hybrid broilers by EIAR and they are being tested under
station condition at Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center.
For rapid growth, broilers require adequate feed with high nutrient density per unit volume (Smith,
2001). Protein is one of the limiting nutrients in broiler ration. Moreover, the prices of protein
ingredients are comparatively higher than that of the other ingredients; protein costs involve about 45
percent of the total feed cost of poultry (Ahmad et al., 2006). Although protein from animal origin is
considered to be cost effective and good source of high quality protein as well as a source of
minerals and vitamins, its inclusion (except fish meal) in to poultry ration is not a reliable source
since its use is irregular because of the occasional ban related to animal health problems. In view of
the above problem, a protein balancer was locally prepared and formulated by Debrezeit Agricultural
Research Center at a very low cost and from safe sources to be used in commercial poultry
production. However, although some preliminary works have been conducted to evaluate this locally
formulated protein balancer using Broiler chicken, the result was not conclusive. Therefore, the
objectives of this study were to investigate effect of locally formulated protein balancer on animal
performance and evaluate comparative performance of Cobb 500 and Hubbard Classic commercial
hybrid broilers under intensive management condition.
157

The experiment was conducted at Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center (DZARC). Debre Zeit is
situated at 47 km south east of Addis Ababa at an altitude of 1900 m above sea level, latitude of 8o
84`N and longitude of 38o 57`E. The average (25 years) annual rainfall was 851 mm with average
minimum and maximum daily temperatures of 8.9oC and 26oC, respectively. The average relative
humidity was 58.6 percent (DZARC, 2002).
Experimental chicks and experimental design

Chicks from parental stock of Cobb 500 hybrids which were imported from Holland Elderic genetic
company on 6 June, 2008 by Alema Farms Pvt. Ltd, Co. in Debre Zeit, and Hubbard Classic hybrids
imported from France on 16 May, 2008 by DZARC kept under station condition at DZARC were
used for the experiment. A total of 600 eggs, 300 from each of Cobb 500 and Hubbard Classic
commercial hybrid broilers, received from Alema Farms Pvt. Ltd, Co. Debre Zeit and DZARC,
respectively stored for two days at the respective farms were incubated at the DZARC hatchery unit.
After hatching, 135 day-old unsexed chicks from each breed were used for the feeding trial.
Day old chicks from each breed were divided into 9 groups of 15 chicks each with uniform average
group weight of 33.66 ± 0.07 g and 37.36 ± 0.09 g for Cobb 500 and Hubbard Classic, respectively.
The 18 groups (9 for each hybrid) were randomly assigned to one of the 18 experimental pens. Three
treatment rations were randomly distributed to each treatment with each treatment having equal
chance of receiving the treatment diet. The experimental rations used were control ration and rations
containing locally formulated (LPB) or imported protein balancer (IPB) which were formulated to
contain 5% of the total ration both during the starter and finisher phases.
Body weight changes were assessed using sensitive balance (sensitivity of 0.01 g) every week
starting from day-old. A record format was placed in front of each experimental pen. A light source
was provided to each pen for 24 h during early age and at night during late stage of the experiment.
Evaluation of feed intake (FI), body weight change, dry matter (DM) conversion ratio, carcass yield
characteristics, mortality and morbidity and economic efficiency were undertaken.
All the data collected were analyzed by a two-way analysis of variance using the GLM procedure of
SAS (SAS, 2003), with dietary treatment, broiler strain and their interaction in the model. Each strain
× diet combination had 3 replicates. The standard deviation was shown as variability parameter in
this study. When differences among means were found, means were separated using the Tukey
Honestly Significant Difference Test and T-test.
Dry Matter and Nutrient Intake

Mean total and daily DMI (Table 75) during the entire experimental period was significantly higher
(P<0.05) for birds kept on the ration containing IPB which was the result of higher DMI for the same
feed at the finisher phase. Similar result was obtained by Al-Rabdawi and Singh (1989), who
concluded that protein levels influenced feed consumption. Lee et al. (1990) also commented that
feed intake increased when dietary protein increased. Ashenafi (1997) also concluded that DM intake
significantly increase with increasing protein level. Similarly, significant (P<0.05) differences in the
mean daily and total DM consumption was also observed between the control diet and the ration
158
containing LPB indicating that the ration containing LPB performed poorly due to its low CP
content.
The overall mean daily and total DM consumption by Hubbard Classic and Cobb 500 broilers was
not significantly different, but Hubbard Classic birds consume significantly (P<0.001) higher amount
of DM during the first three weeks of the starter phase, which resulted in the higher daily body
weight gain of the strain during the same period. Regarding DM intake in these strains, Sosnowka et
al. (2003) also reported the absence of significant difference at the end of 49 days of feeding, but the
results reported by Deif et al. (2007) showed that the Hubbard chicks significantly consumed more
feed compared to Cobb ones at the end of six weeks of feeding.
Table 75. Effect of local or imported protein balancer, genotype and their interaction on DM
and nutrient intake during the entire experimental period (0-49 days).
Factors Intake
DM(g/bird) DM(g/bird/day) ME(Kcal/ bird CP (g/bird/day)
/day)
Genotype
Hubbard Classic 4118.1 ± 243.5 84.0 ± 4.96 284.8 ± 18.76 17.4 ± 1.53
Cobb 500 3961.0 ± 247.4 80.8 ± 5.04 273.6 ± 19.85 16.7 ± 1.54
Significant (T-test) NS NS NS NS
Nutrition
Control 3920.4 ± 174.99b 80.0 ± 3.57b 262.6 ± 11.88b 16.7 ± 0.76ab
b b ab
Ration containing 3915.2 ± 196.44 79.9 ± 3.97 276.8 ± 14.84 15.6 ± 0.85b
LPB
Ration containing IPB 4283.1 ± 198.86a 87.4 ± 4.07a 298.3 ± 14.24a 18.8 ± 0.83a
Significant (F-test) * * *** ***
Interaction
Hubbard- Control 4010.2 ± 146.48 81.8 ± 2.99 268.9 ± 9.55 17.1 ± 0.59
Hubbard- LPB 3976.4 ± 241.39 81.1 ± 4.93 281.6 ± 16.95 15.9 ± 0.95
Hubbard- IPB 4367.8 ± 128.05 89.1 ± 2.61 304.0 ± 9.00 19.2 ± 0.55
Cobb 500- Control 3830.7 ± 175.83 78.2 ± 3.59 256.2 ± 11.88 16.3 ± 0.76
Cobb 500- LPB 3853.9 ± 158.46 78.6 ± 3.23 272.0 ± 11.44 15.3 ± 0.67
Cobb 500- IPB 4198.4 ± 248.10 85.7 ± 5.06 292.5 ± 17.64 18.4 ± 1.05
Significant NS NS NS NS
LPB= local protein balancer; IPB= imported protein balancer; DMCR= dry matter conversion ratio; abMeans
within the same column and under the same factor followed by different superscripts are significantly different;
*** = P<0.001; * = P<0.05; NS = Non-significant.
Body Weight Gain

Average daily gain (Table 76) was highest for the birds that consumed the ration containing IPB
during the overall experimental period. This may be attributed to the superior amino acid profile,
digestible lysine, and methionine as well as methionine-cystine contents and in general the high
biological value of the IPB as indicated by the manufacturer.
Dry Matter Conversion Ratio

Over the course of the entire experiment, no significant difference was observed in DM conversion
ratio (Table 77) among the two commercial hybrid broilers. The results are in line with Deif et al.
(2007) who observed the absence of significant difference in FCR among the two strains at the end
of 6 weeks of feeding.
159
Table 76. Growth performance from 0-49 days of age

Parameters
Factors Initial BW Average daily gain Total BW gain Final BW (g/bird)
(g/bird) (g/bird) (g/bird)
Genotype
Hubbard Classic 37.36 ± 0.09a 36.53 ± 4.93 1790.1 ± 241.728 1827.4 ± 241.69
Cobb 500 33.66 ± 0.06b 36.11 ± 4.17 1769.3 ± 204.397 1803.0 ± 204.39
Significant (T-test) *** NS NS NS
Nutrition
Control 35.50 ± 1.97 36.26 ± 1.81ab 1776.5 ± 88.86ab 1812.0 ± 89.37ab
Ration containing 35.55 ± 2.07 31.55 ± 1.53b 1546.2 ± 75.16b 1581.7 ± 74.57b
LPB
Ration containing 35.48 ± 2.05 41.15 ± 2.45a 2016.4 ± 120.27a 2051.9 ± 120.91a
IPB
Significant (F-test) NS *** *** ***
Interaction
Hubbard- Control 37.31 ± 0.00 36.6 ± 2.34 1795.2 ± 114.76 1832.5 ± 114.75
Hubbard- LPB 37.43 ± 0.04 31.1 ± 2.29 1526.3 ± 112.34 1563.8 ± 112.30
Hubbard- IPB 37.35 ± 0.04 41.8 ± 1.16 2048.7 ± 57.00 2086.0 ± 57.04
Cobb 500- Control 33.70 ± 0.15 35.9 ± 1.52 1757.9 ± 74.39 1791.6 ± 74.44
Cobb 500- LPB 33.66 ± 0.05 32.0 ± 0.37 1566.0 ± 17.98 1599.7 ± 18.01
Cobb 500- IPB 33.61 ± 0.08 40.5 ± 3.52 1984.2 ± 172.60 2017.8 ± 172.63
Significant NS NS NS NS
LPB= local protein balancer; IPB= imported protein balancer; Initial body weight (g) = at day old, Final body weight =
at 7 weeks old, abMeans within the same column and under the same factor followed by different superscripts are
significantly different; *** = P<0.001, NS = Non-significant
Table 77. Dry matter conversion ratio for Hubbard Classic and Cobb 500 commercial hybrid
broilers fed control or ration containing either local or imported protein balancer
Factors Dry matter conversion ratio

0-28 days 29-49 days 0-49 days
Genotype
Hubbard Classic 1.96 ± 0.13 2.59 ± 0.32 2.32 ± 0.41
Cobb 500 1.89 ± 0.17 2.48 ± 0.23 2.25 ± 0.21
Significant (T-test) NS NS NS
Nutrition
Control 1.99 ± 0.10a 2.34 ± 0.10b 2.21 ± 0.06b
Ration containing LPB 2.03 ± 0.09a 2.90 ± 0.14a 2.53 ± 0.09a
Ration containing IPB 1.75 ± 0.08b 2.36 ± 0.07b 2.12 ± 0.05b
Significant (F-test) *** *** ***
Interaction
Hubbard- Control 2.03 ± 0.06 2.37 ± 0.15 2.24 ± 0.07
Hubbard- LPB 2.10 ± 0.03 3.00 ± 0.09 2.61 ± 0.03
Hubbard- IPB 1.74 ± 0.02 2.40 ± 0.09 2.13 ± 0.06
Cobb 500- Control 1.94 ± 0.13 2.31 ± 0.07 2.18 ± 0.01
Cobb 500- LPB 1.95 ± 0.06 2.80 ± 0.11 2.46 ± 0.07
Cobb 500- IPB 1.77 ± 0.12 2.33 ± 0.03 2.12 ± 0.06
Significant NS NS NS
LPB= local protein balancer; IPB= imported protein balancer; abMeans within the same column and under the same factor
followed by different superscripts are significantly different; *** = P<0.001, NS = Non-significant
160
The DM conversion ratio of Hubbard Classic strains was significantly (P<0.05) higher for the ration
containing LPB than the ration containing IPB and the control diet. Deif et al. (2007) also argues that
the broiler chicks fed a high protein diet had a significantly better feed conversion ratio compared to
the other which fed a marginal protein level. During the finisher phase mean daily gain and total gain
of the groups fed treatment ration containing LPB was significantly (P<0.001) lower than the groups
fed diets containing IPB. Ojano-Dirain and Waldroup (2002) stated that during the later part of the
growth period, birds fed a high protein diet continued to gain more than birds fed normal protein
level under moderate temperatures.
There was a significant difference (P<0.01) in the mean daily body weight gain among all the
treatment feeds. Average daily and total body weight gain during the entire experiment was
significantly (P<0.001) higher for the birds kept on the ration containing IPB as compared to those
consumed the ration containing LPB. The present result is in complete agreement with previous
findings of Corzo et al. (2005), who suggested that supply of moderately excess nutrients ensures
intake of all nutrients in adequate amount, so that the expected growth can be achieved. Birds fed the
ration containing IPB achieved significantly (P<0.001) higher slaughter and dressed weight than the
ration containing LPB. Birds kept on the ration containing IPB produced significantly (P<0.01)
higher dressed weight, but no significant (P>0.05) difference was observed between broilers fed the
control diet and the ration containing the LPB. The performance of the current Hubbard Classic
strains in terms of slaughter weight, carcass weight, dressing percentage and other related parameters
was higher than the results reported by Tadele (2003) for Hubbard strain.
Mortality and Morbidity

No significant (P>0.05) effect of genotype on mortality was observed throughout the experimental
period and relatively lower rate of mortality was recorded for Hubbard Classic birds (4.44%)
compared to that of Cobb 500 (5.92%). The same result was also reported by Sosnowka et al. (2003),
where the best health was noted in Hubbard Chickens. Deif et al. (2007) also concluded that
Hubbard broiler chicks had a lower mortality rate compared to Cobb strain. Similar rate of mortality
(5.23%) was also reported by Kassa (2008) for Cobb 500 strains under similar environmental and
management condition. Hubbard broiler chicks have lower mortality rate and better immune
competence compared to Cobb strain.
Economic Efficiency
No significant (P>0.01) difference was observed between the two protein balancer based diets and
the two breeds used in terms of cost of feed consumed/kg live weight gain during the starter and
finisher phases. Cost of feed consumed/kg live weight gain during the entire experimental period was
highest for the birds kept on the ration containing IPB, but the highest net return of 50.92 Birr was
recovered from Hubbard Classic broilers kept on the ration containing IPB due to the highest carcass
weight of the birds on this feed. In general, in terms of its biological efficiency and economic
response, the ration containing IPB was superior over the other treatments to finish broiler, which is
expressed by the highest profit margin obtained, whereas the ration containing LPB performed
poorly and with the lowest profit margin due to the lowest CP level of the ration. The economic
efficiency of Cobb 500 birds was better than the results reported by kassa (2008).
161
Conclusion
The overall mean daily and total dry matter consumption by Hubbard Classic and Cobb 500 broilers
was not significantly different, but Hubbard Classic birds consumed significantly (P<0.001) higher
amount of dry matter during the first three weeks of the starter phase, which resulted in the higher
daily body weight gain of the strain during the same period. Average daily gain was highest for the
birds that consumed the ration containing IPB during the overall experimental period. This may be
attributed to the superior amino acid profile, digestible lysine, methionine as well as methionine-
cystine contents and in general the high biological value of the IPB as indicated by the manufacturer.
Over the course of the entire experiment, no significant difference was observed in DM conversion
ratio among the two commercial hybrid broilers. The DM conversion ratio of Hubbard Classic
strains was significantly (P<0.05) higher for the ration containing LPB than the ration containing
IPB and the control diet. Based on the result of this study, Hubbard Classic broiler is slightly higher
than their Cobb 500 broiler counterpart in growth performance. Among the two genotypes, there was
no significant (P>0.05) difference in all the carcass measurements. The ration containing imported
protein balancer was significantly (P<0.001) superior over the ration containing LPB in all carcass
parameters considered. No significant (P>0.01) difference was observed between the two protein
balancer based diets and the two breeds used in terms of cost of feed consumed/kg live weight gain
during the starter and finisher phases. Cost of feed consumed/kg live weight gain during the entire
experimental period was highest for the birds kept on the ration containing IPB, but it was
compensated by the highest net return from Hubbard Classic broilers due to the highest carcass
weight. In general, in terms of its biological efficiency and economic response, the ration containing
IPB was superior over the other treatments to finish broiler, which is expressed by the highest profit
margin obtained. Whereas the ration containing LPB performed poorly and with the lowest profit
margin due to the lowest CP level of the ration.
162
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163
Comparative Study of Laying Performance, Egg Quality, Fertility and Hatchability of Horro,
Koekoek and Lohmann silver Chicken Breeds under Intensive Management
Aregaw Abera, Mengistu Urge
Abstract
A study was conducted to compare the laying performance, fertility, hatchability and egg quality
characteristics of indigenous Horro (Hr) and exotic Koekoek (KK) and Lohmann Silver (LS) breeds
of chickens. The study was conducted at Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, Debre Zeit
Center. For this study, 204 birds (180 females and 24 males at 20 weeks of age) comprising 60
females and 8 males of each breed were divided into four experimental units/pens. Each replicate
was placed in a separate pen with laying box. The birds were managed under similar intensive
management condition and fed ad libitum and get access to water all the time. The data on feed
intake, egg weight, hen-day and hen-housed egg production, egg size, egg shell colour and time of
laying were recorded daily, while the data on external and internal egg quality parameters were
recorded fortnightly from 20th to 44th weeks of age of chickens. The eggs obtained from the birds at
41st week of age were incubated for determination of fertility, hatchability, storage & incubation
weight loss, embryonic mortality and chick quality. Quantitative data were subjected to analysis of
variance and binary data were analyzed by logistic regression. The result of this study indicated that
KK breed had highest (P < 0.001) daily feed intake (102.2 ± 1.9g/bird), hen-day egg production
(55.5 ± 2.3%) and hen-housed egg production (54.2 ± 1.2%) compared to LS and Hr. But, LS had
significantly higher average egg weight (56.9 ± 0.8 g) and egg mass (30.1 ± 0.3 g) compared to KK
and Hr. In all groups, more eggs were collected in the morning indicating that most hens lay eggs
during early morning. Small size of eggs and white shell colour characterizes Hr breed. Both exotic
breeds produced more medium sized eggs with small proportion of small, large and extra large eggs.
The KK breed produced egg with white shell but LS laid more eggs with deep brown and few light
brown, and other types of shell colors which were difficult to characterize. Lohmann Silver layers
produced longer and wider eggs, heavier albumen (33.0 ± 0.2g) and eggs with higher ratio of
albumen to total egg weight (61.2 ± 0.7%) followed by KK and Hr, respectively. On the other hand,
KK had significantly higher shell membrane weight, yolk weight (15.4 ± 0.4g), yolk diameter and
Haugh unit (95.6 ± 0.4) compared to LS and Hr, and LS and Hr did not significantly differ in these
parameters. Higher shell ratio (9.9 ± 0.2), Roche Colour Fan reading (6.5 ± 0.5), yolk ratio (30.3 ±
0.8) and yolk to albumen ratio (0.51 ± 0.02) were recorded in Hr breeds compared to KK and LS
with KK breed following the Hr, except that there is no significant difference in shell ratio between
KK and LS. Both Hr and KK layers produced significantly thicker shelled eggs (0.47 ± 0.02 and 0.48
± 0.01 mm, respectively) and higher shell membrane ratio than LS. The difference in shell membrane
thickness, yolk height and yolk index was not significant among the treatments. Koekoek had higher
hatchability (93.4 ± 3.2) as compared to Hr (91.8 ± 1.9) and LS (92.8 ± 1.7) on fertile egg basis. On
the other hand, the difference in fertility percentage was not statistically different between the
breeds. Both storage and incubation weight loss of eggs was higher in LS than Hr and KK. Embryo
mortality in all stages of development (early, mid, late and pipe stage) was not significantly different
among the breeds. Lohmann Silver layers produced significantly longer and heavier day old chicks
compared to KK and Hr. It can be concluded that KK breed showed relatively better performance in
most economically important traits compared to LS and Hr. However, it needs further evaluation of
their performance at scavenging management where they are planned to be used in the country and
also further studies involving genetic characterization will be necessary before distribution of breeds
to the ultimate user. Selection against broody behaviour may improve the production potential of the
indigenous Hr breed in the intensive management system.
Key word: Egg quality, Intensive management, breed

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Introduction
Since land is a finite resource, an increased use will reduce land for pasture and fodder. This
situation will largely determine the composition of livestock and will have a major effect on both the
available natural resources and future demand for commodities and, consequently will determine the
management systems adopted. Rising income, urbanization, and escalating human population in
many parts of the developing world caused a growing demand for animal products. The per capita
consumption of meat is more than doubled in the developing world. The need for increased food
production requires efficient resource utilization as well as developing alternatives and sustainable
production systems. Poultry production represents one of these alternatives and the poultry
population has grown spectacularly throughout the world at a rate of 23% in developed and 76% in
developing countries, respectively (Branckaert and Gueye, 1996).
In Ethiopia, however, the poultry industry remains highly underdeveloped and unorganized. The
production systems of the nation are mainly based on the scavenging indigenous chickens found in
virtually all villages and households of rural areas. Although there was a little improvement in total
egg number produced per year from 76.6 million ((ILCA, 1993) to 78, 065, 930 (CSA, 2010), the
growth rate is still too slow. The reasons for this very low output are diverse. However, the most
important and frequently cited reasons include inadequate nutrition, poor genetic potential of local
stock, disease and poor husbandry and management practices.
The current livestock extension package programme in Ethiopia includes poultry as one of its
component. The poultry package focuses on giving training on improved management system and
distributing day old chicks of improved imported breeds. Improving the production potential of the
local birds through selection for genetic improvement is also the area of current focuses. There are
projects focusing on importing and evaluating hybrid chicken breeds that would increase the meat
and egg production. However, the performance and some economically important traits of the
imported exotic breeds of chickens were not usually studied in a well organized ways to quantify
their productivity in the existing production system and environments. Therefore, the objective was
to study the comparative egg production performance, egg quality, fertility and hatchability of Horro,
Koekoek and Lohmann Silver chicken breeds under intensive management system.

The experiment was conducted at Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR), Debre Zeit
Center, located in Oromiya Region, central Ethiopia. It is situated at 47 km south of Addis Ababa at
an altitude of 1900 m.a.s.l., latitude of 8o44’N and longitude of 38o57’E. The average annual rain fall
is 851 mm with an average minimum and maximum temperature of 8.9oC and 26oC, respectively.
The average relative humidity is 58.6 percent (DZARC Annual Report, 2002).
Experimental Chickens and their Management

For the current study, a total of 204 chickens comprising, 68 (60 pullets and 8 cockerels) birds from
each breeds of Lohmann Silver (LS), Koekoek (KK) and Horro (Hr) at the age of 19th week were
obtained from DZARC. The experimental animals had similar body size. Each breed was divided
into four experimental replicates (15 females with 2 males per replicate) and distributed to a separate
breeding pen at random. The pens were properly cleaned and disinfected with malatine and formalin
before the introduction of the chickens. The birds were kept in 1.50 m x 1.0 m wire-mesh partitioned
deep litter floor housing, which was covered with teff (Eragrostis teff) straw litter material. The
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whole or parts of wet litter was changed with dry and clean straw mostly in monthly interval. Feed
was offered in dry mash feeding trough and water was provided in plastic fountains. Two feeding
and watering troughs and one laying nest were arranged for each pen. The chicks were vaccinated
against Newcastle disease, Fowl typhoid, Fowl pox, Marek’s and Gumboro diseases. Other health
precautions and disease control measures were taken throughout the study period according to
procedures followed by the poultry farm of the center. Vitamins were given with drinking water
according to the manufacturer’s recommendation. Vaccines for Newcastle disease, fowl typhoid and
fowl pox were purchased from National Veterinary Institute (NVI, Debre Zeit) and Gumboro, and
Marek’s from Anbesa Drug Shop (Addis Ababa).The chickens were maintained under the same
management conditions throughout the study period, such as the same feed was offered ad libitum
and fresh water was made available to them throughout the experimental period (19 to 44th week of
age of the birds).
Data Collection
Data were collected on egg production performance, egg quality parameters, fertility, hatchability,
embryonic mortality and chicks’ quality. Actual data collection was started after the pullets attained
5% of egg production (at 20th week of age) and ended at 44th weeks.
Body weight measurement

Chickens with similar body conditions were selected from each breed and their initial weight was
taken individually and average weight of the birds was recorded for each replicates and at the end of
the experiment animals were weighed in group (three birds together) and the average weight was
calculated.
Feed intake
For each replicate weighed amount of feed was offered twice per day in the morning at 800 hours
and afternoon at 1300 hours. The refusal was collected, weighed and recorded every day before
offering fresh feed. The daily feed intake was measured as the difference between feed offered and
refused throughout the experimental period. The refusal was given back to the birds after removing
litter materials and feathers and thoroughly mixing it with the new feed. Always the feed offered was
adjusted for losses due to mortality. To convert the feed consumed into DM basis, the daily feed
consumed was multiplied by the DM value of the feed.
Chemical analysis
Feed samples were taken from each of the feed ingredients (noug cake, fish offal, maize, soybean
meal and wheat middling) used in the experiment and analyzed before formulating the ration. Dry
matter (DM), ether extract (EE), crude fiber (CF) and ash were determined by proximate analysis
(AOAC, 1995). Nitrogen was determined by the procedure of Kjeildhal and crude protein was
calculated as N*6.2. Calcium (Ca) was determined by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
method and phosphorus (P) was analyzed using Colorimetrical method. Chemical analyses were
done at Debre Zeit Research Center Animal nutrition laboratory and Haramaya University Animal
Nutrition Laboratory and Central Laboratory. The Metabolisable energy (ME) was calculated
indirectly from the EE, CF, ash content of the feed by adopting the equation proposed by Wiseman
(1987): ME (Kcal/kg DM) = 3951 + 54.4 EE – 88.7 CF – 40.8 Ash.
Statistical analysis
Data on laying performances, egg quality, and fertility and hatchability parameters were analyzed by
applying the statistical model for Completely Randomized Design (CRD) using SAS (version 9.1)
statistical software package. Analysis was based on the replicate means for all the experiment.
Appropriate mathematical curves that describe the prediction equation of some performance data
166
related with advancing time were computed and presented as figures by using Microsoft Excel
(2007) computer program. Differences between treatments means were separated by using least
significant difference (LSD) test.
Feed conversion ratio

Feed conversion ratio was determined per replicate by calculating the weight of feed consumed per
egg weight. Average feed conversion ratio for each treatment was computed as the average of the
replicates for each treatment using the formula.
Daily Feed consumed (g)
FCR = -----------------------------------
Daily egg weight (g)
Egg production parameters

Egg number and egg weight were recorded daily to calculate the rate of egg production in terms of
hen-day and hen-housed egg production and egg mass. Eggs were collected three times per day. The
sum of the three collections along with the number of birds alive on each day was summarized and
the following egg production parameters were computed as follows:
No. of eggs collected per day
% hen-day egg production = ----------------------------------------- X 100
No. of hens present that day
Sum of daily egg count

% hen-housed egg production = ----------------------------------------- X 100
No. of hens housed at the beginning
Egg weight and egg mass

Eggs collected daily were weighed immediately after collection for each replicates and average egg
weight was computed by dividing the total egg weight to the number of eggs. After mean weight has
been determined, the following formula was used to calculate the entire egg mass on daily basis
(North, 1984).
M=PXW
Where, M = Average egg mass per hen per day
P = Percent hen-day egg production
W= Average egg weight in gram
Mortality
Loss of birds due to mortality after the commencement of the experiment were recorded as mortality
and expressed as percent mortality at the end of the experiment. To confirm presence of related case
for the causes of the regular death of the same case, sample of active case of some dead birds were
opened for post-mortem examination at Debre Zeit, Addis Ababa University Faculty of Veterinary
Medicine Laboratory and the major organs including reproductive organs were examined.
Egg quality parameter measurements

Eggs from each pen were collected fortnightly to measure egg quality, for parameters such as egg
weight, egg length, egg width, shell weight, percent of shell, shell thickness, shell membrane weight,
percent of shell membrane, shell membrane thickness, yolk weight, percent of yolk, yolk height, yolk
diameter, yolk color, yolk index, albumen weight, percent of albumen, albumen height, and Haugh
Unit (HU). To do the measurements, one egg per replicate (total of 12 eggs) was taken randomly
from eggs collected one day prior to the day of measurement. The measurement was done
throughout the study period (i.e. 48 eggs per breed and 12 eggs per replication that makes a total of
144 eggs).
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Egg size, length and width

Egg size was recorded as small, medium, large and extra large size based on their weight classes.
The weight classes used for classification were small (below 53 g), medium (53-62.9 g), large (63-
72.9 g) and extra large (above 73 g). Egg length and width measurement were carried out for those
eggs selected for egg quality measurements. The egg length of each egg was measured from the
pointed end to the blunt end by using graduated caliper and width was also measured from middle of
the egg using the same instrument.
Egg shell weight and thickness

For internal egg quality measurements, eggs were broken on petri dish and the different components
were taken for analysis of internal and external quality parameters. All measurements were made on
the same egg. After breaking and separating the egg shell with shell membrane from the egg, its
weight and thickness was taken by a sensitive balance which detects 0.01 g and micro-meter gauge,
respectively. The shell weight was taken after the shell membrane was carefully removed. Weight of
shell membrane was obtained by subtracting shell weight from shell weight taken before removing
shell membrane. Thickness of shell membrane was also obtained by subtracting the shell thickness
from thickness obtained before removing shell membrane. The shell thickness measurement was
taken from three sites; the top (pointed part), bottom (round part) and the middle of the egg and
finally the average were taken for both shell and shell membrane thickness. Determinations of the
percentages of egg shell and shell membrane were accomplished by using the following formulas:
Shell weight after removing shell membrane (g)

% of shell = --------------------------------------------------------- X 100
Weight of whole egg (g)
Shell membrane weight (g)

% of shell membrane = ---------------------------------- X 100
Albumen weight, height and Haugh unit

Albumen weight was measured by using sensitive balance (0.01g) and its height was measured by
tripod micrometer unit. Haugh unit was calculated by using the following formula (Haugh, 1937)
Haugh unit (HU) = 100 Log [H- (30W 0.37- 100) + 1.9]
100
Where, HU = Haugh unit G = gravitational constant, 32.2
H = Albumen height (mm) W = Weight of egg (g)
Determination of the percentage of albumen to egg weight was calculated by using the following
formula:
Albumen weight (g)

% of albumen = ---------------------------------- X 100
Yolk weight, diameter, height, yolk index and color

Yolk diameter was measured using graduated caliper and height was measured using tripod
micrometer and yolk weight was determined by using a sensitive balance (0.01g).
Yolk index was computed using the following formula:
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Yolk height (mm)

Yolk Index = ----------------------------
Yolk diameter (mm)
After removing yolk membrane, the yolk was shacked to mix all parts. Then, the yolk color was
described by the Roche Color Fan reading as a range scale consisting of a series of fifteen colored
plastic strips, with one rated as very pale yellow to a deep intense reddish orange. Determination of
the percentage of yolk to egg weight and yolk to albumen ratio was calculated by using the following
formula:
Yolk weight (g)

% of yolk = ----------------------------- X 100
Yolk weight (g)

Yolk: albumen = -------------------------
Albumen weight (g)
Egg collection and storage

Cockerels were put together with females throughout the study period. The eggs were collected three
times at 900 in the morning hours and 1300 and 1700 hours in the afternoon and transferred to cool
room (12oC) after screening out dusty, dirty, cracked and very small eggs. Eggs used for fertility and
hatchability testing were collected on 41 weeks of age. Eggs from each experimental group with
appropriate shape, size and sound shell of the seven days was used for incubation.
Incubation and candling of eggs

The eggs collected and stored in cool storage room (12oC) for one to seven days were mixed together
and kept on four separate trays for each breed. Then the trays were put randomly in each section in
the incubator which was partitioned into four sections. Eggs were incubated in VICTORIA (Victoria
s.r.l. via G-Galilei, 3-COMO, Italy) incubator with separate setter and hatchery unit. The incubator
was washed with clean water and detergents (vim and clorax) and made free for a week. The
incubator was fumigated with potassium permanganate (49.5 g KMnO4) and formalin solution (99
ml of 20% formalin) for 20 minutes before setting. Eggs in the setter unit were fumigated for 15
minutes upon setting with potassium permanganate (47.7 g KMnO4) and with formalin solution
(90.33 ml of 20% formalin). Eggs were transferred to hatchery unit after 18th day of incubation. The
hatchery unit was cleaned and the power was on for 24 hour before transferring eggs. Hatchery unit
was disinfected with 90.3 ml of formalin to avoid infection of the ovo with pathogens while in the
hatchery. To avoid mixing of the chicks of different replicates and breeds, the hatchery trays used in
hatchery unit were partitioned into four parts using mesh-wire and eggs incubated in different
sections of the incubator were put separately in hatchery units. The temperature of the setter was
adjusted to operate at 37.7OC. In the hatchery unit, the temperature was 36.7oC. The relative
humidity was set at 85% for the first 18 days in the setter, and 95% in the hatchery unit. In the setter,
eggs were kept in the tray with small end down and turned tilting the trays at 45o and thereby turning
the eggs 45o in two directions by an automatically operating turner of the incubator at two hours
interval (i.e., 12 times per 24 hour). Eggs were candled for their fertility at 14th days of incubation.
Spot candling system (placing bright light source over each egg and viewing from above) was used.
Those eggs that appeared relatively opaque were considered as fertile, while those that appeared
clear were considered non fertile. To confirm its clearness, break out analysis was done for eggs
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selected as infertile. Chicks were hatched out at 21st day of incubation and all the necessary data
were taken for different parameter.
Fertility and hatchability

