CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, literature review of transmission and types of transmission

system used for automobile are expressed.

2.1. Literature Review of Transmission System

The authors have analyzed the stress of gears to reduce the bending stress and
contact stress by changing different parameters. Literature review on gears in the gear
box is presented in the following:
Kolmabe, C. E. et al studied the analysis of helical gear using FEA software.
The bending and surface strength of the gear tooth are considered to be one of the
main contributors for the failure of the gear in a gear set. There are two kinds of
stresses in gear teeth, root bending stresses and tooth contact stresses. These two
stresses results in the failure of gear teeth, root bending stress results in fatigue
fracture and contact surface. In this paper, the author calculated bending stress by
using both Lewis equation and AGMA equation. Their results are nearly the same. In
helical pinion and gear, he concluded that no of nodes go on increasing von-Mises
equivalent stresses initially decrease and then gradually equivalent stress gradually
increased. It approaches towards more approximate value [16Kol].
Jitendrahai, B. P. et al discussed a review on design, analysis and material
optimization of high speed helical gear by changing different design parameters using
FEA approach. The bending and surface strength of gear tooth are consider to be one
of the main contributors for the failure of the gear in gear set. The author said that
contact stress and bending stress can be calculated in ANSYS for different face width
and helix angle. And then, contact stress and bending stress can also be calculated by
Hertz, Lewis and AGMA equation. Bending stress can be occurred in the root of gear
and contact stress can be occurred between meshing of two gear. Finally, the author
compared two methods bending and contact stress results with different face width
and helix angle in many papers. After reviewing the papers of high speed helical gear,
the author concluded that different material can also be tried for weight and cost
optimization [15Jit].
 5

Khan, M. J., Mangla, A. and Din, S. H. have done his work on contact stress
analysis of stainless steel spur gears using finite element analysis and comparison
with theoretical results using Hertz theory. The spur gears are subjected to several
stress but out of all, two types of stresses viz.., bending stress and contact stress are
important from the design point of view. In this paper, the bending stresses were
theoretically analyzed by Lewis equation and contact stresses by Hertz equation. The
spur gear was sketched and modelled in ANSYS Mutiphysics. According to the
results, the maximum allowable contact stress for stainless spur gears of dimensions is
75.669 MPa, as determined by FEA using ANSYS Workbench 14.0 and as obtained
from Hertz equations for the same specifications is 75.171MPa. They observed that
the FEA and theoretical results are in good degree of agreement with each other with
a percentage difference of just 0.66%. Therefore, FEA can proved very helpful in the
product development process by forecasting its behavior in operation [15Kha].
Quadri, S. A. N. et al have done his research work on “Contact Stress Analysis
of Involute Spur Gear under Static Loading”. In this paper, they have analyzed a spur
gear pair from lathe machine for contact stresses under static loading conditions using
Hertz theory with the effect of various modules. The analytical method of calculating
gear contact stresses are compared with calculated contact stresses using ANSYS.
Finally, the higher the module, the lower the contact stress [15Qua].
Sureshkumar, S.K. et al have investigated a research in which analysis of
helical gear pairs. The author carried out an attempt to study the contact stresses
among the helical gear pairs of different materials such as Steel, Cast Iron, and
Aluminum under static conditions by using a 3D finite element method. In this paper,
helical gear contact stress is evaluated using the FEA of which results have been
further compared with the analytical calculations which are based upon AGMA
equation [15Sur].
Achari, A. S. et al explained a comparison of bending stress and contact stress
of helical gear as calculated by AGMA standards and FEA. In the gear design, the
surface strength and tooth root strength of the gears are assumed to be one of the
major contributors for the gear failures in a gear pair. In this paper, bending stress at
the root of the helical gear tooth and surface contact stresses are by using theoretical
method as well as FEA. The author estimated the bending stress at the tooth root
Lewis beam strength method. And then, contact stresses are calculated by AGMA
standards. Moreover, the author used NXCAD 8.5 modeling software package to
 6

create the 3D solid model of helical gear pairs and to analyze the surface contact
stress. Ultimately, the author compared theoretical and FEA both tooth root bending
stress and contact stress results. It was observed that the theoretical and FEA results,
error percentage was very less i.e from 0.4 to 2.1% in bending stress and about 3%
error in surface contact stress [14Ach].
Anusha, S. S., Reddy, P. S. and Manoj, M. have presented contact stress
analysis of helical gear by using AGMA and ANSYS. The analysis of stresses has
become popular as an area of research on gears to minimize and reduce the failures. In
this paper, investigation is carried out to make use of helical gear, by analyzing the
contact stresses for different pressure angles (14.5◦, 16◦, 18◦, 20◦), helix angles (15◦,
20◦, 25◦, 30◦ ) and (80mm, 90mm, 100mm, 110mm, 120mm) face width. A three-
dimensional solid model is generated by Pro-E and the numerical solution is done by
ANSYS. The contact stresses between two mating gears are calculated by using
AGMA equation. The results obtained from ANSYS values are compared with
theoretical values are compared. This analysis is useful in quantifying the above said
parameters that helps in safe and efficient design of the helical gear. In this paper
found that the helix angle, pressure angle and face width values of helical gear
obtained using AGMA equation is little higher than ANSYS values. During the
contact of gear and pinion, the contact stress is decreased with the increase of face
width [14Anu].
Gidado, A. Y. et al have investigated design, modeling and analysis of helical
gear according strength using AGMA and ANSYS. There are two kinds of stresses in
gear teeth, root bending stresses and tooth contact stresses. The objective of this work
is to conduct a parametric study by varying the face width to study their effect on the
bending stress of helical gear. To estimate the bending stress, three dimensional solid
models for different face width are generated by Pro/Engineer and modern solid
modeling software and numerical solution is done by ANSYS. The author used Lewis
stress formula to calculate the bending stress. The results are then compared with both
AGMA and FEM Procedures. The author said that face width and helix angle are
important geometrical parameters in determining the state of stresses during the
design of gears. From the results obtained the author discussed that for any constant
load and speed, the gear with higher face width is suitable. And then, the author
concluded that ANSYS can also be used for predicting the values of bending stress at
any required face width which is much easier to use to solve complex design
problems like gears [14Gid].
 7

Makwana, R. et al have studied analysis of Auto-Gear shifting mechanism on

different load conditions. In automatic gear transmission system, decision of gear
shifting is made by the car’s on computer board, without direct interference of driver.
This system shifts gears based on speed of vehicle according to accelerator, brake or
other vehicle running or load conditions. In this paper, they fabricated a proto-type
model of gearbox. Firstly, they calculated the torque and rpm on different load
condition and checked the performance of gearbox model for gear shifting according
to load and ratio of power transmission to the rear drive which is given by an electric
motor to the gearbox. Finally, the result obtained that gears are shifting automatically
same as that theoretically calculated. According to gear design factors gear box ratio
achieved and compared with the practical setup and also calculated the efficiency on
particular gear to find out the performance on various load condition. On comparing
the transmission ratio on different gears which give results that top and first gears
are in approximately good condition, but on second and third gears there is more
difference. According to the engine load and wheel rpm we find out overall efficiency
of power transmission that is 84.25%. The author concluded that this gearbox can
make more efficient by increasing the transmission ratio. Moreover, the author
recommended that proper material selection and reducing weight of the vehicle can
also be helpful to perform the setup in better condition and can improve the load
bearing capacity on higher gears [14Mak].
Malviya. D et al studied transmission error in gear in a gear box. Transmission
error is to be one of the main contributors to noise and vibration in gear set. This
paper aim was to known about the gear “Transmission error”. The author said that the
definition of transmission error is the difference between the actual position of the
output gear and the position it would occupy if the gear drive were perfectly
conjugate. The author explained the static transmission error and dynamic
transmission error. The contribution of this paper work presented that the aim of the
work is highlight factors to generate the transmission errors in gears and its adverse
effect on the gearing. There are various points consider to cause of transmission error
in gearing. The author also expressed that first problem is very common do not
proper mountings of gears for conjugate action, manufacturing error during
operation such as milling of gears, hobbing of gears etc., tooth mesh stiffness
and load variation on the gears. These problems to radiate noise and vibrations
during operating condition of gears. In this paper to review literary, various
 8

