Topic 4 (Part 3)

(e-learning)
Carbohydrates
FC AY 2017 – 2018
 In Part 3, we will be
covering…
 Dietary Fibre
 Soluble
 Insoluble

 Analytical tests for carbohydrates in food

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 Dietary Fibre
“ … is a complex group of plant substances that
are __________________________________.”
Food Total Dietary Fibre (TDF)
All-bran cereal 28.1
Lettuce 26.0
Potatoes, cooked 11.6
Mushrooms 19.2
Apples 14.7
Raspberries 53.5
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 Dietary Fibre

 Can be categorized into soluble and insoluble

fibre:
1. Soluble fibre:
oligosaccharides, pectic substances and
gums (agar, carrageenan)
2. Insoluble fibre:
cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin

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 INSOLUBLE FIBRE

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 Cellulose

 Structural polysaccharides that provide

support in plant tissues.
 Can be found in cell walls of fruits and
vegetables, or the outer layer of grains
(bran).
 A linear polymer of glucose molecules link
by _______-glycosidic bonds.

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 Cellulose vs Amylose
 Cellulose:
 A linear polymer of glucose molecules linked by -
1,4-glycosidic bonds.
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
H H OH
O 4 1 O 4 1
HH HH
 Amylose:
 A linear polymer of glucose molecules linked by α-
1,4-glycosidic bonds.
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
H H H H
4 1 4 1
O O OH

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 Cellulose
 The hydroxyl groups present in the polymers
readily form hydrogen bonds with water or other
polar molecules.
 They are good in ____________________ and
keep the food moist.
 Cellulose can be digested by cellulase found in
fungi and some bacteria to glucose.
 Cellulose is bio-degradable.
 Cellulase is _______________ in humans.
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 Cellulose

 Commercially, diluted acids are used to treat

cellulose to produce very fine particles known
as microcrystalline cellulose (MCC).
 They are used as _____________________
food additives.

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 SOLUBLE FIBRE

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 Pectic Substances

 This term includes _______________________

__________
 Found in fruits and some root vegetable.
 E.g. apples, peel of citrus fruits, peaches,
apricot.

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 Pectic Substances
OH

 Pectic Substances CH2

= a unique group of OH
O
H
H
polysaccharides which OH H
H OH
are polymers of O

galacturonic acid and H OH C OH

Galactose O
its derivatives. OH
H
H

OH H
H OH

H OH

Galacturonic acid

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 Pectic Substances:
Protopectin
 A form of water-insoluble pectic substances which occurs
in immature __________ fruits
 Contributes to the ____________ of unripe fruits.
 It is a methylated, very long polymer of galacturonic acid.
O O
O
C OH C OCH3 O
C OCH3
O O C OCH3
OH H H O
H H H O
O H
O H
OH H OH H
O H
H OH H OH H
OH H O
H
H
H OH H OH
H OH
Galacturonic acid H OH
Protopectin
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 Pectic Substances:
Pectin
As fruits ripen,
 demethylation (by pectinesterases) and hydrolysis
(by protopectinases) occur.
 When only a __________________________ has
taken place, the pectic substances are known as
pectins.

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 Pectic Substances:
Pectin
 Demethylation by pectinesterases:
O
O
C OCH3
C OH
O
H Pectinesterases O
H H
O
O H
O
H
OH H
OH H O + CH3OH
H

H OH
H OH

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 Pectic Substances:
Pectin
Pectins can be classified into:
1. ______________
 pectins containing less than 50% methoxyl
groups.

2. ____________
 pectins containing more than 50% methoxyl
groups.
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 Pectic Substances:
Pectin
 Pectins present in fruits are used to make jam.
 Pectins are ________ due to the large number
of hydroxyl (-OH) and charged carboxyl groups
(-COO-) present in the polymers.
 These groups can bind with water and make
pectin a _________________.
 The negative charges also keep the polymers
apart and make a stable sol.

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 Pectic Substances:
Pectin
O
O
Pectin C OH
C OCH3
O
H O
H H
O H
OH H
OH H O
H
H
H OH
H OH

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 Pectic Substances:
Pectic acid
As fruits continue to ripen:
Polymers gradually become shorter and _____
______________________
This shorter polymers of galacturonic acid are
known as pectic acid.
 Pectic acid is found in ____________________
fruits and vegetables.
 These types of pectic substances cannot form
gel.
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 Pectic Substances:
Pectic acid

O
Pectic acid O
C OH
C OH
O
H O
H H
O H
OH H
OH H O
H
H
H OH
H OH

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 ANALYTICAL TESTS

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 Carbohydrate
 Carbohydrate (CHO) content of a food can be
determined by calculating the percent remaining after
all the other components have been measured:

%CHO =
100% -

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 Reducing Sugars
_____________________:
 A titration method to determine the amount of
reducing sugars in a sample.
 Carbohydrate solution (sample) is added to a
known amount of boiling copper sulfate solution
and a methylene blue indicator.
 The reducing sugars in the sample will react with
the copper sulfate in the flask.

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 Reducing Sugars

 When all the copper sulfate has reacted, additional

reducing sugars will cause the indicator to change
from __________________.
 The volume of sugar solution required to reach the
end-point of the titration is recorded.
 An equation is used to convert the volume used to
the amount of reducing sugar present in the sugar
solution (sample).

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 Total Dietary Fibre

 Determines the amount of ALL dietary fibres

present in the food sample:
 Cellulose
 Hemicellulose
 Lignin
 Pectin
 Other soluble fibres

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 Total Dietary Fibre

Defatted, dried sample

Boiling
Protease added
Amyloglucosidase

Wash with ethanol

Drying
Correct for undigested protein, ash and blank

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 Crude Fibre
Determination
 Only gives an estimation of _______________
in foods.
 Measures cellulose and lignin but not
hemicellulose, pectins and other soluble fibres.
 Hemicellulose, pectins and other soluble fibres
are hydrolyzed by the acids and alkali used in
the process.

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 Crude Fibre
Determination
 Defatted sample is treated with H2SO4 and NaOH:
 Proteins are hydrolyzed to amino acids
 Starch gelatinized in the presence of water and heat.
Then, it is hydrolyzed to glucose.
 Insoluble residual = fibre and mineral
 Ashing process burnt away the fibre.
 Weight difference between the insoluble residual and the
ashed residual = crude fibre

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 Summary

 From Part 3 of Carbohydrates topic, we have

learnt about…
 Dietary Fibre
Cellulose
Pectic substances
 Analytical tests for carbohydrates in food:
Reducing sugar
Total dietary fibre
FC AY17-18 Crude fibre 29