Fertility and hatchability were calculated based on the following formula.
Total fertile eggs

% fertility = --------------------------X 100
Total eggs set
Percent hatchability was calculated by using two formulas:
Number of chicks hatched

% hatchability on fertile egg basis = ----------------------------------X 100
Total fertile eggs
Number of chicks hatched

% hatchability on total egg basis = -------------------------------------- X 100
Total eggs set
Weight loss of eggs during storage and incubation
For egg weight loss, eggs were given different codes on daily basis according to pen number from
which they were obtained and weighed in group to the nearest 0.1g. For weight loss during storage,
eggs were weighed on daily basis and their average weight was taken per pen basis. Weight loss of
eggs stored for one day and two days were not analyzed since the weight loss of eggs stored for these
days were negligible. To calculate the weight loss during incubation, eggs were weighed individually
and their weight was written on individual egg at day of incubation. Average egg weight per
replicate was taken before incubation. Weight loss during incubation was calculated by subtracting
weight at the end of the 18th day of incubation from egg weight taken at incubation.
Finally the average weight loss was calculated as:
i. % wt. loss during storage =
Av. initial wt. at start of storage – Av. wt. at the end of storage
------------------------------------------------------------------------------ X 100
Average weight at start of storage
ii. % Wt. loss during incubation =
Av. initial wt. at the time of setting eggs in the incubator – Av. wt. of eggs at the end of 18th day of
incubation
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ X 100
Average initial weight at the time of setting eggs in the incubator
Embryonic mortality
Eggs that failed to hatch were opened for visual observation, and classified according to time of
embryonic mortality. According to the method developed by Butcher (2009) the stages of
development were categorized as early, mid, late and piped. The criteria used for these classifications
were as follows: Early: exhibiting early embryonic development signs characterized by eye
development but a lack of limb buds. Mid: exhibiting mid-embryonic development signs
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characterized by developed limbs. Late: exhibiting late embryonic development signs characterized
by the presence of feathers. Pip: exhibiting signs of breakage by internal forces regardless of whether
the chick was alive or dead. Finally embryonic mortality of fertile eggs as early, mid, late and pip
were calculated as percentage of the total fertile eggs as follows:
Total number of early stage dead embryos

% of early mortality = -------------------------------------------------- X 100
Total number of fertile eggs
Total number of mid stage dead embryos

% of mid mortality = -------------------------------------------------- X 100
Total number of late stage dead embryos

% of late mortality = -------------------------------------------------- X 100
Total number of piped embryos

% of piped mortality = --------------------------------------------- X 100
Chick quality
Chick quality was measured using three different methods, which includes visual scoring, measuring
day old chick weight and measuring day old chicken length. Visual scoring of chicks was graded by
visual examination based on the quality standards. According to North (1984) quality standards refer
to chicks that are not malformed, with no unhealed navels, not dehydrated, physically active, stand
up well and look lively. Chicks that fulfill these requirements were considered as good quality
chicks. The mean percentage of quality chicks was calculated and expressed using quality chicks
obtained and total number of chicks hatched.
Day old chick weight was taken for chicks randomly selected from each replicate and their average
was taken. Chick length was determined by measuring the length of stretched chick from the tip of
the beak to tip of the middle toe using a ruler and recorded in centimeters (cm).
Total number of quality chicks

% quality chicks of visual score = ------------------------------------------- X 100
Total number of hatched chicks
Behavioural and other observations
Broodiness
Breed that showed broodiness was recorded and the degree of broodiness was also observed.
Egg shell color
Color of egg shell was identified by visual observation and recorded separately for each breed.
Economic Analysis
Calculation of feed cost per price of eggs as parent stock egg and market egg price were done to
compare each breed. Common costs such as price of vaccine and medicaments used and labor costs
were registered throughout the experiment to compare the cost efficiency of each breed.
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Data on laying performances, egg quality, fertility and hatchability parameters were analyzed by
applying the statistical model for Completely Randomized Design (CRD) using SAS (version 9.1)
statistical software package. Analysis was based on the replicate means for all experiment.
Appropriate mathematical curves that describe the prediction equation of some performance data
related with advancing time were computed and presented as figures by using Microsoft Excel
(2007) computer program. Differences between treatment means were separated by using least
significant difference (LSD) test.
The model used for data analysis were:
Yij = µ+ti+eij
Where, Yij = the observation traits
µ = the overall mean
ti = the difference between breeds
eij = the experimental error
Logistic Regression Analysis

For data recorded on mortality (alive/dead), blood spot and meat spot (present/absent), yolk colour
(1/2/…/9), chick quality by visual score (qualified/ non-qualified) and for embryonic mortality,
logistic regression analysis was used. The general logistic regression model used is given below.
 p ( X )  = β + β *( X )
Model : ln  
1 − p ( X )  0 1
Test H0: No treatment effect (i.e., β1 = 0) vs. HA: Significant treatment effect (β1 ≠ 0).
Where, p = probability of event
β0 = intercept constant (slope)
β1 = Regression coefficient
X = treatment
Body Weight
The initial body weight (BW) of the chickens at the age of 19th week (start of the experiment) and at
44th week (end of the experiment) depicted in Table 78 shows that both exotic chickens are heavier
than the Horro chicken. Koekoek hens have higher body weight at both the starting and end of the
experiment. Nthimo (2004) reported a BW of 1700.3 g for Koekoek breed at 26th week of age.
Duguma (2006) reported a BW of 876 g for Horro ecotype in the same station at 20th week of age
which is consistent with the present study. Lacin et al. (2008) classified strain of white Lohmann into
three groups according to their body weight and reported that hens with BW of 1400–1500, 1500–
1600 and >1600 g at 24th weeks of age can be grouped as light, medium and heavy, respectively.
This indicates that the Lohmann Silver imported to Ethiopia might be the light group of the strain.
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Table 78. Body weight and dry matter intake of Horro, Koekoek and Lohmann Silver chicken
breeds under intensive management
Treatment groups
Parameters Horro Koekoek Lohmann Silver
c a
Initial body weight (g/bird) 885.13±3.04 1392.58±5.67 1059.89±6.98b
Final body weight (g/bird) 905.74±5.99c 1963.82±43.57a 1476.72±16.69b
Total dry matter consumed (kg/pen) 194.35±3.52c 285.75±2.99a 266.35±7.95b
Total dry matter consumed (kg/bird) 11.99±0.3c 17.17±0.32a 16.49±0.31b
Daily dry matter intake (g/bird) 71.35±1.79c 102.16±1.9a 98.53±1.8b
FCR (g feed: g egg) 5.94±0.33a 3.88±0.11b 3.64±0.14b
abc = the values in the same row with different superscripts are significantly different, FCR= feed
conversion ratio, Std =standard deviation, values are means ± Std.
Feed Consumption
The Koekoek chickens had higher daily feed consumption per bird than Horro and Lohmann Silver
chickens. There is no significant difference between Lohmann Silver and Koekoek in feed
conversion ratio, but both exotic strains are far away superior (P < 0.001) to Horro hens (Table 78).
There is a general agreement on the fact that modern productive breeds of hen are characterized by
high feed intake and feed conversion efficiency, when placed on grain-based commercial rations
(Preston and Leng, 1987). Nthimo (2004) reported 3.6 feed conversion ratio (FCR) of Koekoek
which strongly agrees with the present result. There are similarities between the results obtained in
the present study and those described by Sazzad (1992). The author observed that both Rhode Island
Red (RIR) and Barred Plymouth Race (BPR) consumed more feed than indigenous (Desi) hens in
intensive system of rearing up to 50 weeks of age. However, the results of the current study do not
agree with the previous findings of Solomon (2004). He reported higher feed consumption of
indigenous ecotype than White Leghorn (WL) layers kept under intensive management conditions
and the mean total feed consumption of the WL layers kept under intensive management was about
85% of the mean total feed consumption of indigenous layers kept under similar conditions but FCR
of local (7.5) was higher than the present study indicating that selection program at the center might
have improved the FCR of the Horro chicken. The FCR of WL (2.2) reported in that experiment is
better than both exotic breeds in the present study. Lacin et al. (2008) noted that there is a significant
relationship between feed consumption and body weight. As body weight increased, feed
consumption of hens also increased. The higher feed consumption of Koekoek and Lohmann Silver
compared to Horro may be partially because of their higher body weight than the Horro hens.
Hen-day and hen-housed egg production

Statistical analysis of production performance measurements (Table 79) showed that KK and LS
breeds had significantly higher (P<0.001) egg number compared to Hr during the experimental
period. The LS recorded significantly heavier average daily egg weight compared to KK and Hr. The
present result is closely in agreement with that obtained by Akhtar et al. (2007) who found that RIR
birds laid more eggs compared to Lyallpur Silver Black (LSB) and Fayoumi birds and the lowest egg
production was recorded in LSB birds. Sazzad (1992) observed production performances of chickens
of different breeds under intensive and rural conditions to evaluate their egg production and feed
conversion efficiency in Bangladesh and noted significant difference in egg production among the
three breeds.
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Table 79. Comparison of hen-day and hen-housed egg production, average daily egg weight
and daily egg mass of Hr, KK and LS chicken breeds under intensive management condition,
20-44th weeks
Treatment groups
Parameters Hr KK LS
Total no of eggs obtained/pen 953.75±38.77c 1361.18±29.68a 1225.60±29.4b
Total no of eggs obtained/bird 69.51±3.38c 102.10±13.42a 100.44±7.1a
HDEP (%) 39.71±1.40c 55.45±2.26 a
52.33±1.09b
HHEP (%) 37.78±0.72c 54.16±1.21a 49.14±1.19b

ADEW (g) 43.51±0.45c 51.42±0.33b 56.86±0.84a
DEM (g) 17.32±0.61c 28.65±0.92b 30.14±0.25a
Hr= Horro breed; KK= Koekoek; LS= Lohmann Silver; abc = the means in the same row with different
superscripts are significantly different, ADEW = average daily egg weight, DEM = daily egg mass, HDEP =
hen-day egg production, HHEP =hen-housed egg production, Std = standard deviation and values are means
± Std
Loss due to mortality was not significantly different between the breeds. Pronounced broody
behavior was observed in Hr birds, which also played a major role in reduction of egg number
compared with the exotic breeds. A little broody behavior was also exhibited in KK, but broody
behavior was not observed in LS hens.
Egg Quality Measurements
Egg weight, length and width

The mean values of both external and internal parameters of eggs used for egg quality measurements
in the three breeds are shown in Table 80. Egg weight, egg length and egg width differed
significantly (P < 0.001) among the breeds used in the current study. LS breed exhibited significantly
higher egg weight, egg length and egg width compared to both KK and Hr breed. The egg of Hr
breed is very light compared to KK breed which still follows LS breed and egg length and egg width
are also smaller than both exotic breeds. North (1984) associated egg size with genetic makeup of the
birds in that some hens lay eggs that are larger or smaller than those laid by other hens. Malago and
Baitilwake (2009) compared egg traits mainly egg weight, length and width for local, RIR and
crossbred chickens in Tanzania. They found significant difference among the breeds. They attributed
the higher egg weight of RIR over local and crossbred chicken to their genetic potential for the
production of large sized eggs.
Higher shell, yolk ratio and yolk to albumen ratios and deep yellow yolk color was recorded in Hr
hens compared to KK and LS, and KK follow Hr breed, except that there is no significant difference
in shell ratio between KK and LS. The results of the present experiment are in accordance with the
findings of Zita et al. (2008), who found a higher egg shell ratio to egg weight in Isa Brown (13.03)
eggs compared to Hisex Brown (12.32) and Moravia BSL (12.01). Both Hr and KK breeds produced
significantly thicker shelled eggs and higher shell membrane ratio than LS. However, the difference
in shell membrane thickness, yolk height and yolk index was found to be non significant among the
breeds. This finding is in agreement with Akhtar et al. (2007) who recorded significant difference in
egg shell thickness among LSB (0.40), Fayoumi (0.37) and RIR (0.35 mm) chicken breeds. Mebratu
(1997) reported the shell thickness of local ecotypes of Tikur, Melata, Kei and Netch to possess
0.374, 0.311, 0.383 and 0.317 mm, respectively which are thinner shells compared to Hr breed.
174
Table 80. Comparison of egg quality parameters of eggs collected from Hr, KK and LS
chicken breeds reared under intensive management, 20-44th weeks
Treatment group
Parameters Hr KK LS
c
Egg weight, g 45.17±1.84 53.96±0.41b 57.44±1.48a
c
Egg length, mm 50.34±0.26 52.96±0.26b 54.560.26a
c
Egg width, mm 39.28±0.49 41.24±0.31b 42.84±0.33a
Shell weight, g 4.44±0.21b 5.04±0.07a 5.23±0.27a
a
Shell thickness, mm 0.47±0.02 0.48±0.008a 0.37±0.05b
a
Shell percent 9.86±0.15 9.36±0.15b 9.12±0.15b
Shell membrane weight, g 0.4±0.03b 0.46±0.031a 0.4±0.037b
Shell membrane thickness, mm 0.04±0.01 0.042±0.01 0.033±0.01
a
Shell membrane percent 0.89±0.06 0.86±0.06a 0.71±0.05b
Yolk weight, g 13.68±0.93b 15.41±0.42a 12.95±0.24b
Yolk height, mm 17.61±0.16 18.23±0.26 18.54±0.82
b
Yolk diameter, mm 36.12±0.52 37.39±0.07a 36.39±0.74b
Yolk index 0.49±0.009 0.49±0.009 0.51±0.02
Yolk percent 30.29±0.82a 28.55±0.56b 22.67±0.88c
Albumen weight, g 26.61±0.85c 33.01±0.17b 38.82±1.34a
b
Albumen height, mm 7.71±0.35 8.75±0.25a 8.56±0.41a
c
Albumen percent 58.91±0.83 61.21±0.68b 67.51±0.59a
Yolk: albumen 0.51±0.02a 0.47±0.01b 0.34±0.02c
b
Haugh unit (%) 91.75±1.85 95.56±0.35a 92.8±1.74b
Hr= Horro breed; KK= Koekoek; LS= Lohmann Silver; abc = the means in the same row with
different superscripts are significantly different, Std = standard deviation and values are means ±
Std
Fertility and Hatchability

The results of fertility and hatchability are presented in Table 81. There was no difference (P>0.05)
in fertility and hatchability aggregated on the basis of total egg among the chicken breeds. But on
fertile egg base KK had significantly higher (P<0.05) percent hatchability compared to both Hr and
LS. Percent hatchability of the local ecotype reported by Mebratu (1997) was not comparable with
the current observation. According to the author, the values for Tikur, Melata, Kei, Gebsima and
Netch were 42.0, 41.8, 44.3, 39.3 and 39.0%, respectively which were very low as compared to that
obtained for Hr in the present experiment. Getnet (2003) detected significant difference in
hatchability between RIR (59.49 and 76.67) and WL (93.33 and 97.12 %) both in terms of total egg
set and fertile egg bases. This result may be explained by the fact that genetic variation in
hatchability of a fertile egg arises mostly from the dam which laid the egg. The effect of the dam is
attributable to the quality (external and internal) of the laid egg which affects successful
development of the embryo to a chick during incubation and the emergence of the chick from the egg
at hatching. The higher hatchability of KK over Hr and LS might be due to the good genetic potential
of KK female.
175
Table 81. Percent fertility and hatchability of eggs from Hr, KK and LS chicken breeds reared
under intensive management, 41st week
Treatment groups
Hr KK LS
Total eggs incubated 140 238 272
No of fertile eggs 115 211 238

% fertility 81.96±7.86 88.62±3.56 87.44±2.11
No of chicks hatched 101 197 208
% of hatchability
Total egg base 71.93±8.96 82.9±2.43 76.48±4.18
Fertile egg base 87.6±2.83b 93.39±3.21a 86.54±4.17b
Hr= Horro breed; KK= Koekoek; LS= Lohmann Silver; ab = the values in the same row with
different superscripts are significantly different, Std = standard deviation and values are means ± Std.
Egg Weight Loss during Storage and Incubation

Both storage and incubation weight loss of egg (Table 82) was higher in LS than Hr compared to
KK. Embryonic mortality was similar among the breeds at all stages of development. Lohmann
Silver layers produced significantly longer chicks and heavier day old chicks than their counter parts
of KK and Hr. Mean percentage egg loss that corresponds with current observation is reported by
Tullet (1995). The author reported that the best hatchability results were obtained in the poultry
species when eggs weight loss from the time of lay up to the embryo pips the shell is 12%.
Hatchability decreased in eggs losing less than 10% or greater than 15% of their fresh egg weight.
Getnet (2003) also observed significant difference in egg weight loss during incubation between RIR
(20.16±0.01) and WL (9.56±0.05).
Table 82. Comparison of egg weight loss during storage and incubation of eggs from Horro,
Koekoek and Lohmann Silver reared under intensive management, 41st week
Percent weight loss in gram/ egg (%)

Storage time (day) Horro Koekoek Lohmann Silver
Seven 0.28±0.03c 0.59±0.095b 1.19±0.16a
Six 0.25±0.04c 0.55±0.06b 0.93±0.32a
b ab
Five 0.25±0.13 0.41±0.11 0.86±0.48a
b b
Four 0.098±0.08 0.16±0.02 0.27±0.06a
Three 0.08±0.07 0.12±0.03 0.16±0.06
Total weight loss during storage 0.96±0.32b 1.94±0.17b 3.28±1.15a
Incubation weight loss(up to 18th day) 9.73±0.8b 10.46±0.54b 13.91±1.10a

abc = the mean values in the same row with different superscripts are significantly different, Std = standard
deviation and values are means ± Std.
Embryonic Mortality and chick quality

Embryonic mortality difference was not observed among the breeds at all stages of development.
Lohmann Silver layers produced significantly longer chicks and heavier day old chicks than their
counter parts of KK and Hr. The difference of chick length can be explained by the size of eggs since
chick size is directly related to egg size (Leeson and Summers, 2001) and egg weight. Thus, since LS
breed produced eggs with larger size and heavier weight, the chicks produced from this breed is
longer and heavier as compared to the others.
176
Conclusion
It was found that KK breed produced significantly more number of eggs both on individual as well
as on group basis with superior rate of lay. Medium sized eggs with thicker shell and uniform shell
color characterize the KK breed. Heavier yolk and higher Haugh unit value with better hatchability
were also recorded in KK breed. Therefore, the study result indicates that KK breed is relatively
better than LS and Hr considering most of the economically important traits that the breed showed
compared to its counterparts. The result of this study indicated that Hr breed has a genetic ability to
produce more eggs if the effect of broody behavior was not pronounced. Hence, selection against
broody behavior may improve the production potential of Hr breed in the intensive management
system. Although the observed mortality was not statistically significant between the breeds, all the
mortalities observed in KK and Hr were sudden, which could be attributed to some acute diseases.
However, all mortality cases in LS were associated with reproductive disorder (prolapse) which
occurred mainly following peak production. Clinical diagnosis for pathological cases related with the
prolapse showed the presence of such cases, suggesting that this could be related to inherited traits of
reproductive problem. It is, therefore, imperative to look in to the problem and further studies
involving genetic characterization could be undertaken before the distribution of the breeds to the
ultimate users to avoid genetic adulteration of the indigenous ecotypes. It is also important to
evaluate the breeds in the scavenging management system where they are to be used.
177
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178
Assessment of traditional cattle fattening practices and feedlot performance of

Hararghe highland Bulls
By
Tsigereda Fekadu and Mengistu Urge
Abstract
A survey study in East and West Hararghe Zones and on station experiment at Haramaya
University was conducted to assess the practice of feeding and identify the major feed resource
used in the traditional cattle fattening, indigenous knowledge involved and major constraints of the
system, and to evaluate feedlot performance of Hararghe highland cattle using a combination of
indigenous knowledge identified during the survey, the major feed resources used in the traditional
system and improved practices/supplementation. For the survey part two representative weredas
were selected (one from each zone) based on the information obtained from the preliminary survey.
For the feeding trial twenty-four yearling intact male Hararghe highland cattle with a mean live
weight of 149.46±16.08 and mean age of 3.0±0.41 years were used. The experiment consisted of
ninety days of feeding trial and seven days of digestibility trial followed by evaluation of carcass
parameters at the end of the experiment. Dietary treatments consisted of maize stover alone offered
ad libitum, 3kg concentrate mix of WB and NSC at a ratio of 2:1, respectively (T1), maize stover
alone offered ad libitum, 3kg concentrate fortified with 2.6g of yeast (T2), maize stover alone
offered ad libitum, 3kg concentrate fortified with 3.9g of yeast (T3), maize Stover alone offered ad
libitum, 3kg concentrate fortified with 5.2g of yeast (T4), per head per day on as feed bases. The
result of survey indicated that among the different livestock activities, selling livestock products,
watering and caring for young were the responsibilities of wife among the family members. On the
other hand, feeding, live animal marketing and managing fattening animals were the
responsibilities of husband or household head. Herding and watering activity is mostly done by
hired labour and children in both weredas. The mean total livestock holding in Habro wereda was
higher (P<0.001) than those in Fedis wereda. More number of bulls are owned and fattened per
household in Habro as compared to Fedis wereda. From a total of households selected for the
present study, 96.7% in Fedis and 93.3% in Habro were fattening cattle during the survey time.
From these the majority of the farmer’s fattened one cattle in both weredas. All of the farmers in
Fedis wereda use draught oxen, where as farmers in Habro wereda use draught oxen and bull for
fattening activity. The majority of the draught oxen are used for fattening after 1-3 years of services
in both weredas. Majority of the farmers in Fedis wereda (96.7%) did not castrate their animal
while 50% in Habro practice castration. The major livestock feed sources identified in the study
areas were crop residue, natural pasture hay and commercially available industrial by products
such as oil seed meal, brewery and flour milling by products. Among the crop residues, maize and
sorghum stover score first in Habro and Fedis, respectively based on their utilization. During the
survey, feed item that are not common in livestock feeding were identified in both weredas. One
third of the respondent households in Fedis and nearly half in Habro wereda use yeast, Abish flour
(fenugreek) and fermented dough or their combination for fattening purpose. Different constraints
of livestock production and fattening animals were identified. Lack of feed and shortage of grazing
land are reported as the major problems for cattle as well as small ruminant production in both
weredas. Low selling cost of fattened bulls/oxen mainly by respondents in Habro wereda was
mentioned as constraint. The result of the experimental research indicated that average daily gain
was significantly higher (P<0.01) in yeast group bulls but no effect was found on feed conversion
ratio. From the result of the present experiment, it can be concluded that traditional fattening in
Hararghe highland is well established being accompanied by a feeding and management practices
that can be considered an indigenous knowledge. Yeast supplementation seems to be beneficial in
fattening and further study is recommended by involving different forms of offer and basal diet,
since the present result is not conclusive.
179
Key word: Fattening practice; Yeast; Crop residue
Introduction
Livestock are essential component of Ethiopian agriculture and the country is reported to have the
largest livestock resource than any other African country with about 49 million heads of cattle (CSA,
2009). In different parts of the country, livestock and livestock products account for 37-87 percent of
the total household cash income (Solomon et al., 2003). However its maximum contribution to the
total GDP is about 16 percent and to the agricultural GDP is around 30 percent (EEA, 2005; CSA,
2009). In Ethiopia, the present level of livestock productivity is low. For instance, beef productivity
(110 kg carcass /head) is about 25-30% lower than the average for East Africa (143 kg/head) (FAO,
1997). The total herd off take is estimated at 7% annually for cattle and 33% and 37% for sheep and
goats, respectively. Meat production was estimated at 548,000 tons in 2001 (Encyclopedia of the
Nation, 2009). Per capita meat consumption on the other hand was high by developing countries’
standard and estimated to be 29 kg/cap/year in 2002 (FAO, 2006).
Lack of proper livestock management, feed shortage and low standards of feeding are among the
major factor constraining livestock production in the country. Several research results have reported
that forage is in short supply almost everywhere in the country for most part of the year (Gryseel and
Anderson, 1983; Alemayehu, 1987). The forage is also of poor quality, especially in the dry season.
Under traditional highland systems, all livestock become heavier during the wet season, but lose
most of the increased weight during the late dry season and early wet season. Thus, the traditional
livestock management system does not fit to the seasonal pattern of feed demand and supply. The
result is alternating periods of surplus and deficit and a very low level of production for the entire
year.
It has been known that there is a long tradition of oxen fattening by small holders farmers of
Hararghe highlands. They fatten bull using locally available feeds and the sell of the fattened bull
bring a premium price both at the local and Addis Ababa market. Oxen are known by the name
‘’Harar Sanga’’ throughout the country. The oxen also are highly smuggled to the neighboring
countries, Somalia and Djibouti. The primary objective of keeping cattle by farmers in the area,
however, is not different from that of other highlands of the country. Regarding the farmers
traditional fattening practice, there is limited information about the performance of the system. The
common type of feed used, the efficiency of the feeding management and the biological performance
of drought oxen fattened under the traditional practices are not well described to design appropriate
improvement strategy. Therefore, this study was designed to investigate the traditional cattle
fattening practices and the feedlot fattening potential of Hararghe highland cattle.
Description of the study area

The study was conducted at two purposively selected Weredas from East and West Hararghe
highlands. The Hararghe highlands cover areas of the region with elevation ranging between 1800 to
2400 meters above sea level and with gentle slopes towards the Ogaden in the south and south east
and towards the rift valley lowland in the north (Langias et al., 1984). Similar to the other highlands
of the country, the area is inhabited by high population density of about 300 people per square
kilometer. It is characterized by tropical highlands’ climate where the winter is dry, with temperature
varying from 3oC to 18oC. The rain fall pattern in the area is bimodal (Belay, 1990; AUA, 1998).
180
Sample selection
At the beginning of the study, an informal reconnaissance survey was undertaken in Eastern and
Western Hararghe highlands to understand and update the existing information about traditional
fattening practices. The objective of the reconnaissance survey was to know whether there are
differences in the livestock management and traditional fattening practices between different areas of
the Hararghe highlands. During the reconnaissance survey, concerned offices and community leaders
were involved. Two representative weredas (one from each zone) were purposively selected based
on the information obtained from the preliminary survey for detailed assessment of the traditional
fattening practices. During the survey work, discussion was held with community leaders, farmers,
zonal and wereda employees of bureau of agriculture of the survey areas.
From the two selected weredas, two rural kebeles (RKs) each were selected purposively based on the
history of the RKs in livestock keeping and traditional fattening practices and accessibility. From
these RKs, households who were fattening animals or who at least once fattened and sold fattened
animals were selected for the detailed interview. Information was gathered from 30 selected
households from each wereda (15 households from each peasant association) and 60 households in
total through rapid field survey.
Data collection
Structured questionnaires were developed and pre-tested before use and necessary adjustment was
made prior to the actual survey based on the pre-test result to carry out the survey across the selected
farmers. The questionnaires include among others, information on feeding system, major feed
resource available during different season of the year for fattening, constraints of the traditional
fattening practices, marketing of finished animals, market actors and routes of marketed animals,
indigenous knowledge that exist in feeding, selecting animals for fattening, methods of improving
feed quality and efficiency. The household was taken as unit of analysis. Trained development
agents were assigned to collect the data with close and daily supervision of the researcher. In
addition to formal survey, marketing data were collected from tax collector, brokers, traders and
customers available in the market place during Market day.
Experimental Animals
Twenty four Hararghe highland breed indigenous male cattle with similar age were obtained among
bulls purchased for fattening at Haramaya University cattle fattening farm and used in this study.
Age was determined on the basis of dentitions of the cattle and information obtained from the
fattening center. The mean initial body weight of the experimental animals was 149.46±16.08 and
the mean age of the animal was 3.0±0.41 with a range of 2.10 to 3.6 years. The cattle were
vaccinated for common diseases, dewormed and sprayed against internal and external parasites,
respectively during the two weeks quarantine period. At the end of the quarantine period, cattle were
weighed and blocked in to six blocks of four animals each and randomly distributed to one of the
treatment feeds (Table 83). Animals were kept in individual pens equipped with feeding troughs. All
animals were identified with ear tag. Following the quarantine period, animals were acclimated to
the treatment diet and experimental procedures for 15 days. During this period animals were fed a
basal diet of maize stover and concentrate feed of wheat bran and noug seed cake mixed with the
ratio of 2:1, respectively and fortified with different levels of yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae).
Experimental Design and Treatments

The experiment was conducted using a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with four
treatments. Experimental animals were blocked in to six blocks of four animals based on initial live
weight. Within a block, animals were randomly allocated to the experiment treatments. The initial
body weight of cattle as a mean of two consecutive weights were taken after overnight fasting before
181
the commencement of the experiment (beginning of adaptation period). The treatments are
summarized in Table 83. The level of yeast used is based on farmers practice and some previous
reports.
Table 83. Experimental treatments
No. of Level of yeast(g)

Treatments cattle Maize stover Supplement(kg/d)
Treatment 1(control) 6 Ad libitum 3kg (WB and NSM) 0
Treatment 2 6 Ad libitum 3kg (WB and NSM) 2.6
NSM = noug seed meal and WB =wheat bran; 1:2 ratio, respectively.
Statistical analysis
Statistical package for social science (SPSS, version 12.0, 2003) was used for the analysis of the
survey data. Descriptive statistics such as frequency, percentage, and mean, were used to present
results of the survey. Index was calculated for questions that require ranking of the response. Index
was computed by employing the principle of weighted average (Musa et al., 2006):
Index = Rn*C1+Rn-1*C2….R1*Cn/∑ Rn*Rn*C1+ Rn-1*C2….R1
Where Rn = Value given for the least ranked level (example if the least rank is 5th rank,
Then Rn-5, Rn-1=4 and … R1= 1)
Cn = Counts of the least ranked level (in the above example, the count of the 5th rank = Cn, and the
counts of the 1st rank = C1)
Data from the digestibility and feeding trials such as feed intakes, live weight gain, and carcass
parameters were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the General Linear Model of SAS
(SAS, 2004). When treatment effect was found significant, least significant difference (LSD) were
employed to detect differences among treatment means.
Trends and characteristics of cattle fattening

There are different trends and characteristics of cattle fattening in the study area which is indicated in
Table 84. Among the households selected for this study, 96.7% in Fedis and 93.3% in Habro were
fattening at least one cattle during the survey time.
182
Table 84. Trends and characteristics of cattle fattening in fedis and habro weredas
Variables Fedis (N=30) Habro (N=30)

Frequency % Frequency %
Households currently involved in fattening N=30 N=30
cattle
Yes 29 96.7 28 93.3
No 1 3.3 2 6.7
Number of fattening cattle during survey N=29 N=28
One 19 65.5 17 60.7
Two 10 34.5 8 28.6
> two 0 0 3 10.7
Sex of fattening cattle N=29 N=28
Male 29 100 28 100
Female - - - -
Previous fattening experience of households N=30 N=30
Yes 29 96.7 29 96.7
No 1 3.3 1 3.3
Number of fattened cattle during the last 5 years by the N=30 N=30
household
1-3 13 43.3 15 50
4-6 15 50 8 26.7
7-10 1 3.3 6 20
None 1 3.3 1 3.3
Kind of male cattle used for fattening
Draught oxen 30 100 14 46.7
Bull 0 - 16 53.3
Service year before fattening N=30 N=30
1-3 years 26 86.7 29 96.7
4-5 years 4 13.3 1 3.3
Reason of using draught oxen N=30 N=30
-Fattened shortly 29 96.7 28 93.7
-Used for draught purpose 1 3.3 2 6.3
Age of cattle at start of fattening N=30 N=30
2-4 year 9 30 17 56.7
5-6 years 21 70 13 43.3
Fattening period N=30 N=30
1-3 month 12 40 3 10
4-6 month 18 60 24 80
7-11 month - - 3 10
All farmers in both Weredas prefer a male animal for fattening. Almost all farmers have experience
of fattening cattle, although the number fattened per year was very small. All farmers in Fedis
Wereda use draught oxen, whereas farmers in Habro Wereda use draught oxen and bulls for
fattening activity. The majority of the draught oxen were used for fattening after 1-3 years of
services in both Weredas. Farmers in the study area have long tradition to select fattening animals
using different conformation such as long and tall, long smooth muscle and wide shoulder and round.
Majority of the farmers in Fedis Woreda (96.7%) did not castrate their animal while 50% in Habro
practice castration, at the age of greater than three and mainly during the end of dry season.
183
Feed source and type

