Heat Transfer Lectures

Chemical Engineering Department

University of Technology, Iraq

Empirical Relations for Pipe and Tube Flow

The analysis of the previous section has shown how one might analytically attack the
problem of heat transfer in fully developed laminar flow. The cases of undeveloped laminar flow,
flow systems where the fluid properties vary widely with temperature, and turbulent-flow systems
are considerably more complicated but are of very important practical interest in the design of heat
exchangers and associated heat transfer equipment. These more complicated problems may
sometimes be solved analytically, but the solutions, when possible, are very tedious. For design
and engineering purposes, empirical correlations are usually of greatest practical utility. In this
section, we present some of the more important and useful empirical relations and point out their
limitations.
The Bulk Temperature
First, let us give some further consideration to the bulk-temperature concept that is
important in all heat-transfer problems involving flow inside closed channels. Thus, for the tube
flow depicted in Figure 1, the total energy added can be expressed in terms of a bulk-temperature
difference by
𝑞 = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑃 (𝑇𝑏2 − 𝑇𝑏1 ) (1)
Provided 𝐶𝑃 is reasonably constant over the length. In some differential length 𝑑𝑥, the heat added
𝑑𝑞 can be expressed either in terms of a bulk-temperature difference or in terms of the heat-transfer
coefficient
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇𝑏 = ℎ(2𝜋𝑟)𝑑𝑥(𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑏 ) (2)
where 𝑇𝑤 and 𝑇𝑏 are the wall and bulk temperatures at the particular 𝑥 location. The total heat
transfer can also be expressed as
𝑞 = ℎ 𝐴(𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑏 )𝑎𝑣 (3)
where 𝐴 is the total surface area for heat transfer. Because both 𝑇𝑤 and 𝑇𝑏 can vary along the length
of the tube, a suitable averaging process must be adopted for use with the above Equation (3). In
this chapter, most of our attention will be focused on methods for determining ℎ, the convection
heat-transfer coefficient.

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Figure 1: Total heat transfer in terms of the bulk-temperature difference

Empirical Correlations of Calculation Heat Transfer for Fully Developed

Turbulent Flow in Tubes
A traditional expression for calculation of heat transfer in fully developed turbulent flow in smooth
tubes is that recommended by Dittus and Boelter, 1930
𝑁𝑢𝑑 = 0.023 𝑅𝑒𝑑0.8 𝑃𝑟 𝑛 (4)
The physical properties in this equation are evaluated at the average fluid bulk temperature, and
the exponent n has the following values:
𝑛 = 0.4 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑛 = 0.3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
Equation (4) is valid for fully developed turbulent flow in smooth tubes for fluids with Prandtl
numbers ranging from about 0.6 to 100 and with moderate temperature differences between wall
and fluid conditions.
If wide temperature differences are present in the flow, there may be an appreciable change
in the fluid properties between the wall of the tube and the central flow. These property variations
may be evidenced by a change in the velocity profile as indicated in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Influence of heating on velocity profile in laminar tube flow

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The deviations from the velocity profile for isothermal flow as shown in this figure are a
result of the fact that the viscosity of gases increases with an increase in temperature, while the
viscosities of liquids decrease with an increase in temperature. To take into account the physical
property variations, Sieder and Tate (1936) recommend the following relation:
𝜇 0.14
𝑁𝑢𝑑 = 0.023 𝑅𝑒𝑑0.8 𝑃𝑟 1/3 ( ) (5)
𝜇𝑤
All physical properties are evaluated at bulk-temperature conditions, except μw, which is
evaluated at the wall temperature. Equations (4) and (5) apply to fully developed turbulent flow in
tubes.
In the entrance region, the flow is not developed, and Nusselt (1931) recommended the
following equation:
𝑑 0.055 𝐿
𝑁𝑢𝑑 = 0.036 𝑅𝑒𝑑0.8 𝑃𝑟1/3 ( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 10 < < 400 (6)
𝐿 𝑑
where 𝐿 is the length of the tube and 𝑑 is the tube diameter. The properties in Equation (6) are
evaluated at the mean bulk temperature.
Empirical Relation for Laminar Heat Transfer in Tubes
A somewhat simpler empirical relation was proposed by Sieder and Tate (1936) for laminar
heat transfer in tubes:
𝑑 1/3 𝜇 0.14
̅̅̅̅̅̅ 1/3
𝑁𝑢𝑑 = 1.86 (𝑅𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑟) ( ) ( ) (7)
𝐿 𝜇𝑤
In this formula, the average heat-transfer coefficient is based on the arithmetic average of
the inlet and outlet temperature differences, and all fluid properties are evaluated at the mean bulk
temperature of the fluid, except 𝜇𝑤 , which is evaluated at the wall temperature. Equation (7) is
valid if the following condition is satisfied
𝑑
𝑅𝑒𝑑 Pr > 10
𝐿
The product of the Reynolds and Prandtl numbers that occurs in the laminar-flow
correlations is called the Peclet number
𝑑𝑢𝜌𝐶𝑃
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑅𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑟
𝑘

