II PUC PHYSICS Prof: S.N.

BHAT
S.N.BHAT PU COLLEGE
RAY OPTICS

INTRODUCTION

OPTICS is a branch of Physics, which deals with the study of light, its nature, its sources formation of
an image & to explain interference, diffraction & polarization.

Optics can be broadly categorized as

(i) Geometrical optics
(ii) Physical optics
Geometrical optics deals with the study of sources of light reflection, refraction, formation of the images,
optical instruments etc.

Physical optics deals with the nature of light & to explain the phenomenon like interference, diffraction &
polarization. Light is an electromagnetic wave & it does not require any medium for its propagation. Velocity
of light in air or vacuum is
v  3 105 Km / s OR v  3 108 m / s OR v  3 1010 cm / s
As the light enters any other medium its velocity decreases.

CHAPTER 1 REFRACTION AT A PLANE SURFACE

The change in the direction of ray of light when it passes from one medium to the other is called Refraction.

medium 1 XY = surface of separation I = angle of incidence

PQ = Incident ray r = angle of refraction

QR = refracted ray  = i  r = divation

MN = normal

medium 2

When a ray of light PQ is incident on a surface XY of the medium, there is a change in its direction, so that it
propagates along QR. This is called Refraction.

Then the change in the direction or deviation is  = i  r.

Note:
1) Velocity of light is maximum in air and it is C = 3 x 108 m/s. = 3 x 1010 cm/s
2) As the ray of light enters any other denser medium its velocity and wave length decreases.
3) As the ray of light travels from rarer to denser medium its velocity and wavelength decreases but
frequency remains constant.
4) As the ray of light passes from denser to rarer medium its velocity and wavelength increases but
frequency remains constant.
5) As the ray of light passes from rarer to denser medium its bends towards the normal, then the
deviation is  = i - 
6) When a ray of light passes from denser to rarer medium it bends away from the normal, then
the deviation is  =  - i

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LAWS OF REFRACTION

The following are the laws of refraction:

I Law: The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal drawn at the point of incidence, all lie in a same
Plane.

ILaw: OR Snell’s Law: According to Snell’s law, “the ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of
refraction is constant for a given pair of media and a given colour (Wavelength)”
Sin i
From Snell’s Law: 12 =
Sin r

Refractive Index () : Refractive index for pair of media can be defined as the ratio of sine of angle of
incidence to the sine of angle of refraction.

Sin i
Refractive index, 12 =
Sin r

Note: Under normal incidence, (i = 0, r = 0 )

Sin 0 0
then 12 =   indeterminant
Sin 0 0

Under this condition we define refractive index in terms of velocity of light.

Relative Refractive Index

The relative refractive index can be defined as the ratio of velocity of light in medium 1 to the velocity of
light in medium 2 We write

V1 velocity in medium 1
21 = 
V2 velocity in medium 2

Absolute refractive index: Absolute refractive index can be defined as the ratio of velocity of light in air
to the velocity of light in the medium.

C Velocity in air C Velocity in air

  for water w    4 / 3  1.33
V Velocity in medium Vw Velocity in water

C Velocity in air
for glass g    3 / 2  1.5
Vg Velocity in glass

The relation between Relative refractive index and absolute refractive index.

When a ray of light passes from medium 1 of refractive index 1 to medium 2 of refractive index 2,
Where velocities are v1 & v2 respectively

Sin i
From 21  ……….(1)
Sin r

V1 velocity in medium 1
21   ………(2)
V2 velocity in medium 2

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C
1 
C ………(3) 2  ……….........(4)
V1 V2

n2 c / v 2 n 2 v1
Divide eqn 3&4  
n1 c / v1 n1 v 2

2 Sini 2
21   from eq(2)  .......from..(1)
1 Sinr 1

1 Sin i  2 Sinr This is snell’s law.

Refraction through multiple media:

Consider the multiple media as shown, when a ray of light is incident on the surface of separation at angle
i,it gets refracted and finally emerges out with an angle e,

Apply Snell’s law for air – water

a Sin i = w Sin r1  [1]

Apply Snell’s law for water – glass

w Sin r1 = g Sin r2  [2]

Apply Snell’s law for glass - air

g Sin r2 = a Sin e  [3]

Comparing equation 1, 2, & 3 we get

a Sine i= aSine e

i=e

Angle of incidence = angle of emergence. Thus, the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray.