The major livestock feed sources identified in the study areas were crop residues of major crops
grown in the study area such as maize and sorghum stover and their leafs particularly during growing
periods, natural pasture hay and commercially available industrial by products such as oil seed meal,
brewery by product and flour milling by products. Among those maize stover, sorghum stover, crop
thinning and stripping and teff straw are the main crop residue in Habro Wereda and ranked 1-4,
respectively where as sorghum stover (1st), crop thinning (2nd), maize stover (3rd), and oil crop straw
such as Ground nut (4th) are the majors feed sources in Fedis Wereda. Similar to the present study,
Fekadu (1999) also identified major feeds commonly used for fattening to be maize stover, sorghum
leaf stripping, native grass hay, wheat bran and wheat short and weeds both during the wet and the
dry season in Haromaya Wereda.
Indigenous knowledge of the farmers in fattening animals

During the survey period, feed item that were uncommon in livestock feeding were identified in both
Weredas. One third of the respondent households in Fedis and nearly half in Habro Wereda use
either yeast, Fenugreek flour (Trigonella foenumgraecum) and fermented dough or their combination
for fattening purpose. Farmers in Habro Wereda offered measured amount of yeast (Saccharomyces
cerevisiae) following an established step depending on the availability. The farmers obtained this
knowledge either from development agent or Elders. Majority of the farmers think that the use of
yeast in ruminant diet fattens the animal within a short period of time, so they have positive
perception towards its use.
Marketing of livestock and fattening animals

In both Weredas of Fedis and Habro, the traditional markets were used for selling of animals. From a
total of household participated in fattening activity, 73.3% and 63.3% from Fedis and Habro,
respectively sold fattening cattle during the study year. The majority of the farmers in both Weredas
sold 1-3 fattened animals during the past five years. Most of the time male animal was preferred by
buyers in both Habro and Fedis Weredas. Different types of market participants were observed in
each of the markets; these include pastoralists/producers, traders, small holder farmers, butcher, hotel
owners, brokers, tax- collectors and consumers. Different cattle marketing channels were also
identified and the following are the major roots as indicated by market acters.
1. Habro -Addis Ababa-(domestic use)
2. Habro – Somalia-via Wuchalee- Middle East countries like Saudi Arabia and Yemen
3. Fedis -Adiss Ababa- (domestic use)
4. Fedis – Somalia-via Wuchalee- Middle East countries like Saudi Arabia and Yemen
Constraints to livestock production and fattening practices

According to the present study, different constraints of cattle fattening practices were identified in
the two Woredas (Table 85).
184
Table 85. Major constraints of fattening practices in fedis and Habro Woredas
Cattle production (%) Small ruminant Animal fattening
production (%) (%)
Variables* Fedis Habro Fedis Habro Fedis Habro
Shortage of grazing land 93.3 60 93.3 43.3 53.3 0
Shortage of water 36.7 0 13.3 3.3 16.7 0
Lack of feed 100 96.7 53.3 10 100 93.3
Health 50 26.7 13.3 26.7 26.7 0
Low output of animal 6.7 0 3.3 0 6.7 0
Low selling price 10 73.3 0 3.3 40 100
High purchasing price 6.7 60 0 0 23.3 56.7
Predator 0 0 6.7 3.3 0 0
*When responses are added it gives more than 100 % because more than one variable (feed) is asked at a time.
Lack of feed and shortage of grazing land were reported as the major problems for cattle as well as
small ruminant production in both woredas. Shortage of grazing land in Fedis and high purchasing
price and low selling price in Habro were also mentioned as problems. This result was inconsistent
with (Befekadu and Brehanu, 2000; Lakew et al., 2000). The authors identified inadequate feed and
nutrition, widespread diseases and poor health, poor breeding stock, and inadequate livestock
policies with respect to credit, extension, marketing and infrastructure as the major constraints of
livestock productivity. Other studies (Daneil, 2008; Kassahun, 2010; Muyahdin, 2010) in the
lowland of Eastern and Southern part of Ethiopia also identified feed shortage and lack of water as
major constraints to livestock production. In both Woreda as the respondent indicated Blackleg and
Pasteurollosis were the major diseases affecting fattening animals while Anthrax and Foot and
Mouth Disease (FMD) were the common problem in Fedis. Similar to the present study Samuel
(2005) and Zewdie (2010) reported that Anthrax, Blackleg and FMD) were the major disease
identified in Yerer watershed, Adaa Liben district of East Showa and Central Rift Valley,
respectively.
Among the different livestock related activities, selling livestock products, watering and caring for
young animals were the responsibilities of women. On the other hand, feeding, live animal marketing
and managing fattening animals were the responsibilities of husband or household head. Herding and
watering activity is mostly done by hired labour and children in both weredas. This report agreed
with findings of Sisay (2006) in three woredas of North Gonder Zone.
Cattle were the most important component of the mixed crop-livestock subsistence farming system
of the study area. They provide draught power for cultivation, food, and income for the family. The
result obtained in the current study is in agreement with other previous work (Agajie, 2001;
Solomon, 2004; Sisay, 2006; Kassahun, 2010; Muhyadin, 2010), in that livestock serves multiple
purposes in small-holder mixed farming system.
Effect of graded level of yeast supplementation with concentrate on bulls fed maize stover
basal diet
The total DM intake (Table 86), ADL and ASH of Experimental cattle’s feed concentrate fortified
with Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast was significantly higher (P<0.01) as compared to that for non-
yeast group even though the effect was higher at 2.6g and 5.2g than 3.9g. ADF intake is also
significantly higher (P<0.05) in yeast group cattle than non yeast group.
185
Table 86. Daily feed dry matter and nutrients intake of Hararghe highland bulls fed
maize stover and concentrate mix fortified with different levels of yeast
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae)
Level of Yeast inclusion (g)

Parameter(Kg) 0 (T1) 2.6 (T2) 3.9 (T3) 5.2 (T4) SL. SEM
DMIMS 1.96 2.6 2.16 2.32 NS 0.17
c a b a
DMICF 2.31 2.64 2.52 2.65 *** 0.04
c a bc ab
TDMI 4.27 5.25 4.68 4.97 * 0.18
OMI 4.28 4.88 4.34 4.59 NS 0.16
CPI 0.82 0.86 0.83 0.87 NS 0.02
NDFI 3.86 4.16 4.18 3.81 NS 0.18
b a ab a
ADFI 1.54 1.92 1.83 1.93 * 0.09
b a a a
ADLI 0.38 0.49 0.48 0.49 ** 0.02
b a a a
ASHI 0.34 0.41 0.39 0.42 ** 0.01
DMI/MBW 0.09 0.1 0.09 0.09 NS 3.75
abc
Means in the same row with different superscripts differ significantly; (***)=P<0.001; (**)=P<0.01;
(*):P<0.05; ADFI= acid detergent fiber intake; ADLI =acid detergent lignin intake; CPI= crude protein intake;
MBW= Metabolic body weight; NDFI= neutral detergent fiber intake; OMI=organic matter intake;
TDMI/MBW= total dry matter intake per metabolic body weight; TDMI=Total dry matter intake;
Mean initial and final live weight, average daily gain (ADG) weight changes and feed conversion
efficiency (FCE) of the experimental bulls on the different treatment feeds are presented in Table 87.
Bulls supplemented with concentrate fortified with yeast gained higher body weight (P< 0.01) as
compared to the non yeast group except T3 which only tended to be higher than the control.
Table 87. Body weight change of Hararghe highland bulls fed maize stover and concentrate
mix fortified with different levels of yeast (saccharomyces cerevisiae)
Levels of yeast inclusion (g)

Parameters T1 (0) T2 (2.6g) T3 (3.9g) T4 (5.2g) SL SEM
IBW (Kg) 148.3 150.4 149.6 149.5 NS 6.81
b a ab a
FBW (Kg) 209.3 230.8 221.9 234.7 * 8.33
b a ab a
ADG (g/d) 676.2 893.3 801.7 948.3 * 45.22
FCE (gADG/gDMI) 0.16 0.17 0.17 0.19 NS 0.01
ab
Means with different superscripts in the same row are significantly different; (**)=P<0.01; ADG= average
daily body weight gain; FBW=Final body weight; FCR: feed conversion ratio; IBW= Initial body weight; SD=
standard deviation; NS= not significant.
The Final body weight was also significantly higher (p<0.05) in yeast supplemented bulls than the
non supplemented bulls. Feed conversion efficiency of bulls was not significantly different (P>0.05)
between the group consumed concentrate without yeast and yeast containing concentrate as well as
among the later groups. The body weight of the experimental animals in all the treatments increased
throughout the experiment with more prominent increase in the group consumed concentrate
fortified with different levels of yeast. This might be related to the higher feed intake by the groups
supplemented with concentrate containing yeast. Higher body weight gain is recorded in bulls
186
supplemented with concentrate containing 5.2g of yeast followed by that containing 2.6g and 3.9g,
respectively.
Conclusion
It can be concluded that there is great potential for improving production and fattening practices towards
more export market orientation of the traditional animal fattening in the region by using the long
standing practice and indigenous knowledge of the farmers. This research also confirmed that
productivity, dry mater intake, average daily live weight gain and performance of the animal can be
increased through use of yeast in ruminant diet, but further work is needed by employing different
roughage sources. Moreover, socio-economic value of fattening and market chain should be studied.
187
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Daniel Tewodros, 2008. Beef Cattle Production System and Opportunities for Market Orientation in
Borena Zone, southern Ethiopia M.Sc. Thesis presented to School of Graduate Studies of
Haramaya University, Ethiopia.
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potentials, constraints and suggested intervention measures. Report on the Ethiopian
Economy. Volume IV 2004/05. Addis Ababa.
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A basin approach. FAO Land and Water Bulletin 4. FAO, Rome, Italy.
Fekadu Abate, 1999. Assessment of the feed Resource Base and the Performance of Draught Oxen
of the Traditional Fattening practice of smallholder farmers in the Eastern Hararghe
Highlands. M.sc. Thesis presented to School of Graduate Studies of Haramaya University,
Ethiopia.
Gryseel, G. and F. M. Anderson, 1983. Resarch on farm and livestock productivity in the central
Highlands. Initial results. 1977-1980.
Kassahun Gurmessa, 2010. Assessment of quality and quantity of feed resources and feeding
practices in Miesso district of West Hararghe Zone, Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis presented to
School of Graduate Studies of Haramaya University, Ethiopia.
Langlias, C., M. Well, H. Wibaux, 1984. Farming system research in Hararghe Highlands
agriculture, AUA, Haramaya, Ethiopia.
Lakew Desta, Menale Kassie, S. Benins and J. Pender, 2000. Land degradation and strategies for
sustainable development in Ethiopian Highlands: Amhara Region. ILRI Socioeconomics and
Policy Research Working paper 32. International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI),
Nairobi, Kenya. 122p.
Musa, L. M. A., K. J. Peters and M. K. A. Ahmed, 2006. On farm characterization of Butana and
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Development 18 (12) 2006
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Muhyadin Mohammed, 2010. Assessment of livestock husbandry practices, available feed resources
and utilization in Kebribeyah district of Somali Regional State, Eastern Ethiopia. A Thesis
Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Haramaya University.
Samuel Menbere, 2005. Characterization of livestock production system: a case study of Yerer
watershed, Adaa Liben district of east Showa, Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis presented to school of
graduate studies of Haramaya University, Ethiopia.
SAS., 2004. Statistical Analysis System Software, Version 9.0, SAS Institute, inc., Cary, NC,
USA.
Sisay Amare, 2006; Livestock production systems and Available feed Resources in different Agro-
Ecoloies of North Gonder Zone, Ethiopia. Msc. Thesis Haramaya University, Haramaya.
SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences). SPSS Version 12, 2003 Application Guide. SPSS
Inc.
Solomon Bogale, 2004. Assessment of livestock production systems and feed resources base in
Sinana Dinsho Districts of Bale Highlands, Southeast Oromia. Msc. thesis. Haramaya.
University, Haramaya Ethiopia.
Solomon, A., A. Workalemahu, M. A. Jabbar, M. M. Ahmed and B. Hurissa, 2003. Livestock
Marketing in Ethiopia: A review of structure, performance and development initiatives.
Socioeconomics and policy Research working paper 52, (International livestock research
Institute, Nairobi).
Zewdie Wondatir, 2010. Livestock production systems in relation with feed availability in the
highlands and central rift valley of Ethiopia. M.sc. Thesis presented to school of graduate
studies of Haramaya. University, Ethiopia.
189
IX. Institute of Pastoral and Agropastoral Research Activities

1. Ongoing Projects
Developing Feed Conservation Options to Improve Livestock Productivity of

Sedentarised Pastoralists in Jijiga Plain of Somali Region: Eastern Ethiopia
By
Belaynesh Debalkie, Takel Wlkaro, Feresenbet Zeleke, Zelalem Tamrat (MSc),
Introduction
The main purpose of the project was to identify potential feed resources that can be used as an input
for feed conservations technologies and test affordable options, which can improve livestock
production, that contribute to food security for vulnerable households of sedentarised pastoralists.
The activities of the projects are at the initial phase and some preliminary works accomplished are
presented in this report.
Project objectives
Identify potential feed resources to be used as inputs for feed conservation options,
Test affordable feed conservations options,
Organize knowledge sharing activities for the sustainable use of tested technologies and
enhance knowledge dissemination to contribute for food security and poverty reduction,
Link the output with the regional extension system and NGOs working on feed resources
development activities for wider scale up, and
Work with Agro-pastoralists, Regional and District Bureau of PAPD, Jijiga University,
SOPARI and NGOs examine the extent of the change in increased productivity and
reduction of pressure on grazing lands due to the introduced feed conservation technologies.
Progress made
Project briefing with Livestock, Crop and Rural Development Bureau & offices, NGOs,
SOPARI and Jijiga University, were conducted.
Four researchers from different field organized
Eight enumerators are trained.
Four agro-pastoralists and two DAs are used for refining of the questionnaire
Four suitable sites (PAs), two per district, for feed conservation technologies demonstration
selected.
Analysis workshop that considered both sexes was conducted. Participants were:
• 8 DAs
• 2 Supervisors
• 8 Agro-pastoralists
• 4 from Woreda Experts
• 2 from Regional Office Experts
• 2 from NGOs
• 1 from Jijig University
• 5 from Haramaya University
• 3 Researchers.
120 household head from two Districts interviewed for identifying potential feed resources
for the conservations options and data entry is underway.
Source of fund: Drylands Coordination Group, Norway.
190
Examining the Link among Land Use, Food Security and Land Management in
Pastoral/Agropastoral Systems (Eastern Ethiopia)2
By
Fekadu Beyene
Introduction
Land use change has become a common phenomenon in pastoral and agropastoral areas of Ethiopia.
This project examines the benefits and challenges in land use change in different contexts with
special emphasis to the pastoral/agropastoral situations. The recent nature of such a practice, the
prevalence of food insecurity, given the huge impact of climate change and absence of clear land
policy and programs in the semi-arid pastoral production systems advances the relevance of this
study. The purpose of this research project is to generate knowledge and contribute to the
development of appropriate land use policy in the semi-arid pastoral and agropastoral systems. In the
long-term, outcomes of this study will be useful in terms of providing a basis for preparation of
regional guideline in land use and administration. This would increase the effectiveness of
intervention schemes in communal rangeland management through public participation.
Objective
The general objective of this project is to examine the link among land use practice, food security
and rangeland management in selected pastoral/agropastoral districts in eastern Ethiopia.
Specifically, it intends to:

Analyze how livelihood diversification and expansion of markets affect land use practice
and food security
Identify factors constraining rangeland resource management
Explore institutional options in promoting sustainable management of rangeland resources
Progress made
Data collection through survey of 180 households was accomplished and analysis and report writing
underway.
2
This study is being funded by the Drylands Coordination Group, Norway.
191
2. Completed Projects
Section I
Status and management of drinking water supply in Harshin Woreda of the Jijiga
Zone, Somali National Regional State (SNRS)
By
Zinabu Tebeje (Institute of Technology)

Yenehiwot Birhanu (College of Veterinary Medicine)
Melat Gezahegn (College of Social Science and Humanities)
Organization of the report
The report is organized in four sections. The first section introduces the themes of the research. The
second section presents the findings of the physical and chemical analysis of water samples collected
from the three Kebeles. The third section provides the results of the microbiological analysis of
water samples. And the fourth section discusses gender issues in use, management and control of
water resources in Harshin Woreda. The result of this research is intended to provide development
actors with information on how services are given efficiently and delope better strategies in delivery
of healthy water in the Woreda.
Background and Methodology
Introduction
Around 1.1 billion people around the world do not have access to improved water supply sources and
two million people, most of them children less than 5 years of age, die every year due to diarrhoeal
diseases associated with poor water quality (WHO/UNICEF, 2003). The majority of people, who
have to struggle with the problem caused by contaminated drinking water and accompanying
illnesses, live in Asia and Africa (Smith, 2000; UN, 2003), among which women and children mostly
are the victims. Water and food shortage are intrinsically interrelated (Smith, 2000). When sufficient
water is scant, livestock and crop production, which are the main source of livelihood in many
developing countries, become impossible. This ultimately causes food insecurity. Severe water
shortage may cause drought and hunger and this is particularly true in the case of East African
countries (ibid.).
Nowadays, in addition to the availability and amount of water, the quality of drinking water has
become of important concern both in developed and developing countries. This is due to its health
impact on human beings. Research findings indicated that more than 2.2 million people, most of
whom living in developing countries, die each year from diseases associated with poor water and
sanitary conditions (WHO/UNICEF/WSSCC, 2000). Most surface water have pathogenic micro-
organisms that cause outbreaks of waterborne diseases such as Amoeba, Cholera, Giardia, and
Typhoid (Heinicke, 2005; Buiteman, 2007). Water treatment and quality control including
disinfection, therefore, is of crucial importance. Nozaic (2002) argued that disinfection of water
alone has saved more lives than the whole of the medical industry.
192
Among the segments of society, low quality and quantity of water affect women and girls more. This
is mainly because of their reproductive role in the household and the community who accomplish
jobs such as cooking, cleaning, and caring. When there is no water resource or when its availability
is limited, they will be forced to travel long distances to fetch water, hauling heavy buckets to meet
the domestic water needs of their families. In many tropical countries like Ethiopia, rural women
work longer hours than men do. Bringing water from distant places for domestic consumption is
considered as women’s work and the task is equivalent, even heavier than agricultural work done by
men. The time spent to fetch water on average is estimated to be between 2-6 hours per day and this
limits women’s participation in income generating activities (SOS Sahel, 2007a). It is argued that
reducing the time for water collection may bring more equity between men and women, and
contributes a lot to the household economy (Christine, 2002). This is because besides reducing
women’s burden, it will give them time to engage in income generating activities. Consequently, this
will give them better fallback position and bargaining power in decision making processes in their
household and the community they belong to (ibid.). Ethiopia is considered as one of the countries
with poorest drinking water supply. Safe water coverage for urban areas in 2000 was estimated to be
72%. In rural areas where nearly 80% of the population resides, the proportion is much lower
covering only 24 % (MoH, 1999; MoFED, 2002). Water coverage in pastoral areas is much more
less.
The area covered by the pastoral and agro-pastoral communities in Ethiopia is over 50% of the
country’s land mass, an area characterized by lack of access to sufficient quantity of safe water and
challenged by recurrent drought (SoRPARI, 2005; Kassahun, 2008; Gebre, 2001; PFE, 2006). The
status of water quantity and quality in these areas are the worst scenario. The recommendations of
WHO and MoWR about the water requirement per capita, which is at least 15 to 20 litres of water
per capita per day (for cleaning, cooking, washing, etc) in developing countries, seem far from
reality when one thinks of the pastoral mode of life and the people living under the system who
suffer from shortage of water resources (MoWR, 2006). The very driving source behind pastoralists’
mobility is lack of sufficient water to support their livelihood (Pantuliano et al., 2008). Besides, the
fact that pastoralists move and settle in areas where the amount of water resource available is enough
(if not sufficient) to support their livelihood and use that water imply the high possibility that the
water they are using is not clean; hence have a potential to carry pathogens that can potentially cause
diseases. The limited intervention by state and non-state actors in pastoral areas aggravate the
scenario. Therefore, it can be argued that the possibility of occurrence of water-borne diseases in
pastoral areas is high considering their water scarcity, driven mobility and the limited development
intervention in pastoral areas.
Apart from insufficiency of water resources, improper utilization of water resources is also a
problem in pastoral areas. This stemmed from lack of knowledge and strong community
commitment. Eventually, these result in depreciation of quality and quantity of available water
resources. The different priorities, male for livestock and female for family consumption (SOS
Sahel, 2007ab), and perhaps the less awareness about the importance of quality water both by men
and women in many instances due to lack of awareness (Kassahun, 2008; Smith, 2000) caused use of
same water source both for livestock and human consumption. Ultimately, this increase the chance
of contamination of the water used for consumption. In turn, the likelihood of experiencing health
disorders including waterborne diseases and other communicable diseases will increase.
Contamination, however, could also be caused by use of unhygienic water storage materials or
traditional herbs used to purify water (SOS Sahel, 2007a). Whatever the case may be, health
disorders caused by contaminated water increase the burden on women due to their responsibility of
care for their sick children, families, and community members.
193
In addition, in cases where the water is hard due to presence of excess ions (also attributed to lack of
water treatment plants), it will cause scaling on household utensils. Such water further requires more
detergents when used for washing of clothes. In both cases, women’s burden will be intensified due
to their day to day engagement in domestic reproductive activities such as cooking, cleaning, and
washing.
It was in line with this background that a research which assessd the status and management of
drinking water supply was conducted. The study focused in the pastoral and agro-pastoral area since
they have severe water problems and worst infrastructural conditions. In addition, insufficiency of
access to road, ground water source, electric and telecommunication services, frequent draught and
conflict in these areas contribute a part in the selection of the area. Specifically, Harshin Woreda in
the Jijiga Zone of the Somali National Regional State (SNRS) was selected for the study for the fact
that the livelihood of the people mainly depends on water resources and the communities involved
are experiencing a combination of both short-term, often acute food crises, and long-term or chronic
food shortages.
The research was conducted with the following objectives:
to assess the physical, chemical, and microbiological qualities of drinking water,

to reveal gender aspects of use, management and control of water resources, and
to suggest water treatment strategies and strategies to address problems with management
and control in Harshin Woreda.
Methodology

Harshin Woreda is among the 9 Woredas in Jijiga Zone of the SNRS. It is the easternmost Woreda of
the Jijiga Zone and located 125 Kms east of Jijiga (Getachew and Abib, 2005). Harshin is bordered
on the south by the Degehabur Zone, on the west by Kebri Beyah, and on the east by Somalia3.
According to the 2007 census report, the Woreda have a total population of 80,215 of which 45%
(36,361) are female and 55% (43,854) male (FDREPCC, 2008). The population statistic however is
not accurate due to in and out migration across boarder and within especially during dry season. 90
% (71,989) of the Woreda communities dwell in the rural area and depend mainly on livestock
production for their livelihood and the rest 10% (8,226) are urban and suburban dwellers
(FDREPCC, 2008).
There are 32 administrative Kebeles under the Woreda. Ten of them are Centre Kebeles and the rest
are sub-Kebeles under the centre Kebeles. The center Kebeles are Harshin, Lanqayrta, Aran-arey,
Masajidka, Dabayl-wayn, Darbiga, Balliase, Abokar Ahmed, Farah-liben, and Qudhaaca. Distance
between Kebeles on average is 25 kilometers except one Kebele (Mesajidka) which is over 40
kilometers far. Of the total Kebeles, 15 sub-Kebeles have health posts.
3
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harshin_(Woreda)
194
Figure 6. Harshin District
There are three normal seasons in the region. “Gu” is the main rainy season running from April to
June, “Jilaal” is the long dry season running from December to March, “Karen” running from July to
September, and “Deyr” from October to December. Harshin falls on the boundary between areas
receiving karan rains (from late July to September), and those that receive the deyr rains (from
October to December). It mostly receives deyr rains, though both karan and deyr rains could be
present in some years and missing in others (SC-UK, 2005). If the “Deyr” rain fails, the situation
becomes very critical for the pastoralists during the long dry season (Jilaal).
The livelihood of the people mainly depended on extensive traditional livestock production, natural
rangeland vegetation, and water resources (SoRPARI, 2005). Yet, environmental degradation
throughout the region has been intensified in the past 10 years and has been manifested in the forms
of deterioration of drinking water quality, shortage of availability of ground and surface water, and
increased rate of evapo-transpiration. It is reported that in the past 60 years, reductions in discharging
capacities of water tables and surface water sources (rivers) and diversion of natural rivers have
occurred in the area causing deterioration of potable drinking waters for human and livestock
(Christine, 2002, Kassahun, 2008, and SC-UK, 2005).
The water resource in the Woreda is scarce and with erratic nature. Traditionally, the people in
Harshin store the only available source of water, rain water, in cisterns (known as Birkas) for
domestic as well as livestock consumption. There, rainwater harvesting is not only the appropriate
technology but also the only choice. Birkas and natural ponds are the main sources water. Both
sources are, however, entirely dependent on rainfall for recharging. The People have done and are
doing everything within their power and capacity to ensure their own water supply by constructing
family and community owned rectangular Birkas. These Birkas are constructed by considering the
catchment area and its slope. Following the site selection excavation work of the Birka starts. The
walls are lined with stone and mortar walls, however for the floor stone is layered with concrete and
finally finished with mortar. The size of the Birkas depends on the need and resources available to
the owners. Birka systems do not have any first flush, filter nor treatment facilities. And the optimal
output of this method is dependent upon the seasonal rains.
Apart from birkas, there are no permanent water sources (like wells and perennial rivers) in the
Woreda. The pastoral communities in Harshin are chronically water insecure. They use natural ponds
in the wet season while they purchase water during the dry season from privately owned birkas
constructed by better-off households. The expenditure of the community on water may reach as high
as 1,000 birr per year in rich households, where as 500 birr and 250 birr respectively for middle class
195
and poor households 4(SC-UK, 2005). The expenditure on water exhausts household income. In
severe long-term shortage seasons, long distance migration with animals in search of water and
pasture is their coping strategy.
The soil in the Woreda is characterized to be red and sandy. These soils have high water
permeability and percolation properties implying less moisture retention. Save-UK’s livelihood
baseline survey revealed that though some water harvesting and conservation techniques have been
introduced as ‘risk-minimizing strategies’, they are not maintained and improved hence not
sustainable (SC-UK, 2005). Looking at the available public services, it is said that the health services
are extremely poor. They suffer from serious shortages of essential drugs, equipment and medical
staff when available. Similarly, the education service is constrained by shortage of educational
equipments, materials, and lack of qualified teachers. The limited services offered by these
institutions caused lack of knowledge about the importance of quality water as well as sufficient
treatment and management of problems associated with poor quality water (SC-UK, 2005).
Sample area identification

A two-stage sampling procedure was employed to draw samples for the study. The first procedure
was to select Kebeles and the second one was to select HHs for the qualitative study.
According to the information from the Woreda Administration Bureau, there are around 32 Kebeles
in the Woreda. For administration purpose some of the Kebeles are clustered together and
administered under center Kebeles. There are 10 center Kebeles in the Woreda, each center-Kebele
constituting 3 Sub-Kebeles on average (some have over three and some have two). Identification of
Kebeles was made in consultation with stakeholders in the Woreda. This scheme was appropriate to
ensure local community’s participation in planning and decision-making. The heads of Woreda
Administration, Health Bureau, Water Bureau, Food Security, Veterinary Service, and Police were
consulted for this purpose.
During the selection, intervention level (high, intermediate and low intervention areas) and full
coverage of the area were considered. The assumption was that quality of water and water resource
management varies across Kebeles based on the level of intervention by government and non-
government development actors in assisting water supply services in the Woreda. Accordingly, three
(3) major Kebeles were selected. The selected Kebeles were Harshin - with high level of
intervention, Derbiga (sub-Kebele Qolka) -with low level of intervention, and Lanquerta in between.
However, due to the existing security problem in the Qolka sub-Kebele that the researchers were
informed, Medeweyn (which is under Mesajidka) was selected in consultation with staff from the
health bureau. Their order in terms of intervention is Harshin- high intervention, Langerta–medium
intervention, and Mesajidka (sub-Kebele Medeweyn) –low intervention area. Each Kebele constitute
on average 3 sub-Kebeles. One third of each Kebele -meaning one sub Kebele from each Kebele was
purposively selected from the selected 3 major Kebeles. These were – sub Kebele 02 in Harshin, sub
Kebele 02 in Lanquerta, and sub Kebele Medeweyn in Mesajidka.
4
The wealth groups are based on the category used by SC-UK using local classification systems.
196
Table 88. Water sample locations
Sample Elevation Northing Easting

number
Lanqerta (sub Kebele 2)
1 1365 08° 51' 13.3" 043° 52' 41.0"

2 1362 08° 51' 07.1" 043° 52' 44.8"
3 1359 08° 51' 06.0" 043° 52' 49.6"
4 1355 08° 51' 04.9" 043° 52' 53.1"
5 1351 08° 51' 06.9" 043° 53' 11.5"
6 1352 08° 51' 11.6" 043° 53' 12.1"
7 1362 08° 51' 29.6" 043° 53' 02.3"
8 1361 08° 51' 22.9" 043° 52' 59.3"
9 1361 08° 51' 15.8" 043° 52' 50.8"
10 1364 08° 51' 14.1" 043° 52' 46.9"
Medeweyn Sub Kebele
1 1365 08° 51' 14.1" 043° 52' 46.9"

2 1424 09° 14' 53.2" 043° 43' 34.6"
3 1421 09° 14' 53.3" 043° 43' 41.8"
4 1416 09° 14' 59.0" 043° 43' 41.1"
5 1418 09° 15' 04.4" 043° 43' 40.1"
6 1421 09° 15' 36.4" 043° 43' 25.5"
7 1415 09° 15' 35.2" 043° 43' 23.4"
8 1412 09° 15' 35.7" 043° 43' 30.1"
9 1406 09° 15' 45.5" 043° 43' 25.3"
10 1411 09° 15' 49.2" 043° 43' 22.3"
Harshin (Sub Kebele 02)
1 1444 08°55' 12.6" 043° 44' 23.8"

2 1435 08°54' 58.0" 043° 44' 12.9"
3 1434 08°54' 52.7" 043° 44' 06.3"
4 1433 08°54' 50.4" 043° 44' 06.9"
5 1428 08°54'50.4" 043° 44' 02.1"
6 1431 08°55' 01.9" 043° 43' 59.6"
7 1431 08°55' 04.7" 043° 43' 58.2"
8 1430 08°55' 07.4" 043° 43' 56.6"
9 1432 08°55' 14.6" 043° 44' 01.8"
10 1442 08°55' 30.0" 043° 44' 24.0"
Selection of Birkas for Physical, Chemical and Microbiological Analysis

For the physical, chemical and microbiological analysis, water samples were carefully collected from
10 randomly selected functional Birkas in each three sub-Kebeles. Duplicate samples were collected
from each Birka for replication (accuracy) purpose. Maximum care was taken to avoid accidental
contamination.
Samples were labeled and transported to Haramaya University Central and Veterinary Microbiology
Laboratories for analysis. Separate analysis for the two samples was conducted and average values
were taken. Table 88 shows the locations where samples were collected for physical, chemical and
microbiological analysis. GPS was used to document the location of birkas from which samples were
collected. The last rain in the Kebeles was 3, 5, and 3 months before sample collection for Lanqayrta,
Madeweyn, and Harshin, respectively.
197
Selection of Households for Qualitative Study

For selection of households, an assumption was made that an average HH in the region consists 10
members in the region. Total population of Harshin Woreda divided by 10 HH members (80215/10)
gave 8022 HHs. Assuming all center Kebeles have equitable population distribution, total number of
HH divided by total number of center Kebles (8022/10) gives 802 HH per center Kebele. Since
Center Kebeles have on average 3 sub Kebeles (802HHs/3) is equal to 267 HHs per sub Kebele.
From the 267 HHs, 20 HHs was purposely selected. Attention was given to female headed HHs in
selection of sample HH.
198
Section II
Physical Measurement and Chemical Analysis of Water Samples in Three Kebeles in