papers to overcome the transmission error and its effect. Thus the static
transmission error overcome by the proper mountings of gears for proper meshing and
the dynamic transmission error overcome by the modelling of the gears on FEM
[14Mal].
Mulla, N. A. et al have investigated design, modeling and structural analysis
of helical gear for ceramic and steel material by using ANSYS. The author calculated
the design of helical gear by using Lewis equation. In this paper, helical gear model
was generated by using CATIA and then analysis was done with ANSYS Workbench
13. The author investigated the structural analysis of helical gear for aluminum and
steel at load 100MPa, 200MPa, 300MPa, 400MPa and 500MPa. Moreover, he did
model analysis of helical gear. From the obtained results, the author concluded that
the bending and compressive stress of ceramic was less than that of the steel.
According to the weight reduction, aluminum material was preferred [14Mul].
Nagaraju, P. this paper presented analysis of bending stress of helical gear.
Bending stress were calculated with different face width by using Lewis equation and
these results are compared with the results obtained in static analysis in ANSYS. It is
observed that the maximum bending stress decreases with increasing the face width of
the gear [14Nag].
Raghava Krishna Saneer.B et al presented contact stress analysis of modified
helical gear. The model is generated by using CATIAV5 and ANSYS is used for
numerical analysis. The analytical study is based on Hertz’s equation. This paper have
analyzed by varying the geometrical profile of the teeth and to find the change in
contact stresses between gears. Both the results calculated using ANSYS and
compared according to the given moment of inertia [14Rag].
Singh, P. K. et al carried out stress analysis spur gear design by using ANSYS
Workbench. Spur gear have straight tooth and are parallel to the axis of the wheel. A
pair of spur gears tooth in action is generally subjected to two types of cyclic stress:
contact stress and bending stress including bending fatigue. Both stress may not attain
their maximum values at the same point of contact fatigue. These types of failure can
be minimized by analysis of the problem during the design stage and creating proper
tooth surface profile with proper manufacturing methods. In this paper, the author
used ANSYS Workbench software to find the bending stress, contact stress and static
load on the tooth of spur gear drive. In this study, Hertz theory is used for calculating
contact stress and Lewis formula is also used for calculating bending stress of a pair
 9

of gear. And then, theoretically result obtained by Lewis formula and Hertz equation
are compared with finite element analysis of spur gear. The author concluded that
based on this finding if the contact stress minimization in the primary concern and if
the large power is to be transmitted then spur gears with higher model was preferred
[14Sin].
Sridha Goud. B et al explained about the geometry of helical gears by simple
mathematical equations. One of the main reason of the failure in the gear is bending
stresses and vibrations also to be taken into account. But the stresses are occurred due
to the contact between two gears while power transmission process is started. Due to
meshing between two gears contact stresses are evolved. Finding stresses have
become most popular in research on gears to minimize the vibrations, bending
stresses and also reducing the mass percentage in gear. These stresses are used to find
the optimum design in the gears which reduces the chances of failure. In this paper,
the author conducted by varying the geometrical profile of the teeth and to find the
change in contact stresses between gears. In this study, it was shown that the effective
method to estimate the contact stresses using three dimensional model of both the
different gears and to verify the accuracy of this method. Based on the result from the
contact stress analysis the hardness of the gear tooth profile can be improved to resist
pitting failure [14Sri].
Venkatesh, B. et al presented a paper to suggest that thorough study the
combined effect of gear ratio, helix angle, face width and module on beam strength
and wear tooth load of steel alloy helical gear. The design of gears requires an
iterative approach to optimize design parameters, which govern both the kinematics as
well as the strength performance. The effect of gear ratio, face width helix angle,
module on optimum wear strength of tooth is carried out. The helix angle, face width,
speed and module are kept constant, the gear ratio is increased, and the corresponding
wear strength of tooth increase. And then, remain parameters expect face width are
kept constant, as the face width increase the wear strength of tooth increase.
Moreover, the helix angle and module were changed. The corresponding wear
strength of tooth increases. In the next step, the effect of gear ratio, face width, helix
angle, module on optimum beam strength are carried out. And then, the variable face
width and module were analyzed, the corresponding beam strength found to increase.
From the study was investigated the effect of wear strength of tooth and beam
strength and obtained optimum parameters of helical gear [14Ven].
 10

In 2014, at IJERA, Venkatesh, J. et al analyzed the helical gear based on

structural analysis of high speed. The author calculated the bending and contact
stresses by using analytical method as well as Finite element analysis. Pro-e solid
modeling software and ANSYS software package are used to generate the 3-D solid
model of helical gear and to analyze the contact stress. In this paper, he modified the
number of teeth to reduce the bending stress by using AGMA. In contact stress, the
different value of helix angle is changed to minimize the contact stress. And then, two
methods bending and contact stress results are compared with each other. Finally, the
more the number of teeth, the more the bending stress. In contact stress, the more the
helix angle, the less the stress [14Ven].
Jayaram, E. et al presented structural analysis of gear train design in portal
axle using Finite Element Modeling. Portal axles (or portal gear) are an off-road
technology where the axle tube is above the center of the wheel hub. Compared to
normal layout, portal axles enable the vehicle to gain a higher ground clearance, as
both the axle tube and differential casing are tucked up higher under the vehicle. Due
to the gear reduction at the wheel which lessens the torque on all the other drive train
components, the size of the differential casing can be reduced to gain even more
ground clearance. The portal axle is a gearbox that is specially designed for off-road
driving conditions. Gear train design in portal axle is difficult to study
comprehensively due to their relatively low cost and short product life cycle. In this
study, structural analysis of portal axle is simulated using Finite Element Method
(FEM). FEM static stress analysis is simulated on three different gear trains to study
the gear teeth bending stress and contact stress behaviour of the gear trains. The single
and double pair gear teeth contact are also considered. Dynamic analysis is carried out
above cases like modal and Harmonic. There was a big difference between the natural
frequencies of the gear trains compared to the operating frequency of the portal axle
unit in which it is a normal case. Therefore, resonance will not occur when the portal
axle unit is operating at its speed range. However, modal analysis must be performed
as a safety precaution in portal axle design [13Jay].
Patil, S. M. et al discussed a review modal and stress analysis of differential
gear box casing with optimization. The differential gear box casing is an important
part in the pick up van vehicle. The casing encloses different sets of helical gears,
spur gears and three bearings to support the shafts. In a power transmission gear
system, the vibrations generated at the gear mesh and transmitted to the gear box
 11