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Note: If the channel through which the fluid flows is not of circular cross-section, it is
recommended that the heat-transfer correlations be based on the hydraulic diameter DH, defined
by
4𝐴
𝐷𝐻 =
𝑃
where A is the cross-sectional area of the flow and P is the wetted perimeter. This particular
grouping of terms is used because it yields the value of the physical diameter when applied to a
circular cross-section. The hydraulic diameter should be used in calculating the Nusselt and
Reynolds numbers, and in establishing the friction coefficient for use with the Reynolds analogy.

Example 1: Air at 2 atm and 200◦C is heated as it flows through a tube with a diameter of 1 in
(2.54 cm) at a velocity of 10 m/s. Calculate the heat transfer per unit length of tube if a constant
heat-flux condition is maintained at the wall and the wall temperature is 20◦C above the air
temperature, all along the length of the tube. How much would the bulk temperature increase over
a 3-m length of the tube?
Solution:
We first calculate the Reynolds number to determine if the flow is laminar or turbulent, and then
select the appropriate empirical correlation to calculate the heat transfer. The properties of air at a
bulk temperature of 200◦C are as follows:
𝑃
𝜌=
𝑅𝑇
𝑃 = 2 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = (2)1.0132 × 105 𝑃𝑎
𝑇 = 200 𝐶 𝑜 = 200 + 273 = 473 𝐾
𝐽
𝑅 = 287
𝑘𝑔. 𝐾
𝑃 2 × 1.0132 × 105
𝜌= = = 1.493 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑅𝑇 (287)(473)
From Appendix A of heat transfer book (J.P. Holman), the physical properties of air at a bulk
temperature of 200◦C are as follows:
𝑃𝑟 = 0.681
𝜇 = 2.57 × 10−5 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚. 𝑠
𝑘 = 0.0386 𝑊 ⁄𝑚. 𝐶 𝑜
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𝐶𝑃 = 1.025 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔. 𝐶 𝑜
We need to calculate Reynolds number
𝜌 𝑢𝑚 𝑑 (1.493)(10)(0.0254)
𝑅𝑒𝑑 = = = 14756
𝜇 2.57 × 10−5
According to the obtained Reynolds number (i.e., 14756), the flow is turbulent. Therefore, we will
use the following Equation to calculate the heat transfer coefficient:
𝑁𝑢𝑑 = 0.023 𝑅𝑒𝑑0.8 𝑃𝑟 𝑛 (4)
Since this process including heat the air. Therefore, the value of the exponent n will be 0.4
𝑁𝑢𝑑 = 0.023 𝑅𝑒𝑑0.8 𝑃𝑟 0.4
𝑁𝑢𝑑 = 0.023 (14756)0.8 (0.681)0.4 = 42.67
ℎ𝑑 ℎ (0.0254)
𝑁𝑢𝑑 = ⇒ 42.67 = ⇒ ℎ = 64.85 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2 . 𝐶 𝑜
𝑘 0.0386
The heat flow per unit length can be calculated from the following equation:
𝑞 = ℎ 𝐴 (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑏 ) = ℎ (𝜋𝐷𝐿)(𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑏 )
𝑞
= ℎ 𝜋𝐷 (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑏 ) = (64.85)(0.0254𝜋)(220 − 200) = 103.5 𝑊/𝑚
𝐿
We can now make an energy balance to calculate the increase in bulk temperature in a 3.0-m
length of tube:
𝑞
𝑞 = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑃 ∆𝑇𝑏 = 𝐿 ( )
𝐿
We need to calculate the mass flowrate
𝜋𝑑2 𝜋(0.0254)2
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑢𝑚 𝐴 = 𝜌𝑢𝑚 ( )(
= 1.493 10 ) = 0.00756 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑠
4 4
𝑞
𝐿 ( ) = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑃 ∆𝑇𝑏 ⇒ (3)(103.5) = (0.00756 )(1025)∆𝑇𝑏
𝐿
∆𝑇𝑏 = 40.04 𝐶 𝑜

