16

CHAPTER - 3
INRUSH PHENOMENON IN POWER TRANSFORMER
3.1. INTRODUCTION
Before the transformers were invented, in initial days of electrical industry, power
as direct current was distributed at low voltage. In the past few decades the electrical
circuits were designed with same voltage and also the circuits of distribution system are
small. So, only urban areas could get benefit of this and there was no supply in rural areas
[1]. In 1885, the first transformer was developed and that changed the distribution and
transmission system to a very great extent [35]. Now with the development of
transformers it is possible to step up the low voltage level of the generated power to a
higher voltage level, so as to transmit it to longer distances. Also, if the power is at a
higher voltage with low current, is transmitted, the transmission losses can be reduced to
a great extent. Use of transformers facilitated the transmission of power, cheaper,
hundreds of kilometers away from the generating station [47]. After receiving the power
at the receiving station with the use of step – down transformer the voltage level can be
reduced to any different level. Power Transformers are the bulky and costlier devices
installed at the generating and distribution side. The power is generated usually at a
voltage between 11 to 25 KV, is stepped up by a power transformer to a higher voltage
200, 220,345, 400 KV 0r 765 KV for transmission [13]. The power transformer is a
critical component of the power system. If one power transformer is damaged it not only
affects the transmission process but also severe financial loss is involved. Power
transformers usually have same or uniform load, as at the distribution side the number of
users are quite large. So, if one or two users are not operating at some point of time then
also power transformer operates at nearly full load condition.
3.2. INRUSH PHENOMENON
The instantaneous maximum value of the current drawn by an inductive electrical
apparatus, during starting is termed as the Inrush current [47]. As the power transformer
is an inductive apparatus, during its energization, a current up to 2 to 5 times pass
through for a few cycles, which is transient in nature and is known as magnetizing inrush
current. Saturation of magnetic core, system voltage changes by switching transients, out
of step synchronization of generators, or fault restoration are some of the reasons for the
 17

existence of magnetic inrush current in the system [49]. The transient settles down to a
steady value after some time and the winding resistance acts as a damping facilitator. The
value of inrush current depends on the core material, residual flux and instant of
energization. Other than energization, inrush current in power transformer also occurs
during voltage recovery after the clearance of an external fault or after the energization of
a transformer in parallel with a transformer that is already connected to power system.
Inrush current also consists of harmonics such as even and odd harmonics as well as it
consists of dc offset. The second harmonic content during the starting is less and its
magnitude increases with the progress of time and with the decrease in inrush current
[51]. Magnetizing inrush current creates a false operation of differential relay based on
second harmonic, damage to power transformer windings by increasing the mechanical
forces. The inrush current in the proposed block diagram could also be termed as the
breaker current [48-50].
3.3. MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION FOR INRUSH CURRENT
Two winding transformer equipment is supplied with a time varying Voltage
V (t), with secondary open, which is expressed as
V(t) = Vmsin(wt+ θ) (3.1)
The voltage around the loop is given by
d  (t )
V (t )  Ri (t )  N (3.2)
dt
Ignoring the core loss and resistance, equation (3.2) is expressed as
d  (t )
V (t )  N (3.3)
dt
t
1
 (t )   v(t ) dt (3.4)
N 

 (t )  residual  m [cos( wt   )  cos( )] (3.5)

Vm 2V
m   (3.6)
Nw Nw

 (t )  m [cos( wt   )]  C (3.7)

 18

The second term in the Eqn. (3.7) is the constant of integration and its value
depends on the residual flux in the core and the phase angle at the time of switching of
the applied voltage during energization [33].
The magnitude of the flux, with voltage is at its peak when the transformer is
energized, is given by Eqn. (3.8).
 ( t )   m [cos( w t ] (3.8)

With the residual flux of the transformer neglected, the constant of integration is zero.
There is no transient in flux and the time variation of flux is given by
 
 ( t )   m sin( w t  ) ( for w t  ) (3.9)
2 2

If the transformer is energized when the voltage is changing sign, i.e it is zero, then the
flux is given by Eqn. (3.9).
 ( t )   m [cos( wt )   m (3.10)
It is clear from the Eqn. (3.10) that the flux can double the peak amplitude of the
steady state flux in the transformer core under normal operating conditions. Fig 3.1
shows Block diagram for Inrush phenomenon [38].

Fig 3.1 Block diagram for inrush phenomenon

The cores of electrical devices are usually operated much below the saturation,
with almost steady flux. However in our example, throughout the charging of
the electrical device, flux can double of its steady state maximum value. When steady
state flux doubles in magnitude even for a short duration, the core is saturated [55]. This
causes heavy current to be drawn by the device. This is termed as magnetizing in rush
 19

current in electrical device or just inrush current as per the block diagram in Fig 3.1.
Magnetizing inrush current in electrical device exists for few milliseconds as a transient,
which could be up to ten times more, than the rated current. However the inrush current
has a downside, since it interferes with the status of circuit, the nuisance interruptions,
arcing, and failure of components. This also additionally necessitate over-sizing of
interrupting devices i.e fuses and breakers. Another impact of high inrush current is that
the injection of noise and distortion in the system voltage and currents [20-25].
3.4. DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS
The philosophy of differential protection is applied on: power transformers
protection, buses protection, large motors and generators protection, and transmission
lines protection. Its mathematical principle is derived from Kirchhoff law of the currents,
whereby the sum of the currents flowing into a node equals the sum of the currents
leaving the same node [1]. The principle of differential protection is based on the
Comparison between the source side and the load side, i.e primary and secondary
currents of the power transformer. Current transformers (CTs) installed in primary and
secondary branches of the transformer provide the currents to the relay, which are the
operating current (iD) and the restriction current (iR). In Fig.3.2 depicts a typical
differential relay protection connection diagram for a single-phase transformer.
According to [46], the operation and restriction currents are defined as:
i D  i1  i2 (3.11)
 20

Fig. 3.2 Differential protection for single-phase transformer

i1  i2
iR  (3.1 2 )
2

These equations can be extended to the three-phase transformers. However, in three-

phase transformers with two windings, under steady state operation conditions or
i1 i2
external faults, and are approximately equal due to compensation made by the
transformer ratio and setting (Δ or Y) of current transformers (CT1 and CT2). For
instance, a Δ - Y power transformer with N1:N2 transformer ratio requires that CT1 be
connected in Y configuration with a 1:N1 transformer ratio and CT2 be connected in Δ
configuration with a 1:N2 transformer ratio. However, for an internal fault, these currents

are different. The comparison between

iD and iR leads to the differential protection .The
characteristic curve of a differential protection scheme, in which the regions of operation
and non-operation are illustrated is given in fig 3.3 [13].
 21