housing through the shafts and bearings. To do the analysis of entire casing it is
necessary to do the analysis of casing, set of gears and effect of oil. The objective of
this project was to analyze the differential gear box casing of pick up van vehicle for
modal and stress analysis. The theoretical modal analysis needs to be validated with
experimental results from Fourier frequency transformer analysis. The main
motivation behind the work what to do for a complete FEM of casing rather than
empirical formulae and iterative procedures. The author carried out modal analysis of
differential gear box casing. Finally, the author concluded that natural frequency of
the model without stiffeners had compared with the natural frequency of model with
of stiffeners and with operating frequency. Proposed model was safe from resonance
point of view [13Pat].
Mishra, P. K. work made an attempt to summarize about comparison of
bending stresses for different face width of helical gear obtained using MATLAB
Simulink with AGMA and ANSYS. Helical gears are widely used in industry where
the power transmission is required at heavy loads with smoother and noiseless
operation. The study in this paper showed that the complex design problem of helical
gear requires superior software skills for modelling and analysis. The above problem
can be resolved using MATLAB Simulink environment which provides equivalent
result to the AGMA and also with ANSYS. The author used ANSYS 12.0 for the
structural analysis of the helical gear tooth model. And then, the author created and
analyzed the various models of the helical gear by varying the face width and keeping
the other parameters. Conclusions suggest that both ANSYS and Simulink was closed
to the results obtained from AGMA procedure. From the results it was justified that
Simulink can also be used for predicting the values of bending stress at any required
face width which was much easier to use to solve complex design problems [13Mis].
Sarkar, G. et al have analyzed the stress of helical gear by finite element
method. This paper investigated finite element model for monitoring the stresses
induced of tooth flank, tooth fillet during meshing of gears. The involute profile of
helical gear has been modeled and the simulation was carried out for the bending and
contact stresses. And then, the stresses have been estimated. After that, 3D models for
different helix angle, face width are generated by modeling software and simulation is
done by finite element software packages. There was a variation in the maximum
contact stresses with the change in helix angle. The maximum contact stress value
increase of helix angle. And then, the bending stresses were analyzed by increasing
 12

face width. The maximum bending stress value decreases with the increase of face
width. Conclusions suggest that the maximum bending stress decreases with
increasing face width and it will higher on gear of lower face width with higher helix
angle [13Sar].
Dadhaniya, K. D. et al studied the effect of pressure angle on bending stress
and deformation of asymmetric gear using FEA. The author calculated the design of
asymmetric spur gear to generate of involute tooth profile using MATLAB software.
Bending stress are analyzed with different pressure angle which have 20, 25, 30 and
35 values using ANSYS Workbench 11. The author said that the value of pressure
angle increases the profile becomes more curves, as a result it will increase the base of
the gear tooth and reduce the value of tip thickness at addendum circle of the gear
tooth. The increased base increases the bending strength but at the same time
reduction in tip thickness decreases the tip strength. The author also concluded that
the bending stress decreases and bending load capacity increases as the pressure angle
on drive side increases. Decision on maximum magnitude of drive side/coast side
pressure angle is constraint by the safe contact ratio and tooth peaking effect [12Dad].
Kumar, Y. S. et al have presented optimization of design based on fillet radius
and tooth width to minimize the stresses on the spur gear with FE analysis. Gears are
one of the most critical components in mechanical power transmission system spur
gears are mostly used in the applications varying from domestic items to heavy
engineering applications. In this paper, the effect of tip radius, tooth width is
considered and how the contact stress results vary with these parameters is studied.
The stresses were calculated using the Lewis equation and then compared with the FE
model. The bending stresses in the tooth root and at mating region were examined
using 3D FE mode. The author concluded that the comparison of two errors is closely
matched in 25mm width of gear. So, the optimum result to minimize the stress value
whiles the fillet region decrease with the increase of face width [12Kum].
Pravin M.kinge et al presented a paper to suggest that, three modifications in
the design of gear were done and after that again stress analysis of the modified gear
carried out. The three design modifications were done the edges of the gear teeth were
tapered by an angle of 20, making groove in the gear wheel and making holes at the
roots of the gear teeth. After modifying the design of the existing gearbox, again the
stress analysis was carried out and the results were found to be well within allowable
safe limit. So, the stresses induced on the gear tooth were reduced considerably by
making hole at the root of the gear tooth [12Pra].
 13

Venkatesh, B. did a research study in which parametric approach to analysis of

Aluminum alloy helical gear for high speed marine applications. The design and
manufacture of precision cut gears, made from materials of high strength, have made
it possible to produce gears which are capable of transmitting extremely large loads at
extremely high circumferential speeds with very little noise, vibration and other
undesirable aspects of gear drives. The analytical investigation is based on modified
Lewis stress formula. From the study of effect of various parameters (i.e bending
stress, dynamic tooth, load, beam strength) on the optimum design of helical gears for
marine application, the induced bending stresses was much lower than those of the
results obtained theoretically. Also the bending stresses was much lower than the
design stress, thus the design was safe from the structural point of view. It is observed
that the induced bending stresses was less than that of the theoretical calculation
[12Ven].
Bhosale, K. C. et al have done his work on analysis of bending strength of
helical gear by FEM. The author used Lewis equation for finding out the bending
strength of a helical gear. This equation is based on certain assumptions. Various
FEM are also based on this equation. Bending stress can also be found out by
modified Lewis formula, AGMA standards etc. In this paper, a helical gear box with
2.2 kW power transmitting at 760 rpm. The author used CATIA to draw the solid
model and then analysis was done with ANSYS Workbench12.1. In this Lewis
analysis, the gear tooth is treated as a cantilever beam. After that, Lewis equation and
ANSYS Workbench are compared. It can be observed that the engagement between
driver gear and driven gear teeth begins with point contact and gradually extends
along the tooth surface. Due to initial point contact in helical gear the bending stresses
produced at critical section (root of tooth) are maximum as compared to spur gear,
which has kinematic line contact [11Bho].
Rajaprabakaran, V. et al discussed a review on spur gear tooth stress analysis
and stress reduction. Gears are commonly used for transmitting power. They develop
high stress concentration at the root and the point of contact. The repeated stressing
on the fillets causes the fatigue failure of gear tooth. The main objective of this paper
is to add different shaped holes to reduce stress concentration. A finite element model
of spur gear with a segment of three teeth was considered for analysis and stress
concentration reducing holes of various size were introduced on gear teeth at various
 14

locations. The author have done to relieve stress from the maximum value to as
minimum as possible. So, the highest point of contact of teeth was selected as
pressure application point which causes highest stress. Stress relieving feature having
a shape of aero-fin is used in the path of stress flow which helped to regulate stress
flow by redistributing the lines of force. When compared to elliptical and circular
holes, aero-fin yielded better results. The author concluded that the best result was
obtained by introducing aero-fin hole at (38.7653, 6534083, 0) and having scaling
factor of 0.6 [11Raj].
Paul, I. D. et al studied modification of spur gear using computational method
involutes profile being modify. The author investigated characteristic of involutes
gear system including contact stress, bending stresses and the transmission error of
the gear in mesh. A model of spur gear was used to study the effect of intentional
tooth profile modifications by using two dimensional FEM. The deflection of teeth
was calculated by using the bending and shear influence function. In this paper, tooth
relief modification was consider for profile modification by using computational
method. The aim of this paper was to minimize the noise of the spur gear. A semi
analytical and FEM software has been used for performing meshing simulation. LCR
gears have been studied and the maximum tooth detection was calculated with and
without total tip relief. Where it was found that the total tooth relief showed the better
result and help to reduce the TE. So, the author concluded that profile modification
was done to reduce the TE and it showed the proper result during analysis [10Pau].
Venkatesh, B. et al presented design, modeling manufacturing helical gear.
The author calculated the design of helical gear by using Lewis equation. Gear
devices can change the speed, magnitude and direction of a power resource. In order
to design helical gear system the following procedure should be followed the input
conditions are power, speed, helix angle, gear ratio. For the safe functioning of the
marine engine, three stresses and deflections have to be minimized. In this work,
structural analysis on a high speed helical gear used in marine engines, carried out.
The dimensions of the model have been arrived at by theoretical methods. Finally, the
results obtained by theoretical analysis and Finite Element Analysis are compared to
check the correctness. Basically the project involves the design, modelling and
manufacturing of helical gears in marine applications. It is proposed to focus on
reduction of weight and producing high accuracy gears. Bending, compressive, von-
 15