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Example 2: Water at 60◦C enters a tube of 1-in (2.54-cm) diameter at a mean flow velocity of 2
cm/s. Calculate the exit water temperature if the tube is 3.0 m long and the wall temperature is
constant at 80◦C.

Solution:

We first evaluate the Reynolds number at the inlet bulk temperature (60 oC) to determine the flow
regime. From Appendix A of heat transfer book (J.P. Holman), the physical properties of water at 60 oC
are as follows:

𝜌 = 985 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑃𝑟 = 3.02
𝜇 = 4.71 × 10−4 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚. 𝑠
𝑘 = 0.651 𝑊 ⁄𝑚. 𝐶 𝑜
𝐶𝑃 = 4.18 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔. 𝐶 𝑜
We need to calculate Reynolds number
𝜌 𝑢𝑚 𝑑 (985)(0.02)(0.0254)
𝑅𝑒𝑑 = = = 1062
𝜇 4.71 × 10−4
According to the obtained Reynolds number (i.e., 1062), the flow is laminar, but we need to
calculate the additional parameter.
𝑑
𝑅𝑒𝑑 Pr > 10
𝐿

0.0254
(1062)(3.02) > 10 ⇒ 27.15 > 10
3

Hence Equation (7) is applicable.

𝑑 1/3 𝜇 0.14
̅̅̅̅̅̅ 1/3
𝑁𝑢𝑑 = 1.86 (𝑅𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑟) ( ) ( ) (7)
𝐿 𝜇𝑤
We do not yet know the mean bulk temperature to evaluate the physical properties, so we first
make the calculation on the basis of 60◦C, determine an exit bulk temperature, and then make a
second iteration to obtain a more precise value. When inlet and outlet conditions are designated
with the subscripts 1 and 2, respectively, the energy balance becomes

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𝑇𝑏1 + 𝑇𝑏2
𝑞 = ℎ𝜋𝑑𝐿 (𝑇𝑤 − ) = 𝑚̇ 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇𝑏2 − 𝑇𝑏1 )
2

The viscosity of water at wall temperature (80 oC) is

𝜇𝑤 = 3.55 × 10−4 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚. 𝑠

0.14
0.0254 1/3 4.71 × 10−4
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑁𝑢𝑑 = 1.86 (1062 × 3.02) 1/3
( ) ( ) = 5.816
3 3.55 × 10−4

ℎ𝑑 ℎ (0.0254)
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑁𝑢𝑑 = ⇒ 5.816 = ⇒ ℎ = 149.1 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2 . 𝐶 𝑜
𝑘 0.651

We need to calculate the mass flowrate

𝜋𝑑2 𝜋(0.0254)2
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑢𝑚 𝐴 = 𝜌𝑢𝑚 = (985)(0.02) = 0.00998 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑠
4 4
Now we can use the below equation

𝑇𝑏1 + 𝑇𝑏2
𝑞 = ℎ𝜋𝑑𝐿 (𝑇𝑤 − ) = 𝑚̇ 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇𝑏2 − 𝑇𝑏1 )
2

60 + 𝑇𝑏2
𝑞 = (149.1)(𝜋)(0.0254)(3) (80 − ) = (0.00998)(4180) (𝑇𝑏2 − 60)
2

𝑇𝑏2 = 71.98 𝐶 𝑜

Thus, we should go back and evaluate properties at

𝑇𝑏1 + 𝑇𝑏2 60 + 71.98

𝑇𝑏,𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = = 66 𝐶 𝑜
2 2

From Appendix A of heat transfer book (J.P. Holman), the physical properties of water at 66 oC
are as follows:

