ELECTRIC FIELDS

IN
MATERIAL SPACE
 CONTENT
A fundamental course in Electrical
and Electronic Engineering

Time-harmonic
Fields (dynamic)
Magnetostatic
Fields

Electrostatic
Fields
Vector Analysis and
Coordinate System

2
 CONTENT
Convection &
Properties of
Introduction Conduction
Materials
Currents

Dielectric
Polarization in
Constant and Conductors
Dielectrics
Strength

Linear,
Continuity
Isotropic and Boundary
Equation and
Homogeneous Condition
Relaxation Time
Dielectrics
 INTRODUCTION
• In previous chapter, we consider electrostatic fields in free
space or a space that has no materials. In this chapter, we
consider the theory of electric phenomena in material
space.
• Most of the formula derived are still applicable, may require
modification.
• Materials are classified in terms of their electrical properties
as conductors or nonconductors (insulator or dielectrics).
• Further discussion will be on some properties of dielectric
material e.g. susceptibility, permittivity, linearity, isotropy,
homogeneity, dielectric strength and relaxation time.
• The concept of boundary conditions for electric fields
existing in two different media will be introduced.
 PROPERTES OF MATERIALS
• The questions below are answered:
– Why an electron does not leave a conductor surface?
– Why a current-carrying wire remains uncharged?
– Why waves travel with less speed in conductors than in dielectrics?
– Why materials behave differently in an electric field?
• Materials is classified in terms of their conductivity , in mhos/m
(Մ/m) or Siemens/m (S/m), as conductor or nonconductor. The
conductivity of a material depends on temperature and frequency.
• A material with high conductivity ( >> 1) is referred to as a metal,
with low conductivity ( << 1) is referred to as an insulator.
• A material whose conductivity lies between those of metals and
insulators is called a semiconductor.
• At temperature near absolute zero T=00K, some conductors exhibit
infinite conductivity and are called superconductors.
• The major difference between a metal and an insulator lies in the
number of electrons available for conduction of current.
 CONVECTION & CONDUCTION CURRENTS
• Electric voltage and current are fundamental quantities. Electric current is
generally caused by the motion of electric charges.
• The current (in amperes) through a given area is the electric charge passing
through the area per unit time.

That is, I = dQ / dt (5.1)

In a current of 1 A, charge is being transferred at a rate 1 Coulomb per

second.
• The concept of current density J=> if current I flows through a planar
surface S, the current density is,

Jn = I /S or I = JnS (5.2)

assuming that the current J is perpendicular to the surface, S.

• If J is not normal to S, I = J . S (5.3)
• Thus, the total current flowing through a surface S is,

I = ∫s J . dS (5.4)
• Depending on how I is produced, types of current density:
– convection current density,
– conduction current density,
– displacement current density.
• The current I through S is the flux of the current density, J.
• Convection current does not involve conductors, thus does not satisfy Ohm’s
law. It occurs when current I flows an insulating medium (e.g. liquid, rarefied
gas or a vacuum). A beam of electrons in a vacuum tube is a convection current.
• Consider a filament (Figure 5.1). If there is a flow of charge Q, of density v at
velocity u = ayay, thus I through the filament is,
I = Q = v S y = v S uy (5.5)
t t
• The current density, J [A/m2], at a given point is the current through a unit
normal area at that point.
The y-directed current density J, Jy = (I /S) = vuy
Hence, J = vu (5.6)
I is the convection current and J is convection current density.
• Conduction current requires a conductor. A conductor is characterized by a large
number of free electrons that provide conduction current due to an impressed
electric field.
Figure 5.1 Current in a filament
• When E is applied, the force F on an electron with charge –e is
F = -eE (5.7)
• If an electron with mass m is moving in an electric field E with an
average drift velocity u, according to Newton’s law, the average change
in momentum e of the free electron must match the applied force, thus,
mu/ = -eE or u = - (e/m)E (5.8)
where  is the average time interval between collisions. This indicates
that the drift velocity of the electron is directly proportional to the
applied field.
• If there are n electrons per unit volume, the electronic charge density is,
v = -ne
thus,
J = vu = ne2 E = E (5.9)
m
or, J = E (5.10)
where  = ne2 /m is the conductivity of the conductor.
 CONDUCTORS
• A conductor has a abundance of charge that is free to move.
• When external Ee is applied, the positive charges are pushed along the same
direction as Ee, while the negative free charges move in the opposite
direction.
• The free charges do two things:
– First, they accumulate on the surface of the conductor and form an
induced surface charge.
– Second, the induced charges set up an internal induced field Ei, which
cancels the externally applied field Ee.
• A perfect conductor cannot contain an electrostatic field within it.
• A conductor is called an equipotential body, implying that the potential is
the same everywhere in the conductor. This is based on the fact that
E = -V = 0.
• According to Gauss’s law, if E = 0, the charge density, v must be zero, so
that under static conditions,
E = 0, v = 0, Vab = 0 in conductor (5.11)
Figure 5.2:
(a) An isolated conductor under the influence of an applied
field
(b) A conductor has zero electric field under static conditions
• Now consider a conductor whose ends are maintained at a potential
difference, V (Figure 5.3).
• Since the conductor is not isolated but is wired to a source of electromotive
force, which compels the free charges to move and prevents the eventual
establishment of electrostatic equilibrium. Thus an electric field must
exist inside the conductor to sustain the flow of current.
• As the electron move, they encounter some damping forces called
resistance. Suppose the conductor has a uniform cross section of area S and
is of length l . The direction of E and I (positive charges) is same but
opposite to the direction of the flow of electron. Magnitude E and J,
E = V/l and J=I/S (5.12)
From eq. (5.10), I / S = E = (V) / l (5.13)
According to Ohm’s law,
R=V= l
I S
or, R = c l (5.14)
S Resistance for a conductor in
a uniform cross section of area
where c = 1/ : resistivity of the material.
Figure 5.3 A conductor of uniform cross section under
an applied E field
• The basic definition of resistance R as the ratio of the potential difference
V between two ends of the conductor to the current I through the
conductor still applies.
R = V = ∫ E . dl Resistance of a conductor of
I ∫ E . dS nonuniform cross section of area