Mises stresses were obtained by theoretical and ANSYS software for aluminum alloy.
The obtained stresses by ANSYS are less than that of the theoretical calculations. The
designed gears set have been manufactured using gear hobbing technique and finished
by gear shaving operation and tested for the strength of the gear teeth [10Ven].
Hassan, A. R. et al have researched contact stress analysis between two spur
gear teeth which was considered in different contact positions representing a pair of
mating gears during rotation. Pitting is a surface fatigue failure resulting from
repetitions of high contact stress. When loads are applied to the bodies, their surfaces
deform elastically near the point of contact; so that small area of contact is formed. A
programme has been developed to plot a pair to teeth in contact. This paper was run
for each 3 degree of pinion rotation from the first location of contact to the last
location of contact to produce 10 case. Each case was represented a sequence position
of contact between these two teeth. Finite element models were made for these case
and stress analysis was done. The results were presented and finite element analysis
results were compared with theoretical calculations. The author concluded that a high
value of contact stress in the beginning of the contact, and then is starts to reduce until
it reaches the location of single tooth contact, it increased to the maximum value of
the contact, but exactly after exceeding this single contact region it was reduced
[09Has].
Literature review of propeller shaft is also expressed. In this portion, propeller
shaft have been investigated by using variable materials because of the weight of
reduction.
Loknadh, T. et al have investigated the design a crown wheel gear of
differential gear box used in heavy vehicles for structural loads. In this paper, the
author worked crown wheel gear of differential gear box designed under structural
condition and modeled. The main aim of this paper was to focus on the design and
structural analysis of crown wheel gear used in gear box when they transmit power at
maximum speed 7200 rpm. The analysis was conducted to verify the best material
(two different Aluminum Alloys) for the crown wheel gear in the gear box at higher
speed by analyzed static and dynamic conditions. From the analysis results the author
concluded that static results of deflections and von-Mises stress values were below the
design limit. According to the maximum yield stress theory, the von-Mises stress was
less than the yield stress theory, the von-Mises stress was than the yield strength of
both the materials aluminum and steel. So, the design of crown wheel gear was safe
 16

under the above operating loading conditions. But the steel material model factor of
safety (2.9) was better than the aluminum material model FOS (1.64). Therefore, the
author concluded that the steel material design was better than the Aluminum material
design [15Lok].
Rohan D et al have analyzed the composite propeller shaft. Propeller shaft is
an important component in power transmission of an automobile. Conventional steel
drive shafts have limitations of weight and low critical speed. The focus of this paper
was to study the effect of carbon fiber on the properties of the composite formed by
changing volume fraction as the cost also impact on acceptance of materials. This
paper represented the replacement of two piece conventional metallic drive shaft with
the single piece composite drive shaft. Manufacturing of the composite drive shaft
was made by using composite of carbon fiber and epoxy resin. Experimental testing is
carried out on scaled model to find the torsion behavior and natural frequency of
composite drive shaft. From the obtained results, the author concluded that the FEA
predictions of natural frequency deviate by 4.59% for the steel drive shaft and 8.53%
for composite propeller shaft that resulted from analytical solution which are within
range of acceptance. Moreover, the weight of the composite propeller shaft is reduced
by 52% as compared to steel propeller shaft. Therefore, the composite propeller shaft
is having better results than the steel propeller shaft [15Roh].
Vijayababu, N. et al have investigated the differential gear box used in heavy
vehicle. Differential is used when a vehicle takes a turn, the outer wheel on a longer
radius than the inner wheel. The outer wheel turns faster than the inner wheel that is
when there is a relative movement between the two rear wheels. This project focused
on the mechanical design and contact analysis on assembly of gears in gear box when
they transmit power at different speeds at 2400rpm, 5000rpm and 6400rpm. Analysis
was conducted by varying the materials for gears. Cast Iron, Nickel Chromium, Alloy
Steel and Aluminum Alloy. By observing the structural analysis results using
Aluminum Alloy the stress values are within the permissible stress value. When
comparing the stress values of the three materials for all speeds 2400rpm, 5000rpm
the values are less for Aluminum Alloy than Alloy Steel and Cast Iron. By observing
analysis results, Aluminum Alloy was best material for differential [15Vij].
Vino, V. J. A. et al work made an attempt to summarize about design and
analysis of propeller shaft. Substituting composite structures for conventional metallic
structures has many advantages because of higher specific stiffness and strength of
 17

composite materials. This paper deals with the replacement of conventional two-piece
steel drive shaft with a single-piece e-glass/epoxy, high strength carbon/epoxy and
high modulus carbon/ epoxy composite drive shaft for an automotive application. The
main concept of this project was to reduce the weight of automotive drive shaft with
the utilization of composite material. Composite materials have been used in
automotive components because of their properties such as low weight, high specific
stiffness, corrosion free, ability to produce complex shapes, high specific strength and
high impact energy absorption etc. The modeling of the drive shaft assembly was
done using SolidWorks software. In this work, an attempt has been to estimate
deflection, stresses under subjected load and natural frequencies using Ansys
software. The usage of composite material has resulted to inconsiderable amount of
weight saving in the range of 28% when compared to structural steel shaft [15Vin].
Bhajantri, V. S. et al have discussed about the design and analysis of
composite drive shaft. Substituting composite structures for conventional metallic
structures has much advantage because of higher specific stiffness and strength of
composite materials. This paper deals with replacement of conventional two piece
steel drive shaft with a single-piece e-glass/epoxy, high strength carbon/epoxy and
high modulus carbon/epoxy composite drive shaft for automobile shaft for an
automotive application. The design parameters were optimized with the objective on
minimizing the weight of composite drive shaft. In this paper, the author analyzed the
drive shaft by varying the stresses with fiber angle orientation of different layers. And
then, variations in deflection by changing fiber angle orientation of different layers.
The author concluded that the weight savings of the high strength carbon/epoxy and
high modulus carbon/epoxy shaft were equal to 50% approximately of the steel shaft
[14Bha].
Deepti kushwaha et al have discussed about the optimal design and analysis of
composite drive shaft for a light commercial vehicle. Almost all automobile vehicles
having transmission shafts. The weight reduction of drive shaft can have certain role
in the general weight reduction of the vehicle and is a highly desirable goal. So, the
author tried to replace composite structures which has many advantages because of
higher specific stiffness and strength of composite material. The advanced composite
materials such as graphite, carbon, Kevlar and Glass with suitable resins are widely
used because of their high specific strength and high specific modulus. In this paper,
modelling and analysis of both the steel and composite drive shaft by changing in
 18

diameter have been done using Pro-E and ANSYS 12.1 software. This paper analyzed
the composite material drive shaft material SM45 and composite material drive shaft
based under static analysis. From the result, maximum stress, deformation and weight
of composite material are less than the SM45 material. So, the author concluded that
the design of a composite drive shaft has very effective than steel drive shaft [14Dee].
Vinodh Kumar S did a research study in which analysis of propeller shaft for
composite materials. The most suitable way to increase the efficiency of automobile
without sacrificing the safety of passengers is by composite materials. The main
objective of this paper was to reduce the weight of an automobile drive shaft assembly
by using the composite materials such as Epoxy/ E-glass and Epoxy carbon.
Conventional drive shaft has having less strength, less specific modulus and increased
weight. Composite materials are having advantages like high strength free corrosion
resistance, high specific modulus, and high impact energy and reduced weight. By
comparing above two results with structural steel it can be concluded that all stress
induced in the materials are within the allowable limits. It can also be concluded that
the E-Carbon composite material can be used as drive shaft material instated of
conventional steel. So that weight and stress induced in propeller shaft can be reduced
[14Vin].
Giridhar, N. S. et al have investigated the universal joint and propeller shaft
assembly by finite element analysis. Propeller shaft and he universal joints form the
importance links that help in transmitting power from the engine to the wheel. In the
universal joint yoke, certain modifications are made in the existing geometry and
analyzed for the identical loading and boundary conditions as in the reference paper
from which the problem has been taken. In the modified model, a fillet of radius
5.5mm is provided in addition to the chamfer. The maximum stress value of modified
component was less than the original. Thus, they observed that the new modelled
component is well within the safe limit. And then, it was being tried to replace the
existing steel shafts with Aluminum Alloy shafts as it has a higher strength to weight
ratio. They discovered that propeller shaft can be made either from steel or from the
aluminum. The stress generated was approximately the same but the deformation in
aluminum shafts was higher than that of the steel shaft [13Gir].
Jayanaidu, P. et al have studied to get optimization of drive shaft using the
ANSYS. Drive shaft is the main component of drive system of an automobile. The
drive shaft must provide a smooth, uninterrupted flow of power to the axles. The drive
 19

