8.

1 Distance Protection - Fundamental Principles

Overhead lines and cables between any two points will have a certain impedance
dependent on the size and type of conductor and the geometrical spacing of these
conductors.

Distance protection, basically measures the impedance of a circuit at a particular

location. If the measured impedance is less than the set impedance (which could
be some percentage of the total circuit impedance), a fault is considered to have
occurred. The distance from the relay location to the fault location is directly
proportional to the impedance of the circuit, hence the name distance protection.

Fundamentally the distance measurement principle is based on Ohms Law:

Z =V/I

The impedance of the circuit is measured to determine the fault location and
initiate selective tripping.

Three Phase Fault

For a three phase fault, the sequence networks are as shown in Figure 8.1A below:

Figure 8.1A – Sequence Networks for 3-Phase Fault

 I1 = E/Z1
IA = I1 + I2 + I0
I2 = I0 = 0
 IA = I1

The measured impedance for a 3-phase fault:

Zmeas = E/I = Z1
Where: E = phase to neutral volts
I = phase current

Two-Phase Fault
For a two phase fault at the same location, the sequence networks are as shown in
Figure 8.1B below:

Figure 8.1B – Sequence Networks for 2-Phase Fault

For a two phase (B-C) fault:

I1 = E/(Z1 + Z2)
For static plant Z1 = Z2
I1 = E/2Z1

I1 = -I2
I0 = 0
 IB = a²I1 + aI2
IB = I1(a² - a) = √3I1

Measured impedance for a 2-phase (B-C) fault:

Zmeas. = E/I = E/√3I1 = (2/√3)Z1

Where E = phase to neutral volts
I = phase current

For a two phase fault at the same location as the three phase fault, the measured
impedance (Zmeas) is not equal to Z1.

Distance protection is set in terms of positive sequence impedance. Regardless of

the type of fault (i.e. 3-Phase, 2-Phase, 1-Phase–Earth etc.) the relay must
determine the fault location correctly although it is only given one setting based
on the positive sequence impedance.

8.2 Phase Fault Compensation

If the phase to neutral voltage (E) and phase current (I) are used for the impedance
measurement, then for 3-phase and 2-phase faults, the relay measures different
impedances (i.e. distance to fault) for a fault at the same location.

For a B-C fault, Vb – Vc voltage and Ib – Ic current should be used, then for both
3 phase and 2 phase faults, the relay will then measure the positive sequence
impedance Z1

Similarly, for an A-B fault, Va – Vb volts and Ia – Ib current should be used and
for a C-A fault, Vc – Va volts and Ic – Ib current should be used.
 The 3 measuring elements: (AB), (BC) and (CA) provided for phase fault
protection respond correctly for three phase, phase to phase and double phase to
earth faults.

The phase fault measuring elements are supplied with the voltage across the
faulted phase pair and the vectorial difference between the current in the faulted
phases.

The distance relay is calibrated in positive sequence impedance (Z1).

8.3 Earth Fault Compensation

For single phase to earth faults, distance relays require a different method of
compensation in order to measure the same impedance (distance to fault) as the in
the case of phase faults.

The sequence networks for a single phase to earth fault is shown in figure 8.3
below.

Figure 8.3 - Sequence Networks for Single-Phase to Earth Fault

For a single phase to earth (A-E) fault:

I1 = E/(Z1 + Z2 + Z0)
 For static plant Z1 = Z2
I1 = I2 = I0
IA = I1 + I2 + I0 = 3I0
I = 3E/(2Z1+ Z0)

The measured impedance for a single-phase to earth (A-E) fault:

Zmeas = E/I = (2Z1+ Z0)/3

Where E = phase to neutral volts
I = phase current

For a single-phase to earth fault at the same location as the three phase fault, the
measured impedance (Zmeas) is not equal to Z1

For a fault at the same location as the 3-phase fault, it is required that for a single
phase to earth fault, the relay measures Z1.