𝜌 = 982 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑃𝑟 = 2.78
𝜇 = 4.36 × 10−4 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚. 𝑠
𝑘 = 0.656 𝑊 ⁄𝑚. 𝐶 𝑜
𝐶𝑃 = 4185 𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔. 𝐶 𝑜

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We need to calculate Reynolds number

𝜌 𝑢𝑚 𝑑 (982)(0.02)(0.0254)
𝑅𝑒𝑑 = = = 1144
𝜇 4.36 × 10−4
𝑑
𝑅𝑒𝑑 Pr > 10
𝐿

0.0254
(1144)(2.78) > 10 ⇒ 27 > 10
3

𝑑 1/3 𝜇 0.14
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑁𝑢𝑑 = 1.86 (𝑅𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑟)1/3 ( ) ( )
𝐿 𝜇𝑤

0.14
0.0254 1/3 4.36 × 10−4
̅̅̅̅̅̅ 1/3
𝑁𝑢𝑑 = 1.86 (1144 × 2.78) ( ) ( ) = 5.743
3 3.55 × 10−4

ℎ𝑑 ℎ (0.0254)
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑁𝑢𝑑 = ⇒ 5.743 = ⇒ ℎ = 148.3 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2 . 𝐶 𝑜
𝑘 0.656

𝑇𝑏1 + 𝑇𝑏2
𝑞 = ℎ𝜋𝑑𝐿 (𝑇𝑤 − ) = 𝑚̇ 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇𝑏2 − 𝑇𝑏1 )
2

60 + 𝑇𝑏2
𝑞 = (148.3)(𝜋)(0.0254)(3) (80 − ) = (0.00998)(4185) (𝑇𝑏2 − 60)
2

𝑇𝑏2 = 71.88 𝐶 𝑜

The iteration makes very little difference in this problem. If a large bulk-temperature
difference had been encountered, the change in properties could have had a larger effect.

Example 3: For water with following conditions: Tav=298 K, Do=25 mm, wall thickness=1.6 mm,
number of tubes (n)=60 tubes, 𝑚̇=23.5 kg/s, ρ=1000 kg/m3, k=0.615 W/m. K, 𝝁=0.000894 kg/m.s,
CP=4180 J/kg. K. Calculate the heat transfer coefficient

Solution:
1.6 mm
𝐷𝑜 = 𝐷𝑖 + 2∆𝑥 ⇒ 𝐷𝑖 = 𝐷𝑜 − 2∆𝑥
Do=25 mm
𝐷𝑖 = 𝐷𝑜 − 2∆𝑥 = 25 − 2(1.6) = 21.8 𝑚𝑚 = 0.0218 𝑚

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑚3 ⁄𝑠) = 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚⁄𝑠) × 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠‒ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑚2 )

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𝑄
𝑄(𝑚3 ⁄𝑠) = 𝑢 (𝑚⁄𝑠) × 𝐴 (𝑚2 ) ⇒ 𝑢 =
𝐴

𝑚̇
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑚̇ = 𝜌 𝑄 ⇒ 𝑄 =
𝜌

𝑚̇
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑢 =
𝜌𝐴

Now, we can calculate the velocity per each pipe as follows:

𝑚̇ 23.5
𝑢= = = 1.05 𝑚/𝑠
(𝜌)(𝑛)(𝐴) (1000)(60) (𝜋 (0.0218)2 )
4

We need to calculate Reynolds number

𝜌 𝑢𝑚 𝑑 (1000)(1.05)(0.0218)
𝑅𝑒𝑑 = = = 25604
𝜇 0.000894
We need to calculate Prandtl number
𝜇 𝐶𝑃 (0.000894)(4180)
𝑃𝑟 = = = 6.08
𝑘 0.615
According to the obtained Reynolds number (i.e., 25604), the flow is turbulent. Therefore, we
will use the following Equation to calculate the heat transfer coefficient:
𝑁𝑢𝑑 = 0.023 𝑅𝑒𝑑0.8 𝑃𝑟 0.4