shaft and differential are used to transfer torque. Use of conventional steel for
manufacturing of drive shaft has many disadvantages such as low specific stiffness
and strength. Therefore, substitution of Titanium drive shafts over the conventional
steel material for drive shaft has increasing the advantages of design due to its high
specific stiffness, strength and low weight. In this analysis, Titanium and steel shafts
were compared with each other in terms of their deformation, maximum shear stress
and von-Mises under same conditions. Titanium is better in terms of maximum stress
and deformation as these parameters produced in this shaft are less when compared to
Steel [13Jay].
Krishna, S. V. G. et al have presented finite element analysis and optimization
of automotive composite drive shaft. The weight reduction of the drive shaft can have
a certain role in the general weight reduction of the vehicle and is a highly desirable
goal. Substituting composite structures for conventional metallic structures for
conventional metallic structures has many advantages because of higher specific
stiffness and strength of composite materials. The advanced composite materials such
as graphite, carbon, Kevlar and Glass with suitable resins are widely used because of
their high specific strength and high specific modulus. In this paper, the analysis was
done on drive shaft with different composite materials. By the obtained results, it can
be concluded that E-glass polyster has 2.5% reduction in von-Mises stress and 74%
reduction in weight than structural steel. Therefore, E-Carbon can be used instead of
conventional material like structural steel, the weight and stresses induced in the drive
shaft can be considerably decreased [13Kri].
Srikanth, S. did a research study in which design, static and modal analysis of
a propeller shaft for reducing vibrations using composite damping. The main theme of
this project was to analyze a shaft with and without damping material and also for
various isotropic and orthotropic material. Along with alloys of various materials,
composite materials were also considered to analyze the case to increase its robustnee.
The materials used for shaft was steel, carbon Epoxy and E-Glass Epoxy. The results
have been shown that the shaft with damping material made of any composite
material has less damping effects when compared with shaft without damping
materials. The author observed that the shaft made with composite material and
damping material has less damping effect compared with composite material shaft
[13Sri].
 20

Rompicharla, R. P. K. in their paper focused on optimization of drive shaft

with composite materials. Automotive drive shaft is a very important components of
vehicle. Substituting composite structures for conventional metallic structures has
many advantages because of higher specific stiffness and strength of composite
materials. The conventional two-piece steel drive shafts were replaced with a
composite materials which used Kevlar Epoxy. The design parameters were
optimized with the objective of minimizing the weight of composite drive shaft. The
design optimization also showed significant potential improvement in the
performance of drive shaft. In this paper, an attempt has been to estimate the
deflection, stresses, natural frequencies under subjected loads using FEA.
Furthermore, comparison carried out for both steel and composite materials and
weight of the shaft was optimized. They concluded that the usage of composite
material has resulted to inconsiderable amount of weight saving in the range of 28%
when compared to conventional steel shaft and to reduce the fuel consumption of the
automobile by using light weight composites like Kevelar/Epoxy [12Rom].
Review of differential gear is also presented. The straight bevel gear, spiral
bevel gear and assembly of differential gear have been studied to reduce the stresses
and the weight.
Babu, A. V. H. et al work made an attempt to summarize about static analysis
of back rear axle crown wheel of Tourus Model Tipper. Differential gear box plays a
vital role in the automobile for transferring motion from engine to real axle. Normally
single differential gear box is used for light weight vehicles but heavy load vehicles
two or more rear axles with differential gear boxes are used for transferring maximum
amount of power from engine to rear axles. In this paper, it is focused on the
mechanical design and analysis of double axel differential gear box as it transmits the
power. And then, it is proposed to find the effect of deformation, strength variation in
the back rear crown wheel by static analysis of differential gear box. The value of
von-Misses stresses of crown wheel teeth in static analysis was less than actual stress
of the gear material and deformations were very less. Conclusions suggest that design
was safe in condition [16Bab].
Rajesh, K. et al have investigated the effect of pitch angle on bending stresses
of bevel gears. Bevel gears are gears where the axes of the two shafts interest and the
tooth of the gears are conical in shape. Bevel gears are most often mounted on shafts
which are at 90 degrees. The pitch surface of bevel gears is a cone. Tangential
component of gear tooth force induces the bending stress which tend to break the
 21

tooth. Bending stress is the basis for design of bevel gears. In this paper, the author
calculated the bending stresses for straight bevel gear tooth. The parameters needed
for the design of bevel gear are taken in an automobile differential. The author
analyzed the bending stress by using three different material and five pitch angles.
Finally, the analysis results obtained in ANSYS and theoretical results are compared.
Form the obtained results, it was concluded that the factor of safety increases up to 35
degree pitch angle and then it decreases from 40 degree pitch angle. Cr-Ni steel was
considered as the best material as compared PB102 based on factor of safety [16Raj].
Alcacer, V. et al have presented design, manufacturing & analysis of an ABS
differential gear system model. This paper presented the assessment of von-Mises
stresses in straight-tooth bevel differential gear system of a pedagogical model. This
model was designed and the straight-tooth gear were formed using 3D printing rapid
prototyping. Two different percentages of densities (60% and 100%) of printed gears
with ABS (Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) were analyzed and compared using
analytical and finite element analysis using PTC Freo Parametic 2.0 software.
According to the results, both LD and HD ABS gears demonstrated that the maximum
von-Mises stresses obtained in both cases do not achieve the allowable stress
specified by Du Pont for ABS gears. Even for the higher stress gear (conical pinion)
the HD FEA von-Mises stresses presents low deviation from Du Pont manufacturer
maximum stresses. All other gears have a large deviation showed that the maximum
stress is lower than that indicated by the ABS manufacturer, demonstrated that the LD
strategy can be applied to the specific case [15Alc].
Panchal, R. P. et al have investigated evaluation on failure analysis of an
automobile differential pinion assembly. Bevel gears are widely used because of the
suitability towards transferring power between nonparallel shafts at almost any angle
and speed. In such type of gears, there is a problems of failures contact at meshing the
teeth. This can be avoided or minimized by proper method analysis and modification
of the different gear parameter. This paper presented characteristics of a bevel gear in
dynamic condition involving meshing stiffness and other stresses produce. The
purpose of this paper was by using numerical approach to develop theoretical model
of bevel gear and to determine the effect of meshing gear tooth stress by taking
material use hardened alloy steel(15Ni4Crl). The author analyzed bevel gear by using
three different types of material. The existing bevel pinion was redesigned by
considering 15NiCrl Steel and AISI 8620 and decrease in the number of teeth on
 22