Fig. 3.3 Characteristic curve of the percentage differential protection

According to Fig. 3.2, the relay operation is only for cases where in the operating point

(
iR , iD ) is above of the characteristic curve defined by:

i D  i o  ki R (3 .1 3)
The ratings of Current transformers are carefully selected in tune with the
transformer current, such that the CTs secondary currents are equal .However the
manufacturing standards of CTs differ from company to company. Therefore, the CTs
normally are confined to those available in the market. [12]. The primary of the current
transformer is a bar primary , considered as only one turn and the secondary side with
many turns as per the transformation ratio (N), match the ratings of the power
transformer, where N is the ratio of primary turns to the secondary turns. For CTs
having N1 is the primary number of turns and N2 is the secondary number of turns, the
1 1
ratios are N 2 , N 2

The secondary current of the CT on the primary side of the power transformer is.
Ip
I1  (3.14)
N1

Where:
Ip
: The current flowing through the transformer primary circuit.
 22

I1 : Primary current of CT1 .

N1 CT1
: Number of turns in the primary side of
Similarly for CT located at transformer secondary side and current is:
IS
I2  (3.15)
N2

Where:
IS
: Secondary current of the transformer
I 2 : Secondary current of CT2

N2 : Number of turns in the secondary side of CT2

Since the differential current is: Id = I1-I2, then, from Eqn. (3.16) and Eqn. (3.15) the

Differential current in the relay

Id can be calculated as;

Ip Is
Id   (3.16)
N1 N2

Within the protected zone, the currents

I1 and I 2 are equal in magnitude but opposed.

Id
Hence the differential current = 0. The primary and secondary currents are related as
Ip Ns
 (3.17 )
Is NP
Where:
N P and Ns are the turns on the primary and transformer secondary.

Ns
NP : Ratio of transformation.

From Eqn. (3.17) the secondary current is [2], [6-7]

IpN p
Is  (3.18)
Ns
Therefore, from (3.16) and (3.18),
 23

N p
IpX ( )
Ip Ns
Id  
N1 N2

Np
Ip Ns
Id  (1  ) (3.19)
N1 N2
N1

N p
N s
  (1  )
N 2
N 1

From Eqn. (3.16) it is obvious that the term  must be equal to zero in order to make

Id = 0
N p
N s
(1  )  0
N 2
N1

N2 N
 p (3.20)
N1 Ns

Eqn. (3.20) gives the condition which indicates that the reciprocal of the CTs ratio
of the secondary turns, equal to the transformer ratio [15].
In power transformers, the primary power input is equal to the secondary power
output. However, the voltage and the current in both the primary and secondary sides are
different for a transformer depending on it being a step up or step down transformer. For
a step up transformer, the input voltage of the power transformer varies inversely as the
current, while the voltage in the secondary side is high and the current is low, resulting in
equal power on both sides [11]. Hence the CTs on the load side and receiving sides of the
power transformer do not have same turn ratio. The other important aspect is the
matching of turn ratio and magnetizing characteristics so that they have the same output
current under normal conditions of operations. In the event identical CTs are not
available, then those with close ratios are chosen and the differences if any, between
them, is made up by using the interposing CTs, which however supplement their own
burden to the output of the main CTs. For three phase (3Φ) transformers, similar is the
 24

approach, excepting that some extra conditions may be considered. Depending on the
nature of the connection of the phases on the receiving and load sides of the power
transformer, a phase shift between receiving and load sides currents takes place. This
phase shift occurs in the Y-Δ or Δ-Y connected transformers due to the transformation of
the current from Y-Δ or Δ-Y. This phase shift is corrected by connecting the CTs
secondary circuits in Y-Δ for the windings connected to Δ-Y and vice versa [13].
3.5. DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION DIFFICULTIES
Conventional differential protection suffers from three main difficulties which
enable the differential relay act on a false signal without the existing of any fault. These
drawbacks must be overcome to make the differential relay work properly [16], [20]. The
conditions are:
• Magnetizing inrush current.
• CTs Mismatch, saturation of cores.
• Transformation ratio change due to Tap changer position.
3.5.1. MAGNETIZING INRUSH CURRENT
When the transformer is energized, transient inrush currents are not maximum,
which occurs for switching at 900. For this, the first amplitude is higher than the
amplitude in the steady state condition [48]. For the flux wave, current is identified as an
internal fault and registered as a differential current. The amplitude of magnetizing
current may be several times higher than the amplitude of full load current amplitude
[51]. The conditions are:
• The magnitude and nature of residual flux.
• The grade of core laminations.
• The flux density of the transformer core on saturation.
• Circuit impedance.
• Transformer rating.
• Supply input voltage level.
The inrush current through the differential relay causes false tripping of
transformer even in the absence of any fault. The differential relay compares the currents
on receiving and load sides of the power transformer. However, as the inrush current is
only on the primary side, the differential current will be significant. Therefore, the relay
 25

must acknowledge that this current is a normal phenomenon and hence should not cause
any tripping [49].
3.5.2. C.T CHARACTERISTICS AND FALSE TRIP
The CTs performance influences, the functioning of the differential relays. In case
of CTs mismatch, they contribute a small differential current. Sometimes, this amount of
the current is high enough to operate the differential relay. Therefore, CTs mismatch is to
overcome by using interposing CTs of multitaps [47].
3.5.3. FALSE TRIP DUE TO TAP CHANGER
On-Load Tap-Changer (OLTC) helps in automatically controlling the output of
the transformer. This device is used wherever heavy fluctuations in the power system
voltages are expected and the user cannot afford to switch off the sending inside and
receiving end side of the transformer for a tap change. The CTs are matched with an only
nominal tap of the transformer. Hence for an OLTC tap position change, unbalance
current flow in the operating coil of the relay. This action causes CTs mismatches. This
current will be considered as a fault current which makes the relay to release a trip signal
[30], [17].
Saturation of CTs is another problem that may disrupt the perfect operation. With
saturation to one or all CTs at different levels, the differential current appears in the
differential relay which could cause its mal-operation. The dc component of the primary
side current could produce the worst case of CT saturation. In which case, the secondary
current contains dc offset and extra harmonics [19], [23].
3.6. DIGITAL DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
Many digital algorithms were developed to take advantage of the high speed,
accuracy, and repeatability of calculations, with the introduction of the computer [53].
The acceptable speed of operation, according to IEEE standard.is 100 msec for protection
of transformer. All modern algorithms act faster than this IEEE standard with some
algorithms performing in 10 msec or less. A fast algorithm with a speed in the range of 1
to 15 ms is based on the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm. This algorithm is
improvised with significant changes to make it much faster [55].
The proposed digital relay using a simulation technique in MATLAB/
SIMULINK environment is implemented for transformer protection against faults and
 26