ℎ. 𝑑 𝑘
𝑁𝑢𝑑 = = 0.023 𝑅𝑒𝑑0.8 𝑃𝑟 0.4 ⇒ ℎ = 0.023 𝑅𝑒𝑑0.8 𝑃𝑟 0.4 ( )
𝑘 𝑑

0.615
ℎ = 0.023 (25604)0.8 (6.08)0.4 ( ) = 4490 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2 . 𝐾
0.0218

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Example 4: A certain liquid at (20 oC) flows through a pipe of (60 mm) diameter at the rate of
(0.01 kg/s). The pipe is heated with a constant heat flux at the wall of (1500 W/m2). Calculate the
length of the pipe necessary to heat the liquid to (80 oC). Calculate also the wall temperature at
the end of the pipe.

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑡 50 𝐶 𝑜 :

𝑃𝑟 = 2.2, 𝑘 = 0.643 𝑊 ⁄𝑚. 𝐶 𝑜 , 𝜇 = 550 × 10−6 𝑁. 𝑠⁄𝑚2 , 𝐶𝑃 = 4181 𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔. 𝐾

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑡 80 𝐶 𝑜 :

𝑃𝑟 = 2.2, 𝑘 = 0.67 𝑊 ⁄𝑚. 𝐶 𝑜 , 𝜇 = 352 × 10−6 𝑁. 𝑠⁄𝑚2 , 𝐶𝑃 = 4195 𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔. 𝐾

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝑁𝑢𝑑 = 0.023 𝑅𝑒𝑑0.8 𝑃𝑟 0.4

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝑁𝑢𝑑 = 1.86 (𝑅𝑒𝑑 Pr 𝐷/𝐿)1/3

Solution: 𝒒′′ = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑾⁄𝒎𝟐

𝑞 = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇 ⇒ 𝑞 ′′ 𝐴 = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑖 )

Liquid Liquid
𝑞 ′′ 𝜋𝐷𝐿 = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑖 ) Ti= 20 oC D=60 mm To= 80 oC
𝒎̇= 0.01 kg/s 𝒎̇= 0.01 kg/s

(1500) (𝜋)(0.06)𝐿 = (0.01)(4181)(80 − 20) L=?

𝐿 = 8.9 = 9 𝑚

𝑞 = ℎ 𝐴 (𝑇𝑊 − 𝑇𝑜 ) ⇒ 𝑞 ′′ = ℎ(𝑇𝑊 − 𝑇𝑜 )

Now, we need to find heat transfer coefficient

𝑚̇
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐺 = 𝜌𝑢 = (𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚2 . 𝑠)
𝐴

𝑚̇ 0.01 0.01
𝐺 = 𝜌𝑢 = =𝜋 =𝜋 = 3.54 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚2 . 𝑠
𝐴 2 2
4𝐷 4 (0.06)

We need to calculate Reynolds number

𝜌 𝑢𝑚 𝑑 𝐺. 𝑑 (3.54)(0.06)
𝑅𝑒𝑑 = = = = 603.4
𝜇 𝜇 352 × 10−6

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 Heat Transfer Lectures
Chemical Engineering Department
University of Technology, Iraq

According to the obtained Reynolds number (i.e., 603.4), the flow is laminar. Hence the following
equation will be used to calculate the heat transfer coefficient.
𝑁𝑢𝑑 = 1.86 (𝑅𝑒𝑑 Pr 𝐷/𝐿)1/3

We need also to calculate Prandtl number

𝜇 𝐶𝑃 (352 × 10−6 )(4195)
𝑃𝑟 = = = 2.2
𝑘 0.67
ℎ. 𝐷
𝑁𝑢𝑑 = = 1.86 (𝑅𝑒𝑑 Pr 𝐷/𝐿)1/3
𝑘
1
𝐷 3 𝑘
ℎ = 1.86 (𝑅𝑒𝑑 Pr ) ( )
𝐿 𝐷
ℎ = 1.86 [(603.4)(2.2)(0.06⁄9)]1/3 (0.67⁄0.06) = 43 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2 . 𝐶 𝑜
𝑞 ′′ = ℎ(𝑇𝑊 − 𝑇∞ )
1500 = 43(𝑇𝑊 − 80)
𝑇𝑤 = 115 𝐶 𝑜

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