Reimagine!

Confronting Environmental Racism in the 21st Century

Author(s): ROBERT D. BULLARD
Source: Race, Poverty & the Environment, Vol. 10, No. 1, Where Do We Go From Here? A look
at the long road to environmental justice (Summer 2003), pp. 49-52
Published by: Reimagine!
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41554377 .
Accessed: 20/06/2014 03:24

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Reimagine! is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Race, Poverty &the
Environment.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 195.78.108.174 on Fri, 20 Jun 2014 03:24:01 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Garmentworkers
thelossof
protesting
jobsduetoNAFTA.

§о
<2
$
©
gо
-с
о.

Environmental
Confronting

Racism in the 21st

Century
BY ROBERTD. BULLARD

significant improvements therichto be offered as short-term tionalchangesareneededin orderto

in environmental protection over
Despite
thepastseveraldecades,1.3bil-
lionindividuals worldwide livein unsafe
and unhealthy physical environments
(Bullard,1993).Hazardouswastegener-
ationand international movement of
hazardouswasteand toxicproductspose
someimportant health,environmental,
legal,politicaland ethicaldilemmas.
The systemic destruction ofindige-
nouspeoples'landand sacredsites,the
poisoningofNativeAmericans on reser-
vations,Africans in theNigerDelta,
African-Americans in Louisiana's"Can-
cerAlley," Mexicansin thebordertowns,
and PuertoRicanson theislandof
Vieques,PuertoRicoall havetheirroots
in economicexploitation, racialoppres-
sion,devaluation ofhumanlifeand the
naturalenvironment, and corporate
greed.
Unequalinterests and unequalpower
arrangements haveallowedpoisonsof
remediesforpoverty ofthepoor.The
lastdecadehasseennumerousdevelop-
ingnationschallengethe"unwritten pol-
icy"ofOrganization forEconomic
Cooperationand Development (OECD)
countries shippinghazardouswastesinto
theirborders.Mostpeopleofcolorcom-
munitiesin theUnitedStatesand poor
nationsaroundtheworldwantjobs and
economicdevelopment - butnotat the
expenseofpublichealthand theenvi-
ronment.
Whydo somecommunities get
dumpedon whileothersescape?Whyare
environmental regulationsvigorously
enforced in somecommunities and not
in othercommunities? Whyaresome
workers protected fromenvironmental
and healththreats whileotherworkers
(suchas migrant farmworkers)are
allowedto be poisoned?How can envi-
ronmental justicebe incorporated
into
environmental protection?Whatinstitu-
achievea justand sustainablesociety?
Whatcommunity organizing strategies
and publicpoliciesareeffectivetools
againstenvironmental racism?
Thispaperanalyzesthecausesand
consequences ofenvironmental racism
and thestrategiesenvironmental justice
groups,community-based organizations
and governments can useto improve the
qualityoflifefortheirconstituents.
Anatomyof
EnvironmentalRacism
The U.S. is thedominanteconomicand
militaryforcein theworldtoday.The
Americaneconomicenginehasgener-
atedmassivewealth,a highstandardof
livingand consumerism. Thisgrowth
machinehasalso generated waste,pollu-
tionand ecologicaldestruction.
TheU.S.
has someofthebestenvironmental laws
in theworld.However, in therealworld,
all communities arenotcreatedequal.

Environmental
Justice Forward
| Looking 49

This content downloaded from 195.78.108.174 on Fri, 20 Jun 2014 03:24:01 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 1
©
g
о
Q.

Globalization of

the world's

economy has

placed strains on

poor communities

and nations

inhabited largely

by people of color.