prevents interruption due to inrush currents. This algorithm is framed on the principle of
harmonic-current restraint, as the magnetizing-inrush current has the large presence of
large harmonic components content that is not noticeably present in fault currents. The
saturation of the core of transformer can cause the high distortion in the waveform of the
inrush current. The amplitude of the harmonics, compared with the fundamental, ranges
between 30% to 60% and the third harmonic 10% to 30%. The other harmonics are
progressively less [54], [56]. Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) indicates that any periodic
signal f(t) can be decomposed, in general as sine and cosine components i.e.
a0 
f (t )    CK COS ( kwt )  Sk Sin(kwt )
2 k 1
a0 Ck Sk
Where: is the AC component of the f (t), and , are the cosine and sine
C
coefficients of the frequencies present in f (t ) respectively. The discrete coefficients k ,
Sk
are expressed in the following equations:
N 1
2 2kwt
Ck 
N
 X (n)COS (
n 1 N
)

N 1
2 2kwt
Sk 
N
 X (n)COS (
n 1 N
)

The harmonic Fourier coefficients can be expressed as

Fk  S k2  Ck2

Where: Fk is the K harmonic coefficient for k = 1, 2... N x ( n) and is the discrete form of
th

signal f (t ) . The FFT produces exactly the same results as the DFT; however, the FFT is
much faster than DFT, where the speed of calculation is the main factor in this process
[55].
3.7. THE FLOWCHART OF THE ALGORITHM FOR FFT BASED RELAYING
The flowchart for the FFT based relaying algorithm is shown in Fig.3.4 and is
explained in the following steps.
Step-1: Reading data from CTs
Step-2. Data calculation, which is given as follows,
 27

For the amplitude calculation, if the absolute difference (|Id1- Id2|) between the CTs
output currents is positive then the logic (1) indicates an inrush current or an internal
fault. Otherwise, for logic (0) it indicates a detection of an external fault.
Step -3. Calculation of 2nd Order Harmonics.
Step-4. If the magnitude of the current is in the range of (0.3F1< F2 < 0.7F1) this
condition (YES) Logic “0” indicates Inrush current. Else (NO) Logic “1” Detection of an
internal fault.
Step-5. Input (1) from FFT and Input (2) from Differential protection are given to AND
gate by a logic operation.

Fig.3.4 Flowchart of the algorithm for FFT

 28

3.8. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE FFT FOR DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION

OF POWER TRANSFORMER SIMULATION MODEL
The test system, based on IEEE standard, as used in all the case studies, is
presented in Fig. 3.5, whose specifications are as follows [13]

Fig.3.5 Single-line diagram of the Transformer model

Fig.3.6 Simulink diagram of the power transformer

The FFT technique proposed is applied to the model of a step-down power
transformer, star-delta connected 315-MVA, and 400/220-kV, and 50-Hz, 3-phase core-
type as shown in fig 3.5. The grounding resistance of value is RG = 0.5Ω and leakage
inductance 0.8mH. The neutral of the Secondary windings are grounded through RG. The
experimental setup used for both transformers is as shown in Fig.3.6. Three CTs of
 29

identical ratios on primary and secondary are connected in Y and Δ gave that primary
winding is Y and secondary winding Δ connected. The simulation of different types of
faults is as explained. It is very difficult to discriminate internal faults from magnetization
inrush currents, using a conventional Differential relay [13-15].

Fig.3.7.The differential relay block contents

Fig.3.8.The amplitude comparator block contents

 30

Fig.3.9 The harmonic comparator block contents

Fig.3.10 The ratio block contents

The Truth Table presented for discriminating Inrush and internal Fault currents in
Power Transformer is as shown in table 3.1
 31

Table 3.1. FFT Truth table

S.NO Input-1 Input-2 AND-Operation Out put
1 0 0 0 No Fault
2 0 1 0 Inrush Current
3 1 0 0 Normal
4 1 1 1 Internal Fault

3.9. SIMULATION RESULTS

The results for different cases are
Case 1: inrush current, without load
Case 2: inrush current, with load
Case 3: Single Line fault (L-G)
Case 4: Line - Line fault (LL-G)
Case 5: Line – Line – Line fault (LLL-G)
Case 1: Magnetizing inrush current without load
CB1 is closed at 0.25 sec, the resulting currents are shown in Fig.3.11. The comparator
gives the value of 2nd harmonics between 0.3 to 0.7 times of the fundamental indicated
in Fig. 3.13. For this logic coordination (1, 0) no trip signal is released. Fig.3.12 shows
the amplitude comparator results (Refers Table no 3.2(b) at Sl.no.1).
 32

Fig.3.11 Inrush current waveforms of the three phase power transformer

Fig.3.12 the responses of the FFT-based TRIP signal

 33

Fig.3.13 Harmonic comparator result: the 2nd harmonic and the fundamental component
for the 1stcase
Case 2: Magnetizing inrush Current with load
After the energization of power transformer, by switching ON the CB1 at 0.1sec
and CB2 at 0.25 sec, the simulation effect of load excursion is observed with a 500W
resistive load is added to the system at 0.25 sec. Consequently, the load current flow in
both windings of the transformer according to the transformation ratio of the power
transformer as shown in Fig.3.14. As can be noticed in Fig.3.15, the amplitude of the
output currents of the primary and secondary CTs are equal due to the proper selection of
the transformation ratio of the primary and secondary CTs. Before 0.25 sec the
differential current was equal to the inrush current, but after the switching ON of the load
the differential current went to zero and the primary and secondary currents became
equal.
 34

Fig.3.14 Inrush current waveforms of the three phase power transformer with load.

Fig.3.15 Normal load current starts flowing at 0.25 sec.