Harshin District of the Jijiga Zone, Somali National Regional State
By
Eng. Zinabu Tebeje
Abstract
In areas where there is no ground and surface water, the only option is to save the rainwater. Hence,
in an effort to address the problems of recurrent drought, famine and food insecurity, attempts were
made to harvest run-off water in Birkas for domestic and livestock use. It is recognized that
collecting and storing the scarce water resource for the dry season will result in microclimatic and
environmental changes with positive impact on sustained productivity. Notwithstanding the
importance of these positive impacts on improved community welfare, the water quality of the
sources requires constant assessment, monitoring and evaluation. A study was carried out on 30
Birkas in three Kebeles in Harshin District of the Jijiga Zone Administration in the Somali National
Regional State (SNRS) to monitor the physical and chemical quality of harvested water. Farmers
living in the vicinity of the Birkas were aware about the problem of water quality and they were
willing to contribute whatever it takes for the improvement of their water quality.
The physical parameters assessed were above the WHO guideline values. 77% of the measured
samples have pH value above 8. 100% of the harvested water in the Birkas do not satisfy drinking
water standard of 1NTU and more than 63.3 % of the samples have turbidity above the
recommended value of 5NTU which results in ineffective disinfection and requirement for extra
disinfectant. 86.7% of the Birkas falls within the moderately hard water range. The measured
electric conductivity, nitrate and TDS values in the study area were within guideline value.
Introduction
In Ethiopia, especially in the eastern parts which are characterized by arid and semi-arid areas, food
crises are a big problem. A number of explanations have been advanced for the endemic food
insecurity in these areas. Among these, recurring drought and unreliable rainfall pattern are the most
obvious.
Ground water is not always available in the arid parts of the country. In such areas, a number of
factors limit other sources of water making rainwater harvesting the only appropriate technology and
choice. Usually, rainwater harvested is much cleaner than water from any other sources. However,
some pollution caused by birds, small animals and windblown dirt have to be expected. When rain
falls after long dry period, water collected from roofs and ground catchment may carry debris arising
from dust and leaves, which have accumulated on roofs or ground surfaces. Hence, the water
collected and consumed might have a potential to cause health threats.
In an effort to address the problems of recurrent drought, famine and food insecurity, attempts were
made to harvest run-off water in Birkas for domestic and livestock use in Jijiga zone of the Somali
National Regional State (SNRS). It is recognized that collecting and storing the scarce water
resource for the dry season will result in microclimatic and environmental changes with positive
impact on sustained productivity. Notwithstanding the importance of these positive impacts on
improved community welfare. The water quality of the sources requires constant assessment,
199
monitoring and evaluation. Hence, this study was initiated with the aim to assess the physical and
chemical qualities of water in Harshin district of the Jijiga Zone in Somali National Regional States.
Sample Collection
For the chemical analysis, water samples were collected from 10 randomly selected functional birkas
in each three sub-Kebeles using half a liter plastic bottles. Duplicate samples were collected from
each birka for replication (accuracy) purpose. Samples were labeled and transported to Haramaya
University Central Laboratory for analysis. Separate analysis for the two samples was conducted and
average values were taken. The results of chemical analysis of samples were compared with standard
values set by WHO (1981 and 1984) to determine the suitability of water for drinking and other
domestic purposes.
Analysis of Water for Physical Parameters

The physical parameters were measured on site for all 30 selected birkas in the three sub-kebeles.
The physical parameters selected for the study were electric conductivity, pH, and turbidity. The
following instruments were used to measure the selected parameters:
EC meter:- ELE international Conductivity meter 4071, Made in U.K

PH meter:- ELE international PH/mV meter, Made in U.K
TDS:- HANNA instruments HI 9635 MICROPROCCESOR CONDUCTIVITY/TDS
METER.
Turbidity:- HANNA instruments HI 93703 MICROPROCCESOR TURBIDITY METER
Chemical Analysis of Water Samples

Chemical analysis of samples was conducted for identifying concentrations of nitrate (NO3-),
hardness, total dissolved solid (TDS), chemical oxygen demand (COD) and total soluble salt (TSS).
A total of 60 samples (replicates of the 30 birkas in three Kebeles) were analyzed for the selected
parameters. Average values of the replicates were considered during analysis. The following
procedures were followed:
Hardness
Hardness, which reads the concentration of calcium and magnesium ions, was identified using the
procedure explained by the American Public Health Association (APHA)5, 1998. The steps followed
were:
• 100 ml sample was transferred to conical flask

• 2 ml buffer solution was added followed by about 0.2-0.4 g of solid indicator.
• Samples were titrated immediately but slowly with continuous stirring until the last reddish
tinge disappears and blue colour is observed.
5
At a pH 10 1 ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) forms a soluble chelated complex with calcium and
magnesium. Calcium and complexed magnesium ions also form a less stable complex with Eriochrome Black
T indicator or calmagite. Thus, when EDTA is added to a flask, metal-indicator complex breaks to form a more
stable metal-EDTA complex. And when all the metal is complexed to EDTA, indicator shows a sharp change
in color from wine red to blue. Magnesium ion must be present to yield a satisfactory end point in the titration.
A small amount of complexometrically neutral magnesium salt of EDTA is therefore added to the buffer. Thus,
this step automatically introduces sufficient magnesium and at the same time obviates a blank correction.
200
• Reagent blank was used for comparison. Reagent blank was titrated in a similar way as for
the sample.
• Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA ) titrant was standardized against Calcium Standard.
UV Spectrophotometric Screening Method

UV Spectrophotometric Screening Method6 was used for identification of nitrate (NO3-). This was
done according to the procedure described by American Public Health Association (APHA), 1998.
The steps followed were:
• For use at 220 nm and 275 nm, matched silica cell of 1 cm (UV -Visible spectrophotometer)
was used.
• Both the sample and standard were treated by 1M HCl.
• A wavelength of 220 nm was used to obtain NO3- reading and a wavelength of 275 nm to
determine interference due to dissolved organic matter.
• Both for sample and standards, two times the absorbance reading at 275 nm was subtracted
from the reading at 220 nm to obtain absorbance due to NO3-.
Chemical Oxygen demand (COD)

The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is the amount of oxygen consumed by organic matter from
boiling acid potassium dichromate solution. It provides a measure of the oxygen equivalent of that
portion of organic matter in water sample that is suspectible to oxidation under the conditions of the
test. The sample is boiled under reflux with potassium dichromate and silvers sulphate catalyst in
strong sulphuric acid. After digestion, the remaining unreduced K2Cr2O7 is titrated with ferrous
ammonium sulfate to determine the amount of K2Cr2O7 consumed and the oxidizable matter is
calculated in terms of oxygen equivalent. Identification of COD was made using the procedure
developed by Bartram, Jamie and Balance, Richard for WHO and UNEP (1996).
• 20 ml of blended sample was pipetted into a 500-ml refluxing flask.

• 10 ml of 0.04167M solution of K2Cr2O7 and few anti-pumping granules was added and
mixed thoroughly.
• 30 ml of sulphuric acid (H2SO4)/silver sulphate (Ag2SO4) solution was added slowly by
swirling while adding the acid.
• The mixture was refluxed for 2 hours.
• The cooled and diluted solutions were titrated against 0.1M Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate
(FAS) using ferroin indicator.
• The blank containing the reagents and a volume of distilled water equal to that of sample
was refluxed and titrated.
• Finally, from volume of K2Cr2O7 Consumed, oxidizable matter is calculated in terms of
oxygen equivalent.
6
Measurement of UV absorption at 220 nm enables rapid determination of NO3- because dissolved organic
matters are absorbed at 220 nm. NO3- is not absorbed at 275 nm hence measurement made at 275 nm can be
used to correct the NO3- value. The nitrate calibration curve follows beer's law.
201
Based on physical measurement and chemical analysis of samples, the following results were
obtained. The average temperature taken during physical measurements was 25oC for Langerta, 24
o
C for Medeweyn and 21 oC for Harshin.
PH
Results based on physical quality analysis for pH shows that most water in the Woreda falls with in
the acceptable pH range of WHO guideline which is pH6.5-8.5. Of the total samples collected, only
20% in Langerta, 10% in Medeweyn, and 10% in Harshin have a pH value above the recommended
value of pH 8.5. However, it is found out that 8.9% of the water in Langerta, 80% in Medeweyn, and
60% in Harshin have a pH value close to 8.5 (8 -8.5). This implies that the water have some degree
of alkalinity. Alkalinity in water implies the need for more chlorine (above the normal range) since
high pH water requires more free residual chlorine and longer contact time during disinfection using
chlorination. It also indicate that the water is hard and have problems such as aesthetic problems in
tasting, scaling and deposits on utensils and household water storage equipments, difficulty in getting
soaps and detergents to lather, and formation of insoluble precipitates on clothing.
Table 89: pH readings of water from sampled Birkas

Kebele S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10
/sample
Lanqerta 8.10 8.12 8.65 8.00 8.35 8.29 7.84 8.61 8.65 8.37
Medeweyin 9.03 8.01 8.40 7.82 8.06 8.21 8.67 8.00 7.96 8.32
Harshin 7.8 8.05 8.45 8.25 8.00 8.27 7.82 8.42 7.64 7.64
S=Sample number
Turbidity
According to the turbidity readings, 60%, 60%, and 70 % of the water samples in Langerta,
Medeweyn, and Harshin, respectively do not meet the WHO turbidity guideline value of 5 NTU.
This might be because of wind. In general, more than 63.3 % of the water in the study area has
turbidity value above the recommendation. Comparing to the ideal drinking water standard of 1
NTU, none of the water samples satisfy the guideline value. As the last rain in the Kebeles was 3, 5,
and 3 months before the sampling for Lanqayrta, Madeweyn, and Harshin, respectively the high
turbidity value could neither be associated to soil runoff nor precipitation. Hence, potentially the
high turbidity levels are due to the presence of high levels of disease-causing microorganisms such
as viruses, parasites and bacteria. Hence, the water in the Woreda could have a potential to cause
diarrhea, and other intestinal problems.
Besides, higher turbidity values imply shielding effect during chlorination, whereby the chlorine and
organisms do not come in contact. Hence use of excess disinfectant is important to bring about an
impact on microorganisms. However, caution should be taken when chlorination to avoid formation
of THMs that have negative effect on kidney, liver and central nervous system.
202
Table 90: Turbidity readings of water from sampled Birkas (NTU)

/sample
Lanqerta 4.94 8.34 2.57 3.75 76.8 17.50 9.77 10.70 8.38 2.99
Medeweyin 8.55 12.37 2.26 2.06 7.28 8.13 4.4 2.42 8.65 40
Harshin 10.32 5.82 2.97 12.06 15.13 16.13 15.24 3.17 13.36 1.76
S=Sample number
Electric conductivity
The EC ranges 180 - 240, 160 - 270, and 180 - 250 µS/cm in Langerta, Medeweyn and Harshin,
respectively. The measured EC in the study area is within the range of 0 – 800 µS/cm implying
absence of organic pollution and the presence of not too much suspended clay material in the waters.
Such water is good for irrigation purposes even for salt sensitive plants. Given that the EC
measurements in the study areas are less than 300 µS/cm, the water is suitable for human and
livestock consumption. However, microbiological taste needs to be conducted for determination of
organisms with potential to cause harm to human and animal health.
Table 91: EC readings of water rom sampled Birkas (µS/cm)

/sample
Lanqerta 240 220 210 220 180 230 200 180 180 200
Medeweyin 160 180 190 250 190 270 180 230 210 250
Harshin 180 180 180 180 220 230 240 200 240 250
S=Sample number
Hardness
The water in the study area can be classified as soft and moderately hard water. All the sampled
water was found to be below the upper limit value of drinking water standard (500 mg/l of CaCO3).
The hardness ranges from 92.82 to 152, 84.7 to 168.3, and 51.51 to 117.1 ppm as CaCO3 in Lanqerta,
Medeweyin, and Harshin, respectively. In Lanqerta, 90% of the sampled Birkas are moderately hard
water except one (10%) which is hard water with a hardness value of 152mg/l. In Medeweyn again
90% of the measured Birkas are moderately hard water except one (10%) which is hard water with a
hardness value of 168.3 mg/l. In Harshin 20% of the measured Birkas are soft water where as the
remaining 80% are moderately hard water. In Harshin the harvested water hardness level is well
below 200mg/l which implies least scaling and soap consumption problem.
It was found out that 86.7% of the total water sampled in the study area was moderately hard water
and 6.7% are hard water. The potential for causing health problem is low. The rest 6.6 % of the
water in the study area are soft water and is located in Harshin Kebele.
203
Table 92. Hardness of water from the sampled Birkas (ppm as CaCO3)
/sample
Lanqerta 152 115.3 110.2 109 130.6 129.5 95.9 112.2 92.82 106.08
Medeweyin 85.68 87.72 115.3 119.34 114.24 168.3 84.66 107.1 112.2 124.44
Harshin 77.8 79.79 51.51 62.62 93.93 75.75 117.1 85.85 95.95 90.90
S=Sample number
Nitrate
The concentration of nitrate in water from all samples was measured as nitrogen in the form of
nitrate. The measured nitrate concentrations range from 0.08-0.55, 0.04-0.09, and 0.08-0.29 ppm, for
Lanqayrta, Madaweyn, and Harshin kebeles, respectively. The values are far below the WHO
guideline value of 50 ppm. These is more or less in agreement with mean concentration of nitrate
nitrogen (NO3-N, nitrate measured as nitrogen in testing) in a typical surface water supply which is
around 0.2 to 2 mg/L (Letterman, 1999). The relatively high value of nitrate in Lanqayrta could be
attributed to the open area defecation as there is no proper sanitation system in the area. It could
possibly also be due to poor sewerage system and animal waste.
Table 93. Nitrate NO3- content of water from the sampled Birkas (ppm)
/sample
Lanqerta 0.55 0.42 0.08 0.38 0.48 0.47 0.33 0.45 0.50 0.46
Medeweyin 0.08 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.09 0.06 0.04
Harshin 0.12 0.13 0.29 0.16 0.08 0.08 0.13 0.10 0.11 0.11
S=Sample number
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
TDS was measured in the laboratory. Accordingly, all water samples have TDS less than 500 ppm.
In fact, all the water samples from the three Kebeles have TDS value less than 300 ppm. According
to the classification of potability of water in terms of TDS, this would make the waters to be
classified as excellent. The concentration of TDS ranges from 95.45 to 146.50, 90.15 to 163, and
107.5 to 176.5 ppm in Lanqerta, Medeweyn and Harshin, respectively. The small TDS value reveals
that the area has only local flow systems and the water reaches the discharge areas without
undergoing substantial flow paths. Moreover, the water of the study area in general can be classified
as fresh water.
204
Table 94. TDS of water from sampled Birkas (mg/L (ppm))
Kebele/samp S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10
le
Lanqerta 141 129.50 - 134.55 105.55 146.5 101.7 95.45 97.75 111.40
Medeweyin 90.15 97.90 100.4 142.05 106.15 163.0 96.15 141.8 125.1 137.90
Harshin 137.1 116.40 107.5 121.40 140.05 145.2 151 127.9 152.0 176.50
S=Sample number
Chemical Oxygen demand

The COD result showed that 56% of the samples in Langerta, 90% in Medeweyn, and 90 % in
Harshin do not satisfy the guideline value of <30 mg/L. Thus, 78.7 % of the total samples are not
within the standard COD value. This indicates that more oxygen is demanded to degrade organic
compounds found in the water.
Table 95. COD of water from sampled Birkas (mg/l(ppm))

Kebele/sam S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10
ple
Lanqerta 317. 39.63 - 17.93 6.60 10.38 48.11 52.83 57.55 22.64
9
Medeweyin 180. 110.90 77.82 68.10 21.41 109 147.9 91.44 48.64 40.86
9
Harshin 177. 122.45 46.94 30.61 151.02 32.65 32.65 28.57 55.10 116.33
6
S=Sample number
Conclusion and Recommendations
The rainfall pattern of the area was highly variable and erratic. Consequently, this seasonal
variation of rainfall in the area leads to frequent occurrence of drought events and the
unavailability of ground water. Therefore, in addition to birka other systems of harvesting
technologies are likely to be promoted in the area and these technologies can be viewed as an
important mechanism to cope up with such harsh conditions and to challenge the frequent
drought problem. These technologies are not only appropriate to the Harshin Woreda but to
wherever there is scarcity of water and rainwater harvesting is the only choice.
The point to note here is that the pastoralists were already using every mechanism at their
disposal to survive the droughts. It is therefore essential that every external assistance given to
them have to strengthened and enhance the appropriate traditional know how or techniques in
their coping mechanism.
In the study area, even though most of the sampled waters in the Woreda fall within the
acceptable pH range, it was found out that most water (77%) are alkaline (pH >8). Hence the
water might be hard and have problem with tasting (slippery feel and soda taste) and washing
clothes. It might also lead to the flourishing of water born disease. These problems could be
corrected through installing a special ion exchange unit designed to reduce alkalinity or a
chemical feed pump system that injects a weak acid solution into the Birka to adjust the pH.
205
However, this might be difficult to be implemented with the capacity of the local community.
Besides, it should be noted that more chlorine dose is required (0.6 mg/liter) during chlorination.
Moreover, 100% of the harvested water in Birkas of the studied area do not satisfy drinking
water standard of 1NTU and 63.3% of the water in the Woreda fall above the recommended
turbidity guideline value of 5 NTU for effective de-chlorination. This emphasizes the need for
applying proper treatment to remove the suspended particles and organisms. Removal of
suspended particles and organisms can be done by filtration and sedimentation followed by
chlorination.
The high values in turbidity and pH measurements which are above the guideline values imply
that the waters investigated causes shielding effect during chlorination. They also demand extra
chlorination. Hence, during chlorination, excess disinfectant, primarily chlorine, is needed to be
added to impact microorganisms. However, high level of chlorination in the presence of organic
matter forms Disinfection By-Products (DBPs) like THMs which are carcinogenic, mutagenic
and causes central nervous system damage. Hence, maximum caution should be taken during
treatment or other pretreatment schemes should be introduced. Provision of pretreatment can be
achieved by providing mesh, chamber and/or shed.
The measured E.C. in the study area is within the range of 0 – 800 µS/cm implying absence of
organic pollution and not too much suspended clay material.
For the measured hardness in the study area, 86.7% of the Birkas falls within moderately hard
water range, 6.7% within hard water, and the rest 6.6% of the water within the soft water range.
The potential for causing health problem is low. Hence, no significant treatment procedure is
required.
The measured nitrogen in the form of nitrate is below the guideline value of 50ppm for all the
Birkas. Hence, no significant harm to health because of the presence of nitrate is expected.
Based on the TDS values, the water of the study area is classified as fresh water (TDS < 1000
mg/l) and the condition is excellent (TDS < 300mg/l) for drinking. However, these by itself
doesn’t mean that the water is safe to drink unless the microbiological study supports that the
water is safe from micro-organisms.
78.7% of the samples in all Kebeles are not with in the standard value for COD implying the
demand for more oxygen to degrade organic compounds found in the water.
All in all, Birkas have become indigenous innovations for collection of rainwater in the region.
The scheme is environmentally friendly in the sense that it does not cause any harm to the
environment. However, the indigenous way of constructing Birkas require improvement in the
design. Sizing storage tank should depend on the rainfall and catchment area and filtering system
should be in the right order. Once the Birkas are functional, there is a need to empty and remove
the silt accumulated at the bottom of the Birkas at the end of dry season. The interior of the tank
should also be cleaned with a brush. If possible it would be exceptional to provide roof to keep
out algae, windblown materials, lizards, birds and insects. When the rainy season starts, the
flushed water should be diverted away from Birkas during few minutes of the first rain to reduce
contamination.
At last, to ensure the sustainability and safety of the Birkas strong extension system and
responsible institution for training and operation (like disinfection) are required.
206
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208
Section III
Microbiological Analysis of Water Samples in Selected Kebeles of Harshin District,
Somali Regional State, Eastern Ethiopia
By
Yenehiwot Birhanu (DVM)
Introduction
Water is the elixir of life and abounds on earth, but this vast natural resource has been depleted and
turned into scarce commodity with increased usage catering to the needs of ever-expanding
population. Drinking water is indispensable for human existence (Prasai et al., 2007). There is
almost a global shortage of water and the world’s most urgent and front rank problem today is supply
and maintenance of clean drinking water. The climate change and spells of droughts have even
stressed regional water tables (Agarwal and Rajwar, 2010). Drinking water has the potential to
transmit microbial pathogens to great number of people causing subsequent illness. Many dreadful
diseases and illness are associated with water, directly or indirectly. Impure drinking water causes
diseases like diarrhea, jaundice, typhoid, etc. Some of these diseases can even result in death.
According to rough estimates, more than 15 million deaths worldwide result annually from
waterborne infections (Mehta et al., 2004; Addo et al., 2009).
The safety of drinking water can be monitored in a number of ways because the constituents of
drinking water (such as chemicals and microbes), which can compromise human health, can be
measured directly. Microbiological examination of water samples is usually undertaken to ensure
that the water is safe to drink. Indicator microorganisms survive better and longer than the pathogens
with a uniform and stable properties and may easily be detected by standard laboratory techniques
(Addo et al., 2009). Many potential pathogens could be associated with water. It is thus impractical
to screen samples for all possible pathogens. Instead, various indicator organisms have been used as
surrogate markers of contamination. Most waterborne diseases are related to faecal pollution of
water sources. Therefore, water microbiology is largely based on the need to identify indicators of
faecal pollution such as coliforms (Barrell et al., 2000). International drinking water-quality
monitoring programs have been established in order to prevent or to reduce the risk of contracting
water related infections (Liguori et al., 2010). Maintenance of the microbiological quality of water
has been used as an important means of preventing waterborne disease throughout the twentieth
century (Barrell et al., 2000). Keeping the above facts in mind, the present study was undertaken
with the following objectives:
• To assess the microbiological qualities of drinking water in and around Harshin district
• To isolate some of the pathogenic Bacterial species in drinking water of the area
Sample collection and preservation

Sample collection was done according to the WHO (2003) standard. Samples were taken carefully to
avoid accidental contamination during sampling. The ice box used to carry samples were cleaned and
disinfected after each use to avoid contaminating the surfaces of bottles and the sampler's hands.
Sterile gloves were used during sampling to avoid external contamination. In addition, sample
collection bottles were removed from their container near the birkas and the container was
immediately closed to prevent contamination of the other bottles. Samples were clearly labeled with
209
the site, date and other relevant informations and transported to the laboratory for analysis with in 24
hours. Water samples were kept at +4oC so that changes that may occur in the bacterial content of
water on storage can be reduced to a minimum by ensuring that samples were not exposed to light
and are kept cool. Examination began as soon as possible after sampling and certainly within 48
hours.
Bacteriological analysis of water samples
Isolation of Salmonella species

This was done according to the procedure described by ISO (2002), which involves four steps:
• Pre-enrichment: the sample was diluted in 1:10 ratio of peptone water and incubated at 37oC
for 16 to 20 hours.
• Selective Enrichment: 1 ml of the pre–enriched sample was transferred into 10 ml of Muller
Kauffmann tetrathionate broth (MKT) and incubated at 37±1oC for 24 ±3 hours.
• Plating out: After 24±3 hours incubation using the MKT culture, it was inoculated using a
sterile loop to a plate of xylose lysine deoxycholate (XLD) and Salmonella Shigella (SS)
agar plates so that well-isolated colonies were obtained. And incubated at 37oC for 24±3
hours.
• Typical colonies of salmonella grown on XLD and SS agar plates have a black center and a
lightly transparent zone of reddish color due to the color change of the indicator Salmonella.
H2S negative variants (e.g S. Paratyphi A) grown on XLD are pink with a darker pink center.
Lactose- Positive Salmonella grown on XLD are yellow with or without blackening.
• Confirmation: Biochemical tests were conducted on TSI, Lysine decarboxylation test, MR
test, VP test, Indole test and Urea broth.
Isolation of E. coli
Water samples were pre-enriched with buffered pepton water for 18 hours. Then they were
inoculated in MacConkey agar and Eosine Methylene Blue (EMB) agar. After 24-48 hours of
incubation, bacterial colonies with characteristic appearance of E. coli were preserved for further
isolation.
Isolation and identification procedures of Escherichia coli O157

E. coli O157 was isolated using sorbitol-MacConkey agar and E. coli O157 Latex Agglutination kit.
Sorbitol-negative colonies are colourless and are considered "suspicious for E. coli O157". Other E.
coli colonies are pink to red.
Methods
One loopful of suspension was streaked onto the plate and incubated at 36°C for 24 hours. Sorbitol-
negative colonies were considered "suspicious for E. coli O157". Then at least five colonies were
selected for screening because the organism is not always present in pure culture. Colonies that did
not ferment sorbitol within 24 hours were screened for agglutination in E. coli O157 antiserum
(using E. coli O157 Latex Agglutination kit).
Isolation of Shigella species

The samples were inoculated on MacConkey and Xylose-lysine-desoxycholate (XLD) agar plates.
The plates were incubated at 35-37°C for 18-24 hours. Then presumptive identification was done by
colony characterization of the bacterium in the two agar plates. Well separated colonies of typical
appearance were transferred to Kligler iron agar (KIA) and triple sugar iron agar (TSI) from each of
the plating media for further testing.
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• Tubes suspicious for Shigella will have an acid (yellow) butt and an alkaline (red) slant.
They will not produce gas (no bubbles or cracks in the agar) and will not produce hydrogen
sulfide (no black along the stab line).
• On triple sugar iron agar (TSI) can also be used for the identification of Shigella. It will give
the same reactions as KIA.
Isolation of Vibrio species

Water samples were inoculated on isolation plates with minimal delay. V. cholerae is very
susceptible to desiccation hence, specimens were transported using modified semisolid transport
medium of Cary and Blair and placing them in an icebox. The efficiency of this medium in
maintaining viability of V.cholerae for upto 4 weeks has been verified. Refrigeration, but not
freezing is found to be preferable method for delayed transportation of specimens. Presumptive
identification of Vibrio cholera was done using Peptone water, MacConkey agar (Vibrio spp. are
capable of growing on routine laboratory media since the salt content of these media is sufficient to
support the growth of halophilic organisms. On MacConkey agar medium Vibrio spp. grow as
lactose nonfermenting colonies), motility test, Oxidase test, Glucose and sucrose fermentation
(Vibrios are oxidase positive and ferment glucose and sucrose with the production of acid only).
Total aerobic and coliform counts
Isolation of fungus
The presence of fungal contamination in the water samples was analysed through the inoculation of
the samples in Sabrouds Dextros agar. This was incubated for about a week to observe the growth.
After a week of incubation, colonies of fungus were appreciated and recorded.
Procedure of APC
Water samples were serially diluted (10-1, 10-2, 10-3, 10-4 and 10-5) using sterile trypton soya broth.
Total Aerobic Plate Count and Coliform Count

The water samples were subjected to analysis of the aerobic bacterial count (APC) and coliform
counts (CC).
Parasite
All of the water samples were subjected to parasitological analysis using direct microscopic
examination.
Algae
Blue-green algae are primitive microscopic plants that live in fresh water. They thrive in areas where
the water is shallow, slow moving, and warm, but they may also be present below the surface in
deeper, cooler water. Normally blue-green algae are barely visible, but, during warm weather,
populations can rapidly increase to form a large mass called a bloom. If water is obtained from a
surface water source during a blue-green algae bloom, then it is possible that the water may be
contaminated with toxins. Although many forms of blue-green algae are relatively harmless, some
forms produce toxins which can be harmful to human and animals’ health. The most common toxins
are called microcystins and are released into the water when the algae cell wall is broken either due
to natural death and decay of the cell by exposure to corrosive chemicals such as chlorine, or by
abrasion. Symptoms of human health effects from ingested algae toxins are headaches, fever,
diarrhea, abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting. However, if swallowed in large quantities, more
serious health effects may occur (www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hecs-sesc/water/factsheets/blue_green_
algae.htm, 2005).
211
Results
The bacteriological analysis revealed that the drinking water used by the pastoral community in and
around Harshin is contaminated by a number of bacteria, fungus and parasites (Table 96 and Figure
7)
Table 96. Bacteriological analysis of water samples of the three selected Kebeles of
Harshin
Location Salmonella E. coli E. coli O157 Shigella Vibrio Fungus Parasite
Lanqerta 5 (50%) 6 (20%) 0 (0%) 5 (50%) 6 (60%) 0 (0%) 6 (60%)
Medeweyne 7 (70%) 4 (40%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 1 (10%) 7 (70%) 8 (80%)
Harshin 2 (20%) 4 (40%) 2 (20%) 4 (40%) 4 (40%) 5 (50%) 10 (100
%)
χ2 5.089 1.071 4.286 6.667 5.455 10.833 5.00
Df 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
P- value 0.079 0.585 0.117 0.036 0.065 0.004 0.82
Accordingly, a highest prevalence of Salmonella is found in Medeweyne, followed by Lanqerta and

then Harshin. However highest prevalence of E. coli, Shigella and Vibrio were recorded in Lanqerta.
In the case of parasitic contamination of the water, highest prevalence was found in Medewyne. With
regards to the isolation of E. coli O157, it has been detected only in Harshin Kebele. Even though
there is variation in the prevalence of bacterial species among the different Kebeles, statistically
significant association (p<0.05) was found only in Shigella, Vibrio and fungus. Many parasite
species were recovered from the water samples. Out of the total 30 water samples, 6 (20%) were
contaminated with ascaris, and 1 (3%) was contaminated with amoeba. The remaining 17 (56.6%) of
the water samples were contaminated with paramecium and other protozoan parasites.
Table 97. Prevalence of parasites in sample water obtained from the three selected
Kebeles of Harshin
Kebele (District) Ascaris Amoeba Paramecium and Other protozoan Parasite
Lanqerta 20% 10% 40%
Medewoyne 20% 0% 80%
Harshin 20% 0% 80%
All the water samples are positive for parasitic contamination, and a mixed parasitic contamination
was observed.
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Figure 7. Bacterial isolates in sample water obtained from the three selected Kebeles of
Harshin
As indicated in Agarwal and Rajwar (2010), the rains bring in particulate matter, which serves as
sites of adsorption for bacteria, thereby increasing the bacterial load. Similar reason might have
contributed to the high bacterial load in the water samples of the present study area.
213
Table 98: Total aerobic plate count per milliliter of water samples obtained from the
three selected Kebeles of Harshin
Aerobic Plate Count (CFU/ml)