Global
issuesconverged
onthestreets
ofOakland.
Environmental regulations havenot fitsforthecountries in theNorthwhile whereethnicand racialgroupsforma
achieveduniform benefits acrossall seg- shifting coststo thecountries in the politicaland or numerical minority.For
mentsofsociety(Collinand Collin, South(Godsil,1990;Colquettand example,blacksin theU.S. formbotha
1999).Somecommunities areroutinely Robertson1991;Collin1992;Bullard politicaland numerical racialminority»
poisonedwhilethegovernment looks 1993a,1999,2000). On theotherhand,blacksin South
theotherway. Environmental racismis a formof Africa,underapartheid, constituted
a
Peopleofcoloraroundtheworld institutionalizeddiscrimination. Institu- politicalminority and numerical major-
mustcontendwithdirtyairand drink- tionaldiscrimination is definedas ity.Americanand SouthAfrican
ingwater, andthelocationofnoxious "actionsor practices carriedoutby apartheid had devastating environmental
facilities
suchas municipallandfills, membersofdominant(racialor ethnic) on
impacts blacks(Kalan,1994;Durn-
incinerators,hazardouswastetreatment, groupsthathavedifferential and nega- ing,1990;SouthAfrican Department of
storageand disposalfacilitiesownedby tiveimpactson membersofsubordinate Environmental Affairs, 1996).
privateindustry,government and even (racialand ethnic)groups"(Feaginand Environmental racismalsooperates
themilitary (Bullard,1993a;Alston, Feagin,1986).The UnitedStatesis in theinternational arenabetween
1993;WestraandWentz,1995;Robin- groundedinwhiteracism(Doob, 1993). nationsandbetweentransnational cor-
son,2000;Cole and Foster, 2001).These The nationwas foundedon theprinci- porations. Increasedglobalizationofthe
environmental problemsareexacerbated plesof"freeland"(stolenfromNative worldseconomyhasplacedspecial
byracism.Environmental racismrefers to Americans and Mexicans),"freelabor" strainson theeco-systems in manypoor
environmental policy,
practice, ordirective (African slavesbroughtto thislandin communities and poornationsinhabited
thatdifferentially
affectsordisadvantages chains)and"freemen"(onlywhitemen largelybypeopleofcolorand indige-
(whether intendedorunintended) indi- withproperty had therightto vote). nouspeoples.Thisis especially truefor
viduals,groups,orcommunities basedon Fromtheoutset,racismshapedtheeco- theglobalresourceextraction industry
raceorcolor(Bullard,1993a).Environ- nomic,politicaland ecologicallandscape suchas oil,timberand minerals(Gedick,
mentalracismis reinforced bygovern- ofthisnewnation. 2001;LaDuke,1999;Karliner, 1997;
ment,legal,economic,politicaland Environmental racismbuttressed the Rowell,1996).Globalization makesit
militaryinstitutions.
Environmental exploitationof land, people and the nat- easierfortransnational corporationsand
racismcombineswithpublicpolicies uralenvironment. It operatesas an intra- capitalto fleeto areaswiththeleastenvi-
and industry practicesto providebene- nationpowerarrangement - especially

50 Race &theEnvironment
Poverty | Summer
2003

This content downloaded from 195.78.108.174 on Fri, 20 Jun 2014 03:24:01 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