As shown in Figures.3.16 and 3.17 after the switching of CB2, the value of the
2nd harmonic become lower than 0.3 of the fundamental component. Accordingly, the
harmonic calculator released logic (1) but the amplitude comparator released logic (0).
Consequently, for this logic coordination (1, 0) no trip signal is released. Fig.3.15 shows
the amplitude comparator results (Refers Table no 3.2(b) at Sl.no.2).
 35

Fig.3.16 2nd harmonic and the fundamental component for the 2nd case

Fig.3.17. Amplitude comparator results for the 2nd case

 36

Case 3: Single phase to ground (L-G) fault

Similar to case 2, where the occurrence of the fault outside the protected zone lead
to the increase in fault currents in both sides of the power transformer, the relay
considered this case as a severs increase in load currents. Fig.3.18 shows the increase in
phase-A current and trip signal is released.

Fig. 3.18 Increase of phase -A current for loaded transformer.

Fig.3.19 Trip signal, trip time is around 0.134 sec.

Practically most of the signals are time-domain signals, which when plotted, time-
amplitude of the signal is obtained. This may not always be the best representation of the
signal for most signal processing applications. In many cases, the most characteristic
information is hidden in the frequency content of the signal. The frequency component of
a signal is basically given by the frequency spectrum showing the breakup of multiple
 37

frequencies which make the composite signal. Fig.3.19 shows the trip signal of the circuit
using FFT method. In this method fault created at 0.5 sec and fault cleared at 0.634 sec
the time taken for fault detection is 0.134sec (Refer Table no.3.2 (c): S.no.1).
Case 4: Two-phase to ground (LL-G) fault
This case is similar to case 3, where the occurrence of the fault current outside the
protected zone led to the increase of fault currents in both sides of the power transformer.
Therefore the relay considered this case as a severe increase in load currents.Fig.3.20
shows the increase in Two-phase currents and a trip signal is released.

Fig. 3.20 Increase of phases (A&B) current for a transformer.

Fig. 3.21 Trip signal, trip time is around 0.080 sec

Practically most of the signals are time-domain signals, which when plotted, time-
amplitude of the signal is obtained. The signal is not represented at its best, in this
manner for most signal processing applications. In many cases, the most characteristic
 38

information is hidden in the frequency content of the signal. The frequency component of
a signal is basically given by the frequency spectrum showing the breakup of multiple
frequencies which make the composite signal. The frequency spectrum of a signal shows
what frequencies exist in the signal. From the fig.3.21 shows the trip signal of the circuit
using FFT method. In this method fault created at 1.2 sec and fault cleared at 1.280sec
the time taken for fault detection is 0.080sec (Refer Table no.3.2 (c) at sl.no.2).
Case 5: Three phase to ground (LLL-G) fault
The security of the system is tested through the algorithm as per the procedure
below. At 0.1 Sec the CB1 is switched on and an L-L-L-G, internal fault created at 2.0
sec and fault cleared at 2.080 Sec, on the secondary of the transformer ref Fig 3.22. The
fault current is increased significantly, thereby detected by the relay, since identified as
an internal fault. This causes the isolation of the transformer from the grid. The operation
as given in table 3.2(c) at sl.no.3 indicates a very fast isolation of the faulted transformer
as shown in Fig 3.23.

Fig.3.22 Increase of phase A, B & C currents due to the occurrence of the fault at 2.0 sec
for loaded transformer.
 39

Fig.3.23 Trip signal, trip time is around 0.080 sec.

Among a number of transformations that can be applied, Fast Fourier Transform
(FFT) is the most popular. FFT will transform the time-domain signal into the frequency-
domain signal. FFT is a reversible transform. The frequency-domain signal can be
transformed back to time domain signal using inverse Fast Fourier transform. The time
domain signal contains no information about frequency and frequency domain signals
contains no information about time. Either time or frequency is only available at any
given time. Signals whose frequency content does not change with time are called
stationary signals. In this case, it is not necessary to know at what time, the frequency
components exist since all frequency components exist at all times. Hence, FFT is
suitable for stationary signals.
Non-stationary signals have their frequency content changes with time. FFT of the
non-stationary signal gives the frequency content of the signal, but it gives no
information regarding the time in which those frequency components appear. When
performed using FFT, it is observed as given in table 3.2(a) and 3.2(b) the fault detecting
time is same approximately, the parameters used are L-G fault resistance of 20Ω at 0.5
Sec., L-L-G fault resistance of 20Ω at 0.5 Sec., L-L-L-G fault resistance of 20Ω at
0.5Sec. Hence it can be surmised that FFT, is not advisable for use with no stationary
signals along with pattern recognition.
 40

Table 3.2(a) Testing results of FFT for various fault conditions

Total Time For
S.No Type Of Fault Faults Created At Fault Detected Relay Operation
(Sec) (Sec)
1 L-G 0.634 0.134
2 LL-G 20 ohms and 0.06H 0.596 0.096
3 LLL-G 0.5Sec 0.595 0.095
4 L-G 20 ohms and 0.06H 1.281 0.081
5 LL-G 1.2 Sec 1.280 0.080
6 LLL-G 1.280 0.080
7 L-G 20 ohms and 0.06H 2.081 0.081
8 LL-G 2 Sec 2.080 0.080
9 LLL-G 2.080 0.080

Table 3.2(b) Testing results of FFT for various no fault conditions

Type of FFT Actual FFT Fault Detected
S.NO Fault FFT Target Output Output At (Sec)
1 Normal
Condition 0 0.00004 NO FAULT
2 Inrush Current 1 0.995 NO FAULT

Table 3.2(c) Relay performance with FFT Methodology for operating Relay
Fault Fault Total Time Of
S. No Methodology Type Of Fault Created Detected In Relay
In Sec. Sec. Operation In
msec.
1 FFT L-G 0.5 0.634 134
2 FFT LL-G 1.2 1.280 80
3 FFT LLL-G 2 2.080 80

FFT can be used while considering the relay performance in the protective circuit.
The time of relay operation is well established using plug setting and the results as in
table 3.2(c) follows FFT.
 41