• Power P (Watts) is defined as the rate of change of energy W (Joules) or

force times velocity. Hence,
∫ vdvE . u = ∫ E . vu dv
or P = ∫ E . J dv (Joule’s law)
• The power density wp (W/m3) is given by,
wp = dP/dt = E . J = |E2|
• For a conductor with uniform cross section, dv = dS dl,
• So becomes,
P = ∫ E dl ∫ J dS = VI
or P = I 2R
 Example

A wire of diameter 1 mm and conductivity 5x107 S/m has

1029 free electrons per cubic meter when an electric field
on 10 mV/m is applied. Determine
(a) The charge density of free electrons
(b) The current density
(c) The current in the wire
(d) The drift velocity of the electrons (e= -1.6x10-19 C)
 POLARIZATION IN DIELECTRICS
• Consider an atom of the dielectric consisting of a negative charge
-Q (electron cloud) an a positive charge +Q (nucleus).
• The nuclei in molecules dielectric as point charges and the electronic
structure as a single cloud of negative charge.
• The equal amounts of positive and negative charge means the whole
atom/molecule is electrically neutral.
• When an electric field E is applied, the positive charge is displaced from
its equilibrium position in the direction of E by the force F+= QE.
• The negative charge is displaced in the opposite direction by the force
F-=QE.
• A dipole result from the displacement of the charges and the dielectric is
said to be polarized.
• In the polarized state, the electron cloud is distorted by the applied
electric field E.
• This distorted charges distribution is equivalent by the principle of
superposition, to the original distribution plus a dipole (Fig. 5.6b)
• The definition of polarization, P as the dipole moment per unit volume
of the dielectric. p=Qd
• The major effect of the electric field on a dielectric is the creation of
dipole moments that align themselves in the direction of E.
• This type of dielectric is said to be nonpolar and nonpolar dielectric
molecules do not possess dipoles until the application of the electric
field- hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen etc.
• Other type of molecules have build-in permanent dipoles are said to
be polar- water, polystyrene, hydrochloric acid etc.
• When an electric field E is applied to a polar molecule, the
permanent dipole experiences a torque tending to align its dipole
moment parallel with E (Fig. 5.7b)

Figure 5.7 Polarization of a polar molecule: (a) permanent dipole

(E = 0), (b) alignment of permanent dipole (E  0).
 DIELECTRIC CONSTANT & STRENGTH

• Consider the dielectric region contains free charge. If v is the

volume density of free charge, t is the total volume charge density
is given by, (subscript p : polarization)
t = v+ pv =  . oE (5.15)
hence, v =  . oE - pv
=  . (oE + P) =  . D (5.16)
where, D = oE + P (5.17)
and, pv = - . P (P : polarization) (5.18)
• Conclude that the net effect of the dielectric on the electric field E
is to increase D inside it by the amount P.
• P is proportional to the applied electric field E.
• For some dielectric,
P = eoE (5.19)
where e : electric susceptibility of the material.
• The electric susceptibility of the material is more or less a
measure of how susceptible (or sensitive) a given dielectric is
to electric fields.
• By substituting eq. (5.19) into eq. (5.17),
D = o(1 + e)E = orE (5.20)

or, D=E (5.21)

where,  =or (5.22)

and r = 1 + e =  /o (5.23)
•  is permittivity of the dielectric and r is called the dielectric
constant or relative permittivity.
• r is the ratio of  to that o. Notice that r and e are dimensionless
whereas  and o are in Farads/meter.
• When the electric field in a dielectric is sufficiently large, it begins to
pull electrons completely out of the molecules and the dielectric
becomes conducting. It is said as dielectric breakdown.
• The dielectric strength is the maximum electric field that a
dielectric can tolerate or withstand without electrical breakdown.
IMPORTANT DEFINITION!!!