pinion leads to the increase in torque at the output. From the obtained results, the
author concluded that margin of safety is high even through after reducing 2 tooth on
pinion. Reduction of teeth also reduces the weight of the pinion [15Pan].
Kapoor, N. et al did a research study in which design and stress strain analysis
of composite differential gear box. The main objective of this paper was to developed
parametic model of differential gear box by using CATIA-V5 under various design
stages. In this paper, the author observed that Glass filled polyamide composite
material is selected as best material for differential gear box and is found to suitable
for different revolutions (2500rpm, 5000rpm, 750rpm) under static loading
conditions. Comparisons of various stress and strain results using ANSYS-12 with
Glass filled polyamide composite and metallic materials (Aluminum alloy, Alloy steel
and Cast Iron) was also being performed and found to be lower for composite
material. By observing these analysis results, Glass filled polyamide composite
material was selected as a best material for differential gear box which in turn
increases the overall mechanical efficiency of the system [14Kap].
Daniel Das. A et al have completed his analysis work on “Structural Analysis
of Differential Gear Box”. The author took the required data from journal paper.
Modelling product of SolidWorks and analysis was dine in ANSYS software. And
then, analysis was also conducted by varying the materials for gears. Cast Iron, Cast
Steels and Aluminum Alloy etc. presently used materials for gears and gear shafts was
cast iron, cast steel. In this paper, Aluminum material was used to replace the
materials for reducing weight of the product. Thereby, Stress, displacement were
analyzed by considering weight reduction in the gear box at higher speed. When
comparing the stress values of the three materials for all speeds 2000rpm, 4500rpm
and 6000rpm, the values was less for Aluminum alloy than Alloy Steel and Cast Iron.
Besides, the stress values are within the permissible stress value. Finally, using
Aluminum Alloy was safe for differential gear and was best material for differential
[13Dan].
Jadeja, R. M. et al have presented bending stress analysis of bevel gears. Bevel
gears are widely used because of their suitability towards transferring power between
nonparallel shafts at almost any angle or speed. The bending stress equation for bevel
gear teeth was obtained from the Lewis bending stress equation for beam and bending
stress value derive for the spiral bevel gear, straight teeth bevel gear and zerol bevel
gear were analyzed. And then, it concluded that the features of zerol bevel gear are
 23

good for the power transmission at higher speed and higher load. The zerol bevel gear
has higher strength to resist the stress. Because of the curvature shape of the teeth load
distribution was in two directional and continuously distribute the load in two
directions, while in straight bevel gear load was applied in line form and at same time
in full teeth [13Jad].
Raj, N. M. et al presented a paper to suggest that, thorough study design of
contact stress analysis in straight bevel gear. In this paper, the author concentrated on
the three dimensional fillet stress analysis of bevel gear tooth using finite element
method. The stress distribution of bevel gear at the root of the tooth is evaluated under
various load conditions such as uniformly varying load and a concentrated load at
pitch point load. This paper also discussed load distribution on the pitch line and the
stress distributions at the root fillet. It was observed from the graph of root stress at
drive side along face width that for the pitch point load at filler stress at the drive side
was gradually increasing from toe side to mid-section and similar manner from the
mid-section to heel side it was gradually reducing. When the load was uniformly
distributed along the entire pitch line, the stress value was more nearer to toe side
when compare to that of heel side. Moreover, it was concluded from the graph of root
stress at non-drive side along face width that for the pitch point load the fillet stress at
the non-drive side was gradually decreasing from toe side to mid-section and similar
manner from the mid-section to heel side it was gradually increasing. When the load
was uniformly distributed along the entire pitch line, the stress value was more nearer
to toe side when compare to that of heel side [13Raj].
Veeranjaneyulu, C. et al have presented design and structural analysis of
differential gear box at different loads. The main aim of this paper was to focus on the
mechanical design and analysis on assembly of gears in gear box when they transmit
power at different speeds i.e-2500rpm, 5000rpm and 7500rpm and 7500rpm. Analysis
was also conducted by varying the materials for gears. Materials for gears and gear
shafts was Cast Iron, Cast Steels. In this paper to replace the materials with aluminum
material for reducing weight of the product. Stress, displacement was analyzed by
considering weight reduction in the gear box at higher speed. By observing the
structural analysis results using aluminum alloy the stress values was within the
permissible stress value. So, using aluminum alloy was safe for differential gear.
When comparing the stress values of the three materials for all speeds 2400rpm,
5000rpm and 6400rpm, the values was less for aluminum alloy than alloy steel and
 24

cast iron. And then, weight of the aluminum alloy reduced almost 3 times when
compared with alloy steel and cast iron since its density is very less. Thereby,
mechanical efficiency will be increased. By observing analysis results, aluminum
alloy was best material for differential [12Vee].
Gawande, S. H. et al have investigated design, manufacturing & analysis of
differential crown gear and pinion for MFWD axle. The main objective of this paper
was to perform mechanical design of crown wheel and pinion in differential gear box
of MFWD (FWA) axle (of TAFE ME 455). The author discussed the types of
differential such as open differential and limited slip differentials. Bevel gear
terminology can be studied in this paper. They presented the detail design calculations
for crown gear and pinion. After completing design of crown gear and pinion
theoretically by using given data, FE analysis of any component are performed. PRO-
E (wildfire 4.0) is used to draw the solid model of crow gear and pinion and ANSYS
13.0 is also used to analyze. When comparing the results, it can be seen that
equivalent stress on tooth is less than the allowable stress. So, the author concluded
that design is safe.

2.2. Introduction to Transmission System

The driving or transmission system transmits power from engine to the

wheels. The power may be transmitted to rear wheels or front wheels or all the four
wheels. Rear wheel drive is most common. A four wheels drive is generally
incorporated with military trucks. In modern automobiles, the transmission system
comprises of clutch, a transmission or gear box, universal joints, propeller shaft or
driving shaft, differential and axle extending to the wheels. In case of four wheel
drive, in addition to rare wheel drive, a second set of driving shaft, universal joints,
differential are incorporated for front wheels. A transfer box is used after the
transmission which connects the driving shaft for both front and rear wheels. Driving
system of truck car is as shown in Figure 2.1 [01Gir].
The gear box is an important part in the functioning of the vehicle.
Fundamentally the gear box consists of wheel of different size, which may be engaged
as required. The use of gear wheel of different size enables engine speed to be
increased with no change in speed so that extra power is available from the engine to
maintain the road of the vehicle under the hard working conditions.
 25

Engine Rear wheel

Transmission
Drive shaft

Clutch Joint Differential

Figure 2.1. Layout of Automobile Power Transmission System [13Sha]

Several different ratios of variation to meet all probable needs are provided in
the gear box ready for selection by the driver and are used by the engines when
required. The low gear, that is to say, a big reduce between the engine and driving
wheel, is necessary to get the vehicle moving from the rest or speed hill, when the
vehicle is well away or running on the level a higher gear or smaller reduction can be
used.

2.3. Types of Transmission System used for Automobile

Transmission system has two types manual and automatic. Type of manual
transmission can be classified according to the construction. They are (1) Sliding
mesh gear box, (2) Constant mesh gear box and (3) Synchromesh gear box. The most
common transmission systems that have been used for the automotive industry are (4)
fully automatic transmission, (5) semi-automatic transmission, and (6) continuously-
variable transmission (CVT).

(1) Sliding Mesh Gear Box

The sliding mesh gear box was popular on cars up to about 1930, but today it
is rarely used. Figure 2.2 shows three forward speeds and one reverse speed of a 3-
speed gear box of sliding-mesh type. It is simplest type of gear box. In this type of
gear box, gears are changed by sliding one gear on the other. This gear box consists of
four shafts, main shaft, clutch shaft, a counter shaft and idler shaft. In three speed gear
box, the counter shaft has four gears which are rigidly connected to it. Clutch shaft
has one gear and main shaft has two gears. The two gears on the main shaft can slide
in the horizontal direction along the splines of the main shaft. However, the gears on
the counter shaft cannot slid. The clutch gear is rigidly fixed to the clutch shaft. It is
always connected to the counter shaft drive gear [15Att].
 26

Top gear Second gear First gear

Clutch shaft Splined

Main Shaft

Idler shaft
Counter or
Lay shaft

Figure 2.2. Sliding Mesh Gear Box [08Ano]

Although the mechanical efficiency of the sliding mesh gear box was high, it
suffered gear noise due to type gear using spur type and have difficulties for smooth
and quick change of gear shift. However, helical gears are widely used.