3.10. WAVELET TRANSFORM

Simultaneous information about the time and frequency of a signal is provided by
wavelet transform. WT provides information regarding the availability of various
frequency bands which exist at different time intervals. The wavelet analysis is a compact
and easier to implement the technique. Using the powerful multiresolution analysis, the
signals can be represented compactly and in several levels of resolution which is the
major strength of wavelet analysis. Continuous wavelet transform can be computed in
three ways, by changing the scale of the analysis window, shifting the time window, and
integrating over all times [57].
In Discrete Wavelet Transformation (DWT), filters with different cut off
frequencies are used to analyze the signal on different scales. The signal passes through a
series of high pass and low pass filters for the analysis of its range of frequencies [80].
The resolution of the signal indicates the amount of detail information in the signal is
altered by filters and the change of scale is done by upsampling and downsampling
operations. Downsampling reduces the sampling rate. Upsampling increases the sampling
rate. The signal is a discrete time function, denoted by x[n], where n is an integer [58-61].
The procedure initiates with passing this signal through a half band digital low pass filter
with impulse response h[n], which removes all frequencies that are greater than half of
the highest frequency in the signal. For example, if a signal has a maximum of a 1000Hz
component, then half band low pass filtering removes all the frequencies above 500Hz
[65].
3.10.1. WAVELET FILTER BANKS
Wavelet analysis is a recent innovation to the signal processing tool and is applied
of late by many researchers in power systems due to its strong capability of time and
frequency domain analysis [70-75]. The two areas with most applications are power
quality analysis and power system protection. The definition of continuous wavelet
transform (CWT) for a given signal x(t) with respect to a mother wavelet (t) is:
1  tb
C W T (a,b)   x ( t ) ( )dt ( 3 .2 1)
a  a
Where a is the scale factor and b is the translation factor. For CWT, t, a, b are all
continuous. Unlike Fourier transform, the wavelet transform requires selection of a
 42

mother wavelet for different applications. The most popular mother wavelet for power
system transient analysis is the Daubechies’s wavelet family. In the new scheme, the db2
wavelet is selected as the mother wavelet for detecting the short duration, fast decaying
fault generated transient signals [74].
The wavelet transforms in engineering applications requires discrete wavelet
transform (DWT), which implies the discrete form of t, a, b in (3.21). The representation
of DWT can be written as:
1 k  n b o a om
D W T (m , n ) 
a 0m

k
x ( k ) (
a om
)dt (3 .2 2 )

Where original a and b parameters in (3.22) are changed to be the functions of integers m,
n. k is an integer variable and it refers to a sample number in an input signal. A multi-
resolution analysis, which is a very useful implementation of DWT, is demonstrated in
Fig.3.24. The originally sampled signal x(n) is passed through a high pass filter h(n) and
a low pass filter l(n). The resulting outputs from both filters are decimated by 2 to obtain
the detail coefficients and the approximation coefficients at level 1 (D1 and A1). The
approximation coefficients are then sent to the second stage to repeat the procedure [59].
Finally, the signal is decomposed at the expected level. In the case shown

Fig.3.24.The idea of wavelet multi-resolution analysis

In Fig. 3.24, if the original sampling frequency is F, the signal information
captured by D1 is between F/4 and F/2 of the frequency band. D2 captures the
 43

information between F/8 and F/4. D3 captures the information between F/16 and F/8, and
A3 retains the rest of the information of original signal between 0 and F/16. Hence we
can easily extract useful information from the original signal into different frequency
bands and at the same time the information is matched to the related time period [78].
3.10.2. SELECTION OF MOTHER WAVELET
Selecting an appropriate wavelet function is important. Choosing an improper
wavelet function will make the wavelet transform complex and difficult. Many types of
mother wavelets are available such as Harr, Daubechies, Coiflet, and Symmlet wavelets
[76]. One of the most popular and widely known orthonormal wavelets is Daubechies
wavelet. In this research, Daubechies family wavelet is selected as mother wavelet. This
is because the decomposition solution using Daubechies wavelet is orthogonal,
compactly supported and no marginal overlaps during the signal reconstruction. The
Daubechies wavelet is further categorized into Db1, Db2 etc. for the purpose of
frequency range discretion [77]. Different kinds of Daubechies wavelets are derived. Db4
is chosen since it gives a more accurate solution, minimum reconstruction error and is
widely used. Daubechies wavelet transform is fundamentally same as Haar wavelet
transform; the only difference is in the contents of wavelet and scale function. The Db2
transform will often produce smaller size fluctuation values than those produced by the
other Daubechies transforms [82].
3.10.3. ANALYSIS OF SIGNALS USING WAVELET TRANSFORMS
For transformer faults detection, the information of the signal data is to be
analyzed to obtain adequate pointers that can be useful for the fault detection, as it may
not be clear in the original time signal. The application of WT can be segregated as:
(1) The de-noising process of the current signals.
(2) Signal decomposition and
(3) Feature extraction
MATLAB which provides various tools for computation has the wavelet toolbox,
for the efficient implementation of the WT, through facilities of command line functions
or by graphical tools. In view of reduced memory stage space, the DWT is considered
[82-86].
 44

3.10.3.1. DE-NOISING PROCESS

The de-noising process is applied to eliminate the existing distortion in the
current signals, which may have been produced by several events: switching operations
and internal faults. The idea of DWT pre-processing is to convert the three-phase current
signals into one dimension hard threshold de-noising stage [40]. Hence, for the threshold,
a wavelet decomposition order 4(db2) and level 4 is applied to the recognized currents,
based on the heuristic Steins unbiased estimate principle. The decomposition level and
basis function have been selected after a thorough analysis. The optimum de-noising for
the signals in every simulated case of the power transformer is to be obtained [31-35].
3.10.3.2. SIGNAL DECOMPOSITION
The information from the time-domain signals registered under normal or inrush
current situations is usually not enough to detect the internal faults. Therefore, the DWT
is applied to transform the de-noised time signals to time-frequency domain signals,
where the different characteristic of each current signal appears more clearly, with large
coefficients in different frequencies [22-26].
This is the Decomposition process, in which the Daubechies basis of order four (db2), in
four decomposition levels, has been applied. The features from all these frequencies are
used to give discrimination [33]. The following parameters must be specified, when
DWT is applied for the analysis of current signals.
(i) Sampling frequency
(ii) Window length
(iii) Levels of decomposition
(iv)Wavelet basis type
Usually, a low sampling rate leads to the reduction of the computation
process. However, in some cases, such as in fault situation and switching operations, the
sampling rate needs to be high so as to capture the characteristic information of the signal
[41]. After testing many possibilities, the sampling frequency of 512 samples per cycle at
a sampling rate of 2.56 kHz is adopted in the analysis. The sampling frequency and
selected Wavelet basis function influences the window length the decomposition level
number. In this method, DWT implemented based on the Multi-Resolution Analysis
 45

(MRA) theory, by filtering and downsampling. The number of stages of decomposition

level is inversely related to the components of frequency at any level [44-48].
With a greater level of decompositions and the components of lower frequency,
the approximate mother wavelet is selected to enable extracting of useful information for
an efficient enhancement in the performance [34]. The nature and type of applications,
the basis of similarity and the signal to be analyzed, and some of the bases for wavelet
selection. In situations, where the information gathering is time specific, i.e up to a
pinpoint in time, then wavelets with smaller and less number of coefficients are used
[41]. This work uses Daubechies wavelet functions such as db4, db6, db8 etc. The
orthogonal functions as expressed by the mother functions are selected for speed. These
wavelet functions can also be moved for an accurate detection of low amplitude, short
duration, and fast decay signals [49].
3.10.3.3. FEATURE EXTRACTION
Feature extraction is to minimize the amount of information, either from
original waveform or from its transformation format in the distinct waveform parameter,
having the significant information which represents the fundamental characteristics of the
problem. The multilayer FL has the input data vector, for each frequency band extracted
using the coefficients standard deviation. The comparison between generalizations,
efficiency, convergence speed and simplicity of NN along with the STD (standard
deviation) of the output signal, enabled to select the feature as in Eqn.(3.23). This feature
provides information about the level of variation of the signal frequency distribution
[102].