Kebele 101-150 151-350 >350 Total
Lanqerta 0 (.0%) 1 (10%) 9 (90.0%) 10 (100%)
Medeweyne 2 (20%) 2 (20%) 6 (60.0%) 10 (100%)
Harshin 0 (0%) 4 (40%) 6 (60.0%) 10 (100%)
Total 2 (6.7%) 7 (23.3%) 21 (70.0%) 30 (100.0%)
Table 98 indicates that all water samples from the Birkas in the three districts, are contaminated by
aerobic bacterial species and all of the Birkas had greater than or equal to 100CFU/ml, which
indicates high level of contamination, which is more than the tolerable limit set by WHO.
Table 99: Coliform count per milliliter of water samples obtained from the three
selected Kebeles of Harshin
Coliform Count (CFU/ml)
Kebele 0 1-50 51-100 101-150 151-350 >350 Total
Lanqerta 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 1 (10%) 0 (0%) 9 (90.0%) 10 (100%)
Medeweyne 0 (0%) 1 (10%) 1 (10%) 1 (10%) 1 (10%) 6 (60%) 10 (100%)
Harshin 3 (30%) 2 (20%) 1 (10%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 4 (40%) 10 (100%)
Total 3 (10.0%) 3 (10.0%) 2 (6.7%) 2 (6.7%) 1 (3.3%) 19(63.3%) 30 (100.0%)
According to Table 99, 30% of the Birkas in Harshin district had 0CFU/ml of water, which is
regarded as acceptable for drinking water by WHO. But, the remaining Birkas in the three districts
had Coliform contamination, which is not acceptable for drinking water. As can be seen from both
tables, Lanqerta had the highest contamination level >350CFU/ml in 90% of the Birkas.
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Figure 8 . Coliform count ranges of water samples Figure 9. Aerobic plate count range of water
obtained from the three selected Kebeles of samples obtained from the three selected
Harshin Kebeles of Harshin
As can be seen in both figures, there is higher bacterial contamination beyond the acceptable limit.
Moreover, the highest records of bacterial loads, both for the coliform count and the total bacterial
load are above 350CFU/ml.
Discussion
In the present study, majority (90%) of the water samples collected from Lanqerta were
contaminated with the highest amount (>350CFU/ml) of aerobic bacterial species and the remaining
10% of the samples were contaminated with a bacterial load of 151-350CFU/ml. None of the water
samples from this district had an acceptable aerobic bacterial species load. Similarly, the coliform
count from this district also showed that, 90% of the samples collected from this district had the
highest contamination (>350CFU/ml) with coliforms, in which the WHO standard was 0CFU/ml.
This shows that this area is much neglected and the people are in high risk of waterborne diseases.
On the other hand, Medeweyne and Harshin were almost the same (60%) in the proportion of surface
water contamination levels with >350CFU/ml of water. However, none of the water samples from
the three districts satisfy the standard drinking water requirement, which should not exceed
10CFU/ml of water. The bacterial load of water in these two districts was lower than Lanqerta.
Though the level of contamination with aerobic bacterial species has been reduced in these two
districts by different levels of intervention, it was not enough to meet the criterion set by the WHO.
Concerning the coliform bacterial count in these two districts, relatively higher proportion (60%) of
the water samples were contaminated with the highest (>350CFU/ml) level of contamination in
Medeweyne and relatively lower proportion (40%) of the Birkas had similar contamination in
Harshin district. But, 30% of the water samples from Birkas in Harshin had the acceptable coliform
215
count, which is 0CFU/100ml. In Medeweyne too, the coliform count is relatively better than
Lanqerta. This clearly showed that the level of intervention had an effect on the bacteriological
quality of the drinking water.
According to WHO guideline, the value of CFU/ml in drinking water is 0 CFU/100ml. but in the
present study, only three wells in Harshin district were found to be not contaminated with coliform
bacteria. As indicated in Addo et al. (2009), the surface water sources, in general, are not acceptable
for drinking purpose as these are often loaded by various organic, inorganic and biological
constituents. Similarly, in the present study, the bacteriological quality of the majority of the surface
waters was contaminated with different bacterial pathogens. During the study period, it was observed
that the community used the water from the Birkas for washing cloths, bathing, drinking animals,
etc, in which majority of these activities were done near the Birkas. In addition, children used these
water sources for swimming. This suggests that the community has little awareness about water
contamination and needs to be educated. According to Shamsuddeen et al. (2010), the environment,
water handlers and unclean containers may be the sources of water contamination.
Among the bacterial isolates, E. coli and Salmonella account the highest share, which were isolated
from 14 (46.7%) samples. On the other hand, Shigella was isolated only from 9 (30%) Birkas and
this was from two Districts excluding Medeweyne. In the case of Parasite contamination, 80% of the
water samples had parasite contamination. Escherchia coli is reported to be the most important
indicator organism, whose presence in water indicates fecal contamination from warm blooded
animals (Shamsuddeen et al., 2010). The result of the present study generally indicated the presence
of E. coli in most Birkas used for drinking water. Similar justification can be made in that the water
is contaminated with faeces from animal and human beings. Shamsuddeen et al. (2010) also
indicated that the presence of E. coli is really hazardous and an indication of improper and
unhygienic handling.
Conclusion and Recommendations
The consumers of the water from the Birkas of the three districts are at a high risk of being infected
with waterborne infections and intoxications since there was an evidence of bacterial and parasitic
contamination of the drinking waters. Pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella, E. coil, Shigella and
Vibrio species were isolated. The pathogenic strain of E. coli O157 was also detected. In addition to
the pathogenic bacterial species, different protozoal parasites were also detected including amoeba,
ascaris, paramecium and other unidentified parasites. In addition, some of the Birkas had too much
algal growth. The following recommendations are therefore made.
• Water intended for drinking should be treated to reduce its microbial load.
• There should be regular microbiological investigation of the water so as to ensure their
safety for human and animal use.
• Public awareness program should be strongly created with the concerned body from the
health and Veterinary offices.
• Work of non governmental organizations in the area, such as OXFAM, dealing with water
quality through construction of roofs for the Birkas, water treatment, etc should be
recognized and acknowledeged and the government should work with them.
• Governmental organizations such as Higher education institutions should focus on
continuous assessment of the water quality and awareness creaton.
216
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Acknowledgment:
This project was funded by the Institute of Pastoral and Agro-pastoral Studies (IPAS),
Haramaya University for Research and Training in pastoral and agro-pastoral areas. We are
grateful for the contributions made by IPAS staff, the village-based enumerators and the
villagers who agreed to participate in the research work.
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Annexes
Annex 1. Standard Guideline values
Table 100. Bacteriological quality of drinking-watera (WHO, 1998)
Organisms Guideline value
All water intended for drinking
E. coli or thermotolerant coliform bacteriab,c Must not be detectable in any 100-ml sample
Treated water entering the distribution system
E. coli or thermotolerant coliform bacteriab Must not be detectable in any 100-ml sample
Total coliform bacteria Must not be detectable in any 100-ml sample
Treated water in the distribution system
E. coli or thermotolerant coliform bacteriab Must not be detectable in any 100-ml sample
Total coliform bacteria Must not be detectable in any 100-ml sample. In the case of
large supplies, where sufficient samples are examined, must
not be present in 95% of samples taken throughout any 12-
month period
a
Immediate investigative action must be taken if either E. coli or total coliform bacteria are detected.
The minimal action in the case of total coliform bacteria is repeat sampling; if these bacteria are
detected in the repeat sample, the cause must be determined by immediate further investigation.
b
Although E. coli is more precise indicator of faecal pollution, the count of thermotolerant coliform
bacteria is an acceptable alternative. If necessary, proper confirmatory tests must be carried out.
Total coliform bacteria are not acceptable indicators of the sanitary quality of rural water supplies,
particularly in tropical areas where many bacteria of no sanitary significance occur in almost all
untreated supplies.
c
It is recognized that, in the great majority of rural water supplies in developing countries, faecal
contamination is widespread. Under these conditions, the national surveillance agency should set
medium-term targets for the progressive improvement of water supplies.
219
Table 101. Guideline value/ permissible limits for Microbiological quality parameters
in drinking water (For untreated water entering distribution system) (Borah et al.,
2010).
Parameters Unit WHO Guideline value ISI tolerance limit EPA standards
desirable value
Coliform MPN/100 ml 0 10 0
organisms
Fecal coliform MPN/100 ml 0 0 0
E. coli MPN/100 ml 0 0 0
Annex 2 Standards
The classification of drinking water according to bacteriological tests is given below (Reference)
Class Grade Presumptive count (per 100 ml) E.coli count (per 100 ml)
I Excellent 0 0
II Satisfactory 1-3 0
III Suspicious 4-10 0
IV Unsatisfactory >10 0,1 or more
Reporting
Mention the presumptive coliform count and Escherichia coli count per 100 ml of water
• Report: Fit/unfit for human consumption.
• Advice, if a repeat specimen is desired.
Quality assurance
• Due emphasis should be given on proper collection and prompt transportation of the
specimen.
• Refrigerate the water specimen for a maximum of 48 hours if not immediately processed.
• Ensure the reliability of media and instruments.
• Interpret the results properly.
Annex 3. Water Sampling

This was done according to the method described in http://www.primuslabs.com/services/CG
Rivers, Streams, Lakes, Reservoirs, springs or Shallow Wells
1. Samples shall be representative of the water that is the source of supply to consumers. It is
undesirable to take samples too near the bank or too far from the point of drain off, or at depth above
or below the point of drain off.
2. Grasp a bottle by its base and plunge into the water source with the neck facing down.
3. Turn the bottle until the neck is pointing slightly upward and the mouth is directed toward current
(if any) and allow bottle to fill. After filling, remove bottle from water with the neck pointing up,
there should be no air gap.
4. Tightly cap the bottle.
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Note: Stream studies may be short-term high intensity efforts. Select bacteriological sampling
locations to include a baseline location upstream from the study area, industrial and municipal waste
falls into the main stream study area.
Transportation
1. Place the sample in the cooler and place a sufficient amount of gel ice packs to keep the sample
cold during transport to the laboratory.
2. Transport the samples to the laboratory.
Remarks:
1. Do not open the sample container until just before taking the water sample.
2. At no time should the sampler’s fingers come in contact with the inside of the sample
container.
3. Collect samples for microbiological examination in sterile containers. if necessary, ensure
the sample container contains sodium thiosulfate. Contact the microbiology lab for
instructions.
4. If sampling open tanks, rivers, reservoirs or other sources that require dipping the
container into the source, sterile bottles are required as sample containers.
5. The time between collection and the start of analysis shall not exceed 24 hours.
6. Use a new pair of rubber gloves for each sample.
Procedure:
Preparation
1. Using a marker, record the following information on an unopened sample container: date,
sample location and sample time.
2. Proceed to sample area.
3. Before opening sample container, put on rubber gloves.
Sampling from reservoir

1. Open the bottle under sterilized conditions
2. Fill it by holding it by the lower part, submerging it to a depth of about 20 cms, with the mouth
facing slightly upwards. If there is a current, the bottle should face the current.
3. Stopper the bottle and label it.
The sample is examined at the earliest preferably within one hour or should be quickly transported to
the laboratory keeping in cool container away from sunlight. It should be positively examined within
6 hours of collection.
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Section IV
Gender Analysis of Use, Management and Control of Water Resources in Harshin
Woreda of the Jijiga Zone, SNRS
By
Melat Gezahegn
Introduction
Drinking water in sufficient quantity and quality is one of the most basic human needs and it is a
human right. Millennium Development Goal 7 on Environmental Sustainability aims to reduce the
number of people who have no access to clean drinking water and basic sanitation by half (UN-
Water, 2006). This is because of the fact that water plays paramount importance in the lives of
people and its deterioration both in terms of quality and quantity has direct or indirect impact on the
wellbeing, health, and livelihood of people. Issues related to use, management and control of water
resources are as equally important as availability of water. This is because these factors affect access,
quality and quantitiy, and fair distribution of water within communities affecting their health,
welfare, and livelihood. Moreover, it is often the case that most community resources such as forest,
water, grazing land, etc. are not fairly used by all community members. Discriminatory practices that
exist within communities based on social identitites such as gender, ethnicity, age, religion, etc.
could affect one’s access to these resources. Hence, the presence of such practices and its effect on
the wellbeing of some segements of a community needs to be scrutinized and appropriate measures
should be taken accordingly.
It is with this background that a study was initiated with the aim to investigate how water resource is
being utilized, managed and controlled by the pastoral communities in Harshin district. Specifically,
the study aims to reveal how established gender relation with in the woreda differently affect women
and men community members in using, managing and controlling water resources in Harshin
Woreda and devise strategies to address it.
Material and Methods
Data type, sources, and methods of data collection

For the gender analysis of use, management and control of water resources, both quantitative and
qualitative data were collected. Quantitative data were collected from household (HH) surveys.
Qualitative data were collected using key informant interviews and focus group discussions.
For the survey part a structured questionnaire were prepared and pre-tested to check practicability
and to make amendments as required before the actual data collection period. Enumerators and
translators who speak Somali language and English/Amharic and know the local culture were
recruited. Those who were collecting data for the survey were trained on the contents of the
questionnaire before data collection started. Focus group discussions and key informant interviews
were facilitated by the researcher.
The household survey was conducted by embloying 24 HHs in Harshin (02 and 03 sub-Kebeles), 21
HHs in Lanqerta (02 sub-Kebele), and 10 HHs in Medeweyn. Two Focus Group Discussions
(FGDs), male and female separately, each with 6-8 participants of similar socio-economic status
were held in two sub-Kebeles (Harshin and Lanquerta). Although FGD was planned to be conducted
222
in Medeweyn, it failed due to problems faced when reaching the village (technical problem with the
vehicle and limited number of people staying in the village). The key informants’ interviews were
conducted with the Health Bureau, Water Bureau, and Women Affairs.
Sample size determination and Selection of Households

For selection of households, an assumption was made that an average HH in the region consists 10
members in the region. Total population of Harshin Woreda divided by 10 HH members (80215/10)
gave 8022 HHs. Assuming all center Kebeles have equal population distribution, total number of HH
divided by total number of center Kebles (8022/10) gives 802 HH per center Kebele. Since Center
Kebeles have on average 3 sub Kebeles (802HHs/3) is equal to 267 HHs per sub Kebele. From the
267 HHs, 20 HHs was purposely selected. Attention was given to female headed HHs in the
selection process.
During the fieldwork, a total of 24 HHs in Harshin (02 and 03), 21 HHs in Lanqerta (02), and 10
HHS7 in Medeweyn were surveyed.
Table 102: Distribution of sampled respondents by sampled Kebeles

Center Kebele (Sub– Level of intervention Number of Total number of
Kebele) Households surveyed
respondents
Male Female
Harshin (02 and 03) high intervention 14 10 24
Lanqerta (02) medium intervention 15 6 21
Mesajidka (Medeweyn) low intervention 4 6 10 8
Total 33 22 55
Selected parameters for analysis

Selected parameters for study were source of water supply for human and livestock, sufficiency of
water and strategies pursued during shortage seasons, community water resource management,
service protection mechanisms, perception about the quality of water, experience of diseases
attacking both human and livestock, indigenous mechanisms of purifying water, sources of
contamination, level of intervention by development actors, most important improvements the
community would like to see and the contribution they could make in such interventions.
Specifically the gender analysis aimed to reveal gender roles in construction and maintenance of
birkas, how access to community birkas is governed, quality of participation in the governance
between men and women, gendered roles and responsibilities related to water resource use and
management at household level, HH division of labor to water related tasks, gendered strategies
pursued during dry seasons, and experience of water related diseases and its impact on women’s
burden and health.
7
During field work, only 10 HHS were found in the sub-Kebele. The rest were migrated to another village to
escape the dry season. We were not able to go to another sub-Kebele within the center Kebele, as we did in
Harshin 02 when we couldn’t get the number of HHs required for the survey, due to technical problem with the
vehicle during data collection.
8
It was difficult to access community members as most of them migrated to another village during data
collection.
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Data Analysis
Since the study used both quantitative and qualitative data, relevant data analysis techniques in
quantitative and qualitative techniques were utilized. Data collected through key informant interview
and focus group discussions for the qualitative study were categorized and narrated along research
objectives. Content analysis was further employed in the presentation of the results. Data collected
through questionnaire were edited, tabulated, analyzed and interpreted using simple descriptive
statistics.
Results and discussion
Status and Condition of Water Supply in the Woreda

Water supply in Harshin is 100% surface water system through rain water harvesting. Run-off water
from rainfall is directed and filled into digged cemented structures called Birkas. Birkas and natural
ponds are the main sources of water in the Woreda. Both sources are, however, entirely dependent on
rainfall for recharging. There are no permanent water sources (like wells and perennial rivers) in the
Woreda (SC-UK, 2005). People in all Kebeles depend on surface rainwater harvesting for water both
for human and livestock consumption (Getachew and Abib, 2005)
According to the Woreda Water Bureau, currently (as of 2010) the Woreda have 3,457 private Birkas
of which 2,400 are functional and the rest 1, 057 are not, 28 Government constructed Birkas of
which 20 are functional and 8 not, and 18 ponds of which 5 are functional and 13 not. Hence, there
are a total of 3503 water sources in the Woreda, of which 2425 (69.2%) are functional and the rest
1078 (30.8%) are not (Source: discussion with the Water Bureau).
Among the surveyed community members, 15 (63%), 21 (100%), and 8 (80%) respondents in
Harshin, Lanqerta, and Medeweyn do not have private Birka. This is because of, as explained by the
respondents, the high cost of construction of Birkas. Eventhough there are several private Birkas as
presented in the previous paragraph in the Woreda, the number of private Birkas is almost nil
compared to the total number of population in the Woreda. Most of the community members use
water from communal Birkas constructed by the government and the community and/or through
using reciprocal kinship relations they have with private Birka owners. Private Birkas could only be
accessed by owners, their close or far relatives (such as uncle, brother, sister…) and through mutual
agreements with community members such as herding the livestock of owners in exchange for
accessing water. These members who could access freely are expected to contribute their labor
during maintenance, fencing, and disilting of Birkas (Getachew and Abib, 2005). But in times of
shortage seasons, water will be sold even to these members.
Private Birkade ownership
25
fHs
H
20
HHs with Private
ro
15 Birkade
me
b
10 HHs with no
u
private Birkade
N
5
0
n
ta
in
ey
h
er
w
rs
ng
e
a
ed
H
La
Ke be le s
Figure 10. Households with private Birka
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The information obtained from the Health Bureau indicates that 99% of the community do not have
clean water supply due to the fact that Birka water are not treated. However, community members
use their own strategy to purify the water they are using. Respondents were inquired whether they
use any means to purify the water they are using. Their answer is as follows: in Harshin all the 24
(100%) respondents use at least one of the three methods to purify water– use of water agar, boiling,
and use of cloth to separate the waste; in Lanqerta, only 7 of the 21 (33%) respondents use water
agar and in Medeweyn 5 of the 10 (50%) respondents use water agar and/or boiling to purify water.
There was no significant difference between male and female community members in using
purifying agent. In Harshin, the reason for all respondents to use any of the purifying methods listed
could be due to the fact that there are a number of government and non-government organizations
based in Harshin Kebele. The high level of intervention in the Kebele compared to Lanqerta and
Medeweyn perhaps has contributed to the wide use of water agar.
The condition of water in the Woreda is much deteriorated. It was observed during the field work
that animals and human use water from the same source. The water at some Birkas smelled bad, and
changed color into yellowish green due to algael growth and as a result of organic matter
decomposition during dry seasons. Besides, children are swimming in the Birkas, community
members are washing their foots and face at the Birkas, strong winds blowing dusts to Birkas,
unclean water collection materials used by community members,…etc. were noticed during the field
work. All these are source of contamination on the water supply system. The contamination of water
is further exacerbated by the low latrine coverage in the Woreda as most community members use
open space as toilet.
Table 103: Use of water purifying agent/method by sex
Kebele Male Female Methods used to purify
Yes No Yes No
Harshin 14 - 10 - Use of water agar*, boiling, use of cloth to separate the

waste
Lanqerta 5 10 2 4 Use of water agar*
Medeweyn 2 2 3 3 Use of water agar*, boiling
Total 21 12 15 7
*Water agar is distributed by government (health and water bureau) and non-governmental organizations
(such as Oxfam GB and SC-UK).
As a result, health problems are of serious challenges. The Woreda Health Bureau revealed the
following prevalent health problems caused by poor water condition: acute diarrhea, urinary tract
and kidney infection, intestinal parasites, and bacteria related problems (due to the presence of active
motile bacteria including Shigella and Salmonella in the water). The office further explained that
children are the most vulnerable groups in terms of contracting diseases associated with the poor
quality water. This is because of the fact that they have lower resistance compared to adults whose
bodies are better adapted to the condition. Intervention of NGOs and GOs in the Woreda to assist
water supply is very limited. Only Oxfam GB is currently working on rehabilitation of Birkas -
mainly maintenance, construction of silt traps and roofs to minimize contamination from dust,
animal and human source, and separate but linked water drinking structure for livestock. The
225
rehabilitation work is done for 2 to 4 birkas per Kebele, which is far beyond a representative figure
compared to the total number of Birkas in the each Kebele. A total of 40 Birkas were maintened by
Oxfam GB in the Woreda. Oxfam GB also distribute water agar (chlorine) to communities in the
Woreda.
Factors affecting water quality
Contamination at Birkas
Most birkas in the Woreda are prevented from contamination by animals and human sources by
constructing fences made of acacia branches around them. The fences are also meant for security
reasons. Entrance to Birkas is only possible through doors made for that purpose. In one of the
Birkas in lanqerta, an iron wire mesh covering the Birka top was observed in addition to the acacia
fence. This was made to prevent people and livestock falling into the Birka.
Although it is assumed that contamination is minimized by constructing fences, there are several
sources of contamination at Birkas. First, the very fact that most Birkas does not have cover (roof)
except few which are constructed by rich HHs and those constructed and rehabilitated by Oxfam GB
imply that almost all Birkas are not prevented from contamination from dust. Second, both human
and livestock consume water from the same source. In some Birkas, there is a separate but linked
structure constructed for livestock watering purpose next to Birkas for livestock watering. In such
cases, water will be collected from Birkas and stored in the attached structure so that livestock could
drink. However, these structures are 4 to 5 meters away from Birkas which is not far enough to
prevent contamination from livestock waste. Third, even if there are fences around the Birka,
animals can easily enter into the Birka compound because fences are made of acacia tree branches
lying down surrounding the Birka. Fences are not strong enough to protect entrance of children as
well as domestic and wild animals. Although it is assumed that only adults enter for water collection
purpose and children are advised by families not to go to Birkas, in fact it was observed during the
field work that children practicing swimming in the Birkas.
Fourth, clothes are washed with in Birka compound. Male discussants said that clothes are washed
outside Birka below the Birkas level to avoid contamination whereas the females said they wash with
in the Birka compound. Some women collect water from Birkas and wash light clothes around home.
Yet heavy clothes (like blankets) are washed in the Birka. Moreover, women washing clothes with
the Birka compound were observed during the field work. The fact that washing clothes is women’s
task and they said that they wash clothes with in the Birka compound indicates that Birkas are
vulnerable to contamination coming from washed clothes and detergents used for washing. Fifth,
there is poor latrine coverage in the Kebeles visited except that of Harshin. Except one HH, in
Harshin almost all (96%) of the HH surveyed noted that they have a toilet for human wast disposal
and to take bath. However, in Lanqerta half (50%) and in Medeweyn all (100%) of the respondent
HHs do not have toilet. They excrete in open field with in the village. The difference between
Harshin and the rest two Kebeles could be attributed to the high level of intervention in Harshin
district. There neither are waste collection holes in the Kebeles. People dispose their household
wastes in the field behind their house. As a result, wastes are observed dispersed in the field. Since
water at Birkas are collected from run-offs from rainfall, all the dirt and wastes on the field are
washed by the run-off and directed into the Birkas. The respondents indicated that this is very serious
source of contamination and has serious implication on the health of the villagers.
Finally, the fact that Birkas are not cleaned and maintained regularly and water is stagnating in the
Birkas from season to season and from year to year (2-3 years on average according to the
information obtained from FGDs, but even more) created a favorable situation for small aquatic
226
animals to reproduce and flourish. As a result, there were worms of different kinds and frogs were
witnessed in most of the Birkas. For example, among the surveyed HHs with private Birkas (11 HHs
in the three Kebeles), 6 (55%) responded that they clean and maintain their birka once a year, 2
(18%) responded once in two year, 2 (18%) responded they never cleaned and maintained, and 1
(9%) responded he cleans when he notice the Birka is in serious problem. Therefore, urgent
intervention strategies needs to be designed to combat, if not alleviate, all the above mentioned
sources of contamination. Unless it is addressed, the health problem of the community would
continue to persist.
25
20
15 HHs with toilet
HHs without
10 toilet
0
Harshin Langerta Medeweyn
Figure 11. Latrine coverage in the surveyed kebeles
Contamination from water collection and storage materials

Communities in the three Kebeles put maximum effort to maintain the cleanness of water collecting
and storing containers. Water is collected from the Birkas by bringing personal plastic containers
from home both for collecting and storing. The plastic containers are taken back home after used to
collect water. The communities tie the plastic container at the end of a string with a hook and drop
the container to the Birka. They then pull out the container with water and pour in to the storage
material. It will then be transported to home either by carrying or using donkey carts or wheels to
home depending on the amount/weight of the water and availability of transport means. This is
entirely women’s task. As to female FG discussants, there were several incidences where women
failed into the birkas while collecting water because of loosing their balance due to the weight of the
containers which sometimes is beyond their capacity to pull.
Respondents were inquired about the kind of material they use to collect and store water and how
frequent they clean and change their storage container. 96% of the total 55 respondents replied they
use plastic containers while the rest 4% respondents in Harshin Kebele explained they use metal
container to collect water. As to materials used to store water, 65% answered they use plastic
containers while 35% responded they use metal containers. All the 19 respondents who use metal
containers are from Harshin Kebele.
Respondents were further asked about the frequency in which they clean their storage materials. 30
(55%) of the 55 respondents (9 from Harshin, 12 from Langerta, and 9 from Medeweyn) responded
that they clean their storage material once a week usually on Fridays with available detergents. 11
(20%) respondents said they clean once a month, 4 (7%) said they clean when they notice it is dirty
227
or the birka wall is broken, and on the contrary 10 (18%) respondents explained they never cleaned
their storage material.
Table 104. Materials used to collect and store water
Kebele Material used to collect water Material used to store water
Plastic Metal Plastic Metal
Harshin 22 2 5 19
Langerta 21 - 21 -
Medeweyn 10 - 10 -
Total 53 2 36 19
Frequency of cleaning storage material
14
12
No. of HHs
10 Harshin
8
Langerta
6
4 Medeweyn
2
0
Once a Once a When Never
week month noticed cleaned
dirty
Frequency
Figure 12. Frequency in which storage materials are cleaned
Similarly, respondents were inquired how often they change their storage materials. It was found out
that 23 of 55 (42%), of whom 14 are from Harshin Kebele has never changed their storage material.
Perhaps the reason why respondents from Harshin did not frequently change is because they use
metal containers to store water.
However, whatever material the storage container made of – and particularly in the Woreda where
untreated water is supplied – there would be sediments of various nature (small worms, dirt, plastic,
organic matter,…) that contaminate the storage material. Unhygienic storage materials, unless
frequently cleaned and changed, could be a source of water contamination.
228
Frequency of changing storage

material
Never changed
Frequency
Once a year Medeweyn

Langerta
Once in 6 months Harshin
Once in 3 months
0 5 10 15
No. of HHs
Figure 13. Frequency in which storage materials are changed
Though during the FGD with the women group, the women strongly argue that the problem of
contamination is not with their collecting and storing materials but that of the Birkas which is
exposed to various sources of contamination; in fact contamination could also come from materials
used in the house, therefore proper care need to be followed at home too.
Water supply
Water Shortage Seasons and Coping Strategies

Most community members do not have sufficient water supply throughout the year. From the total of
55 respondents, almost all (96%) except 2 respondents in Harshin Kebele indicated that they do not
have sufficient water throughout the year. The two respondents in Harshin who said they have
sufficient water are those with private Birka and better-off HHs compared to the majority. There are
four seasons in a year. The gu and deyr which are rainy seasons and jilaal and hagaa the dry spell.
The gu, stretching from April to June and is the major rainy season. Most of the rains in this season
are received in the first two months of the season. The deyr season fall between October-December.
In deyr, rainfall is usually less productive due to low intensity and irregular distribution coupled with
short duration. The jilaal season which is the most difficult and stressful period of the year runs from
January to March while the hagaa, the short dry season, is from July-September (SC-UK, 2005). All
55 survey respondents explained that Jilal is the season during which they face severe water and
pasture shortage. Some (4 respondents) explained that they also face shortage of water during Deyr
season.
The strategies pursued to get water during dry seasons are many. In Harshin Kebele they store water
and use during the first few weeks until it is finished, after which they start buying water from
private Birka owners and also bring water from distant places (Kebribeyah) travelling 6 hours9.
Duiring severe periods of water shortage, the households migrate temporarily to Kebribeyah,
Medeweyn, Degahabur or Jijiga depending on availability of pasture and water, proximity, and
presence of relatives. When buying water, they pay 20 birr for 200 litres of water and their monthly
expenditure to buy water on average reaches 600 birr. Their expenditure may be high or low based
on their family size. Similar pricing structure is observed across the three Kebeles. In Harshin,
because of the presence of government and non-governmental organization, often the community
9
As domestic water supply is considered women’s task, it is women (girls and mothers) who travel distant
places to bring water.
229
reports the shortage to the organizations for support. In response, government bureaus and NGOs
often bring water to Harshin Kebele community by car (Bote) from other Woreda/Kebele though the
discussants say that supply is not sufficient.
Same is true for Lanqerta. When what they store is exhausted, they buy and bring water from distant
Kebeles travelling for 10 hours. Sometimes they buy and bring water from Hargeisa (Somali Land –
due to the proximity to the Kebele). According to the FGD, they pay 40 to 100 birr for 200 litres of
water travelling as far as 150 Kms (Source: FGD). And in severe cases migrates to Jijiga town or
Aboker-ahmed or Derbiga Kebeles depending on proximity, availability of pasture and water,
presence of relatives, low population density, and limited competition. Same applies to Medeweyn
except that the places they migrate in severe cases differ. In this case, the Kebeles to which they
migrate are Demerobols in Deweley and Arabsiyia in Afuflay which are 50-60kms away from
Medeweyn.
In the case of water supply for livestock during dry season, they use what they store at first and then
migrate to areas where they can find pasture and water for livestock. In Harshin, in severe periods
adult men members of the community migrate to Degahabur, Aware, or bulole with camel and
sheep. In Lanqerta, they migrate to Jijiga, Derbiga, and Lefeislamod and in Medeweyn, they go to
Demerobols in Deweley and Arabsiyia in Afuflay. In times of migration, not all community
members migrate. Adult men migrate with livestock while women, children, elderly and sick
community members remain in the Kebele. Quitting taking bath and washing clothes to conserve
water were also mentioned during the FGD as an additional response during shortage seasons.
Community Perception about the quality of water

In all the Kebeles, quality of Birka water was generally explained by discussants and survey
respondents to be very poor, contaminated and not safe. To see the perception of respondents about
the quality of water, different questions were raised. The first was whether they think the quality of
water is good or bad. Results indicated that 40 of 55 (73%) respondents think that the water is of
poor quality. Of the 15 who said the quality of water is good, 14 are from Lanqerta Kebele and 1 is
from Harshin. Again respondents were asked whether they are satisfied with the quality of drinking
water. 42 of the 55 (76%) indicated that they are not satisfied while 13 said they are satisfied. Of the
13 respondent who said they are satisfied, 12 are from Lanqerta Kebele and 1 from Harshin. Even
though, the majorities have said the quality of water used is poor, the fact that over half of the
respondents from Lanqerta (14 out of the 21) have positive perception about the quality of water
required further triangulation of data with the chemical and microbial analysis conducted along with
this study.
For those who responded negatively about the quality of water, they were further requested to
explain their reasons. The water is not clean, it causes diseases, and it requires lots of detergents for
washing cloths and utensils were their key reasons. Focus group discussants associate the low quality
of water to the fact that Birkas lack roofs to protect from various forms/types of contamination of
dust and waste around Birkas, presence of worms and small aquatic animals in the water, and the fact
that wild animals like foxes could easily enter and drink water from Birkas and contaminate the
water.
Discussants were inquired about their perception regarding human and livestock sharing same water
supply and their response were as follows. The Female discussants believed that it is one very
important source of contamination but lack of alternative option made them share water source with
animals. However, male FG discussants explained that they never face diseases because of sharing
water source with their livestock. The difference in perception about sharing resource with livestock
and the likely impact on health could have arisen from women’s day to day engagement to domestic
230
water related activities and the health burden on them whenever a family member is sick due to
water-related diseases.
Common water borne/related diseases- as experienced by community

As explained during discussions, some of the water-borne/related diseases experienced by the
community are stomach ache, diarrhea, malaria, typhoid, cholera, and fever. Kidney problem among
women was also mentioned a serious health problem caused by the poor quality water. Most of the
diseases listed above have high incidence among women and children. And children are mostly
affected by diarrhea and are severely affected because of their less resistance to water born disease.
In order to assess whether or not respondents experienced water born diseases, question was raised
about the kind/s of water related diseases experienced by respondents and their family. The response
is as follows: 40 of the respondents experienced diarrhea, 16 of them skin diseases (itching and
spotting), 17 of them malaria, and 3 of them eye-disease. Most of the respondents experience a
combination of the mentioned diseaseses. Respondents were further inquired about whether their
livestock have experienced water related diseases. 33 respondents replied their livestock have caught
diarrhea, and 4 respondents in Lanqerta answered their livestock have experiences skin diseases
(locally called Kud). Mouth and stomach diseases caused by worms in water after which the animals
loose weight and die in a very short period of time were also raised by focus group discussants10.
Perception about support from Government and Non-Governmental Organizations

With regard to intervention by governmental and non-governmental organizations in relation to
quality water supply, the communities in both Kebeles state that there are interventions though the
degree of intervention varies. Some of the interventions mentioned by the community include
provision of water agar and chlorine from government bodies (water and health bureaus), and
maintenance of Birkas and construction of roofs for few selected Birkas by OXFAM GB. In
Lanqerta, in addition to maintaining selected Birkas, NGOs like Oxfam GB, HAFCO, and ECHO
help the community by checking the quality of water in the Birkas at annual basis. Discussant
emphasized that though interventions are good and there are changes in the quality of water, they are
consuming, they believed that they are not satisfactory because of limited reach.
Indigenous means to purify water