(2) Constant Mesh Gear Box

The constant mesh gear box employed helical gears for quieter operation. All
the gears of the main shaft are in constant mesh with corresponding gears of the
countershaft. The gears on the main shaft which are bushed are free to rotate. The dog
clutches are provided on main shaft. The dog clutches are provided on main shaft.
The gears on the lay shaft are fixed. When the left dog clutch is slid to the left by
means of the selector mechanism, its teeth are engaged with those on the clutch gear.
The right dog clutch, however, when slid to right makes contact with the first gear and
first gear is obtained [10Faa].

Sliding dog clutch

Second gear
Top gear First gear

Clutch shaft Splined

Main Shaft

Counter or Idler shaft

Lay shaft

Figure 2.3. Constant Mesh Gear Box [08Ano]

The forks have internal splines and so can move over the splined main shaft.
The constant mesh gear is shown in Figure 2.3.
 27

(3) Synchromesh Gear Box

When the constant mesh gear box is fitted with synchronizing mechanism, it is
called synchromesh gear box. Most automobiles are equipped with the synchromesh
type transmission. It is called "synchromesh" because during gear shafting, the two
working gears are brought closer to each other to synchronize their circumferential
rotational speeds by means of friction. Since the speeds are synchronized before
meshing they mesh more smoothly [08San]. The synchromesh gearbox is shown in
Figure 2.4.
Shifting fork

Synchronizing
mechanism

Helical gear pair

Figure 2.4. Synchromesh Gear Box [17Mar]

(4) Fully Automatic Transmission

An automatic transmission uses a fluid-coupling torque converter to replace

the clutch to avoid engaging/disengaging clutch during gear change. A completed
gear set, called planetary gears, is used to perform gear ratio change instead of
selecting gear manually.

Figure 2.5. Fully Automatic Transmission [17Mar]

 28

With the invention of the automatic transmission, a driver no longer needs to

worry about gear selection during driving. It makes driving a car much easier,
especially for a disabled or new driver. However, the indirect gear contact of the
torque converter causes power loss during power transmission, and the complicated
planetary gear structure makes the transmission heavy and easily broken [14Myo].
The full automatic transmission is shown in Figure 2.5.

(5) Semi-Automatic Transmission

A semi-automatic transmission tries to combine the advantages of the manual
and automatic transmission systems, but avoid their disadvantages. However, the
complicated design of the semi-automatic transmission is still under development, and
the price is not cheap. It is only used for some luxury or sports cars currently
[14Myo]. Semi-automatic transmission is shown in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6. Semi-Automatic Transmission [17Mar]

(6) Continuously variable transmission (CVT)
CVT has been used for low-powered machinery like scooters for a long time
due to its highly efficient gear change.

Figure 2.7 Continuously Variable Transmission [17Mar]

 29

However, it is a challenge to install it on high power machinery because of the

strength of the driving belt. With the progress of materials technology, engineers have
been successfully installed it on automobiles, making the power transmission efficient
[14Myo]. Continuously variable transmission (CVT) is shown in Figure 2.7.

2.4. Propeller Shaft

A propeller shaft connects a propeller to an engine. It is also the British
English term for the drive shaft which connects an automobile gear box to a rear
differential. It is commonly referred to as a “prop-shaft”.
Where the engine and axles are separated from each other, as on four wheel
drive and rear wheel drive vehicles, it is the propeller shaft that serves to transmit the
drive force generated by the engine to the axles. For its usage, the optimal shaft is
short, bar-like product. The longer the bar, the more liable it is to sag, and sagging is
further promoted when rotation is applied. Sagging causes vibration and results in an
increase in noise, to such an extent that the shaft is likely to break when the critical
speed is exceeded. The propeller shaft is naturally designed not to break when used
within the service limits expected of use. In addition, it is designed to suppress
vibrations arising from a wide range of causes. Figure 2.8 shows the typical hollow
propeller shaft. The propeller tube is often turning at engine speeds. It can caused
great damage if bent, unbalance or if there is wear in the universal joint.

Splines Drive Yok

shaft e

Spide
r
Figure 2.8. Typical Hollow Propeller Shaft [07Mon]
The propeller shaft is generally hollow to promote light weight and of a
diameter sufficient to import great strength. Quality steel is used in its construction A
rubber mounted torsional damper may be used. The universal yoke and splined stub
are welded to the end of hollow to avoid vibrations. Figure 2.9 shows typical solid
propeller shaft.
Propeller shaft connects gear box to the final drive gears of the vehicle
through universal joint and services as drive shaft. Propeller shaft of road vehicles are
sufficiently long and operate in general a high speed; consequently ‘whirling’ may
 30

occur at certain critical speed. This causes bending stresses in the material that are
higher than the shearing stresses caused by transmitted torque. While the critical
speed increased with decrease in the mass of the shaft, the moment of inertia of the
section increases. The tendency for the propeller shaft to whirl should be reduced and
to do so, it should be made tubular and should be perfect balanced.
A propeller shaft is used in vehicles where the engine is situated at the opposite end of
the vehicle to the driven wheels (e.g. rear-wheel drive vehicles). The propeller shaft
transfers power produced by the vehicle’s engine from the gear box to the rear axle or
front axle. A propeller shaft is an assembly of one or more tubular shafts connected by
universal, constant velocity or flexible joint the number of tubular pieces and joints
depends on the distance between the gear box and the axle or under-body features
(e.g. exhaust pipes) that need to be negotiated.

Propeller shaft

Molded rubber rings

Internal tube

U-Joint

Figure 2.9. Typical Solid Propeller Shaft [07Mon]

On some four-wheel drive vehicles one propeller shaft is used to power the
rear wheels as with rear wheel drive and a second propeller shaft is used to power the
front wheels. In this case the second propeller shaft is placed between a transfer gear
box and the front axle [07Mon].

2.5. Differential Gear

All cars have a differential. A differential is a device, usually consisting of
gears, for allowing each of the driving wheels to rotate at different speeds, while
supplying equal torque to each of them. The wheels of vehicle rotate at different
speeds, especially when turning corners. The differential is designed to drive a pair of
wheels with equal force, while allowing them to rotate at different speeds.
 31

Power is supplied from the engine via the gearbox to a driveshaft which runs
to the rear axle. A pinion gear at the end of the propeller shaft is encased within the
differential itself, and it engages with the large ring gear. The ring gear is attached to a
carrier, which holds a set of small planetary gears as shown in Figure 2.10.
The three planetary gears are set up in such a way that the two outer gears can
rotate in opposite directions relative to each other. The pair of side gears drive the
axle shafts to each of the wheels. The entire carrier rotates in the same direction as the
ring gear, but within that motion, the side gears can counter-rotate relative to each
other [09Aye].

Pinion
Bevel pinion
Crown wheel
Rotation cage
Side gear
Inner half shaft

Bevel
pinion Outer half
shaft
Propeller shaft Side gear

Figure 2.10. Differential Gear [13Sha]

2.5.1. Need for the Differential Gear Unit

The right and left wheels do not always rotate at the same speed because of
road conditions, and especially during cornering. There is a need, then, for a special
device that allows the wheels to rotate at different speeds.

O A B

Figure 2.11. Cornering Condition of Vehicle [08Aye]

 32

In comparing the path of the inside wheel (A) with the path of the outside wheel (B)
of a vehicle when it turns along a curve, as illustrated, the outside wheel (B) draws an
arc whose radius is the distance O-B, while the inside wheel (A) draws an arc whose
radius is the distance O-A as shown in Figure 2.11.
Therefore, the distance of travel of the outside wheel is longer than that of the
inside wheel. For this reason, the outside wheel is forced to move faster and rotate
more than the inside wheel. If one of the wheels is an a flat surface and the other on a
rough surface, as illustrated in Figure 2.12, the wheel (A) on the rough surface
naturally must run at a higher rpm than the other wheel (B) on the flat surface. This is
not necessarily so, however, if both wheels are on equal rough surfaces.