Let the current applied to relay be the phase current plus a fraction of the residual
current at the relay location.

i.e. Let the current applied to relay = I + k3I0

For a single-phase to earth fault I = 3I0
 The current applied to the relay = I + kI

It is required that E/I(1 + k) = Z1

E/I = Z1(1 +k)

E/I = (2Z1 + Z0)/3 = Z1(1+ k)
 1 + k = (2Z1 + Z0)/3Z1
k = ((2Z1 + Z0)/3Z1) – 1
k = (Z0 – Z1)/3Z1
 k is the residual or zero sequence compensation factor. It is the fraction of residual
current added to the phase current in order that the earth fault elements accurately
measures Z1 for single phase to earth faults.

As the majority of faults involve earth, it is important to get the residual

compensation factor correct.

Special care must be taken in setting the residual compensation factor of cable
circuits. The angle of the zero sequence impedance of cable circuits could be
significantly different from that of the positive sequence impedance and the
required residual compensation factor could be negative.

8.4 Simple Impedance (Distance) Measurement Circuit

The basic principle of impedance measurement involves the comparison of the

current seen by the relay and the voltage at the relaying point. This is shown in the
relay connections in Figure 8.4 below. One side of a balanced beam is acted on by
a restraining force proportional to VT volts where the secondary voltage is
proportional to the product of the circuit current and the circuit impedance up to
the fault point. The other side of the balanced beam is acted on by an operating
force proportional to the CT secondary current which is proportional to the circuit
current.

Figure 8.4 – Simple Circuit for Impedance Measurement

 In Figure 8.4, at the reach (setting) point:

VF = kIF, where k is a constant

k = VF/IF = Z setting
The relay operates when VF/IF < k.

This simple relay will measure impedance, but it will be non-directional.

8.5 The R-X Diagram

Characteristics of distance relays are usually shown on an R-X diagram, where the
resistance R is the abscissa and the reactance X is the ordinate. The relay
characteristic and the circuit impedance can be represented on the same diagram.
The origin is usually considered to be the relay location.

When the measured impedance falls within the relay characteristic, the relay
operates

8.6 Plain Impedance Characteristic

A signal proportional to system current is compared with a signal proportional to

system voltage:
S1 = I
S2 = V/Zr

Where: V = Voltage to relay

I = Current to relay
Zr = Replica Impedance
 This produces the plain impedance characteristic shown in R-X diagram in Figure
8.6 below.

Figure 8.6 Plain Impedance Characteristic

The plain impedance relay responds only to the magnitude of the impedance
given by the applied current and voltage and is independent of phase angle.

The relay operates for all values of measured impedance falling within the circle,
it is non-directional

8.7 Mho Characteristic

By feeding a fraction of the operate current into the voltage input, a directional
circular characteristic can be obtained. The signals compared are then:

S1 = I
S2 = (V/Zr) - I

Where: V = Voltage to relay

I = Current to relay
Zr = Replica Impedance
 The mho characteristic combines impedance and directional features in one
characteristic. It is dependent on both the magnitude and phase angle of the input
signals. The Mho characteristic is shown in the R-X diagram in Figure 8.7 below.

Figure 8.7 Mho Characteristic

8.8 Practical Distance Relay

Each zone of distance protection should be provided with 6 measuring elements

or algorithms:

3 (AB, BC, CA) for phase fault protection (i.e. 3 phase, phase to
phase and 2 phase to earth faults).

3 (A-E, B-E, C-E) for single phase to earth faults.

A 3 zone non-switched distance relay would then require a total of 18 measuring

elements or algorithms.

Distance relays may be calibrated in either primary or secondary positive

sequence impedance.
 The relationship between primary circuit impedance (Zp) and secondary relay
impedance (Zs) is as follows:
Zs = Zp x (CT ratio/VT ratio)

Typical distance relay characteristic curves available are shown in Figure 8.8
below.

Figure 8.8 Typical Distance Relay Characteristic Curves

8.9 Application of Distance Relays

Although a distance relay will respond to faults up to a predetermined length of

the protected circuit, it is nevertheless a non-unit form of protection. For a plain
distance protection scheme, there is no exchange of protective signals between the
ends of the protected circuit.

Due to errors in CT and VT ratios, inaccuracy of the line impedance data and
errors in the relay measurements, it is possible for the distance relay to operate for
faults beyond the set impedance (distance) of the line. This is referred to as relay
over-reach.
8.9.1 Zones of Distance Protection

Typically distance relays are applied with different time staged discrete zones of
protection. The point of reference of the distance measurement being the VT
location

To avoid the possibility of over-reaching, and consequent tripping for faults in

adjacent lines due to errors in the CTs, VTs, circuit data and measurement, the
reach (distance) of the high speed zone (Zone 1) of the distance protection is set to
typically 80% of the protected circuit.

Zone 2 is typically set to a minimum of 120% of the impedance of the protected

circuit and given a time delay of about 0.4 seconds. The 120% reach setting
ensures coverage for the 20% of the protected line beyond Zone 1, and the time
delay ensures grading with the main high speed protection on the adjacent circuit.

Zone 3 is set to 120% of the longest adjacent circuit and given a time delay of
about 1 sec. This over reach of the longest adjacent circuit provides backup
protection for a fault at the remote end of the adjacent circuit and the time delay
ensures grading with the zone 2 time delay protection on the adjacent circuit.

The Zone 3 setting should also be consistent with loading requirements. A check
should be made to ensure that the Zone 3 setting has a reasonable margin (about
20%) to the load impedance.

The minimum load impedance can be calculated with the following formula:

Z load min = (Vmin/√3)/Imax

 Where: Vmin = minimum phase to phase voltage (say 0.9 x V
nominal)
Imax = maximum load current

R load min = cosθ x Z load min

Where: θ = maximum load impedance angle (cosθ = power factor)

related to minimum load conditions - typically 30º.

A reverse Zone 3 offset can provide back-up protection for the bus bars behind
the relay location and would typically be set to 25% of the Zone 1 setting.

A typical 3 zone plain distance scheme is shown in Figures 8.9.1A, 8.9.1B and
8.9.1C overleaf.
 A
B C
21

21

time Z3AB
Z2AB Z2BC
Z1AB Z1BC

distance

Figure 8.9.1A – Typical Plain Distance Scheme

Figure 8.9.1B – Typical Plain Distance Scheme

 Figure 8.9.1C – Typical Plain Distance Scheme – Usual R-X Diagram
Representation

Load impedance relative to a distance mho characteristic is shown in Figure

8.9.1D below.

Figure 8.9.1D - Load Impedance Measured During Normal Operations

8.10 Distance Protection Application Problems

A few more common application problems with distance protection are discussed
in this section.

8.10.1 Effects of Fault Resistance

If the resistance at the fault point is too high the measured impedance may fall
outside the relay reach and the relay fail to operate.

To cater for small amounts of fault resistance, the relay characteristic angle of
mho relays is set slightly less than the line angle. In Figure 8.10.1A below the
resistive coverage for two different characteristic angles is shown

Figure 8.10.1A – Resistive Coverage and Relay Characteristic Angle

By adding a percentage of voltage from the healthy phases to the main voltage
input signal of a mho relay, a cross polarised mho relay having a circle
characteristic which expands in the resistive direction for unbalanced faults is
produced.

The amount of expansion depends on the system impedance ratio at the point of
measurement.
The circle expansion in the resistive direction due to the cross polarisation allows
for greater values of fault resistance. The expansion of the mho characteristic due
to cross polarisation is shown in Figures 8.101B and 8.101C below.