ronmental regulations,besttaxincen-
tives,cheapest labor and highest profit.
Thestruggle ofAfrican Americans
Norco, Louisiana and the Africans in the
NigerDeltaaresimilarin thatboth
groupsarenegatively impactedbyShell
Oil refineries and unresponsive govern-
ments.Thisscenariois repeatedforLati-
nos inWilmington (California)and
indigenous in
people Ecuadorwhomust
contendwithpollutionfromTexacooil
refineries (Robinson,2000).The compa-
niesmaybe different, butthecommu-
nitycomplaints and concerns arevery
similar. Localresidents haveseentheir
air,waterandlandcontaminated. Many
nearbyresidents are"trapped"in their
community becauseofinadequateroads,
poorlyplannedemergency escaperoutes
and faulty warningsystems. Theylivein
constant fearofplantexplosionsand
accidents(Bullard,2000).
The Bhopaltragedy is freshin the
mindsofmillionsofpeoplewholive
nextto chemicalplants.The 1984poi-
son-gasleakat theBhopa,IndiaUnion
Carbideplantkilledthousandsofpeo-
ple- makingittheworldsdeadliest
industrial accident.It is nota coinci-
dencethattheonlyplacein theU.S.
wheremethyl isocyanate (MIC) was
manufactured wasat a UnionCarbide
plantin predominately African Ameri-
can Institute, WestVirginia(Bullard,
2000).In 1985,a gasleakfromtheInsti-
tuteUnionCarbideplantsent135resi-
dentsto thehospital.
Institutional racismhas allowedpeo-
ple of color communities to existas
colonies, areas that form dependent(and
unequal)relationships to thedominant
whitesocietyor"MotherCountry" with
regard to their social,economic,legal
and environmental administration. Writ-
ing more than three decades ago,
Carmichael and Hamilton(1967),in
theirworkBlackPower , offered the
"internal" colonialmodelto explain
racialinequality, politicalexploitation
and socialisolationofAfrican Ameri-
cans.Carmichael and Hamiltonwrote:
Theeconomicrelationship of
America's blackcommunities ...
reflects
theircolonialstatus.The
politicalpowerexercisedoverthose
communities go handin glovewith
This content downloaded from 195.78.108.174 on Fri, 20 Jun 2014 03:24:01 AM
Unequal power arrangements have allowed
poisons of the rich to be offered as short-
in
term remedies for poverty of the poor.
theeconomicdeprivation experi- The adverseimpactsfallheavieston
encedbytheblackcitizens. Histori- thepoor.Thisdeadlypattern occursdis-
cally,colonieshaveexistedforthe proportionately amongpeopleofcolor
solepurposeofenriching, in one in theU.S.whoareconcentrated in
formor another, the"colonizer"; urbancentersin theSouthernUnited
theconsequenceis to maintainthe States,coastalregionsand areaswith
economicdependency ofthe"colo- substandard airquality. Climatejustice
nized"(pp. 16-17). linkshumanrights and ecologicalsus-
Climatejusticeadvocatesare
tainability.
Institutionalracismreinforces inter- callingforsolutionsto wardoffglobal
nal colonialism.Government institutions climatewarming thatdo notfallhardest
buttress thissystem ofdomination. Insti- on low-income communities, communi-
tutionalracismdefends, protectsand tiesofcolororworkers employed byfos-
enhancesthesocialadvantages and priv- silfuelindustries (Bruno,Karliner and
ilegesofrichnations.Whether bydesign Brotsky, 1999:3).
orbenignneglect, communities ofcolor Notsurprising, resistance to reigning
(ranging from the urban ghettosand in climate-altering activities
through the
barriosto rural"poverty pockets"to eco- KyotoProtocolhascomelargely from
nomically impoverished NativeAmeri- thefossilfuellobby,companiesthat
can reservations and developing nations) eitherextract, processand sellfossil
facesomeoftheworstenvironmental fuels,generate electricityusingcoal,oil
problems. The mostpollutedcommuni- or gas,and automobilemakers.Commu-
tiesarealso thecommunities withcrum- nitiessuffer fromenvironmental and
blinginfrastructure, economic healthassaultsfrombeingfenceline
disinvestments, deterioratinghousing, withpolluting industries.Giantoil com-
inadequateschools,chronicunemploy- paniesaremajorcontributors to both
ment,highpoverty and overloaded localpollutionand globalwarming.
healthcaresystems (Bullard,1996). In July2000,a coallobbygroup,Cen-
terforEnergy andEconomicDevelop-
Global Climate Justice ment(CEED, 2000),fundeda $40,000
Globalclimatechangeloomsas a major studyblasting theKyotoProtocolforthe
environmental justiceissueofthe21st harmful impactitwouldhaveon blacks
century. Findingsolutionsto globalcli- and Hispanics(Management Informa-
matechangeis one oftheareasthatdes- tionServices, Inc.,2000).The report,
perately needstheinputfromthose entitledRefusing toRepeatPastMistakes :
populationsmostlikelyto be negatively How theKyotoClimateChangeProtocol
affected- poorpeoplein thedeveloping WouldDisproportionately Threaten the
countries oftheSouthand peopleof Economic Well-Being ofBlacksandHis-
colorand thepoorin theNorth.Mount- panicsin theUnitedStates , wasreleased
ingscientific evidencedocuments that byseveralminority businessandlabor
humanactivities arealteringthechemi- organizations (i.e.,A. PhilipRandolph
cal composition oftheatmosphere Institute,LaborCouncilforLatinAmeri-
through thebuildupofgreenhouse canAdvancement, TheNationalBlack
gases- primarily carbondioxide, ChamberofCommerce), noneofwhich
methaneand nitrousoxide.Changing haveenvironmental or environmental
climatesareexpectedto raisesea levels, justicetrackrecords.
alterprecipitation and otherweather The reportsomehowglossedoverthe