Lateral Shift (Ls)

Lateral shift is the perpendicular distance between incident ray and the emergent ray.

ABCD = rectangular glass slab i = angle of incidence

AD = t = thickness of the slab r = angle of refraction

PQ = Incident ray e = angle of emergence

QR = Refracted ray RS = Emergent ray

When a ray of light PQ is incident on the face AB at angle i , it gets refracted along QR making an angle r.
Again it is incident on the face CD, finally emerges out along RS, with angle of emergence e .In the
absence of the slab the ray PQ would have traveled along QTZ. Because of the slab this ray gets shifted by
a distance RT. This perpendicular distance RT is called Lateral shift.
t sin(i-r)
Expression for Lateral shift Ls 
cos r

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Note:
1. Lateral shift is zero for normal incidence.
2. Lateral shift depends on the following factors;
a) It depends on the thickness, ‘t’
b) It depends on angle of incidence, ‘I’
c) It depends on the refractive index of the material,
d) It depends on the refractive index of the surrounding medium.

Normal shift:
It is the apparent shift on the position of the object along the normal due to normal refraction.
Consider an object ‘O’ in a denser medium of refractive index . A ray of light OPQ incident normally
goes undeviated. Another ray ‘OR’ very close to OPQ incident at an angle i at the surface bends away
from the normal. If the ray RS is produced in the backward direction meets the normal at I. I is the
position of virtual image.

OP = real depth and IP = apparent depth.

real depth object dis tan ce
 Refractive index,   
apparent depth image distance

Normal shift , N S  OI  OP – IP
OP
= OP 

 1 (from eqn 5) But OP = u , the real depth of
 OP 1  
 
 1
 Normal shift, N S  u 1  
 

Note:

1. When an object is viewed through a composite medium having parallel surfaces, the total normal shift is
the sum of the normal shifts produced by individual medium.
2. The normal shift depends on
a) Real depth or thickness, u of the medium.
b) Refractive index of the medium
c) Refractive index of the surrounding medium
3. When the observer is in air and the object is in the medium, the object appears to be raised so that it
appears to the closer.
4. When the observer is in the medium and the object is in air, then the object appears to be farther away.

Total Internal Refraction (T I R)

When a ray of light passes from denser to rarer medium

if the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle
then the ray of light comes back to the same medium.
This is called Total Internal Reflection.

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Consider an object O in the denser medium ray of light is incident normally, it goes undeviated. Another
ray of light incident at an angle ‘i’ refracts away from the normal. If the angle of incidence is increases
then the angle of refraction also increases.

For a particular angle of incidence, the refracted ray makes an angle of 90 0 so that it graces the surface.
This angle of incidence is called critical angle. When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle
the ray of light comes back to the same medium this is called total internal reflection.

Conditions For TIR

The following are the conditions for TIR

1) Ray of light has to pass from denser to rarer medium
2) The angle of incidence must be greater than critical angle.
Note: Total internal reflection is not possible when the light ray passes from rarer to denser medium.
because angle of refraction cannot be 900.

Critical Angle(C)

Critical angle is that angle is that angle of incidence for which angle of refraction is 900.Critical angle
depends on refractive index of the medium. This is different for different media.

Effects of Refraction & Total Internal Reflection

1. A coin dropped in a tank containing water appears to be raised
due to normal refraction.
2. Sun can be seen before it rises and after it sets due to
atmospheric refraction.
3. The sparkling of the diamond is due to T.I.R. & due to dispersion.
The diamond a lower critical angle of 240 and a higher refractive index of 2.42. Once the
ray of light enters the diamond it stays therefore longer time due to T.I.R.
4. Mirage: It is an optical illusion and it takes place on the hot surfaces like hot tar roads runways,
deserts, etc. It is due to total internal reflection and refraction.

TOTAL REFLECTION PRISM:

Total reflection prism is a right angled isosceles prism made of glass. It has a lower critical angle of 24 0 it
works on the principle of total internal reflection. It can be used to;

1) To rotate the incident ray by 900.

2) By 1800.
3) To upright an inverted image.