1 n 1 n 2
STD  ( (xi  n 
n 1 i1 i 1
xi ) ) (3.23)

Where “x” is the data vector and “n” the number of elements in that data vector.
3.10.4. ALGORITHM FOR WAVELET BASED RELAYING
The flowchart of the algorithm for wavelet- based relaying is as shown in Fig.3.25
which follows the following steps.
 46

Step1.Signals of voltage and current obtained from the transformer through

MATLAB/SIMULINK for pre and post faults are used to calculate the differential
currents.
Step 2. The d1 coefficients are obtained.
Step 3. Standard deviation is calculated from DWT analysis of differential currents.
Step 4. The faults obtained through different methods are classified.
Step 5. Determination of inrush current and internal fault cases based on DWT.
Step 6.Trip signal to CB, after the operation of the relay.
 47

Fig 3.25 Flowchart of the algorithm for wavelet based relaying

 48

3.10.5. SIMULATION RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS OF WAVELET

TRANSFORM
This simulation model is developed using IEEE test System refer Fig.3.5. The
specifications are as follows [13]

Fig. 3.26 Configuration of Power Transformer

The Wavelet transform used to analyze the transients in the power transformers. The
data obtained from the PSCAD/EMTDC simulations are given to the MATLAB software
to calculate the DWT coefficients of the signals. There are many types of wavelets such
as Haar, Daubechies, Coiflet and symlet wavelets. In this research, the area of interest is
in detecting and analyzing low amplitude, short duration, fast decaying and oscillating
type of high-frequency current signals. Daubechies wavelet of type 4 (Db2) will suit well
to this type of high-frequency current. Therefore, Db2 is used as the mother wavelet.
 49

DWT analysis is done on the signal of 400 samples. After the first level wavelet
decomposition, 200 d1 coefficients are obtained and plotted. The x-axis represents the
number of samples and the y-axis represents the normalized amplitude of the original
signal and the d1 coefficients. The technique proposed is applied to the model of a
400/220-kV, 3-Phase, star-delta connected, 315-MVA transformer, with an operating
frequency of 50-Hz, core-type step-down power transformer as shown in fig 3.5. The
grounding resistance of value is RG = 0.5Ω and leakage inductance 0.8mH. The neutral
of the Secondary windings are grounded through RG. The experimental setup used is as
shown for both transformers and is as shown in Fig.3.26. Set of Three identical CTs each
are connected in Y, and in Δ on the primary side and secondary side respectively. Various
simulation cases for different types of internal faults and other disturbances is explained
and the method used, in the subsequent sections.
Case 1: Magnetizing Inrush Current:
For tested power transformer, in most cases, the magnetizing inrush current had
a high magnitude with longer time to decay. The WT based trip signal remained low,
indicating that the detected magnetizing inrush current was classified as a healthy
condition. As a result, there was no change in the status of the trip signal. The simulation
results for the case of magnetizing inrush current without a load are shown in
Fig.3.27.The status of the trip signal (remaining low) provided an indication that the
unloaded magnetizing inrush current was detected and distinguished as a non-fault
current.
 50

Fig.3.27. Original Inrush Current signal

On WT, there are a number of sharp spikes during the period of inrush current
transient. Several sharp spikes occur immediately following the fault inception time,
these sharp spikes rapidly decay near zero within ten cycles, whereas those spikes
associated with inrush current, are attenuated at the most during a 10 cycle period for
small transformers, lasting for 1 min for large units. This difference can be effectively
used as a key feature to discriminate an internal fault current from magnetizing inrush
current.
8
6
4
1
d

2
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

0.2
2

0
d

-0.2
-0.4
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
0.2
3

0
d

-0.2
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
0.1
4

0
d

-0.1
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Time (s)

Fig.3.28 WT analysis of inrush current for phase-A

 51

0
1
d

-2

-4
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

0.2
2

0
d

-0.2
-0.4
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
0.2
3

0
d

-0.2
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
0.1
4

0
d

-0.1
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Time (s)

Fig.3.29 WT analysis of inrush current for phase-B

0
-2
d1

-4
-6
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

0.2
d2

0
-0.2
-0.4
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
0.2
d3

-0.2
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
0.1
d4

-0.1
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Time (s)

Fig.3.30 WT analysis of inrush current for phase-C

Figures.3.28, 3.29 and 3.30 shows the WT Analysis of the three phases of the inrush
current when an unloaded transformer is energized at 0.0025Sec with a voltage closing
angle of 45 degrees. The normalized amplitudes with d2 coefficients are plotted on X
 52

axis and Y axis respectively.d2 transient spikes occur at the start of inrush current with a
slow decay in a time interval of 10 cycles.
Case 2: Single Phase-to-Ground (L-G) Fault Current
The fault was created by connecting phase A to ground. For this condition, Fig.3.31
and Fig.3.32 depict the three-phase differential current, based on WT response. The result
shows that WT Trip signal’s status is changed from low to high, an indication of the
detection of an internal fault in a time of less than 5cycles.
10
I a (A)

-10
0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7
10
I b (A)

-10
0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7
10
I c (A)

-10
0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7
Time (s)

Fig.3.31 Line to ground Internal Fault current original signal

With a fault resistance of 20Ω, a fault of single phase A to the ground was simulated
at 0.5 Sec and the differential current for all the three phases indicated in Fig.3.32.The
high-frequency transients generated due to internal fault decay within three cycles.
 53