In addition to using water agar, boiling, and use of cloth to separate the waste explained under
section 4.1. of this report, the community has indigenous ways of purifying water before
consumption. Some of the methods listed down during FGDs were:
Adding naphthalene – there is a belief that naphthalene kills worms and other small animals
in the water;
Adding Gypsum (CaCo3) locally called Nora – discussants said Nora cleans the water and
provides it a healthy look. It perhaps coagulates and settles the dirt in the water.
Cutting and putting the bark of a plant locally called ‘Gelol’, a spiny tree, in their water
storage container – the community believes that chemicals coming out of the bark when
soaked in water kill worms.
Some others manually clean or use meshes or piece of cloth to separate the dirt.
Scarcity driven conflict with neighbor Kebeles

Discussants were asked a question to see the presence/absence of scarcity driven conflict with
neighboring Kebeles or Woreda during mobility/migration. According to the response from both
10
The women discussants however are not sure about experience of livestock disease from water sources
because, they say, they are not experts.
231
FGDs in Harshin Kebele and male FGD in Lanqerta, it was indicated that the communities have
never been in conflict with other community because of conflict of interest over limited water or
pasture resources. But female discussants in Lanqerta Kebele said that there happened recurrent
conflicts between residents of Lanquerta Kebele 01 and 02 because of scarce water resource and are
often managed by Jijiga zone disaster prevention office.
Gender issues in Birka construction, water use, and management
Birka construction and maintenance

Most birkas and ponds in the Woreda are owned by the community. There are a large number of
Birkas developed privately by better-off households and very few are constructed and maintained by
NGOs such as Oxfam GB and Save the Children-UK (SC-UK). The responses from FGDs and
respondents imply that both men and women participate in the construction and maintenance of
Birkas. But there exists distinct sexual division of labour. While men community members dig a
hole, provide construction materials such as cement, sand and stone, mix and construct, the women’s
role is confined to support services such as consulting, provision of catering services for the men as
well as cleaning the surrounding area to prevent dirt contamination during construction.
Household water-related activities (domestic use and livestock watering)

At household level, fetching water for domestic use, washing clothes and utensils, caring for children
and sick family members are entirely women’s responsibility. Both adult and young women engage
in such activities.
Differences were observed in answers by male and female discussants with regard to livestock
watering. While the women group in both Harshin and Lanqerta explain livestock watering is
performed by men despite the type of livestock (camel, cattle, goat), men discussant at Harshin assert
that there is gendered difference in watering based on livestock type. Watering big animals like
camel and cattle is performed by men while watering small animals (goats and sheeps) is women’s
responsibility and is done around homestead. Where crop and vegetable production practices are
present, in Lanquerta for instance, it is men who engage in such production. Thus, it can be said that
there exists sexual division of labor in using water resource for various water related domestic
activities and watering livestock.
Use and Management of Birkas

Issues concerned with use and management of Birkas was another aspect addressed in the research.
According to the responses, all Kebele members are entitled to collect water from communal Birkas
found in the Kebele. All focus group discussant agree that there is no such discrimination from using
community Birkas based on any social identity. However, there might be some restriction in using
Birkas owned privately especially during dry seasons. Since most Birkas are community properties,
they need to be governed by a village committee. Discussants were inquired about the existence of a
village committee. According to male discussants in Harshin Kebele, there exists a committee to
control and manage Birkas. They said that the committee consists of 6 members, 3 of whom are
women. However, female focus group discussants in the same Kebele have no information about the
existence of a responsible person or committee. They explained that the Kebele community has not
yet organized well to establish a committee. Similarly, in Lanqerta, male FG discussants explained
that there exists a village committee to control and manage Birkas. As they said, the village
committee is elected by all Kebele residents and consists of 11 members of which 5 are women.
However, female discussants argued that there is a committee but no single woman is represented in
the committee. They said in their own words - ‘only men gather and decide, our task is around
home’. The women further explained that even when NGOs and government bureau officials come,
232
only men meet them and there is no opportunity for them to talk and raise their concern in the public
sphere.
Respondents were further requested to see if there is a difference between husband and wife among
private Birka owners in decision making patterns regarding allowing neighbors/other community
members to collect water from owned Birkas, selling of water during dry seasons and over cash
collected from water sell. Results indicated that among the 9 respondents with private Birka in
Harshin, 6 said husbands decide to allow neighbors/other community members to collect water from
owned Birkas, selling of water during dry seasons and over cash collected from water sell. The
discussions in both Kebeles indicated that though there is no gender based discrimination in using
community Birkas, the level of women’s participation in control and management of Birkas is very
low if not non-existent. The difference in perspectives observed between men and women FG
discussants perhaps is because of the fact that there was no participatory approach where women
were represented in electing village committees.
Interest in future improvement

The community would like to see improvements in the near future in terms of underground water
supply, construction of Birkas with roof, maintenance of existing Birkas, and provision of sufficient
water purifying drug. The women discussants prefer to have piped water. They said, they drink water
from Birkas since they have no other option. They are willing to contribute their labor power for any
kind of improvement that would alleviate their water problem. However, they do not have the
capacity to buy water if water is provided on financial basis. Men FGD discussants explained that
they can buy 20 liter of water with 1 birr. While female discussants say that they do not have money
but can provide their labor for any kind of improvement that comes to the community. Perhaps, this
is because they do not have command over financial issues.
Conclusion and recommendation
Water supply in Harshin is 100% surface water system through rain water harvesting. People
in all Kebeles depend on surface rainwater harvesting for water both for human and
livestock consumption. There are a total of 3503 water sources in the Woreda, of which 69%
are functional and the rest 31 are not.
Majority of the respondent HHs (63% in Harshin, 100% in Lanqerta, and 80% in
Medeweyn) do not have private Birka due to high cost of construction of Birkas. Hence,
most of the community members use water from communal Birkas constructed by the
government and the community and/or through reciprocal kinship relations with private
Birka owners. In dry seasons, they are forced to buy water.
Though the Health Bureau indicated 99% of the community do not have clean water supply,
community have their own strategy to purify water. Some of the methods listed were use of
water agar, boiling, and use of cloth to separate the waste. All the respondents (100%) in
Harshin use at least one means to purify water, whereas the percentages are 33% in
Lanqerta, and 50% in Medeweyn. High-level intervention in Harshin Kebele must have
contributed to the extensive use of water purifying agents.
Condition of water in the Woreda is much deteriorated. There are all sorts of contamination
sources - from the environment, human and livestock. Latrine coverage is low. Management
problems also contribute for these. Hence, health problems are acute. Acute diarrhea, urinary
tract infection (UTI) and kidney infection, intestinal parasites, and bacteria are some among
the many other water-related diseases. Children are the most affected groups to diarrhea to
these diseases. Limited intervention in the woreda compared to the problem demand has
aggravated the scenario.
Even though there are fences made of acacia branches around most of the Birkas, they are
not strong enough to prevent contamination. Some of the sources of contamination are lack
233
of cover/roof of almost Birkas, use of same water source for human and livestock, weak
fences to protect animals and children from entering, washing clothes next to birkas, low
latrine coverage except in Harshin where all the respondents except one have a toilet, lack of
waste management system, and lack of regular cleaning and maintenance of Birkas which
contributed to the flourishing of aquatic small animals in the Birkas. All these calls for an
urgent response from community as well as local and regional development actors to
safeguard existing sources from contamination and finding alternative sources.
Among the respondent HHs, latrine coverage was found to be high in Harshin (96%). In
Lanqerta 50% of the HHs and in Medeweyn no HH has a toilet. The difference across
Kebeles could be attributed to the different levels of intervention across the three Kebeles in
their order.
Water is collected from the Birkas by bringing personal plastic containers from home both
for collecting and storing. Water supply for domestic use is entirely women’s responsibility.
However, the activity is risky. Several incidences were reported where women failed into the
Birkas while collecting water because of weight of container and loosing balance which
sometimes is beyond their capacity to pull. Hence, approapriate technology to pull out water
from Birkas shoud is put in place.
96% of the respondents in all the three Kebeles use plastic containers to collect water. And
all the respondents in Lanqerta and Medeweyn use plastic containers to store water, while in
Harshin only five uses. The rest 19 respondents said that they use metal containers to store
water.
Frequency of cleaning storage materials varies. 55% of all respondents indicated that they
clean their storage material once a week usually on Fridays with available detergents. On the
contrary, 18% respondents explained that they never cleaned their storage material. Storage
materials are often not changes at all unless broken. 42% of the respondents never changed
their storage material. Unhygienic storage materials, unless frequently cleaned and changed,
could be a source of water contamination. Thus, frequent monitoring and care of collection
and storage materials is required.
Most community members do not have sufficient water supply throughout the year. 96% of
the respondents indicated that they do not have sufficient water throughout the year. Jilal is
the season where they face severe water and pasture shortage followed by the Deyr season.
Water supply interventions during these seasons are very important for the livelihood of the
people.
Strategies pursued to get water during dry seasons both for domestic and livestock
consumption include store and use water for dry season, buying water, and in severe cases
migrating to nearby Kebeles or Woredas depending on availability of pasture and water,
proximity, low population density, limited competition, and presence of relatives in that
order. When buying water, they pay 20 birr for 200 litres of water and their monthly
expenditure could reach upto 600 birr per month. In Harshin, because of the presence of
government and non-governmental organization, community often receives support in water
supply where as such support does not exisist in other kebeles.
The community in the Woreda perceive their water source to be very poor, contaminated and
not safe. 73% of the respondents think that the water is of poor quality. 76% responded they
are not satisfied with the quality of the drinking water they use. The reasons explained are:
the water is not clean, it causes diseases, and it requires lots of detergents for washing cloths
and utensils. Lack of Birka roofs to protect from various forms/types of contamination of
dust and waste around Birkas, presence of worms and small aquatic animals in the water,
and entrance of wild animals like foxes were mentioned.
Human and livestock sharing same water supply was also mentioned by female FGDs
whereas men FGDs deny the problem. The difference in perception perhaps emerges from
234
women’s day to day engagement in domestic water related activities and the health burden
on them whenever a family member is sick due to water-related diseases.
Water-borne/related diseases experienced by the community are: stomach-ache, diarrhea,
malaria, typhoid, cholera, fever, skin disease ((itching and spotting), malaria, and eye
disease. Kidney problem among women was also mentioned as a serious health problem.
Most of the diseases have high incidence among women and children and children are
mostly the affected group. Livestock diseases associated with poor quality water include
diarrhea, skin diseases (locally called Kud), mouth and stomach diseases.
Though there are intervention in the areas of water supply and sanitation (such as provision
of water agar and chlorine, maintenance of Birkas and construction of roofs for few selected
Birkas), community believes that interventions are not satisfactory because of limited reach.
Apart from using water agar, boiling, and use of cloth to separate the waste, the community
also uses the following indigenous ways to purify water before consumption: adding
naphthalene, Gypsum (CaCo3) locally called Nora, and cutting and putting the bark of a
plant locally called ‘Gelol’. However, these needs further investigation regarding its
effectiveness and dosage.
Conflict with neighbor Kebeles over resource limitation and particularly that of water is not
common. Among the three Kebeles surveyed, recurrent conflicts between residents of
neighboring Kebeles over scarce water resource were only reported in Lanqerta.
Regarding gender issues in birka construction, water use, and management:
o Both men and women participate in the construction and maintenance of Birkas. But
there exists distinct sexual division of labour. While men community members dig a
hole, provide construction materials such as cement, sand and stone, mix and
construct, the women’s role is confined to support services such as consulting,
provision of catering services for the men as well as cleaning the surrounding area to
prevent dirt contamination during construction.
o There exists sexual division of labor in using water resource for various water
related domestic activities and watering livestock. Household water-related activities
such as fetching water, washing clothes and utensils, caring for children and sick
family members are entirely women’s responsibility. Livestock watering is
performed by men and women. In Harshin, there is gendered difference in watering
based on livestock type. Watering big animals like camel and cattle is performed by
men while watering small animals (goats and sheeps) is women’s responsibility and
is done around homestead. Where crop and vegetable production practices are
present (in Lanquerta for instance), it is men who engage in such activities.
o There is no gender based discrimination in using community Birkas. Nevertheless,
the level of women’s participation in control and management of Birkas is very low
if not non-existent. There is no participatory approach where women were
represented in electing village committees for managing the water supply.
o All in all, constructing improved domestic water sources and health education
especially improve the lives of women who collect the water and care for sick
children. The improved health of children also gives women more options on how
they spend their time.
The community would like to see improvements in the near future in terms of underground
water supply, construction of Birkas with roof, maintenance of existing Birkas, provision of
sufficient water purifying drug, and if possible provision of piped water. And they are
willing to contribute their labor power for any kind of improvement that would alleviate
their water problem. However, they do not have the capacity to buy water if water is
provided on financial basis.
235
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236
Assessment of Borana Indigenous Knowledge in Key Pastoral Resource Management
By
Zelalem Nemera11
Background
Borana pastoralists have been able to develop an exceptionally efficient indigenous key resource
management that enabled them to preserve the Borana rangelands at highest grazing potential in East
Africa. It is with this flexible system that Borana pastoralists matched their need to the limited
grazing and water resources during times of scarcity (Coppock, 1994 & Hogg, 1997 cited in Sabine,
2004). Nevertheless, indigenous Borana pastoralists’ resource management systems are in a
deteriorating situation now a day. During the last 30 years, the long lived indigenous key resource
management of Borana pastoralists has experienced severe forms of external disturbances. The
imposition of alien methods which is extraterrestrial to the indigenous institutions interfered with the
coordination of access to grazing and water resources (Sabine, 2004). Recurring droughts aggravated
the problem by causing loss of livestock and grazing resources as well as unsustainable exploitation
of the surviving resources. The combined impacts of all these factors is a progressive corrosion of
indigenous knowledge that in turn resulted in Borana rangeland degradation, destruction of important
social structures and poverty for the majority of the Borana population (Kamara, 2001).
Against this backdrop, Pastoralist Forum Ethiopia (PFE), a nongovernmental organization, in

partnership with the WFD (supported by BMZ the Civil Peace Service Program) is running a project
entitled “Strengthening Key Pastoral Resource Management Capacities in Pastoral Areas of
Ethiopia”. The goal of the project is to contribute to the efforts to achieve sustainable development in
pastoral areas through promoting peace building among the pastoral groups.
PFE in partnership with Institute of Pastoral and Agropastoral Studies (IPAS), Haramaya University,
initiated this study to identify and document opportunities and constraints of Borana pastoralists’
indigenous knowledge on key resource management.
The overall objective of the study is therefore, to investigate and document Borana pastoralists’
indigenous knowledge in key pastoral resource management. It has become difficult to investigate all
aspects of Borana pastoralist indigenous knowledge on resource management. Thus, operational
definition of pastoralists’ key resources has been made. Accordingly, pastoral key resources in this
study refer to three key resources namely water, pasturelands and natural forests. Thus, the research
could not address other facets of Borana pastoralists’ indigenous knowledge on resource
management such as soil conservation.
11
The author would like to thank Pastoralists Forum Ethiopia (PFE) for its financial back during data
collection and analysis of the study.
237
The Study Area

Borana rangeland is located in southern Ethiopia. The ranglands are characterized by arid and semi-
arid climate with receptacles of semi-humid zones. From the 14 districts of the current Borana zone,
the study focused on two villages of Arero district namely Wachile and Gadda. Arero district has a
total population of 33,078 out of which women account for 47.47% (CSA, 2007). About 90% of the
population lives in rural areas (CSA, 2007) and their livelihood remain to be livestock production.
According to Arero District Pastoral Development Office (2010), 60% of the total landmass of the
district are bush encroached areas. The rangeland accounts for 19%, and about 17%, 2%, and 0.64%
of the lands is potential farmland, forest, and land that used for public services. Rainfall is uncertain
and the mean annual rainfall sometimes falls below 400 mm. Ponds and wells are the two major
sources of water for the district. There are also a few motorized and pump water. Nevertheless, most
of the water sources are seasonal in nature and thus, the pastoralists in the district suffer from
shortage of water during dry season. Common to the other districts of Borana zone (Sabine, 2004),
droughts occur once every 5-10 years in Arero district. There is very limited number of livestock
health institutions in the district. According to the data obtained from the District Pastoral
Development Office (2010), there are only nine animal health posts out of which two are C-types (a
relatively good quality in terms of services provided) and 7 are D-type (relatively low quality).
Methodological Approaches
The study employed a qualitative research approach under which in-depth interview, focus group
discussions (FGDs) and key informant interviews were scheduled and applied. The major reason to
apply a qualitative approach emanates from the nature of the problem under study. That is,
quantification of indigenous knowledge requires closer understanding of practices and opinion of the
community. FGDs were held in the two selected villages of the district under study (Refer annex II).
The FGD discussants comprise multi segments of the community including women, youth and the
elders. For cross triangulation, an in-depth interview was held with prominent individuals on the
different themes of the study. Accordingly, on issues related to indigenous knowledge on water
management, an in-depth interview was held with Abba Herregaa12 while Abbaa Reeraa13 were
interviewed on matters related to indigenous knowledge on rangeland management. Influential
community members on forest and livestock managements were also interviewed on issues related to
indigenous knowledge on forest and livestock management, respectively. Inaddition this key
informant interview was also made with governmental and nongovernmental officials working on
pastoralists’ resource management. Accordingly, officers working in Arero District Pastoralist
Development and Arero District Water Resource Offices were interviewed from the side of
government. Unstructured interview was also made with two nongovernmental organizations namely
Action For Development (AFD) and SOS Sahel. In the analysis of the raw data, PRA tools like
problem ranking were performed under textual and contextual analysis methods. Different cases
were investigated and presented to complement key findings of the study.
12
Abbaa Herregaa refers to an indigenous title given to a person who coordinates water
management
13
Abbaa Reeraa refers to an indigenous title given to a person who coordinates pastureland
management
238
Conceptual Framework
Indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge has various notations as well as different meanings and the notions are
controversially discussed in different literatures (World Bank, 1998 in Sabine, 2004). For instance,
Richards (1985) describes indigenous knowledge as distinguished features of ‘ecological
particularism’ engendered in a local natural environment and under specific ecological relationships.
His definition interprets indigenous knowledge as a ‘cultural heritage’, being experienced, tested, and
transformed from generation to generation. Warren and Rajasekaran (1993) on the other hand
revealed that indigenous knowledge is utilized as an information base that makes easy
communication and decision making in a particular society. The agents of indigenous knowledge in
this context are indigenous people, who are special to a given context (Warren et al., 1995). It is also
stipulated that they share the common burden of having a historical permanence at a locality which
became manipulated by dominant outsiders. This definition unfortunately fails to explain the benefit
of indigenous knowledge and emphasized only on the burden behind.
Available literatures tend to present indigenous knowledge slightly different from the concept of
local knowledge. Accordingly, in comparison to indigenous knowledge, the concept of local
knowledge gives more emphasis to a place or a locality, in which the collective experiences are
generated and transferred. Local knowledge therefore, includes indigenous knowledge referring to
particular ecological and socio-cultural context, but it does not necessarily imply a political
undertone. Still local knowledge and indigenous knowledge differ from traditional knowledge, as the
formers are dynamic in nature rather than motionless, and usually incorporate new information from
external sources (Antweiler, 1995 in Sabine, 2004). The aforementioned description, even if it
implicitly describes the two terms still the description seems to be ambiguous to set clear
demarcation between the two terms.
Indigenous knowledge production is a social process within flexible and dynamic systems among
multiple actors and networks (Flavier et al., 1995). Consistent to this, Berkes et al. (1995) underlines
that skills, expertise and competencies are involved in the utilization and the transfer of indigenous
knowledge. Making use of indigenous knowledge in development processes challenges the
interaction among actors representing different knowledge systems. As to Roeling (1994),
facilitating the incorporation of different knowledge systems can lead to synergetic effects.
Accordingly, indigenous knowledge of the pastoralists (Refer the next sub title for detail) can add
value to the outcome of formal research and extension. In turn, research and extension
communication can augment the pastoralists’ own development capacities rather than imposing
unadjusted strange interventions. This especial idea therefore, clearly acknowledges pastoralists
indigenous knowledge that are believed to be vectors for sustainable development.
Pastoralists’ Indigenous Knowledge on Resource Management

In order to adjust themselves and their livelihood to the harsh conditions of arid and semi-arid
rangelands, pastoralists successfully evolved complex indigenous pastoral resource management
systems. Such knowledge plays a key role to link ecological variability, flexible production strategies
and local institutions for sustainable natural resource management. It is with this that pastoralists
show distinct technical and organizational skills about how to match specific demands of their herds
with the unpredictable natural resource supply of rangelands (Niamir, 1999).
It has to be recognized that program interventions in pastoral development seemed to be

unsuccessful largely due to the interventions’ weak understanding of pastoral management systems
(Salih, 1992). Nevertheless, the untapped pastoralists’ indigenous knowledge, being applied under
239
constrained conditions, promotes learning how to cope with the ever changing environment. The
same source reveals that for an integration of pastoralists’ indigenous knowledge in development
processes, it needs to elaborate the constituents of its applicability. The source however, tend to
question the long lived indigenous knowledge of pastoralists to bring into aspects of program
intervention.
Antweiler (1995) and Ray (1998) thoroughly indicated that the pastoralists’ indigenous knowledge is
the collective experience of the community who derives their livelihoods from extensive livestock
keeping. The pastoralists’ indigenous knowledge has been developed from direct interaction of the
community and their herds in a typical natural and social environment. It serves under particular
economic and political frame conditions, and it is thus, influenced by certain cultural values. In line
with this, Behnke & Kerven (1995) revealed that the indigenous knowledge subsumes the
information and skills by which pastoralists can derive the highest benefits from the available natural
resources. Still these explanations knowingly or unknowingly limited pastoralists’ indigenous
knowledge to effective utilization of the scarce resource by overlooking the importance of the
knowledge in maintaining and conserving the resources.
Galvin et al. (2001) further elaborated that pastoralists generate indigenous knowledge in range
management by repetitive experience and progressive learning, inextricably linked to the seasonal
and cyclical quantity and quality of natural resources, and the accessible biodiversity. Accordingly,
climate, soils, vegetation types, water, and animals are named, described, measured and classified
based on criteria which are locally considered as important and practical. Pastoralists follow up and
monitor rangeland and water conditions through observation of long term changes and degradation
processes. Pastoralists tend to apply different techniques to arrive at the interpretation. Therefore,
indigenous ecological indicators like plant species and density are used for measuring pasture types
and quality. They relate this with the change in livestock’s behavior and performance such as their
modes of grazing, breathing and sleeping, body condition, milk production and milk consistency
(Schareika, 2001 in Hamann, 2004). Pastoralists’ evaluations often result in expressive information
about complex phenomena, and identifying the indicators involved in turn improves the
understanding of local management systems (Waters-Bayer, 1994).
Pastoralists apply their indigenous knowledge through flexible natural resource use techniques,
which are elaborated, transformed and preserved by the interaction of the community. For this, daily
herd movements are the central means to supply information for the manipulation of stocking
densities, in integration with different livestock species and livestock categories. Indigenous
exchange of information systems are essential to relocate information and for normal updates of
rangeland conditions, water availability and disease risk as well as temporary user agreements. The
effective dissemination and sharing of information about indigenous knowledge is realized through
agents such as herders and community leaders and elders. The co-ordination of natural resource use
strategies with other users ultimately depends on the social networks, developed within and among
different user groups (Niamir-Fuller & Turner, 1999).
Pastoralists maintain and conserve their indigenous knowledge through indigenous institutions. It is a
complex processes through which the institutions play a purposeful effort in providing security to the
users and to uphold the chances of survival on the long run (Roe et al., 1998). In this context, the
overlapping interests and clashes about natural resource use can be seen as a means of redefining the
positions and the relations between and among the groups. The rights and responsibilities for access
to the key resources are to be utilized and defended depending on the norms of the resources and the
frequency of their use (Bonnet, 2000). From this, it can be argued that the importance of pastoralists’
indigenous knowledge for sustainable natural resource management depends on the ‘self-organizing’
capacity of pastoral groups based on the institutional adaptability of the pastoralists and the
240
ecological resilience of the vegetation (Abel & Langston, 2002). Likewise, Borana pastoralists have
chained social-cultural systems for effective resource management and for sustainability of the long
lived indigenous knowledge itself. The structure involves all members of the community irrespective
of gender and age. The following socio-cultural structure of Borana pastoralists’ on key resource
management was adopted from Sabine (2004) to analyze the problem under study.
(Source: Sabine, 2004)
Figure 14: Borana pastoralists’ socio-cultural link on resource management

Result and Discussions
Indigenous Institutions on Water Resources Management

Water resource is one of the critical resources for the Borana pastoralists. It is a key resource for
livestock production on the one hand and domestic consumption on the other. The variation and
impact on water resource thus, directly affects the life of Borana pastoralists implying that the
Borana has great value for water resource. This is expressed by the long lived indigenous knowledge
of the Borana on water resource management.
The participants of this study indicated that Borana pastoralists have a long lived indigenous water
resource management institutions that involve all the community members in one way or the other
regardless of age and sex. There are certain rules that direct the community to involve in water
resources management. These rules are formulated by the Abba Gada (The leader of the Democratic
Oromo institution called Gada) together with community elders (Jaarsa maddaa). These rules are to
be enforced by different agents whose responsibilities are interdependent. The first and the most
prominent figure is the Abba Herregaa (An indigenous title given to a person bearing the
responsibility to coordinate water resource management). The bearer of Abba Herregaa title is
appointed by the community to manage water resources. The criteria to appoint Abba Herregaa
include managing skills of the person, respect within the community as well as his ability to mobilize
and persuade the community particularly on water management. The second is Abba Konfi (A title
given to a person who initiates an establishment of a new water source). The bearer of Konfi title is
not elected by the community, rather the title results from the person’s commitment and initiatives to
establish a new water source. The third is council of elders (Jaarsa maddaa) who are elected by the
community to manage water resources together with the other agents.
241
The institution is responsible to determine fair distribution of the available water sources for the
members. This idea is in line with the finding of Boku Tache & Ben Irwin (2003) that states Borana
institutions clearly define the rights to water for each of the various sources (wells and ponds).
Accordingly, the rights required to access a source of water is related to the reliability of the source
and the amount of labor required for the development and maintenance of that source. This study
also found that water usage right among the Borana pastoralists is based on the indigenous rules and
everyone is obeyed to the rule. In case problem appears against the rule, the Abba Hareggaa and
Abba Konfi appeal to the council of elders for the enforcement of the rules of the community on
water resource management and correct the action of the one who violated the rule.
Similarly, as of Borana indigenous rule on water resource management, there is certain correction
imposed upon a person who misused water resources. The FGD held at Wachile and Gadda villages
of Arero district indicated that the correction includes: the offender has to dig about 3m2 of under
establishment water resource, if he/she used any water resource for his cattle without permission
from the Abbaa Herregaa. If the offender is a woman, her husband and/or son will do the same thing
on behalf of her. From this, it can be said that the misbehave correction system by itself is one way
to expand water sources for the whole community. The following parts deal with Borana indigenous
knowledge on different water sources.
Pond Management
Pond (called Haroo) is a seasonal and temporary source of water collected from rain during rainy
season. In Wachile and Gadda villages of Arero district there are 22 and 9 ponds, respectively.
However, almost all of them are functional only during the wet season and dysfunctional during hard
hit times of dry season. As a result, Borana pastoralists face extreme water shortage during the dry
season. The preference of Borana pastoralists to pond is less compared to the other water source
wells (Eela)14. The FGD held at the two villages of Arero district indicated that Borana pastoralists
use pond water during the wet season for both livestock and domestic consumption.
The study has come across that Borana pastoralists have a far excellent and long lived system for
successful establishment of new ponds in the effort to cope up with shortage of water. A pre
condition for pond establishment starts during dry season at which Borana pastoralists prepare
potential ground for water collection and wait for rain to collect surface water. To this end, as
indicated earlier, a person from a particular clan takes an initiative action and the person who took
the initiative action will be given an indigenous title known as Konfi. The person holding the title has
the responsibility to closely supervise the ongoing activities for the success of the pond he has
initiated. The beginning of the initiation is marked when the Abba Konfi makes Qaraa (marking the
centre for the would-be pound with a sharp stick). Once Abba konfi makes qaraa (marked centre), all
clan members of the Abba Konfi regardless of gender and age play key roles for successful
establishment of the pond. The Abba Konfi is supported by Abba Herregaa, other community elders
and Gada leaders in leading the activity. The elders and Gada leaders play directing and community
mobilizing roles spearheaded by Abba Konfi. Besides, they contribute labor in the effort of
establishing the new pond.
It was also revealed that able youth and men are expected to be the major sources of labor. Women
have also a decisive role in it. All supportive works like food preparations are the responsibilities of
14
Refer the next part for detail about wells/Eela
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women and able girls during the activity. Beyond this, there is special rule applied upon women
members with regard to a new water establishment. Accordingly, a woman crossing the area where
the work is undergoing is expected to dump out a certain amount of the excavated soil from the
ongoing pond establishment. If the work is for conservation of the existing pond, women who went
to the pond for fetching water should dump out a certain amount of the excavated soil. Important
point found here is that there is no kind of forcing elderly women, lactating mother and pregnant
women to do so. This point clearly indicates how much the Borana community is concerned about
reproductive roles of women and the treatment behind.
As the activity of establishing a new pond is cumbersome and labor intensive, a lot of bulls may be
slaughtered until the completion of the establishment of the new pond. The Konfi holder is
responsible to provide the first bull/s to be slaughtered. Here, it was clearly underlined that the
slaughtering of bull/s during the establishment of a new source of water has nothing to do with
witchdoctors or religious ritual. It is a kind ceremony that calls all clan members of the Abba Konfi
to take part in the work. Thus, it is just to motivate and mobilize workforce for the ponds to be
established.
After the pond is fully established, the name of the newly established pond will be coined after the
name of the Abba Konfi. For example, if the given name of Abba Konfi is Lencho, the pond he
initiated is named as “Hara Leencoo” to mean “Lencho’s Pond. What is to be clarified here is that
the coining does not mean that the pond is a private property of the Abba Konfi. The FGD at both
villages indicated that, the pond remains the property of the whole Borana in general and the clan of
the Abba Konfi in particular than to be a private property of the Abba Konfi. The naming of a newly
established pond after the name of the founder is for two reasons. The first is to show respect for the
person who initiated a new source of water for the community. The other is to encourage others to
initiate the same activities so as to fulfill the water demand of the community. Other important point
here is that despite the initiation of establishing of a new pond is clan specific, any clan of Borana
can provide support for the success of the work and the property remains to be the property of the
Borana and not restricted to a specific clan or the family of the Abba Konfi. This point of the study is
contrary to the findings of Tache & Irwin (2003) who underline that pond is private ownership of the
Abba konfi.
Once the first phase of establishing a new pond has been completed, another activity will be carried
out. This marks the beginning of the second phase in pond establishment. The major activity during
this phase is to make fence around the newly established pond. The purpose of fencing around pond
is to protect it from damage and for its proper conservation. The whole community members
regardless of age and gender are expected to involve in fencing activity.
Best cases on Pond Management

The following cases represent best practices on pond management at Wachile Village of Arero
district.
Case 1
There are three ponds with good conservation practices in Wachile village of Arero district.
These are: Haro Adi (Adi’s Pond), Haro Boji (Boji’s Pond) and Haro Dadacha Irressa
(Dadacha’s pond). These ponds are relatively those ponds that live long and even serve
during dry season to some extent. Relatively they respond to hard hit times of the dry season
compared to the others. The community was the primary actor for the conservation of these
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ponds. The community receives some support from government and civil societies in the area
such as from Action For Development (AFD) and Save the Children USA in pond
conservation activities. The strategy of conserving the ponds are set by the community and
the intervention by the government and civil societies was just backing the efforts of the
community. The supports provided by government and civil societies include material and
technical supports while the community design strategy based on their indigenous
knowledge and implement the strategy. Besides the community also avail local materials and
labor (Source: Own data).
Compared to these ponds, the other ponds are short lived and most of them rarely serve the Borana
even during the rainy season due to limited material resources to conserve them effectively. They
are filled with silt and they need material as well as technical backs to clean them. Due to this, even
if the community suspects the quality of water from such sources for domestic consumption as well
as livestock watering, they are forced to use them as there is no alternatives particularly during
hard hit times. For example, the focus group discussion held at Wachile village pinpointed that the
reason for pathogenic problem affecting people and livestock of Borana pastoralists is mainly due to
the consumption of such unpurified ponds.
Cases of Deteriorated Ponds