conditions, threaten humanhealth,and factthatitssponsor, CEED, is a U.S. coal
harmfishand manytypesofecosystems and raillobbyformedin 1992withthe
(U.S. EPA,1999). expressed purposeof"protecting thevia-
Environmental
Justice Forward
| Looking 51
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Act
©Just
photo
D.Bullard
Robert oftheEnviron- Karliner,
isdirector Joshue Planet:
(1997).TheCorporate
Justice
mental Center
Resource ofClarkAtlanta Ecology intheAgeofGlobaliza-
andPolitics
Hismostrecent
University. book,co-edited Sierra
tion.SanFrancisco: ClubBooks.
with
Julian
Agyeman andBobEvans, isentitled Winona AllOurRelations:
Just
Sustainabi/ities: inan LaDuke, (1999).
Development Native andLife.
forLandRights
World(MITPress,2003). Struggles
Unequal Boston:SouthEndPress.
Resources Management InformationServices, Inc.(2000).
RefusingtoRepeat PastMistakes : Howthe
Alston,DanaandNicole Brown (1993)."Global KyotoClimate Change Protocol Would Dis-
Threats toPeopleofColor/' pp.179-194 in Threaten
proportionately theEconomic
R.D.Bullard, ed.,Confronting Environmen- Well-Being ofBlacks andHispan icsinthe
talRacism: Voices from theGrassroots. UnitedStates.Washington, DC (June).
Youthmarch againsttheinequities of Boston: SouthEndPress.
inPanama.
globalization Deborah
Robinson, M.(2000)."Environmental
Bruno,Kenny, Joshua KarlinerandChina Brot- Racism: OldWineina NewBottle," Echoes
sky(1999).Greenhouse Gangsters vs.Cli- vol.17,posted ontheWorld Council of
bilityofcoal-basedelectricity." On its mateJustice. CorpWatch (November). Churches website:www.wcc-coe/wcc/what/
website,CEED statesthatitis "opposed Robert
Bullard, D.(1993a). Confronting Environ- jpc/echoes/echoes-1 7-02.html.
to theproposedU. N. GlobalTreaty(the mental Racism: Voices from theGrassroots.South AfricanDepartment ofEnvironmental
KyotoProtocol)." Fewoftheseorganiza- Boston: SouthEndPress. andTourism (1996).AnEnvironmental Pol-
tionshavebeenon thefront linefighting Bullard, Robert D.(1996). Unequal Protection: icyforSouth Africa:GreenPaper forPublic
forenvironmental and economicjustice, Environmental Justice andCommunities of Discussion.(October).PostedontheSouth
and enforcement of Color.San Francisco, Sierra Club Books. Africangovernment websiteatwww.pol-
equalprotection
civilrights or universal healthcare. icy.org.za/govdoc/green_papers/enviro.html
Robert
Bullard, D.(1999)."Dismantling Environ-
In thefinalanalysis, theimpetusfor mental Racism intheUSA," LocalEnviron- U.S.Environmental Protection
Agency. (1999).
ment 4: 5-19. "GlobalWarming: Impacts-Health." [WWW
climatejusticewillnotlikelycomefrom
Document]. (July6).www.epa.gov/global-
withingovernment. It is a surebetthatit Bullard, Robert D.(2000).Dumping inDixie: warming/impacts/health/index.html.
willnotlikelycomefromthepolluting Race, ClassandEnvironmental Quality,3rd,
ed.Boulder, CO. Laura
Westra, andPeter S. Went(1995). Faces
industry. Climatejusticewilllikelytake ofEnvironmental Racism: Confronting
rootfrommeetings likethe2000Climate Cole,LukeandSheilaR.Foster (2001).From IssuesofGlobal Justice.Lanham, MD:Row-
JusticeSummitwherethosemost the Ground Up: Environmental Racism and manandLittlefield Inc.
Publishers,
theRiseoftheEnvironmental Justice Move-
affected sharetheircommonexperiences
ment. NewYork: NewYork UniversityPress.
and decideto takecollective action.
to respondmay Collin, Robert W,Robin Morris Collin(1998).
Waitingforgovernment "TheRoleofCommunities inEnvironmental
be too deadlyforcommunities ofcolor Decisions: Communities for
Speaking
andtheplanet. Themselves," Journal oftheEnvironmental
LawandLitigation 13:3789.
BuildingA Global Colquette,K.C. and Elizabeth A.Henry Robert-
Economic Justice Movement son(1991)."Environmental Racism: The
Theenvironmental justicemovement Causes,Consequences andCommenda-
hasbeguntobuilda globalnetwork of tions."Tulane Environmental LawJournal, 5
(1),pp.153-207.
grassroots groups,community-based
organizations, university-based resource Doob,Christopher Bates(1993). Racism: An
centers, researchers, scientists,educators American Cauldron. New York: Harper
Collins.
andyouthgroups.Bettercommunica-
tionand funding is neededin everyarea. Durning, AlanB.(1990). Apartheid's Environ-
areespecially scarceforenvi- mental Toll.Worldwatch Paper 95. Washing-
Resources
ton,DC:Worldwatch Institute(May).
ronmental justiceand anti-racist groups
in developing countries. The Internet has Feagin, JoeR.andClarence B.Feagin (1984).
Discrimination American Style: Institutional
proventobe a powerful toolforthose Racism andSexism. FL:Robert E.
Malabar,
groupsthathaveaccessto theworldwide Krieger.
web.Erasingthe"digitaldivide"becomes Native
Gedrick,Al(2001). Resource Rebels:
a majorstrategy to combatenvironmen- Challenges toMining andOilCorporations.
talracism.■ Boston: SouthEndPress.
Godsil,Rachel D.(1990). "Remedying Environ-
Thisarticleisanexcerpt ofa conference paper mental Racism." LawReview, 90
fortheUnited Nations ResearchInsti- Michigan
prepared (394),pp. 394-427.
tuteforSocialDevelopment (UNRISD)Confer-
enceonRacism andPublic Policy,September Kalan, Heteen (1994)."Apartheid andtheEnvi-
2001,Durban, SouthAfrica. Reprintedwith per- ronment: PollutingthePoor," Toward Free-
missionfrom theauthor. dom(January).

52 Race &theEnvironment
Poverty 2003
| Summer

This content downloaded from 195.78.108.174 on Fri, 20 Jun 2014 03:24:01 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions