Topic 4 (Part 1)

Carbohydrates:
Sugars
FC AY 2017 – 2018
 Learning Objectives
 Describe the physical and chemical reactions and
functional properties of simple sugars.
 List the main sources of starch
 Describe the different components of starch granules
 Explain the factors affecting starch gelantization and
gelation.
 Demonstrate the various starch reactions.
 Explain the role of different types of fibres such as
cellulose and pectin
 Describe the functional properties of starch.
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 Learning Objectives

 Explain the principles of tests for reducing sugar and

fibre.
 Conduct tests to determine the presence of different
types of sugars

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 References

 Brown, A. (2011). Understanding food:

Principles and preparation, (4th ed.). Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
 McWilliams, M. (2011). Foods: Experimental
perspective. (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.

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 We will be covering…

 Introduction to carbohydrates
 Sugar

 Starch

 Fibre and pectic substances

 Analytical tests for carbohydrates in foods

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 In Part 1, we will be
covering …
 Introduction to carbohydrates

. . . and all about sugars.

 Physical properties of sugar
 Chemical properties of sugar

 Functions of sugars in food

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 Recap: Carbohydrates

 Monosaccharide
Carbohydrates containing only one saccharide unit.
Saccharides with five carbon atoms (e.g. xylose) are
pentoses
called ___________
Saccharides with six carbon atoms (e.g. glucose,
hexoses
fructose and galactose) are called ___________

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 Recap: Carbohydrates

 Disaccharides
Formed when two monosaccharides join together
with the removal of a molecule of water.
Glucose + fructose = sucrose

Glucose + glucose = maltose

Glucose + galactose = lactose

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 Recap: Carbohydrates

 Polysaccharide
Carbohydrates formed by joining many
saccharide units with the removal of a molecule
of water at each point of linkage.
E.g. amylose = straight chain polysaccharide
consisting of more than 200 glucose units
joined together by -1,4-glycosidic linkages.

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 Recap: Carbohydrates
 Polysaccharides (cont.)
E.g. amylopectin = branched chain
polysaccharide consisting of glucose
units linked with a - 1,4 linkages,
with occasional -1,6-glycosidic
linkages.

Amylopectin

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 Recap: Carbohydrates

 Polysaccharides (cont.)
E.g. Cellulose = Polysaccharide composed of
2000 to 3000 glucose units linked together by
B-1,4-glycosidic linkages. Also known as fibre
because human do not have the enzyme to digest
it.
E.g. glycogen = similar to amylopectin but is
comparatively more highly branched and its branches
are shorter. A form of storage of carbohydrate in
animals.

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 Carbohydrates:
Sources
 Glucose: Grape, honey, sugar cane juice.
 Fructose: Apple, grape, honey, sugar cane juice.
 Sucrose: Carrot, peanut, sweet corn, maple syrup,
sugarbeet, sugar cane juice.
 Lactose: Milk.
 Starch (amylose and amylopectin): Potato, sweet
potato, rice.
 Cellulose: Celery, carrot, cabbage.

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 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
SUGARS

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 1. Sweetness

 All sugars are sweet to the tongue

 All sugars do not have the same sweetness.

Sweetener Relative sweetness

Fructose 1.3
_____
Sucrose 1
_____
Invert sugar 0.85 - 1.0
Glucose 0.56
Galactose 0.4 - 0.6
Maltose 0.3 - 0.5
Lactose 0.2 - 0.3

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 2. Hygroscopicity

 attract
The ability to _________ hold water
and ____________.
 This property is useful in maintaining the
freshness
_____________ of some baked products.
 This property also causes problems in food
when the relative humidity is high.
 E.g. sugar-coated outer pastilles will dissolve
by absorbing water from the atmosphere and
the pastilles will appear moist (or wet).

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 3. Solubility

 dissolve
The ability to ___________ in water.
 When sugar is placed in water:
the water molecules form hydrogen bonds with the sugar
molecules
water hydrates them and removes them from the sugar
crystals.
 temperature
Solubility of sugars depend on the __________.
As the water temperature , the amount of sugar
capable of being dissolved in a given amount of
increase
water also _________.

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 3. Solubility

 temperature
Solubility also depends on the _______________.

Sugar Grams of sugar dissolved

in 100 ml water @ 50ºC
Fructose 86.9
Sucrose 72.2
Glucose 65.0
Maltose 58.3
Lactose 29.8
Taken from McWilliams, M. (2008), Foods: Experimental Perspectives, 6th Ed.

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 3. Solubility

 affect food texture

Solubility can also ___________________.
 E.g. Low solubility of lactose promotes the
formation of lactose crystals in ice cream
during storage
 results in a sandy textured in ice cream.

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 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF
SUGARS

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 1. Hydrolysis

 With disaccharides / polysaccharides:

 ______________
splitting of a molecule by the uptake
of a molecule of water.
 E.g. Amylose  ________
dextrins  maltose  _________
glucose

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 1. Hydrolysis

 hydrolyse
Sucrose will ___________ to produce
glucose
________ fructose
and _________.
 inversion
This specific process is known as _________.
 invert sugar
The product is known as ________________.
Invert sugar:
A sugar formed by the hydrolysis of sucrose.
It is a mixture of equal amount of fructose and glucose.

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 1. Hydrolysis

 Occurs in:
acidic
________ medium, e.g. lemon juice
water
the presence of _______
heat
_______
OR
enzymes
added ________ (invertase or sucrase)
to cool candy

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 1. Hydrolysis

 Inversion will influence the final texture of

candy
 resulting in a ______
softer smoother
and ________
texture by preventing the formation of large
crystalline aggregates.
 Large crystalline aggregates will result in
sandy and gritty texture.

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 2. Caramelization

 The process where sugar is being broken

down into a variety of compounds, including
organic acids, aldehydes, and ketones, due
to extremely intense heat.
 This process is classified as
non-enzymatic browning
__________________________________:
no enzymes
________________ involved
chemical reaction
_________________ taking place

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 2. Caramelization

 degree of heat
Depending on the __________________
treatment, caramelization of sugar can create
desirable colour and flavour changes to the
food.
 Colour can range from pale golden brown to
dark brown to black (burnt) colour.
 Flavour changes
___________________ from the clean, sweet
taste of sugar to a new and distinctive taste.

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 2. Caramelization

 When sugar (usually sucrose) is heated:

1. sucrose invert sugar

2. Invert sugar (fructose and glucose) ring structures

open up
3. fructose & glucose polymers
series of ________
i.e. trisaccharides to oligosaccharides
(as many as 10 monosaccharides)

4. organic acids, aldehydes and ketones

responsible for the characteristic colours
and flavours of caramelized sugar.
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 3. Maillard Reaction

 non-enzymatic browning
Another ________________________
 Occurs when a protein and a sugar are heated or
stored together for some time.
 condensation
A series of reactions involving _________________
of:
reducing sugar + amine

Reducing sugar = sugar having a

free carbonyl group. (C=O) Amine (H2N-) from
E.g. glucose, fructose, galactose, amino acids or
lactose and maltose. proteins.

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 3. Maillard Reaction

1. Condensation:

Reducing + Amine glycosylamine

________________
sugars sources

The reducing sugar reacts with the amine group of

AA
an ____________ or protein to form glycosylamine.

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 3. Maillard Reaction

Rearrangement
2. ____________________:

Glycosylamines Colourless intermediates

amadori compounds
(_________________)

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 3. Maillard Reaction

3. Polymerization:

Colourless Brown-coloured polymers

intermediates melanoidins
(__________________)

This glycosylamine undergoes more reactions to

eventually produce melanoidin pigments.

volatile products
Highly ___________________ such as aldehydes,
pyrazines, etc contribute to the aroma and flavours in
Maillard reaction.

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 3. Maillard Reaction

 The amount of browning varies depending on the sugars

present:
 hexoses
Xylose > arabinose > __________ (galactose,
disaccharides
mannose, glucose, fructose) > ___________
(maltose, lactose, sucrose).
 Lysine
_________ is the amino acid most susceptible to Maillard
reaction.
 The colour of the food will change from colourless to
golden colour to reddish brown and finally to dark
brown.

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 3. Maillard Reaction

 Maillard reaction is faster at:

temperatures
elevated _____________
food with a high content of sugar
high
food with a _____ protein
content of ______
alkaline environment (or high pH) – ______
5-8

low water
food with ___________ content – (15%
maximum)

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 3. Maillard Reaction

 It can also occur at room temperature during

extended periods of storage.
 E.g.
Condensed milk stored for a long time.
Browning of bread during baking.
Browning of egg white powder during the
drying process.

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 4. Reduction

 carbonyl group
The _____________ of sugars can be
reduced to an alcohol – _______________.
sugar alcohol

 Glucose  sorbitol.
 Sugar alcohols occur naturally in pears and
celery.
 Sugar alcohols are absorbed at a very slow
rate by the body
 can be used as a sweetener in _________
diabetic
foods.
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 4. Reduction

 Sugar alcohols occur naturally in certain foods.

Sugar alcohols in several foods
Product Xylitol Mannitol Sorbitol
Pears -- -- 4600
Raspberries 268 -- --
Strawberries 362 -- --
Peaches -- -- 960
Celery -- 4050 --

 Sugar alcohols are absorbed at a very slow rate by

the body
diabetic foods
 can be used as a sweetener in ______________.
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 FUNCTIONS OF SUGAR IN
FOODS

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 1. Sweetness

 Sugars contribute sweetness to food

products.
 E.g. candies.

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 2. Colour

 Sugars contribute colour ranging from light

yellow to golden to light brown to dark from
caramelization and Maillard reaction.
 E.g. bakery products.

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 3. Flavours

 Caramel
____________ flavour which develops when
sugars are being heated at high heat.
 E.g. flavour in toffee, brittle peanut.
 Offset
____________ other flavours.
 E.g. acidic in tomato sauces, bitterness in
chocolate.

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 4. Texture

 Increase viscocity
________________________:
 As sugar concentration increases, solution
becomes more viscous (thick).
E.g. sugar syrup.
 Sugar is often added to soft drinks to increase
its viscosity or to provide body to the drink.

Viscosity
= the ability of a fluid to develop and maintain shearing stress
and offer resistance to flow

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 4. Texture

 Increase tenderness
_____________________ in baked products:
 Tenderness increases as more sugar is added.
binds with water
 Sugar _________________ thus, limiting the
amount of water available to react with the flour
to form gluten complexes.
 This resulted in less gluten being formed and
therefore the baked product is more tender.

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 4. Texture

 increase the temperature

Sugar also __________________ where gluten
complexes coagulate (or set).
 So, there is more time for the cell walls in the
dough to stretch before the final volume of the
baked product is defined.
 retains moisture
Sugar _______________ in bakery products
due to its hygroscopicity.

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 5. Preservation

 At high concentration, sugars prevent growth of

micro-organisms because they
reduce the water activity
______________________ of food to a level that
cannot support bacterial growth.
 E.g. jams and jellies

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 6. Base for chocolate
coating
 For chocolate with fillings, such as chocolate covered
cherries, a cream paste is made from sucrose with
invertase
the inclusion of _______________.
 Melted chocolate is then coated over the paste.
 Upon storage, the invertase will convert sucrose to
glucose
____________ fructose
and ____________ (or inverted
sugar) in a fluid form contained within the chocolate
shell.

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 7. Substrate for
fermentation
 In bread making, sugar is used by yeast to
produce CO2 and alcohol which is responsible for
the desired texture and flavour in bread.
Yeast
Sugar
 In wine making, glucose in grapes is converted
by yeast to ethanol, CO2 and other flavour
compounds.
Yeast
Glucose
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 7. Substrate for
fermentation
 In yoghurt production, lactose in milk is
lactic acid bacteria to produce lactic
fermented by ____________
acid which contributes to the flavour in yoghurt.

Lactose lactic acid (provides flavour)

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 Summary

 From Part 1 of Carbohydrates topic, we

have learnt about sugars and its . . .
 Physical properties
 Chemical properties
 Functions in foods

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