The following two cases represent deteriorated cases of ponds at Wachile (case 2) and Gadda (case
3) villages of Arero district.
Case 2
Haro Golloo, located at Wachile village of Arero district was established in 1970s.
Previously, this pond was used to accommodate about 300 cattle per day during
wet season. At present, it is filled with silt and the pond had dried out. The problem
is beyond the capacity of the community and there is no support from other organs
to rehabilitate it. It needs sophisticated materials that are beyond the potential of
the community (Source: own data).
Case 3
Hara Bulee, located at Gadda village of Arero district was established by the
government during the region of Emperor Haille Sellasie. It had the capacity to
provide service throughout the year to the community (both livestock and domestic)
and used to accommodate more than 2000 cattle per day. It has been out of
function since 5 years. The major factor for the deterioration of the pond is that it
was filled with eroded silt which is beyond the potential of the community to divert
the direction and lack of support from external bodies (Source: own data).
Well Management
Well is a deep underground water source with long period of water supply to the community
compared to ponds. Wells in Borana pastoralists are divided into two types, adaadi (shallow wells)
and tuulla (deep wells). The establishment of wells as well as dragging up water from it for usage is
labor consuming and cumbersome. The deep wells have as depth as more than 30m, and water is
drawn by as many as 21 able men standing one above another and relying containers of water. The
able men engaged in dragging water use chant as morale for cooperation, and hence these wells are
sometimes referred to as the singing wells. Wells are limited in number and a lot of Borana villages
are unfortunate to have them. For instance, there is no recent well established in the district of Arero
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and the concept of establishing wells is beyond the knowledge of the participants of this study. The
focus group discussants at the two villages were unable to indicate the time when and the generation
during which the existing wells were established. In the in-depth interview held at Wachile village
with an elder (82 years old) presented the case as follow:
Case 4
I have never seen an Eela established in my age. The oral history from my ancestors
indicates that the same system for the establishment of pond is applied to establish a
well. There is a ‘Konfi’ title to initiate an establishment of a new well. The Abba Konfi
marks a center for the-would be established well. Abba Konfi also provides the first
bull/s to be slaughtered so as to declare the begging of establishing a new well. As the
activity takes long time and consume great labor, there might be several bull/s to be
slaughtered. Those members of the Konfi’s clan who can do can provide the bulls turn
by turn. All systems are directed by the norm of the community and at the end, the well
will benefit all members of Borana regardless of any ground. He further revealed that
during the time when the current wells of Borana were established, there were no
sophisticated materials to excavate the well and the common instrument used was
made from sharp stick and there was no external support and all the wells were
constructed by the Borana generation who lived during those periods. In case,
someone is absent from the task without any justification while the establishment is
going on, he will provide an ox that will be slaughtered for the labor dealing with the
activities. The name of a newly established well will be coined after the name of the
Abba Konfi. But the established well is neither a private property of the Konfi nor
private property of specific clan, but it is the resource of the whole Borana (In-depth
interview at Wachile, October 2010).
The study also attempted to address why the current generation of Borana failed to establish new
wells and the focus group discussants revealed three suggestions. The first is that the present
generation is relatively lost courage to engage in such hard activity due to exhaustion by recurrent
drought and conflict in the area as well as restrictions imposed on Borana pastoralists in mobility
pattern and livelihood determination. This in turn, affects the commitment of the community in
communal work that in turn resulted from external influences like weakening of the power of Gada
system due to intervention from the contemporary system as well as lack of attention to the
indigenous knowledge of the community from development agents. The third is that the
identification of site for potential well needs certain heavenly gifted vision and this is less visible to
the current generation compared to the past.
As it has been already indicated, the availability of wells varies from one village to the others. Some
villages have no well at all while some have relatively large number of wells. For example, in
Wuchale village there are 13 wells while there is no well at all in Gadda village. In general, there are
9 villages with wells in Arero district. These are: Web, Wachile, Borbor, Erder, Dhas, Melbane,
Dubuluk, Gofa and Layi. According to the FGD at Gadda village, the last two wells (Gofa and Layi)
were previously belongs to the Borana and joined the neighboring Somali pastoralists in the 2009
referendum. The discussants also indicated that these sources of water (Gofa and Layi) remained to
be a ground for the conflict between the Borana on the one hand and the neighboring Somali clans
on the other. More specifically, the five Gosa in Wachile have wells initiated by their respective
Abba Konfi. The following table depicts those wells with the corresponding Gosas that initiated the
formation of the wells.
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Table 105. Wells in Wachile village with their respective Gosa

Name of the well Responsible Gosa Quantity of the wells
Ella Hawatu (Hawatu’s wells) Hawatu 7
Karayu (Karayu’s well) Ella Karayu 3
Digalo (Digalo’s wells) Ella Digalo 1
Galantu (Galantu’s well) Ella Galantu 1
Nonitu (Nonitu’s well) Ella Nonitu 1
Total 13
(Source: FGD at Wachile village, October 2010)
Regarding indigenous well administration systems, Borana pastoralists have a far excellent well-
focused system of clan-association through which other (associated) clans can claim right of access
to wells other than their own. Accordingly, Borana customs and culture define not only those who
are entitled to access certain wells, but also the order of priority for watering animals among those
with entitlement. Others have to request the clan to access and the response is affirmative in most
cases. Those given access must wait their turn according to the priority rights of the other herds
present. The major actors in wells management include Abba Gada, Gada councilors and messengers
of Abba Gada as well as Abba Herregaa. Abba Gada and his councilors and/or messengers formulate
regulation on management of the well while Abba Herregaa, a person appointed by Abba Konfi or
his descendents follows the day to day management of the well.
Best Cases on Well Management

Case 4
Eela Qallu (Qallu’s wells), located at Wachile village of Arero district was
established by Karayyu clan spearheaded by Abba Konfi named Qallu. Its time
of establishment is unknown. Eela Qallu is regarded as the best conserved
water source in the Wachile village of Arero district. Currently, it has a
potential to supply water in dry as well as wet seasons and it can accommodate
more than 300 livestock (Yaasaa 3) per day even if its potential during dry
season is relatively weak. In addition, there was an intervention by an NGO,
Save USA that contributed to reduce the number of chained able men to drag
up the water for usage from 20 to 7 (Source, Own data).
Case 5
Eela Wale (Wale’s wells), located at Wachile village of Arero district was
established by Karayyu clan spearheaded by Abba Konfi named Wale. It was
believed to be established in 1995 EC but most participants mentioned that the
base was set before and at this time there was conservation. For the
conservation, the community contributed about 40,000 Birr in addition to their
labor. Now a day, it can accommodate 1000 cattle per day. It was also
indicated that Eela Well is the major source of water during conflict and
shortage of water within restricted mobility (Source, own data)
Cases of Deteriorated Wells

Case 6
Eela Garbi, located at Wachile village of Arero district established by Abba Konfi
named Garbi. Its time of establishment is unknown, but it is believed to be the first
well to be observed in Borana. Previously, it was used to accommodate more than
1000 cattle per day and currently, it is almost non functional. Improper usage of
the well by Garri’s camel particularly following the incidence of conflict was the
major factor for its deterioration. Still, there is the potential to rehabilitate Garbi
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well; if there will be intervention from all stakeholders: government, the

community and civil societies with sustainable conflict resolution between Garri
and Borana (Source, own data).
The Role of GOs and NGOs on Water Management

Among other, there are two government offices that directly concerned with Borana water resources
management. Key informants in Arero district mentioned that Arero District Pastoral Development
Office and Arero District Water Office are the key actors on water resource management in the
district. Their contribution includes, maintenance of the existing water sources, Pond establishment
with support from community, minimizing the labor to drag up water from deep wells. In this regard,
together with Save the Children USA, there are some wells improved for easy reaching. They
contributed to reduce human labor from about 20 to around 7 to pump out water from well. Two
additional water sources (pump and motorized) were established by governmental and
nongovernmental organizations. However, they are limited to few areas like Haro Dimtu, Web,
Bobella, Qalqalloo and Haroo Dimtuu. Motorized water sources are established by collaboration of
different stakeholders like NGOs, District Water Resource office. For such kind of water access, the
people pay some amount. It was indicated that the payment is used for maintenance and fuel for the
motor. The process is managed by the community.
Conflict over Water Resources and Indigenous Conflict Management Systems

The study identified that there is no kind of conflict over water resources within or among the
different clans of Borana. There is a clear norm set for the community and the community acts
accordingly reducing the probability for conflict occurrence. The norms on water resource distribution
are set by the community and Gada leaders. The enforcement of the rules is followed by the Abba
Herregaa and the respective Konfi on a water source supported by council of elders. Therefore, the
Abba Herregaa, the Konfi and other community elders decide on the distribution of the available
water resources. Accordingly, the Abba Konfi, Abba Herregaa, council of elders and the ordinary
community are served as 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th, respectively. The following table depicts the rank of order
to access the available water sources in Wachile village.
Table 106. Distribution of available water sources to community segments
Segment of the community Rank

Abba Konfi/ Konfi holder 1
Abba Herregaa/ Leader of water resources 2
Council of elders on water management 3
Ordinary members 4
(Source: own data)
Distribution of the available water resources to different purposes are also subjected to the existing
water management norms so that conflict over water resources for different purposes rarely appears.
In distributing the available water resource for different purposes, domestic consumption followed by
lactating cattle and calf, weak and sick livestock and small ruminants and camel are served as 1st, 2nd,
3rd, and 4th, respectively. The following table indicates water resource distribution for different
purposes at Wachile and Gadda villages.
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Table 107. Distribution of water sources for different purposes
Domestic consumption Rank

Lactating cattle and calf 1
Weak and sick livestock 2
Small ruminants 3
Camel 4
(Source: Own data)
In order to manage water shortage during hard hit times of dry season; the Borana have indigenous
system with less probability for conflict to appear. Accordingly, when there is severe shortage of water
resources, the clan of Borana suffering from the problem prefers to move to the other Borana clan
areas where there is a promising water resource. The hosting clan has to be informed ahead by the clan
with the problem so that the hosting clan positively accepts them and let them share the available
resources. For example, the clans around Wachile move to areas like Borbor (Dhas) and Web during
water shortage. In the past few decades, even a clan of Borana moves to the neighboring Digodi and
Garri clans of Somali and vice versa and enjoyed the same treatment. However, this movement led to
conflict between the Borana and the Digodi and Garri clans of Somali in recent years. The conflict
between the clans is said to be devastating in both material and human resources and settlement of the
problem takes longer time and followed by piece of land to go to either side through referendum. The
piece of land that went to either side always remains a cause of conflict and grievance, and creates
sense of hostility between the clans.
The participants identified three major factors considered to be immediate causes for such conflict.
These are attempt to use water source of the other by force without any permission from the owner,
purposive attack on water source of the other as a revenge for the permanent hostility between the two,
rid of livestock of the other when moving with own livestock in search of water sources. The focus
group discussants at Wuchale village ranked the factors that cause conflict between the Borana and
Somali clans as follow.
Table 108. Factors causing conflict over water resources
Conflict causing factors Rank

Attempt to use others water source by force 1
Purposive attack on others water source 2
Riding of livestock of other clan 3
(Source: Own data)
Sometimes conflicts occurred when the Borana moves towards the other neighboring Oromo clans
such as Gujji and Gabra and vice versa. But, the degree of the incidence for conflict with such clans is
unusual and easily manageable compared to the former. Such conflict is also regarded as a minor
conflict resulting from misunderstanding. Anyway, whenever such conflict arises, the Borana have
indigenous system of conflict resolution known as “Hoolaa Hidhuu” (Sheep dedication). In this
system, the one who caused the conflict has to provide a sheep. After through discussions between the
elders of the two groups, the sheep will be dedicated to end the conflict.
Challenges of Borana Indigenous Institutions on Water Resource Management

The study indicated that the existing Borana indigenous institution on water resource management is
in a declining trend because of several factors. Different scholars (Boku, 2000b; Angasse & Beyene,
2003 & Homann, 2004) also noted the exitance of erosion of indigenous institutions on pastoral
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resource management. The FGD at Wachile village and an in-depth interview at Gada village of
Arero district indicated that the followings are among the challenges on Borana indigenous
institutions on water resource management.
Weakening of the power of Abba Herregaa and Konfi.
Reduced in interest to establish new ponds and wells.
Conflict and attack on water sources (water sources become ground of conflict).
Mixing up of indigenous knowledge with that of contemporary.
In relation to this, the focus group discussants at Wachile village indicated that if Abba Herregaa
accuses a person for misuse of water resources in previous days, there was punishment according to
the Borana water use rule. To do so, there is no need to find witness to penalize the offender.
However, now adays, if there is such appeal there must be witness to punish the person. But, the
issue of asking for witness is neither in the rule of the Borana nor lie and denying is culture of the
Borana. In Borana community, there is no way to blame or accuses someone without any ground.
But, such systems are adopted from the contemporary systems. The following table depicts the rank
of the challenges on Borana indigenous institution according to the discussion at Wachile and Gada
villages.
Table 109. Challenges on Borana indigenous water resource management
Challenges Rank
Lack of proper support from concerning 1
authorities
Conflict and attack on water sources 2
Mixing up of indigenous knowledge with that of 3
the contemporary
Weakening of the indigenous system for several 4
factors
Weak power of Abba Herregaa and Konfi 5
Less participation and motivation 6
(Source: FGD at Wachile and Gadda villages, October 2010)
Indigenous Institutions on Pastureland Management

Borana pastoralists also have an indigenous institution responsible for pastureland management.
Accordingly, the institution is headed by a person who bears the title Abbaa Reeraa (a title given to a
person who coordinates rangeland management). The Abbaa Reeraa is appointed by the community
based on certain criteria that includes interpersonal skills in community mobilization and leadership
particularly, on pasture management. The Abbaa Reeraa is supported by council of elders (jaarssa
dheedaa) and Gada leaders. Primarily, the rule for rangeland management is formulated by Gada
leaders in collaboration with council of elders on pasture management to which all the communities
are subjected to the rule. Thus, the principal role of the Abba Reeraa is enforcing of the rule.
Indigenous Systems on Pastureland Management

The participants at Wachile and Gadda villages of Arero district indicated that the Borana has long
lived indigenous systems to properly manage the Borana rangeland. The followings are the
commonly used systems.
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Mobility Pattern
As applied to this study, mobility pattern determination in pastureland management refers to
adjustment of livestock grazing pattern based on the availability of pasture. The movement pattern
depends on the availability of water and pasture as well as safety for livestock. It includes future
prediction of pasture. It is regarded as the best way to manage rangeland. The mobility pattern
follows a movement from rainy areas to the dry areas. This is done with the assumption that in the
areas where there is rain currently, grass will grow and if livestock are kept there, the growth of the
grass will be hampered. This area is called protected area. When the rain stops in that area they shift
the movement pattern back to the previously protected area. The same thing will be replicated.
Where shortage of pasture can be managed with the available pasture, they arrange the mobility
pattern within Borana territory. This is called inland mobility. For example, the FGD made at
Wachile village indicated that the Borana in Arero district moves towards Borbor, Moyale and
Ya’aballo. However, movement out of Borana territory needs critical thinking and risk calculation.
This is because of the fact that crossing to other places like Digodi and Garri clans’ areas is mostly
followed by conflict over resources. This problem has been aggravated particularly since the time of
regionalism in Ethiopia that restricted boundary to regional states. Accordingly, Borana pastoralist
rangeland has brought under Oromia regional state while that of the Digodi and Garri clans have
brought under Somali regional states. For this reason, moving to or from one region is followed by
conflict and contradiction between the two pastoralist groups. Paradoxically, when the case of
pasture shortage is severe, the Borana moves towards Southern Kenya in search of pasture and water.
The participants indicated that Borana’s mobility towards this direction is safe and peace. An in-
depth interview with an elder at Wachile village of Arero district further strengthened this idea as
indicated below.
Case 7
The Borana rangeland is not limited to the current Borana zone of Oromia regional
state of Ethiopia. In the past, it was extended as far as the northern tip of Southern
Kenya and still the area is occupied by Kenya Borana. Despite the Borana in Kenya
and Borana in Ethiopia are in different independent countries by now, still we share the
same line of origin and identity. Both are Borana’s children. For this matter, when
hard time appears to either side the response to each other is that of brotherhood or
sense of a family. It is for this reason that the Borana in Ethiopia moves towards
Southern Kenya while the needed resource may be available in the closer neighboring
regional state, Somali. This case is also true for the Borana in Kenya who prefers to
move to Borana zone of Oromia regional state of Ethiopia during hard time (In-depth
interview at Wachile village, Oct. 2010).
As mentioned above, the direction of mobility is decided by Abbaa Reeraa who is also supported by
council of elders and the Abbaa Gada. All the community members are obeyed to the rule and acts
accordingly. If one deviates from the rule, a penalty will be imposed by the council of elders together
with the Abba Reeraa. The punishment usually costs up to 5 cattle and let the person and his/her
cattle leave the protected area. During mobility, all the segments of the community have their own
responsibility irrespective of age and gender in determining mobility pattern. The following table
summarizes the role of the community members in the decision process of mobility pattern.
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Table 110. The roles of community segments in determining mobility pattern
Segment of the community Responsibilities

Elders .To determine direction of the movement
.Guidance in fencing the protected area
.To follow the protection of the reserved area
Women .To harvest and restore grass for future usage
.Takes part in the decision of the direction for movement
. Supplying food for the labor force
Youth and able men .Labor contribution in fencing
.Moving with the cattle
.Labor contribution in defending the reserved area
(Source: own data)
Bush clearing
The second indigenous method of Borana rangeland management is bush clearing. They apply this
method in response to bush encroachment that deteriorates pasture land. Bush encroachment is
inconvenient not only to the growth of pasture for animals but also equally challenge biodiversity.
Now a day, a great landmass of Borana rangeland previously covered with grass is overtaken by the
quick invading specie of bush that the Borana calls Miciree15.
Bush clearing is a labor consuming activity and involves a collective effort of the whole segments of
the community members as well as support from external parties. Besides, the nature of the bush is
very complicated. It is reported that the bush easily recovers following cleaning, since it reproduces
through stems. The participants further discussed that a fallen bush tree will grow up with several
branches. For this reason, the fallen bush is not an end to avoid the encroachment. Thus, another
step, removal of a fallen bush bark is neccessary. The Borana believes that removing the bark of the
bush is one way of sterilizing the bush trees from reproducing itself. The following table depicts the
roles of segments of the community in effective bush clearing.
Table 111. The role of community segments in bush clearing
Segment of the community Roles in bush clearing

Elders .To coordinate the activity
.Guidance on methods of bush clearing
.Contribute labor
Women and girls .Bark removal
.Supplying food for the labor force
Youth and able men .Labor contribution
. Defending the cleared area
(Source: own data)
Bush Burning
In the past, bush burning was used to be one of the best mechanisms to control bush encroachment in
Borana rangeland. Nevertheless, this method was banned by the state with the assumption that it is
disaster to the surrounding forest and biodiversity in the rangeland. However, the participants of this
study discussed that the Borana indigenous bush burning system is very tactic full, systematic and
15
Michiree is Borana’s native word to refer to bush
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selective so as to reduce risk that might follow bush burning. An in depth interview with an elder at
Wachile village of Arero district interpreted the case as follow:
Bush encroachment is not only disaster to the survival of Borana pasture that directly
affects the livelihood of Borana pastoralists, but also to the forest around and wildlife
in it. Wherever the bush reaches, it destroys the existing forests and overtakes the range
and the natural forest. Before the banning of bush burning, the Borana used to burn
bush wisely with proper care for the surrounding forest and wildlife in it. In this
process, the area invaded by the bush is carefully demarcated ahead of starting bush
burning. Then, bush clearing starts so as to identify the bush from natural forest area.
He concluded by saying that the ‘state’s’ ban of bush burning misunderstood the
Borana’s value for natural forest and wildlife (In-depth interview at Wachile village,
Oct. 2010).
Fencing Reserved and Bush Cleared Areas

Following the two earlier approaches, the Borana community fences reserved
and cleared areas to protect the recovering grass from damage until it reaches
certain stage. The whole segments of the community have their roles and
responsibilities in the fencing process. The following table represents the roles
of the segments of the community on fencing a reserved pastureland.
Table 112. The role of community segments on fencing reserved pasture

Segment of the community Responsibility
Elders .To coordinate the activity
.Guiding role
.Contribute labor
Women .Relaying instruments for fencing
.Supplying food for the labor force
Youth and able men .Labor contribution in fencing
. Defending the fenced area
(Source: own data)
The focus group discussion at both villages indicted that the primary purpose behind fencing around
the protected area is not to block the entry of the Borana cattle into the area. It was further revealed
that for the Borana community, the area is protected by the principle of the community and thus, it
remains protected as all members respect and obeyed to the principle. Thus, no one sends his/her
cattle in a reserved area. But, it may happen unknowingly when the cattle cross to it without the
intention of the cattle keepers. The participants also highlighted that let alone the Borana community,
the Borana cattle are obeyed to the principle of the Borana so that they rarely attempts to reach into
the protected area. Thus, the fencing purpose is to protect the area from the damage that might arise
from the surrounding alien clans like the Garri and Degodi of the Somali region as well as The Guji
and the Gabra camels16. An in-depth interview held at Wachile village of Arero district shared this
idea as follow:
16
Guji and Gabra are other Oromo pastoralist clans in the neighbor of the Borana pastoralists
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Case 9
Damaging ones’ rangeland is one way of attacking the owner community. For this
reason, when there is grievance or revenge, the other clan intentionally let their
livestock invade the reserved rangeland of the Borana. It is a case often directed on
Borana rangeland by the two Somali clans: Garri and Digodi. Thus, fencing alone
cannot protect the reserved areas and the Borana strictly watches the reserved
rangeland to defend from others cattle invasion. This is one ground for conflict over
resources between the Borana and the neighbor Somali clans (In-depth interview at
Wachile, Oct. 2010)
Encouraging Camel Rearing

In response to bush encroachment, the Borana pastoralists are encouraging camel rearing, which was
not common in the culture of the Borana. The participants indicated that camel can browse the bush
which is totally impossible and disaster for cattle, which is the highly valued livestock of the Borana.
Nevertheless, there are two views towards the issues of camel rearing and bush encroachment in the
Borana rangeland. In Wachile village, it was said that camel is one agent for the dissemination of the
seed of the bush and thus, participants at this village blamed camel for the rapid bush encroachment.
They argue that camel takes the seeds of the bush from one area to the other in their spongy feet. An
opposite idea was discussed by the participants at Gadda village of the same district. Participants at
this village indicated that camel is an agent to tackle the dissemination of the seed of the bush. Here,
it was argued that camel eats and digests the seeds of the bush making the seeds infertile for
reproduction. This perception is fortunate for camel rearing by the Borana pastoralists. Besides, the
participants also analyzed cost effectiveness of camel rearing. Therefore, there is an increased
awareness on the high price for camel. Even, Borana women have the need to encourage camel
rearing. Despite this fact, the need is to sell out the product than for domestic consumption. This
indicates that the Borana has still less value to use the product of camel and in most cases it remained
a culturally taboo food.
Avoidance of private enclosure

A private owned rangeland in Borana is called Kalloo dhunfaa17. It is a rangeland fenced by
individuals and belonged and owned by the individuals. The participants indicated that the
expansion of private rangeland has dual consequences on the Borana pastoralist. The first is that it
reduces the long lived values of Borana pastoralists in supporting each other during hard time and
the long lived community enclosure rangelands. On the other, it adversely affects and restricts the
mobility patterns of the community on rangeland management. The discussants at both villages
further said that it is one potential ground for internal conflict among the Borana clans.
Best Cases on pastureland Management

The following two cases were identified as best practices on rangeland management in Wachile and
Gadda villages of Borana rangeland.
Case10
Bisguda Malise, a pastureland in Wachile village of Arero district is encroached by
bush and became out of use for several period for Boran cattle. Through the collective
effort of Borana pastoralists, the bush was effectively cleared and the grass is
recovered. Now, it can accommodate more than 1000 cattle per day. The community
17
‘Kalloo dhunfaa’ refers to privately owned rangeland
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was supported by a nongovernmental organization named Mercy Corps who is

effectively serving the Borana pastoralists. In the intervention, Mercy Corps
approached by appreciating and building up the knowledge of the Borana indigenous
rangeland management and provision of technical and financial support in the
rangeland management.
Case 11
Kaloo hollaa Huqqaa Boruu, a rangeland in Gadda village of Arero district was
encroached and invaded by bush once up on a time. The community with the support
of a local nongovernmental organization, Action For Development (AFD) that
provided financial, material and technical back was able to liberate the rangeland
from bush invasion and rehabilitated the rangeland. In the rehabilitation process, the
role of women was very visible particularly, in cleaning the area being on the side of
male, food provision and bark removal. Now a day, the rangeland can accommodate
more than 700 cattle at a time.
Deteriorated Cases of Pastureland

The following cases are collected from Wachile village as cases that reflect deteriorated
rangeland of t Borana pastoralists.
Case 12
Elfatte and Dhedacha Irreessaa rangelands in Wachile village of Arero district were
used to be grassland and accommodate very large herd size. Currently, they turned to
bush land. The major factor for the deterioration was invasion by bush/bush
encroachment that resulted from disregard of Borana’s skill of bush control by different
meanses.
Case 13
Malkaa Adii, Didisaa, Dhakaa waataa, Aybaanyaa and others rangelands in Wachile
village of Arero district were used to be very good grassland and can accommodate
very large herd sizes. Currently, it turned to be season based grass land. The major
factor for their deterioration is attributed to the block of the rangelands by the Garri
clan of Somali and remained to be areas of conflict and unsafe for use. It is also
resulted from lack of appropriate conflict resolution and lack of ears to hear Borana
indigenous conflict resolution technique.
The Role of GOs and NGOs on Borana Rangeland Management

The office of Pastoral Development together with other stakeholders from the government sectors
and nongovernmental organizations like Action For Development and SOS Sahel, Mercy Corps,
Save the Children USA are contributing in the effort to manage Borana pastoralists’ key resources.
Their contributions include:
• Provision of seedlings.
• Reservation of indigenous grass that are believed to be under risk of
extinction due to the fast expansion of the invading bush.
• Grass harvesting and storing for critical time.
• Fencing
• Bush cleaning
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Best example sited by the offices for their contribution is the case of Allonaa area. Allonaa
rangeland that possesses a good potential for grass production was once encroached by the miracle
bush. In the process of Allona rangeland rehabilitation, Arero District Pastoralist Development
Office together with the community (led by Abbaa Marraa and Abbaa Dheedichaa)18 and
nongovernmental organizations like Action For Development (AFD), Save the Children USA,
SOS cleared the bush and rehabilitated the grass land of Alonaa.
Among the cleared bush, one species of the bush named Hargessa is used as an input for soap
production. A partner for the production is SOS Sahel and Save the Children USA. The
intervention has intention to create a kind of alternative income generating activities for the people.
Challenges of Borana Indigenous Institutions on Rangeland Management

Borana’s indigenous rangeland management is under a serious problem by now and the system is
politicized. It became a ground for conflict. At first place, there is restriction in movement to the
other sites particularly movement to the east is impossible due to the permanent hostility between the
Borana on the one hand and the Degodi and Garri clans of the Somali on the other. Still there is some
problem in movement towards Guji and Gabra clans of the Oromo pastoralists.
Natural Forest in Borana Rangelands

According to the data obtained from Arero District Pastoral Development Office, about 2% of the
rangeland in the district is covered by natural forest. The specific areas with natural forest coverage
in Arero district include: Bobella19, Guto, Hirmaye, Haro Dimtu and Madar (closer to Guji zone).
Among others, Borana pastoralists use the product of the species of the forest for human and
livestock healing. For example, bush species locally called Hargessaa is used for internal parasite,
wound healing, and application on organ of boys during circumcision as healing.
Indigenous Institutions on Natural Forest Management

Borana pastoralists have a council of elders responsible for the protection of natural forest. The
serious challenge to the council is that Somali clans as well as the Oromo clans used the forest as a
trench of conflict when there is clash with counter groups. It is therefore, very strategic site for all in
conflict. For this reason, the natural forest sometimes came to be victim of the conflict. To attack the
enemy’s trench, the clan in counterpart will burn the forest. This war technique is an indication that
the conflict between Borana and Somali pastoralists are beyond competition over pasture and water
resources. In this case, the conflict is supported by modern war weapon and war tactics. Some
respondents noted that there is support for Garri from the mainland Somalia when ever there is
conflict with the Borana pastoralists. It should be therefore noted that the conflict is also a kind of
territorial expansion.
The major conservation intervention since the 2002 attack on Borana forest was the rehabilitation
provided by an international NGO, SOS Sahel. The organization centered its intervention on
effective utilization and upgrading of the knowledge of the community in rehabilitating the forest. To
this end, different forest management committees were established in respective sites of the forest
areas. For recognition as well as proper implementation of the activities Abba Gadas are represented
18
‘ Abbaa Marraa’ and ‘Abbaa Dhedhichaa’ refer to indigenous titles to individuals who coordinate
pasture management
19
Babello natural forest area is located at about 27 kms from the centre of Arero district. It is the
largest natural forest area in Arero district.
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in each of the committee. Accordingly, the community has a decisive power over the distribution and
production of the forest products. The following table represents name of the committees,
responsible clan and the natural forest management areas under their management.
Table 113. Arero district forest management committees and their respective sites
S/N Name of the committee Responsible Clan Forest site
Babello Borana Babello
Guto Borana and Gabra Guto
Hirmaye Guji Hirmaye
Haro Dimtu Borana Haro Dimtu
Madar Guji and Babra Madar
(Source: Arero District Pastoral Development Office, 2010)
Challenges of Borana Indigenous Knowledge on Natural Forest Management

A worst case appeared to Borana natural forest in 2002. At this time, there was mass burning of the
forest by unknown organ. Among other, the burning highly reduced the total coverage of Babello
forest. The key informants at Arero district indicated that the organ that burned Borana forest at this
time, even if not identified was some force other than the surrounding Somali and the Oromo clans. It
was this case that highly reduced the total coverage of Borana natural forest than Borana’s associated
bush burning.
Conclusion and Policy Implications
Despite Borana pastoralist have been able to develop an indigenous knowledge appropriate to the
survival of pastoralists and biomass of the rangeland, the Borana pastoralists’ indigenous knowledge
are at deteriorating trends. Therefore, intervention that focuses on the identification and upgrading of
indigenous knowledge is highly acknowledged. One of the factors for the deteriorating trend of
Borana pastoralists’ indigenous knowledge on key resource management is imposition of alien
approaches inappropriate to the community and the rangeland. Thus, for any successful intervention
in Borana pastoralist areas, development agents should base their intervention on the indigenous
knowledge of the community rather than imposing alien methods.
Another factor for key pastoralists’ resource deterioration in Borana pastoralist area emanates from
the recurrent conflict with the neighbor Digodi and Gari clans of Somali pastoralists. Therefore,
awareness rising to both sides on peaceful conflict resolution systems and the effects of conflict on
human and material resources are very important in the efforts to achieve sustainable Borana
pastoralists’ resource management. A lot of previous Borana pastoralists’ key resources like water
resources and pasturelands have been already deteriorated and some are on the eve of deterioration.
Therefore, interventions that upgrade and make use of indigenous knowledge for the rehabilitation of
the resources are very crucial for the wellbeing of Borana pastoralists and biodiversity of Borana
rangelands. Now a day, bush encroachment is overtaking Borana pastoralists’ rangeland. This has
serious impacts upon the livelihood of the community as well as Borana rangeland’s biodiversity.
Thus, intervention that contributes to the eradication of bush encroachment in the area is very timely
activities in the effort to achieve sustainable development in Borana rangelands.
Livestock disease prevalence along with frequent drought and conflict in the area together with
restriction on free mobility and the expansion of private grazing land are found to be serious problems
256
to the Borana livestock production. Therefore, intervention that focuses on livestock diseases control
based on Borana indigenous knowledge on livestock disease control and treatment are very important.
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Baseline Study of Key Pastoral Resource Management, Borana Zone of Oromia