20
d1

-20
0.49 0.5 0.51 0.52 0.53 0.54 0.55 0.56 0.57 0.58 0.59
0.2
d2

-0.2
0.49 0.5 0.51 0.52 0.53 0.54 0.55 0.56 0.57 0.58 0.59
0.05
d3

-0.05
0.49 0.5 0.51 0.52 0.53 0.54 0.55 0.56 0.57 0.58 0.59
0.05
d4

-0.05
0.49 0.5 0.51 0.52 0.53 0.54 0.55 0.56 0.57 0.58 0.59
Time (s)

Fig.3.32 WT analysis applied to Phase A Ground to internal Fault Current

It can be seen that the d1 coefficients of Phase A, i.e. the faulty phase, is greater
than the corresponding values of the healthy phase. From the results that WT based FFT
identifies an A-G internal fault immediately after the fault has occurred. Hence, the
wavelet-based FFT relay can easily identify an A-G internal fault based on the value of
the d1, d2, d3 and d4 coefficients and the nature of spikes and send a trip signal.
Case 3: Line-to-Line Fault (LL-G) Current
The test for this fault was carried out through connecting phase A and phase B.
Fig.3.34 and Fig. 3.35. Represents the three phase currents and including WT response of
the trip signal. It clearly shows that based WT trip signal changed its status from low to
high indicating that an internal fault has been detected in less than five cycles.
 54

10
I (A)

0
a

-10
1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4
10
I (A)

0
b

-10
1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4
10
I (A)

0
c

-10
1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4
Time (s)

Fig.3.33 Double Line to ground Internal Fault current original signal

Double Line to ground (AB-G) internal fault with fault resistance of 20 ohms at 0.5
sec is simulated and the WT analysis of differential current for all the three phases are
shown in the Fig.3.33. During an internal fault, transients of high frequency are generated
in the current. It is observed that the occurrence of transient spike and subsequent decay
occur within three cycle.
20
d1

-20
1.18 1.2 1.22 1.24 1.26 1.28 1.3
0.2
d2

-0.2
1.18 1.2 1.22 1.24 1.26 1.28 1.3
0.05
d3

-0.05
1.18 1.2 1.22 1.24 1.26 1.28 1.3
0.05
d4

-0.05
1.18 1.2 1.22 1.24 1.26 1.28 1.3
Time (s)

Fig.3.34 WT analysis of Double line to- Ground internal fault current for Phase- A
 55

20
d1

0
-20
1.18 1.2 1.22 1.24 1.26 1.28 1.3
0.2
d2

0
-0.2
1.18 1.2 1.22 1.24 1.26 1.28 1.3
0.1
d3

-0.1
1.18 1.2 1.22 1.24 1.26 1.28 1.3
0.1
d4

-0.1
1.18 1.2 1.22 1.24 1.26 1.28 1.3
Time (s)

Fig.3.35 WT analysis of Double line to - Ground internal fault current for Phase- B
It can be seen that the d1 coefficients of Phase A, i.e. the faulty phase, is greater than
the corresponding values of the healthy phase. From the results that WT based identifies
an AB-G internal fault immediately after the fault has occurred. Hence, the wavelet-based
relay can easily identify an AB-G internal fault based on the value of the d1, d2, d3 and
d4 coefficients and the nature of spikes and send a trip signal.
Case 4: three phase to ground (LLL-G) Fault Current
Three Phase Fault Current of the test for this fault was carried out through
connecting phase A, B and phase C. The trip signals of WT response and the three-phase
differential currents are represented in Fig.3.37, Fig.3.38 and Fig.3.39. It clearly shows
that the WT trip signal changed its status from low to high indicating that an internal fault
has been detected in less than five cycles.
 56

10
I (A)

0
a

-10
1.95 2 2.05 2.1 2.15 2.2
10
I (A)

0
b

-10
1.95 2 2.05 2.1 2.15 2.2
10
I (A)

0
c

-10
1.95 2 2.05 2.1 2.15 2.2
Time (s)

Fig.3.36. 3-phase Internal Fault current original signal

For a fault resistance of 20Ω, a three-phase to ground internal fault was created
at 20Sec, with the simulation as in Fig.3.36. The spikes occur immediately in all the
phases and decay within 1cycle. The d1 values register greater than the threshold.

20
d1

0
-20
1.98 2 2.02 2.04 2.06 2.08 2.1
0.2
d2

0
-0.2
1.98 2 2.02 2.04 2.06 2.08 2.1
0.1
d3

-0.1
1.98 2 2.02 2.04 2.06 2.08 2.1
0.1
d4

-0.1
1.98 2 2.02 2.04 2.06 2.08 2.1
Time (s)

Fig.3.37 WT analysis of 3-phase internal fault current for Phase- A

 57

20

0
d1

-20
1.98 2 2.02 2.04 2.06 2.08 2.1
0.2
d2

-0.2
1.98 2 2.02 2.04 2.06 2.08 2.1
0.05
d3

-0.05
1.98 2 2.02 2.04 2.06 2.08 2.1
0.05
d4

-0.05
1.98 2 2.02 2.04 2.06 2.08 2.1
Time (s)

Fig.3.38 WT analysis of 3-phase internal fault current for Phase- B

20
1

0
d

-20
1.98 2 2.02 2.04 2.06 2.08 2.1
0.2
2

0
d

-0.2
1.98 2 2.02 2.04 2.06 2.08 2.1
0.1
3

0
d

-0.1
1.98 2 2.02 2.04 2.06 2.08 2.1
0.1
4

0
d

-0.1
1.98 2 2.02 2.04 2.06 2.08 2.1
Time (s)

Fig.3.39. WT analysis of 3-phase internal fault current on Phase C

It can be seen that the d1 coefficients of Phase A, i.e. the faulty phase, is greater
than the corresponding values of the healthy phase. From the results that WT based
identifies an ABC-G internal fault immediately after the fault has occurred. Hence, the
 58

wavelet-based relay can easily identify an ABC-G internal fault based on the value of the
d1, d2, d3 and d4 coefficients and the nature of spikes and send a trip signal.
3.10.6. INRUSH CURRENT ANALYSIS
Table 3.3: Max value of DWT decomposition analysis of Inrush current.
Switching Angle Maximum Value
Degree d1 d2 d3 d4
300 6.736 0.336 0.176 0.077
450 6.416 0.439 0.205 0.098
600 4.767 0.683 0.214 0.0925
900 4.622 0.355 0.144 0.0618
1200 4.722 0.314 0.171 0.068
Table 3.3(a): wavelet levels of Inrush current Maximum Values for Phase-A
Switching Angle Maximum Value
Degree Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
300 0.5 0.59 0.32
450 0.42 0.43 0.28
600 0.31 0.38 0.2
900 0.5 0.522 0.27
1200 0.44 0.45 0.22