Figure 8.10.1B 100% Cross Polarised Mho

Figure 8.10.1C 100% Cross Polarised Mho Expanding Characteristic for

Unbalanced Faults

Quadrilateral characteristics with independent reactive and resistive settings give

better resistive coverage. A typical quadrilateral characteristic is shown in Figure
8.10.1D below.
 Figure 8.10.1D - Typical Quadrilateral Characteristic

8.10.3 Remote Infeed

When a remote infeed is present between relay and fault location, the effective
reach of the distance protection is reduced and the relay under-reaches i.e. the
relay fails to operate for a fault within the set impedance of the line.

Under-reach due to remote infeed can be explained with reference to Figure

8.10.3 below.

Figure 8.10.3 – Remote Infeed

V = IA x ZA + (IA + IB)ZC
Zmeas = V/IA = ZA + ZC + (IB/IA)ZC
 The measured impedance is larger than the actual impedance by (IB/IA)ZC.

8.10.4 Remote Outfeed

When a remote outfeed is present between relay and fault location, effective reach
of the distance protection is increased and relay over-reaches i.e. the relay
operates for a fault beyond the set impedance of the line.

Over-reach due to remote outfeed can be explained with reference to Figure

8.10.4 below.

Figure 8.10.4 – Remote Outfeed

V = IAZA + (IA - IB)ZC

Zmeas = V/IA = ZA + ZC - (IB/IA)ZC

The measured impedance is less than the actual impedance by (IB/IA)ZC.

8.10.5 Zero Sequence Mutual Coupling

Where two circuits are in close proximity for the whole or part of their length,
there is mutual coupling between the circuits. The positive and negative sequence
mutual coupling is so small that it can be neglected for all practical purposes. The
zero sequence mutual coupling however, may be significant and can affect the
performance of distance relays when responding to earth faults.

During earth fault conditions, where the earth fault current at the fault point
subdivides between the two circuits, the earth fault current in one circuit induces,
through the zero sequence mutual coupling, a voltage in the other circuit. The
current distribution in the two circuits is unaffected by the presence of mutual
coupling and therefore although the voltage applied to the distance relay may
have changed, there is no similar change to the current applied to the relay and
incorrect distance measurements result.

The distance measurement error depends on the system configuration.

Generally the measurement error is positive (i.e. underreach - measured distance

is larger than actual distance) when the earth fault currents flow in the same
direction in both circuits.

The measurement error is negative (i.e. overreach - measured distance is less than
actual distance) when the earth fault currents flow in opposite directions.

An example of possible current distribution is shown in Figure 8.10.5 below.

Figure 8.10.5 - Current Distribution for Earth Fault on Single End Fed Double
Circuit Overhead Line
 With reference to Figure 8.10.5, the distance relay (R1) at the source end of the
protected circuit will tend to under reach i.e. earth fault currents flows in the same
direction in both circuits and therefore the measured impedance is too large.

The distance relay (R2) will tend to overreach i.e. earth fault currents flow in
opposite directions and therefore the measured impedance is less than the actual
distance to fault.

The following are possible methods of compensating for the measurement errors
arising in distance relays due to zero sequence mutual coupling of parallel
circuits:

 Apply zero sequence mutual compensation by applying currents from the

adjacent line to each distance relay. When the lines are not terminated at a
common bus or the line is coupled with more than one circuit, zero
sequence mutual compensation may not be effective.

 Set the residual compensation factor to cater for the under reaching caused
by zero sequence mutual coupling – this however may result in
overreaching when the parallel line is removed from service.

 Factor in the mutual coupling reach error when setting the reach of
distance protection – again this however may result in overreaching when
the parallel line is removed from service but may be catered for by the use
of multiple setting groups.

8.10.6 Power Swing Blocking (PSB)

Power swings occur when a group of generators on a system fall out of step with
another group on a system due to a sudden disturbance. When the source emfs of
 two groups of generators are in anti-phase, the voltage at some point on the
interconnecting circuit is zero. This appears as 3 phase fault to distance relays.

To detect power swings, one method used by distance protection relays is to

employ another impedance measuring zone whose characteristic encompasses the
zone 3 characteristic.