We shall always assume ideal dielectric

and avoid dielectric breakdown.
 LINEAR, ISOTROPIC & HOMOGENEOUS DIELECTRICS

• A material is said to be linear if D varies linearly with E.

• Material for which  does not vary in the region being considered and is
therefore the same at all points are said to be homogeneous, and they are
said to be inhomogeneous when  is dependent on the space
coordinates.
• Materials for which D and E are in the same direction are said to be
isotropic. That is, isotropic dielectric are those that have the same
properties in all directions.
• For nonisotropic (anisotropic), D, E and P are not parallel;  or e has 9
components that are collectively referred to as a tensor (pg 184)
• A dielectric material is linear if  does not change with the applied E field,
homogeneous if  does not change from point to point and isotropic if 
does not change with direction.
• Thus Coulomb’s law, by substituting  with or, becomes
W = 1 orE2 dv

F = Q1Q2 aR and
4orR2 2 v
IMPORTANT CONCLUSION!!!
 Example

The electric field intensity in polystyrene (r = 2.55) filling

the space between the plates of parallel-plate capacitor is
10 kV/m. The distance between the plates is 1.5 mm.
Calculate:

(a) D
(b) P
(c) The surface charge density of free charges on the plates
(d) The surface density of polarization charge
(e) The potential difference between the plates
 CONTINUITY EQUATION AND
RELAXATION TIME

SELF STUDY

Relaxation time is the time it takes a charge placed in the

interior of a material to drop to e-1 (= 36.8%) of its initial
value.
It is short for good conductors and long for good dielectrics.
 BOUNDARY CONDITION
• If the field exists in a region consisting of two different media, the
conditions that the field must satisfy at the interface separating the media
are called boundary conditions.
• Consider the boundary conditions at an interface separating:
– Dielectric (r1) and dielectric (r2)
– Conductor and dielectric
– Conductor and free space
• We need to use Maxwell’s equations to determine the boundary
conditions and electric field intensity E into two orthogonal components:
E = Et + En.
Et and En are respectively the tangential and normal components of E to
the interface of interest, and a similar decomposition can be done for the
electric flux density D.
 E . dl = 0
Maxwell’s Equations
L

 S
D . dS = Qenc
A. Dielectric-Dielectric Boundary Conditions
• Consider the E field existing in a region that consists of 2 different
dielectrics characterized by, 1 = or1 and 2 = or2 as shown in
Figure 5.10(a).
• The field E1 and E2 can be decomposed as,
E1 = E1t + E1n
E2 = E2t + E2n
applying to the closed path abcda assuming that the path is very
small with respect to the spatial variation of E.
• As h0,becomes E1t = E2t (continuous across the boundary)
or D1t = D2t (discontinuous across the interface)
1 2
• Applying the cylindrical Gaussian surface of Figure 5.10(b),
allowing h0 gives D1n - D2n = s Assuming that D
directed from region 2
to region 1
 where s is the free charge density placed deliberately at the
boundary. if s = 0,
D1n = D2n (no change at the boundary)
• Also can be written as, 1E1n = 2E2n . All that equations are
collectively referred to as boundary conditions.
• Referred to the Figure 5.11, the equation becomes,
tan 1 = r1
tan 2 r2

This is the law of refraction of the electric field at a boundary

free of charge.

Figure 5.11 Refraction of D or E at a

dielectric–dielectric boundary.
B. Conductor-Dielectric Boundary Conditions
• The conductor is assumed to be perfect, so that E = 0 [Figure
5.12]. Follows the same procedure used for the dielectric-
dielectric interface.
• As h0, hence Et = 0 also D = E = 0. By applying to the
cylindrical Gaussian surface of Figure 5.12(b),
Hence Dn = (Q/S) =s.
• Thus under static conditions, the following conclusion can be
made about a perfect conductor:
– No electric field may exist within a conductor.
v = 0, E= 0
– Since E = -V = 0, there can be no potential difference between any 2
points in the conductor, that is, a conductor is an equipotential body.
– An electric field E must be external to the conductor and must be normal to
its surface. That is,
Dt = or Et = 0, Dn = or En = s
• an important application of the fact that E= 0 inside a conductor
is in electrostatic screening or shielding.
C. Conductor-Free Space Boundary Conditions
• The boundary conditions are,
Dt = oEt = 0, Dn = o En = s
 EXERCISE

Explain how a perfect conductor can be used as an

electrostatic screening or shielding for another conductor.

Give conditions for a dielectric materials to be:

i. Linear
ii. Homogeneous
iii. Isotropic
Sekian, terima kasih.