3.3(b): wavelet levels of Inrush current Maximum Values for Phase-B

Switching Angle Maximum Value
Degree Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
300 0.51 0.57 0.27
450 0.55 0.58 0.28
600 0.42 0.45 0.25
900 0.51 0.52 0.27
1200 0.599 0.61 0.29
 59

3.3(c): wavelet levels of Inrush current Maximum Values for Phase-C

Switching Angle Maximum Value
Degree Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
300 0.5 0.52 0.25
450 0.62 0.63 0.28
600 0.63 0.64 0.32
900 0.59 0.6 0.31
1200 0.44 0.53 0.3

After wavelet decomposition (detailed coefficients Levels of d1, d2, d3 and d4)
analysis for Level 1, Level 2 and Level 3 the minimum and maximum values are
obtained. From here we have made a range for the inrush current. We have used the
values in all techniques except FFT. It is done for ease of computation.
3.10.7. INTERNAL FAULT CURRENT ANALYSIS
For LLL-G fault
Table 3.4: Max value of DWT decomposition analysis in LLL-G fault.
Switching Angle Maximum Value
Degree d1 d2 d3 d4
300 6.312 0.365 0.184 0.078
450 6.872 0.428 0.133 0.068
600 5.821 0.412 0.178 0.0838
900 7.05 0.362 0.185 0.067
1200 6.051 0.451 0.159 0.068
Table 3.4(a): Wavelet level analysis of LLL-G fault Phase-A
Switching Angle Maximum Value
Degree Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
300 0.58 0.59 0.3
450 0.57 0.58 0.3
600 0.56 0.59 0.29
900 0.6 0.61 0.3
1200 0.57 0.58 0.3
 60

Table 3.4(b): Wavelet level analysis of LLL-G fault Phase-B

Switching Angle Maximum Value
Degree Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
300 0.58 0.59 0.29
450 0.6 0.61 0.3
600 0.58 0.58 0.3
900 0.59 0.6 0.3
1200 0.6 0.61 0.3
Table 3.4(c): Wavelet level analysis of LLL-G fault Phase-C
Switching Angle Maximum Value
Degree Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
300 0.42 0.43 0.25
450 0.41 0.42 0.22
600 0.41 0.5 0.22
900 0.41 0.42 0.21
1200 0.41 0.42 0.22

For LL-G fault

Table 3.5: Max value of DWT decomposition analysis in LL-G fault.

Switching Angle Maximum Value

Degree
d1 d2 d3 d4
300 5.335 0.397 0.169 0.081
450 6.412 0.366 0.117 0.058
600 4.665 0.372 0.183 0.082
900 5.051 0.322 0.144 0.052
1200 5.83 0.451 0.182 0.068
 61

Table 3.5(a): Wavelet level analysis of LL-G fault Phase-A

Switching Angle Maximum Value
Degree Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
300 0.57 0.58 0.3
450 0.57 0.58 0.3
600 0.57 0.57 0.29
900 0.6 0.61 0.3
1200 0.57 0.58 0.3

Table 3.5(b): Wavelet level analysis of LL-G fault Phase-B

Switching Angle Maximum Value
Degree Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
300 0.55 0.59 0.29
450 0.6 0.62 0.3
600 0.55 0.59 0.28
900 0.57 0.59 0.3
1200 0.6 0.62 0.3

Table 3.5(c): Wavelet level analysis of LL-G fault Phase-C

Switching Angle Maximum Value
Degree Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
300 0.49 0.5 0.25
450 0.42 0.49 0.25
600 0.58 0.6 0.3
900 0.43 0.41 0.22
1200 0.42 0.49 0.25
 62

For L-G fault

Table 3.6: Max value of DWT decomposition analysis in L-G fault.

Switching Angle Maximum Value

Degree
d1 d2 d3 d4
300 6.122 0.359 0.165 0.059
450 4.153 0.425 0.101 0.061
600 5.991 0.454 0.166 0.082
900 7.322 0.495 0.167 0.061
1200 6.322 0.391 0.181 0.071

Table 3.6(a): Wavelet level analysis of L-G fault Phase-A

Switching Angle Maximum Value
Degree Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
300 0.59 0.6 0.31
450 0.57 0.59 0.31
600 0.57 0.58 0.29
900 0.6 0.6 0.3
1200 0.57 0.59 0.31

Table 3.6(b): Wavelet level analysis of L-G fault Phase-B

Switching Angle Maximum Value
Degree Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
300 0.55 0.58 0.29
450 0.42 0.44 0.29
600 0.5 0.5 0.28
900 0.55 0.58 0.29
1200 0.42 0.44 0.29
 63

Table 3.6(c): Wavelet level analysis of L-G fault Phase-C

Switching Angle Maximum Value
Degree Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
300 0.5 0.5 0.2
450 0.6 0.62 0.3
600 0.59 0.61 0.31
900 0.44 0.45 0.2
1200 0.6 0.62 0.3

After wavelet decomposition (detailed coefficients Levels of d1, d2, d3 and d4)
analysis, the comparison between inrush and internal fault yields, a value which is
increasing, but remains Constant for various angles of switching.

3.11. CONCLUSION
The transient of the signal during internal fault, inrush and normal are clearly
distinguished using the DWT Analysis, leading to the following conclusions:
• On internal fault, the transient spikes occur at the beginning of the fault and decay
quickly within a cycle. The value of d1 coefficients is high in the faulty phases.
• During inrush, the transient spikes in d1 appear at the start of the inrush current, the
spikes decay slowly and continue for more than ten cycles. And more the value of d1
coefficients is low during inrush.
• On external fault current, no transient spikes appear in detail. But during external
fault current with CT saturation, the spikes continue for more than ten cycles but
unlike inrush current, these bursts consist of a number of spikes clustered very close
to each other. The value of d1 coefficients is low during an external fault.
• During normal operating condition, the value of d1 coefficients is almost negligible.
During overexcitation, transient spikes appear which are of very low value when
compared to internal fault or inrush or external fault
Harmonic restraint differential relay takes at least one cycle to operate for internal faults
but WT identifies an internal fault immediately after the fault inception. As the d1
 64

coefficients have valuable information about the transient nature of the signal, it can be
used more effectively by giving the d1 coefficients as input for training. Therefore in the
next chapter, wavelet transformation is combined with Fuzzy Logic (FL) by giving the d1
coefficients obtained from the wavelet transformation as an input to FL.