As each group of generators swing with respect to each other, the measured
impedance changes from high to low value. The change of impedance is relatively
slow. The time between detection by the power swing blocking (PSB)
characteristic and detection by Zone 3 characteristic determines whether or not a
power swing has occurred (typically if > 50ms then it is a power swing).

This sis shown in Figure 8.10.6 below.

Figure 8.10.6 – Power Swing Detection

8.11 Distance Protection Schemes

Often a communication link is established between the plain distance protection

relays at each end of a protected circuit and one of several communicating
distance protection schemes is implemented.

8.11.1 Direct Transfer Trip

 For the direct transfer trip scheme, operation of a distance protection Zone 1 trip
at any end of the protected circuit sends an unconditional trip to the other end of
the circuit.

In order that faults anywhere along the protected circuit can be cleared
“instantaneously” at both ends, the circuit breakers at both ends must be closed
and both ends must contribute fault current. At least one end must see the fault
within its Zone 1 reach.

To cater for single end infeeds, the direct intertrip can be initiated from Z1 and
Z2, then the end with no infeed will be tripped in Zone 2 time.

Direct intertrip schemes require a very secure signalling channel as an incorrect

intertrip receive signal will result in false tripping.

8.11.2 Zone 1 Extension

Where a communication link is not available and auto-reclose is used, a Zone 1

extension scheme is sometimes implemented.

For this scheme, Zone 1 reach is normally set beyond the remote end of the circuit
giving “instantaneous” clearance for 100%% of the circuit length. Subsequent to a
Zone 1 operation and tripping of the circuit breaker, an auto-reclose is initiated
and at the same time (before the circuit breaker recloses) the Zone 1 reach is
temporarily reset to the normal reach of 80% of the protected circuit. After the
auto-reclose dead time the Zone 1 reach is reset to overreach the protected circuit.

8.11.4 Communicating Distance Schemes:

 Communicating distance protection schemes are used to achieve high speed
tripping for a fault anywhere on the protected circuit. They allow high speed
tripping for faults in the 20% of the protected circuit beyond the 80% zone 1
reach.

The advantage of the communicating distance protection scheme over a direct

intertrip scheme, is that on receipt of the communicated signal, the accelerated
tripping is conditional on the protection at the receive end also detecting the fault.
False communication signals will not therefor result in an unwanted trip.

There are two basic types of communicating distance protection schemes -

permissive and blocking schemes.

In permissive schemes, the information communicated is “Yes there is a fault”.

Tripping occurs when a permissive signal is received and the local Zone 2 has
operated.

In blocking schemes, the information communicated is “There is no fault”.

Tripping occurs when a blocking signal is not received within a set time delay and
local Zone 2 has operated.

8.11.4.1 Permissive Communicating Distance Protection Schemes

Permissive communicating schemes are subdivided into Permissive Under-reach

and Permissive Over-reach schemes

In the Permissive Under-reach scheme, the permissive signal is sent from Zone 1
as shown in Figure 8.11.4 below.

In the Permissive Over-reach scheme, the permissive signal is sent from Zone 2.
In both the permissive under reach and permissive over reach schemes, on receipt
of the permissive signal, the overreaching zone 2 of the distance protection at the
receive end operates without a time delay.
Figure 8.11.4 Permissive Under reaching Scheme
8.11.4.1 Blocking Communicating Distance Protection Schemes

In a blocking scheme, the overreaching zone 2 of the distance protection at the

receive end will operate after a very short time delay (only short enough to allow
time to receive a signal for the remote end) if a blocking signal is not received.

Unless special measures are put in place, a failure of the communication channel
can result in uncoordinated tripping.

In a blocking scheme, a reverse-looking distance protection zone is used to initiate

the communication signal. The reach of this blocking zone must be larger than the
over reaching zone 2 of the distance protection at the remote end of the circuit.

When this reverse blocking zone operates, this indicates that the fault in not on the
protected circuit and a signal is sent to the remote end of the circuit to block its
over reaching zone 2.