Regional State: The Case of Arero
By
Zelalem Tamrat
Introduction
The Borana pastoral system of southern Ethiopia, which traditionally based on cattle husbandry for
survival and income generation, has been effective over generations in producing animal products
while maintaining rangeland resources. Angassa and Beyene (2003) reviewed pastoral management
and causes for rangeland degradation, and identified important pastoral resources management
strategies that must be considered by development actors. Ethiopia’s pastoral areas development
projects including government/state have common characteristics of erroneous assumptions of
traditional pastoral production systems and operated with a top-down approach, without no attempt
to deal with pastoral problems using a holistic approach, lack of desire on the part of policy makers
to understand the dynamics of pastoralists and to act accordingly, and lack of opportunity to
undertake research in order to better understand the dynamics of the pastoral way of life and the
traditional methods of resource management. In light of numerous literature and documented studies
(Amsale, 2010; Birhanu and Mebratu, 2010; Bokutache, 2010; Brocklesby et.al., 2010; Scoones
and Adwera, 2009; Boku, 2008; UN OCHA-PCI, 2008; Muir, 2007; Homann, 2004; and McCarthy
et. al., 2004), on Borana pastoral resource management practices and problems, the present baseline
study assesses mainly organizational and institutional practices and issues in managing key pastoral
resources by pastoral communities and external actors, i.e., government Offices and Non
Government Organizations (GOs and NGOs, respectively). Hence, this baseline study fully
acknowledges the detailed accounts of pastoral resource management systems in Borana areas.
Parallel to this study, a similar work entitled “assessment of indigenous innovation and best practices
in key pastoral resource management” has been undertaken. In order to avoid redundancy, we
utilized context specific literatures. Therefore, our study focuses on the exploration of the missing
elements in similar studies, i.e., links and roles of organizational and institutional practices of
pastoral communities and external actors (GOs and NGOs) in managing the key pastoral resources.
Objective
The main objective of the study is to explore key pastoral resource management issues, practices,
challenges and options for improvement by the three entities (pastoral communities, GOs and
NGOs).
Area Descriptions
Arero district has an estimated area of 10,890 square kilometers (Km2) and it is divided into 20 rural
Kebeles and one urban kebele-Meta Gefersa. The altitude of this district ranges from 750 to 1700
meters above sea level. It is divided into three major watersheds namely: Dawa Basin/ Labu
Watershed, Mata Wayna Basin/ Haro Dimtu and Horto Basin and 12, 6 and 3 Kebeles of the district,
respectively are situated under these three watersheds. According to the estimation made based on
the 2007 Population & Housing Census report, the total population of the district in year 2002 is
estimated to be 73,595 out of which 33,428 are men and 40,167 are women. About 69,095 or 93.89
% of the population in Arero are estimated to be rural inhabitants, while 4,500 or 6.11 % of the total
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population are urban dwellers. With an estimated area of 10,890 Km2, the district has an estimated
population density of about 6.8 people per Km2.
According to the information obtained from Arero District Pastoralist Rural Development Office, the
total land area of Arero District is about 10,890.0 km2. Out of this total landmass, about 19% (i.e.
2,069.1 Km2) has been used for grazing and about 2 % (i.e. 217.7 Km2) of the total area are covered
by forest. Bushes and shrubs consisted about 60% (6,534 Km2) of the total area of the District. The
total cultivable land in Arero District is about 1,914.78 Km2 and this constitutes about 17.6% of the
total area of the district. It is only 54.6 Km2 of land (i.e. 2.85 % of the total cultivable land) that is
cultivated for crop production so far. The remaining 1,860 Km2 of land (i.e. about 17% from the total
district landmass) is reported as arable land, which is suitable for crop farming but not yet cultivated.
The remaining 0.8% of the district (i.e. about 8,423 Km2) is reported as marginal land with no use,
whereas, 0.6% of the area i.e. 70 Km2 is already utilized for different social services including for
settlement. Table 114 depicts the estimated land use pattern of Arero District in recent years.
Despite two rainy seasons, which occur during March–May (Gana) and from September to
November (Hagaya), agro-pastoralists mainly depend on only “Ganna” rain for crop cultivation.
Crops like Teff, Maize, Haricot Bean and Wheat are important crops cultivated in the district
(Birhanu and Mebratu, 2010).
Table 114. Land Use Pattern of Arero District during the Year 2008/09
Land Mass
Area (Hectare) Area (Sq Km) (%)
No. Land use pattern
1 Grazing land 206,910 2,069.1 19.0%
2 Forest land 21,774 217.7 2.0%
3 Bush and shrub 653,400 6,534.0 60.0%
4 Crop land 191,478 1,914.78 17.6%
a. Cultivated land 5,463 54.6 0.5%
b. Arable land 186,015 1,860.2 17.1%
5 Marginal land 8,423 84.2 0.8%
6 Land used for social services 7,015 70.2 0.6%
7 Other, specify - - -
Total 1,089,000 10,890.0 100.0%
Source: Birhanu and Mebratu (2010)
Methods
Addaa and Wachilee kebeles are study sites. Focus group discussants (FGDs) constituting elders,
women and younger groups of each kebeles were (see in Appendix) important primary data sources.
Besides, key informants from elders and experts of GOs and NGOs were employed. Secondary data
sources such as annual reports, official statistical displays, and NGOs’ project reports were equally
significant as the primary data sources. Moreover, observations during transect walks and
discussions of issues at stake with the insiders was another data collection and cross checking tools
employed. After one week field stay for data collection, the assessor(s) had taken four weeks for data
compilation, transcription of the discussions recorded, refining of notes from the observations, cross
checking oral reports and written reports from the respective officers. In depth qualitative analysis
was key analysis technique. However, results are supported by contexts analysis from relevant cases
and secondary sources where appropriate. Besides, tabular and statistical presentation constitutes
complementary information in this report.
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Findings
Livelihoods
Arero district in general has pastoral, agropastoral, and alternative livelihoods strategies with 85, 14,
and about 1%, respectively. However, livelihoods options in Wachilee kebele is dominantly of
pastoral (about 95%), which is above the district average, while Addaa kebele is struggling to
maintain pastoral livelihoods with increasing farming practices widely being adopted. This
competition is seriously challenging Addaa kebele key pastoral resource management system. Some
NGOs has been trying creating alternative livelihoods as pilot interventions in the district through
organizing people into producers and/or petty trading cooperatives. However, in the study kebeles,
there seems to be little livelihood options, except pastoralism and agropastoralism.
Key Pastoral Resources and Management
Livestock
Though cattle were culturally closely attached and most preferred species, herd composition of
pastoralists steadily changing from cattle, goats, and sheep dominant livestock rearing to camel and
donkey dominated livestock over the last two decades. FGDs associated the decreasing population of
cattle mainly to encroachment of bushy plants and frequent long drought cycles in the past two
decades (as discussed in Box 1).
Box 1. Wachilee Elders’ narration of reasons for herd composition changes

The borana clan has herded camel since Abaa Gaadaa Saaqo Dhadhachaa (before 160 years).
Because Camels were not so much important in the culture of Borana clans, only few/small numbers
of camels were intentionally kept in the herd compared to cattle. Unfortunately, in current generation
the herd composition of camels and donkeys increased tremendously while cattle, goat, sheep
populations have been continuously decreasing. Banning traditional rangeland management practices
such as bush burning and increased restriction of mobility practices (reduced dry and wet season
grazing management) are presumed to favor bush encroachment, according to elders. As a result,
pasture growth declined but bushy species composition in the rangelands dominated, hence, camel
population thrived more easily than cattle.
Water Sources
The study kebeles are in sharp contrast in terms of water resource availability and access. According
to the Addaa kebele focus group discussants, their kebele is in dire situation of water scarcity. At the
time of this study, the only single water source, i.e. a pond for the whole populations and all
purposes of uses was broken. Neither community nor the external agencies could maintain the pond.
As a result, herders travel every four or three days and each day for eight hours for watering their
livestock. On the contrary, Wachilee kebele pastoralists have thirteen well collections named as
Bedal, Seba, Baar, Bedru, Dhadha Chaa-Bura, Qaalu, Qabrii, Barbarisaa, Ibayuu, Gabaalaa,
Gundo, Gelantichaa-60cattle, Olunichaa, at the permanent encampment, each with different
watering capacity. For example, according to FDGs, Dhadhachaa-Buraa well can water 700-1000
cattle per day with additional domestic water uses. Its depth is about 20 m, to bring the water up to
the water trough, 10 individuals are required. On the other hand, Gelantichaa well is the shallowest.
It is about 10-12 m deep and has a capacity of watering 60 cattle per day without additional domestic
uses. In this case, a cooperative labor of 5 to 6 individuals is required. At a particular traditional
deep well use right is communal while title of ownership, control power, labour mobilizations or
other critical decision-making rights is the major responsibilities of Abaa Heregaa.
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Pasture
Pasture availability and access are severely limited to pastoralists in the study kebeles. According to
FGDs in both kebeles, the most important factors for little pasture availability are frequent and long
drought and restricted mobility due to boundary disputes. In addition, increasing agropastoralism and
total absence of water sources at Addaa kebele and bush encroachment and frequent clashes with the
neighbouring gerri clans directly contribute to low pasture availability. For example, before three
generation of Abaa Gaddaa, Wachilee pastoralists of the Borana clan were used to freely herd along
the boundaries of Melka Meri, Guyo Soraa, Melka Meri Bate, Kad Bute Rae, and Genaale Melka
Sora. Currently, due to conflicts with Gerri clan of Somali ethnic, Wachilee pastoralist forced to
abandon mobility towards these areas.
As a result, grazing management strategies restricted to the same locality, which has resulted in
overgrazing leading to degradation of rangelands. Moreover, with frequent drought and over
population of livestock, less and poor quality pasture and grass vegetation becomes dominant.
Consequently, pastoralists’ herd composition constitutes more browsers and lesser grazers. However,
due to less cultural preferences, edible bushy plants at the study kebeles are not properly exploited by
pastoralists. This implies that the current practices of managing rangeland or pasture resources in
general are in the middle of confusion. Traditionally, Abaa dheedhaa is responsible to manage
pasture resources/grazing management decisions. However, in practice his decision making and
enforcing power of managing the pastures seems overtaken by experts (GOs and NGOs).
Historically, neglecting the role of Abaa Dheedhaa in all development interventions proved to result
in non-integrated rangeland management practices and even accelerated degradation of the
rangelands.
Wachilee is not suitable for farming, because of its rugged landscape and inadequate rainfall.
Besides, its rangeland is totally covered with bushes, grasses and vegetations. Therefore, almost all
pastoralists are herders. Whereas, according to the FGDs, pastoralists at Addaa are forced to engage
in agropastoralism. Land competition among themselves, limited mobility and rangeland resource
scarcity has aggravated the declining of livestock populations. Thus, the only feasible coping
strategy for these pastoralists is cultivation of available land using rain fed farming system.
Alternative livelihoods
According to experts, there exists huge potential for alternative livelihood development such as
forest based, mineral mining and expansion of commercial centers for all products and services in
general at the district. However, only pastoralism and agropastoralism exists currently, although the
later is not exploited to its full potential. In fact, few NGOs attempted to create opportunities and
demonstrate developing alternative livelihoods options for pastoralists/ex-pastorlists. Unfortunately,
the study kebeles had not yet experienced such kinds of interventions. Nor there seems initiatives or
interest from the community particularly at Wachilee to detach itself from cattle dominating pastoral
mode of livelihoods.
However, with pastoralists’ full engagement; concerned actors can realize Wachilee and Addaa’s
potentials for livelihoods diversification, by at least convincing pastoralists to make wise use of
edible bushy plants through increased camel herd. Such diversification may enable pastoralists to
capture high market prices for camel, hence, improve their livelihoods. Particularly, concerned GOs
must take experiences and lessons from development intervention of NGOs (such as AFD) that
targeted creating alternative livelihoods in neighboring kebeles (like Anano). The finding of the
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present study indicated that kebele specific assessment and exploration of potentials are prerequisites
for successful development impact, before embarking on any new one or attempt scaling up prior
initiatives.
Gender in Arero Pastoral Livelihoods

In the study kebeles, pastoralism mode of livelihoods is more dominant. However, in Addaa kebele,
agropastorlism is relatively new and some households have been cultivating. Due to cultural norms
land and livestock control and decision-making are exclusively held by male. Similarly, a man is
responsible to all issues and decisions related to agropastoralism in the household, too. However, in
the pastoral livelihood household members’ gender roles are clearly defined (Table 115/ the numbers
of the bars indicate task frequency). Though rare, the roles of women in house construction and in
conflict (Box 2). At Wachilee kebele, frequent conflict has been common. As the table indicates,
during conflicts boys join security forces of their community; and women and girls are all
responsibilities for livestock management. These changes increase the girls’ burden, more
importantly their school attendance is affected negatively. Consequently, it constrains opportunities
for improvement of livelihoods.
Box.2. According to female FGDs, adult females traditionally construct hut, and concentrate on
important roles of water or food supply to their household and moral support to the fighting male
groups in the cases of violent conflict between Boran and Gerri clans at Wachilee. Moreover, during
extended violent conflicts, females take over young boys’ tasks and encourage boys to join the
community scout/security/fighting forces. This adds responsibilities to younger girls in herding large
livestock (cattle and camel).
Table 115. Gender Roles in Pastoral production system
Key Management Women Men Boys Girls

Herding ///// /// /
Watering //// // / /
Milking /////
Important Livestock Species
Cattle / //// / /
Camel /
Goats ///// ///
Access to Service & New Development of Roles
Education //// //
New Practices Like Fencing Resisting Duties /////
Attending Sick Animals and Veterinary ////
Security ///// /////
Herding All species during conflicts /// /// /////
Managing Key Pastoral Resources

Key pastoral resources Management responsibilities in Borana rangelands have been equally shared
by state (particularly since Imperial regime) mainly through implementations of national
development policies. Besides, since then numerous aid agencies had been attempting to deliver
humanitarian services. Currently, several NGOs emphasis on improving food security and
livelihoods through rangeland resource management and utilizations. Though water and pasture
resource improvement and development projects were carried out in the study kebeles, unfortunately
263
all ended up in being unsustainable development. Main reasons for such devastating failures are all
interventions (state and/or NGOs) characteristically poor in involving pastoral communities.
For example, pond construction was a very recent collaborative intervention (State-NGO) across
Arero district. However, as FGDs in Addaa kebele bitterly indicated there is severe suffering from
lack of water, only because the pond was broken and the community could not maintain. On the
other hand, FGDs at Wachilee kebele confirmed that water supply projects are inappropriately
designed since there were no consultation with elders’ at the planning stage. As a result, clashes
between the roles/responsibilities and decisions of new water supply management committee(s) and
Abbaa Hereegha increased. According to the key informants, the water development project should
have focused on maintaining and developing potentials already available on traditional wells. These
experiences clearly indicated that development interventions’ have critical weaknesses in engaging
pastoral communities to use their indiogenous knowledge in development works, hence the projects
are persistently failing and are not sustainable.
Actors Managing Key Pastoral Resources

Currently, initiatives in key pastoral resources management come internally from pastoral
communities and externally from state, NGOs or State-NGOs partnerships in the study kebeles.
Knowingly or not, pastoralist communities have begun voicing an account of past interventions’
negative experiences. Such information becomes valuable input for a new development intervention
that a newcomer external agency has in mind. Subsequently, unlike past development interventions
designs, external actors (State and NGOs) seem to be flexible to some extent. According to experts
(from State and NGOs), their organizations have shifted to “bottom-up” development approach in
many ongoing development interventions design and implementation. Besides, concerned state
bureaus and NGOs begun to closely consult development plans and implement in collaboration.
These paradigm shifts may bring effective coordination. As a result resources and efforts are
maximized and avoid doing fragmented and repetitive interventions.
Practices of External Agencies of Key Pastoral Resources

Reports of Rural and Pastoral Development Bureau indicated that the office is engaging in extension
services of camel production and marketing in the district. They also involve in advocacy of
alternative livelihoods strategies and to make the pastoralists destock when there is large number of
livestock and in case of drought anticipation through creating market opportunities. Throughout the
districts, there are nine animals’ health posts/veterinary services. Of these, two posts are level C type
while the rest are of D level types. All the posts were constructed by the Pastoralist Community
Development Project (PCDP). Recently, State bureaus (specifically pastoral development) has
started recognizing the significance of collaboration and community consultation prior to engaging
itself to target kebele. Hence, coordination and facilitation roles take important position in pursuing
pastoral development strategies of the governments. According to the experts, many key pastoral
resource management (KPRM) interventions were carried out and many more are in operation at
district level through the partnership with the collaboration of different offices and NGOs (Table
116). Moreover, attempts to fully involve pastoral communities from the beginnings are currently
appreciated by all parties. Furthermore, Multi-stakeholder Approach is critical turning points for this
newly conceptualized development and extension implementation strategies and approaches at the
district level. In this case, Government bureaus take major and active roles in initiating, facilitating,
coordinating, and assessing development interests of communities and partners. The platform
constitutes communities, Gadaa-elders, representatives of NGO and experts and development agents
from different bureaus.
264
A particular intervention is embarked upon after consultation of the community and concrete
prioritizations. NGOs as key stakeholders are expected to finance and assist technical skills and
knowledge transfers while communities are framed to forward their specific problems at a particular
kebele and indicate the severity level of their problems. As a result, exemplary successful
intervention at one of the adjacent kebele in the study area was reported. In enclosure area
development, multistakeholder paradigm had been able to involve all actors starting from site
selection to developing strong management system, rule formations and enforcement mechanisms.
Unlike most interventions, its success factors are recognition and adoption of communities’ Gadaa
System of resource governance principles. In Addaa kebele, FGDs unanimously demanded having
enclosure area development, whereas in several other interventions reported by state or state-NGOs,
both kebele FGDs had critical complaints since they feel that the communities in these kebeles is
ignored. Moreover, FGDs noted that the key pastoral resource management problems increased in
extents, despite the fragmented and many external interventions (Current Problems).
Pastoral Institutions of the Gadaa System: The Internal Actor Managing Key Pastoral
Resources
During elders’ focused discussion, generally key pastoral resource governance roles of the Gadaa
system wing are gradually decreasing. Exclusive development intervention and paradigms (external
disturbances) (Sabine, 2004) are weakening effectiveness of Gadaa resource governance system and
hence disorganization of collective management traditions. Furthermore, the disorganization and
weaker social relationship resulted in lower cooperative spirit of resource management arrangement
with other clan groups and poor tolerance to competition for scarce key resources. Some
communities in the study area are left with the options of restricted mobility (the maximum distance
of movement is boundary of the same clan-neighbors). Otherwise, the communities face the risks of
confronting conflicts with the other clan pastoralists. According to FGDs, key resource based
conflict cases are more frequent in Wachaalee kebele as the Boran and Gerii clan pastoralists are no
more in good moods to arrange fair key pastoral resource uses.
In relation to weakened mobility and frequent drought, livestock population decrease and problems
of productivity become rampant. More specifically, Addaa kebele communities, attempted to
diversify their livelihoods through land cultivations. However, without bringing its expected
promises, rainfed crop cultivation only aggravated grazing land scarcity.
265
Table 116. Interventions of State-NGOs Partnership
No. Practices Actor’s Role Remarks

Community State NGOs Positive Weaknesses
1. Forage Conservation Attend- Expert Help ----- Increased Efficiency Equity In Distribution Of The
Cooperate In Community Resource Has Implication Of
Postponing Identify Stage Wealth
Current Pasture Of Grasses
Use Individually Cutting And
Or Collectively Techniques
2. Enclosure (Kaloo On Initiation Facilitating Facilitating Reduce Vulnerability- Constraints Include Lack Of
Lafaa Seraa) Drought And Conflicts Labour, Grasses And Water
Scarcity And Free Grazing
Rangelands.
3. Soil And Water
Conservation (Soil
Bund,
4. Settlement ------ Initiation ---- ----- Community Has Its Own
Arrangements Settlement Pattern, Any New
Intervention Need To Base From
The Perspective Of Maximizing
Key Pastoral Resource
Utilization And Management
5. Water Resources Fee Contribution Funding From Cistern Increased Water Sources Poor Community Organization
Development Per Single Safety Net Construction For Community And Mobilizations-
(Pump, Motorized Species Programmes In Few Unsustainable (Like The Case Of
Pond And Wells) Kebeles Broken Pond In Addaa Kebele)
6. Experimentation Of Participate Initiate Initiate Improve Pasture Quality -------
Bush Clearing
7. Researchable Ideas Prioritize Do/Funding Addresses Urgent -----
Problems Resource Management
Problems
266
Key Management Issues and strategies

For many reasons, currently, Borana rangelands vegetation has dominantly bushy plants
coverage. According to the FGDs, scarcity of rain and hence, frequent drought has affected the
growth of pastures and grasses. As a result, Boran pastoralists’ herd compositions showed a
decrease in the number grazer species (cattle and sheep), and an increase in the number of
browsers (camel and goats).
Box 3. Past Challenges/Status

The biggest problems are scarcity of grasses and water, and Wind erosion. Before several years,
there were few camels. Wherever a camel browses, woody species population increases. Camels
were introduced by the Gabra clan. Camels became part of Borana pastoralists’ livestock
because of absence of pasture, particularly grasses. If you ask how the woody plants
dissiminated in the rangelands, my answer will be, when the camel started browsing. Current
Gaadaa Leader, liben Jaldessa noted that
the most severe constraint of sharing and managing key resources is regionalism. Appropriate
rangeland mgt practices is said to be mobility. When the FGDs were asked to revisited their
experiences of key pastoral resource management along the five Gaadaa generations (nearly
forty years back), they said that all the current critical challenges were did not exist. Many
factors are listed for the development of the chronic problems over the years. Among these it
was mentioned that the abuse of Gadaa system Governances, drought, boundary disputes among
different clan pastoralists are the causes and regionalism aggravated the problems to happen
soon. The wrong perception of different ethnic pastoralists on referendum alternative solutions
of boundary conflicts is another factor. Scarcity of rangelands, pasture or grasses becomes
severe, because of the frequent prolonged droughts. In addition lesser mobility or no mobility in
cases of conflicts and abandoning burning practices have left higher chances for bushy and non
edible plants eruption in the Borana rangelands.
Important Issues
In the above box, FGDs outlined that mobility was the best strategy in managing their key
resource. However, long distance mobility is practically a nonexistent strategy any more. As a
result, pastoral production in the study areas is constrained by increasing degradation which in
turn resulted from overstocking and overexploitations. But, fundamental causes of shift in key
pastoral resource management strategies at Addaa and Wachaalee kebeles differ. During
discussion at Wachaale, FGDs listed the following interrelated issues as generally challenging
key pastoral resource management:
• Restricted mobility
• Conflict
• Increasing Camel population (unaccustomed to camel management and culturally less
preferred)
• Corruption (even Abaa heregaa and Dhedhaa)
• Decision implementation problems (weak gov’t support)
• Weakening of Abaa gadaa system
• Political interventions, Politics caused withering cultural assets
• Bush encroachment-“felisaa” a local name for dangerous inedible bush which has
become widely spread in the rangelands.
On the other hand, Addaa kebele FGDs pointed out that severe water shortage forced them to
partially shift to rainfed farming, which inturn resulted into shortage of grazing land and fierce
land competition for cultivation leading to increased internal disputes, bush encroachment and
increasing camel populations. Besides, the frequent conflicts between Boran clan and other ethnic
267
groups have negatively impacted their mobility. Nowadays, many challenges prevail in the study
kebeles. FGDs indicated general trendsi of some issues in relation to sustainable key pastoral
resource management at Wachaalee kebele. Similarly, from the general discussion made with
Addaa Kebele, the same lists of issues become major problems in appropriate management of key
pastoral resources.
Table 117. General Trends of issues for the last five decades (according to the key
informants)
Important issues before 75 years currently Remarks

Population low increased
Cattle low (30 ) high (300 heads)
Drought low (less frequent five to ten years CATTLE STAYS 4-5
interval) DAYS
Conflict low high

Bush encroachment low increased
Pasture high low
Problem Analysis
FGDs of Addaa and Wachile forwarded their own perception of most severe key pastoral
resource management challenges. The list below summarizes analysis of their problem in
descending order of severity.
Wachile critical problems
• conflict
• restricted mobility
• camel grazing for cattle migration
• corruption (even Abaa heregaa and Dhedhaa)
• decision implementation problems (weak gov’t support)
• weakenings of Abaa gadaa system
• political interventions
Addaa problems
• water scarcity
• expansion of land cultivation
• bush encroachment (saabesa, fulansa, and hamessathese bushy plants are edible only by
camels but even camels get ill after feeding).
• limited pasture
• lack of veterinary services
• increasing population,
• limited mobility of pastoralists
Recommendation
In order to reduce the numerous challenges of KPRM in the study areas, GOs and NGOs must
strengthen existing linkages and partnership. This partnership must duly base all its actions on
key pastoral resources customary governance systems and also integrate contemporary technical
management systems to reinforce positive outcomes. Besides, since the communities resource
governance principles has been neglected/suppressed for long, young generation of pastoralists
268
lacks skills and knowledge of key pastoral resource management, in particular. Therefore, real
participation of youths in development interventions is a must. Furthermore, bridging internal and
external stakeholder perspective in KPRM supports not only create enabling environment for
positive interaction, but it increase capacity to reduce vulnerabilities and prevalent risks such as
violent conflicts, and droughts, an example of which is the case of Disaster and Risk Assessment
Projectii (DRAP) established in Addaa Kebele by the initiation of Addaa Kebele AFD.
References
Ahmed et al. (year). Post-Drought Recovery Strategies Among Pastoral Households.

Development Research Report Series 3.
Amsale Kassahun Temesgen , 2010. The impact of environmental and political influences on
pastoral conflicts in Southern Ethiopia Draft paper presented at the conference on
climate change and security in Trondheim, 21-24 June 2010. Fafo. Accessed 22 February,
2011 from www.google.com
Ann Muir, 2007. Customary Pastoral institutions Study. USAID,Save the Children-USA and
SOS/Sahel Ethiopia
Ayana Angassa and Fekadu Beyene, 2003. Current range condition in southern Ethiopia in
relation to traditional management strategies:The perceptions of Borana pastoralists.
Tropical Grasslands 37, 53–59.
Birhanu Worku and Mebratu Kefale, 2010. Baseline Information and General Profile of ARERO
Woreda, Pastoralist Food Security Partnership Project (Borana and Gujji Zones of
Oromia National Regional State – South Ethiopia). Action for Development (AFD) and
SOS Sahel Ethiopia, Co-Funded by EU, TROCAIRE, CAFOD and Christian Aid, Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia
Boku Tache, 2008. Pastoralism under Stress: Resources, Institutions and Poverty among the
Borana Oromo in Southern Ethiopia PhD Thesis ,Department of International
Environment and Development Studies, Norwegian University of Life Sciences
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erosion in common property resource tenure? FAC Pastoralist Theme,Research Update
Brocklesby, M.A., Hobley, M. and Scott-Villiers, P. 2010, Raising Voice – Securing a
Livelihood: The Role of Diverse Voices in Developing Secure Livelihoods in Pastoralist
Areas in Ethiopia. Institute of Development Studies, WORKING PAPER Volume 2010
Number 340
Homann, S., 2004. Indigenous knowledge of Borana pastoralists in natural resource management:
a case study from southern Ethiopia. Doctoral Dissertation Submitted for the Degree of
Doctor of Agricultural Sciences of the Faculty of Agriculture, Nutritional Sciences &
Home Economics and Environmental Management of the Justus Liebig University
Giessen
Muir, A. 2007. Customary Pastoral Institutions Study. SOS Sahel and Save the Children US
Pastoral Livelihoods Initiative
Nancy McCarthy, Celine Dutilly-Diane, Boureima Drabo, Abdul Kamara, Jean-Paul
Vanderlinden, 2004. Managing Resources in Erratic Environments: An Analysis of
Pastoralist Systems in Ethiopia,Niger,and Burkina Faso. RESEARCH REPORT 135
INTERNATIONAL FOOD POLICY RESEARCH INSTITUTE WASHINGTON,DC
Scoones, I. and Adwera, A., 2009 Pastoral Innovation Systems: Perspectives from Ethiopia and
Kenya. Future Agricultures and Pastoralist Communication Initiative, Occasional Paper
001
UN OCHA-PCI, 2008. 21st century Pastoralism: strategies and Ideas for Pastoralism in the future
269
ANNEX
FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSANTS OF WACHILE AND GEDA KEBELES
Focus Group Discussant Age Remarks

Guyo Keshule 80
Bule Dimma 75 Abaa Heregaa
Kena Godana 70
Sora Boru 60
Aleke Kule 55 Abaa Heregaa
Birole Huqa 70
Desoy gelgelo 35
Alima Turo 25
Isaaq Bule 24
Wacilee Burgi 20
Gaddaa Kebele
Gaddaa kebele partial focus group discussants
Trends of Important Issues over the last five Abaa Gaadaas (including Liben Jaladessaa)
Population Livestock population

conflicts
Bush encroachments Drought
270
Trends of Important Issues were graphically laid out with eldest focus group discussants at
Wachaalee kebele
ii
AFD-Community-Pastoral and Rural Development collaboratively identified potential risks and
priorities of development intervention. AFD, district Bureaus and community collaboratively
design problem assessment of the Kebele. According to teams’ conclusion, drought and the
subsequent shortage of water resources were the major causes for important problems in the
Kebele. Accordingly, the committee mapped out and made problem ranking across different parts
of the Addaa Kebele.
271

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HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY OFFICE OF RESEARCH

28TH ANNUAL RESEARCH AND EXTENSION

COMPILED AND EDITED BY STAFF OF THE

Haramaya University Office of Research and Extension

28th Annual Research and Extension Review Proceedings

Compiled and edited by Staff of the Office of Research

LIST OF FIGURES .........................................................................................................................................VIII

I. MAIZE RESEARCH AND EXTENSION ACTIVITIES ..................................................................................... 1

1. MAIZE RESEARCH ACTIVITIES DURING 2009/10 CROPPING SEASON ...........................................................................2

II. SORGHUM RESEARCH AND EXTENSION ACTIVITIES ............................................................................ 25

1. ONGOING PROJECTS .........................................................................................................................................27

III. COMMON BEAN RESEARCH ACTIVITIES .............................................................................................. 31

1. COMPLETED PROJECTS IN 2010 .........................................................................................................................32

IV. HIGHLAND PULSES RESEARCH ACTIVITIES .......................................................................................... 62

COMPLETED PROJECTS .........................................................................................................................................63

V. POTATO RESEARCH ACTIVITIES ........................................................................................................... 74

COMPLETED PROJECT ...........................................................................................................................................74

VI. SOIL AND WATER MANAGEMENT RESEARCH ACTIVITIES ................................................................... 78

1. ONGOING PROJECTS ........................................................................................................................................78

VII. FORESTRY RESEARCH ACTIVITIES ...................................................................................................... 100

IX. INSTITUTE OF PASTORAL AND AGROPASTORAL RESEARCH ACTIVITIES ............................................ 190

I. Maize Research and Extension Activities

1. Maize Research Activities during 2009/10 Cropping Season

National Variety Trials

National Variety Trial – 9A (NVT-9A)

National Variety Trial – 8A (NVT-8A)

National Variety Trial – 8B (NVT-8B)

Quality Protein National Variety Trial – 8B (QPT-8B)

Quality Protein National Variety Trial – 8C (QPT-8C)

Variety No PHT EHT Rust Blight DM Grain yield

Variety No PHT (cm) EHT (cm) DM Grain yield/ha Rank

Preliminary Variety Trials

Preliminary Variety Trial – 2E (PVT-2E)

Preliminary Variety Trial – 2H (PVT-2H)

Preliminary Variety Trial – 2R (PVT-2R)

Table 6: Mean values of varieties involved in Preliminary Variety Trial-2E (PVT-

Variety No PHT EHT Rust Blight DM Grain yield/ha (kg)

39 135.0 75.0 1.8 1.5 187.0 5771.4 44

Variety PHT (cm) EHT (cm) Rust Blight DM Grain yield/ha

Variety PHT (cm) EHT (cm) Rust Blight DM Grain yield/ha

37 145 65 1.75 1.25 154 6299.00 47

Highland Maize Variety Trials

Variety No PHT (cm) EHT (cm) DM Grain yield

Variety No PHT (cm) EHT (cm) DM Grain yield

Variety Verification Trial

Variety No PHT (cm) EHT (cm) DM Grain yield

Variety No PHT (cm) DM Grain yield

Variety No PHT (cm) EHT (cm) DM Grain yield

Variety No PHT (cm) EHT (cm) DM Grain yield

Variety No PHT (cm) EHT (cm) DM Grain yield

Variety No PHT (cm) EHT (cm) DM Grain yield

Variety No PHT (cm) EHT (cm) DM Grain yield

Variety No PHT (cm) EHT (cm) DM Grain yield

2. Research Activities for 2010/2011 Cropping Season

Maize germplasm enhancement can be accomplished by introducing different materials from

Inbred line development and maintenance

Population development and maintenance

Specific objective: To develop F1 SC experimental yellow hybrid.

Experimental variety evaluation

National Variety Trials

Activity 1: National Variety Trial-9A

Location: Haramaya University campus

Persons responsible: Habtamu Zeleke and Million Fikresilassie