B
A

Figure 2.12. Rough Surface Condition [08Aye]

Furthermore, it is extremely rare for both wheels to run at an identical rpm
even on ordinary roads, because the two wheels contact the road surface differently
even if the road appears to be flat. Another reason for this difference in rpm between
the right and left wheels is the difference in the amounts of tire inflation and wear.
In most cases, therefore, if both wheels were forced to run at the same rpm,
one of them would slip. Tires would, therefore wear faster, and the driving
performance of the vehicles would be affected as a result. To solve these problems,
there is needed a differential device that allows differences in rpm to occur while
transmitting equal torque [08Aye].

2.5.2. Basic Construction of the Differential Gear Unit

Crank shaft rotation which is transmitted by the propeller shaft is reduced as
the power is transmitted through the drive pinion to the ring gear. On the contrary,
however, torque increases and the direction of transmission is changed perpendicular
to its original direction.
 33

As illustrated in Figure 2.13, two differential pinions and two side gears are
built in the differential case which is integrated with the ring gear. When the
differential case rotates, the differential pinion, which is fitted to the differential case
via the differential pinion shaft, revolves around the axle shafts causing the side gears
to rotate. Since the side gears are splined to the rear axle shaft, they transmits power
to the wheel.

Drive pinion Wheel

Differential pinion shaft
Differential case

Axle shaft
Differential case

RingDifferential
gear pinion

Figure 2.13. Basic Construction of the Differential Gear Unit [08Aye]

2.5.3. Function of the Differential Gear Unit

This unit includes straight ahead travel and turning.
(1) Straight Ahead Travel
The rolling resistances of the two drive wheels are almost identical when the
vehicle is travelling straight ahead on a level road. Therefore, both side gears move
equally with the revolution of the differential pinions, and all components rotating as
one unit. When resistance is equal in both rear axle shafts (A and B), as illustrated in
Figure 2.14, the differential pinions themselves do not rotate but turn as a unit with
the ring gear, differential case and pinion shafts.

Bevel gear
Crown Housing
wheel
Axle shaft

Bevel
pinion

Figure 2.14. Function on Straight Ahead Travel [15Jal]

 34

In this case, the differential pinions only function to connect the right and left
side gears. As a result, the two side gears rotate as a unit with the revolution of the
differential pinions, causing both drive wheels to turn at an equal rpm.

(2) Turning
When the vehicle is turning, however, the inside wheel travels less distance
(i.e., in a shorter arc) than the outside wheel in comparison with when the vehicle is
travelling in a straight line. Since a resistance is therefore applied to the left hand side
gear, as illustrated in Figure 2.15, each differential pinion rotates around its own shaft
and also revolves around the rear axle. The rpm of the right hand side gear increases
as a result.

Crown wheel
Bevel gear
Slow turning Housing
Fast turning
Axle
shaft

Bevel pinion

Figure 2.15. Function on Turning [15Jal]

In other words, since the differential pinion rotates around the pinion shaft, the
pinion increases the rpm of one side gear, while reducing the rpm of the other side
gear (depending on the resistance which is applied to the wheel), the sum of the rpm
of the two is twice as much as the rpm of the ring gear. That is to say, the average rpm
of the two is equal to the rpm of the ring gear.

2.5.4. Applications of Differential Gear

Differentials are used in:
(1) The rear drive axles of front engine, rear wheel drive vehicles.
(2) The transaxles of front engine, front wheel drive and rear engine, rear
wheel drive vehicles.
(3) The front drive axle and rear drive axle of four wheel drive vehicles.
(4) Some four wheel drive vehicles have center differential in the transfer
case.
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2.6. Types of Differential

Types of differential can be classified according to the construction. They are
(1) open differential (2) limited split differential.

2.6.1. Open Differential

A differential has two main functions: allowing the driven wheel to rotate at
different speed while applying driving torque. In passenger car, the most common
type is an open differential. In racing cars, it is more common to use some sort of a
limited slip differential. For open differentials, the drive torque supplied to the left
and right wheel is equal. Open differential is illustrated in Figure 2.16. For limited
slip differentials, the wheel drive torque can be unequal. The relationship between the
two wheel drive torques is what distinguishes the types of differentials.

Ring gear
Bevel gear

Bevel pinion

Figure 2.16. Open Differential [15Ano]

2.6.2. Limited Slip Differential

If a vehicle with an ordinary differential is driven on a muddy or icy road, or
when it makes a sharp turn on such a road, driving power will be lost whenever one of
the drive wheel spins. Furthermore, if one of the drive wheels slips into a ditch or gets
stuck in the mud, that wheel will begin to spin at high speed, but the other wheel will
stop or almost stop turning, and the vehicle will not be able to get out of the ditch or
mud.
If one drive wheel of the vehicle spins on a road affording a low coefficient of
friction which a road with patches of mud, sand, ice, etc, or if one wheel falls into a
ditch or hole and cannot escape, or if, during cornering, one wheel "floats", the
transmitted torque will decrease, and driving performance will suffer. The limited slip
differential is designed to help alleviate these problems by adding a slip limiting
function to the already existing function of an ordinary differential.
 36

A limited slip differential has all of the same components as an open

differential, but it adds a spring and a set of clutches. Limited slip differentials use
friction plates, cones and or gears to reduce slippage between each of the tires. These
units have a dual power path from the differential case to the axle shafts. Some power
is transmitted through the spider gears to the side gears in the conventional manner.
The remainder is transmitted by friction between the differential case and the clutch
plates and the side gears. A certain amount of "clutch preload" is built into the unit in
a static condition. Then, as load is applied to the differential, the separation forces
between the spider gears and the side gears increases this clutch loading. This increase
in friction provides for a good positive power flow from the case directly to the side
gears.
When traction is available to both wheels, the power going to the differential
causes the plates to bind tightly together, giving even power to both wheels. However,
in a situation where there is little or no traction available to either one wheel or the
other, the amount of power that can be transmitted to the other wheel which has
traction is dependent on the friction or "preload" in the clutch plates.
High levels of "clutch preload" will result in good torque transfer but some
chattering of the clutches during cornering may occur. Lower levels of preload results
in minimal chatter but reduced levels of torque transfer to the wheel with traction.
Because limited slip differential's restrict true differential action, tire wear is
accelerated. Changes in vehicle handling may also occur, particularly in short
wheelbase vehicles. Wear rates on limited slip differentials are generally higher than
on other types due to the reliance on friction to reduce wheel slippage.
Also, special lubricants may be required to minimize rough and noisy
operation. Despite their limitations, limited slip differentials are popular as original
equipment options as well as an aftermarket replace because:
(1) Some traction improvement off road is provided
(2) Vehicle handling idiosyncrasies are not excessive.
(3) Installation is simple
(4) Cost is reasonable
The limited slip differential is built in such a manner that an internal drag is
developed in the differential gears so that the driving torque is more uniformly
distributed between the two driving wheels. This gives superior traction (at least 50%
more) in marginal situations such as snow plowing, turning on the side of a hill, hill
climbing and operating on wet grass.
 37

Limited slip differentials are used in off road vehicles which intend to drive
over uneven mountain terrain and through riverbeds. Off road vehicles are like the
Land Cruiser, Surff, Pajero, etc. Types of limited slip differentials are multiple discs
type limited slip differential, planetary type and viscous coupling type limited slip
differential. Limited slip differential is shown in Figure 2.17.
Spring
Ring gear

Friction plate

Figure 2.17. Limited Split Differential [15Bol]

2.7 Summary

Firstly, literature review of spur gear, helical gear, differential gear and
propeller shaft are studied and discussed. Secondly, transmission systems are
introduced in this chapter. Advantages and disadvantages of types of transmission
system (manual and auto) are also expressed. Thirdly, main components of propeller
shaft which have two types are also presented. Finally, it also mentions how to work
the differential gear box in this chapter.