Fig (1) Fig(2) Fig(3)

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Distinction between total reflection prism and plane mirror

The following are the distinction between plane mirror & total reflection prism:
T.R.P PLANE MIRROR
1) It does not require silvering 1) It requires silvering.
2) only one image formed 2) Formation of multiple images
3) 100% reflection takes place 3) Even with superior quality of silvering,
reflection is only 80 – 90%
3) No problem of tarnishing 4) It gets tarnished.

OPTIC FIBRE
It is a device works on the principle of T.I.R. It can be used to convey the ray of light for a desire distance
along a desired path.

It consists of number of thin filaments or fibers of thickness 1/1000 th of an inch. The fibres of the glass of
higher refractive index placed one over the other to form a bundle. The two ends are clamped using the
rings and the end faces are grounded and polished. over this bundle a glass of lower refractive index is
coated.

When a ray of light is made to incident at angle greater than the critical angle, T.I.R. takes place at the
inner face. Again series of T.I.R. takes place at the other place so that it follows zig –zag path. Thus light
can be conveyed for a desired distance.

APPLICATIONS:
1) The endoscope or a fibro scope is a medical probe used to scan the interior of the heart, stomach, etc.
It is made up of optic fibre and works on the principle of T.I.R.
3) It is used in computers
4) It is used in telecommunications.
5) It is used in refracto meters, which is used to determine the refractive index of a material.
*****

2. REFRACTION THROUGH PRISM

Prism is an optical medium bounded by the three rectangular faces.

The two faces are highly polished and are called refracting faces.
Other surface is little rough, this act as base of a prism.
In the principle section if the prism ABC AB & AC are refracting faces.
BC is the base.The angle b/w the refracting faces is called refracting angle or angle of the prism (A).

sin (A  D) / 2
Deviation due to prism or to derive n =
sin A / 2
ABC is the principal section of prism .When a ray of light PQ is incident on the face AB
at an angle i1, this ray gets refracted along QR with angle of refraction r1. Again the ray
QR is incident on face AC at an angle r2 and finally emerges out along RS with an angle of emergence i2. In the
absence of the prism the ray of light would have traveled along QTZ. But due to prism the ray is bent through
an angle d. d is the deviation.
ABC = Principal section of prism
PQ = Incident ray
QR = Refracted ray
RS = Emergent ray

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i1 = Angle of incidence
r1 = Angle of refraction
r2 = Angle of incidence on Ac
i2 = Angle of emergence
n = Refractive index of the prism
deviation due to face AB, d1 = i1 – r1
deviation due to face AC, d2 = i2 – r2
 Total deviation due to prism ABC is d = d1 + d2
= (i1 – r1) + (i2 –r2)
= (i1 + i2) – (r1 + r2) ……(1)
To calculate the angle of Prism A ,
In the triangle QNR

r1  r2  Q N R  1800 ……..(2)
In the cyclic quadrilateral AQNR

A  Q N R  1800 …….(3)
comparing equation 2 & 3, we get
A = r1 + r2 ……..(4)
substitute equation 4 in equation 1
d = i1 + i2 - A ……(5)
When the angle of incidence is increased, deviation increases. But at a particular angle of incidence , the
deviation becomes minimum. This angle is called angle of minimum deviation (D). Further increase in angle
of incidence increases the deviation.
Under minimum deviation condition refracted ray of light passes symmetrically through the prism ie.,
parallel to the base of the prism.
Under minimum deviation condition. We put d = D=Angle of Minimum deviation
i1 = i2 = i
r1 = r2 = r substitute this in equation 4& 5
Then A = r + r= 2r r = A/2
D = 2i – A ∴i=A+D substitute i & r in
Sin i sin(A  D) / 2
Refractive index,  = n=
Sin r sin A / 2

This is the expression for the refractive index of the prism

1. The RI for the equilateral prism is found to be √ 3, then calculate its angle of minimum deviation.
2. Calculate the angle of minimum deviation for an equilateral prism when the light is incident at an angle
of 500.
Special Case: When a ray of light is incident normally on one face,

Case 1: A ray of light incident normally on face of a prism just emerges from the opposite face, if its
refracting angle is equal to its critical angle.

In this case,  i1 = 0.  r1 = 0 and  i2 = 900.  r2 = C

But A = r1 + r2 .  A = C
If A > C, then r2 > C and the ray undergoes total internal reflection and light cannot emerge.

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If A < C, r2 < C and light can always emerge. Therefore light can just emerge only if A = C.

Case 2: A ray of light incident at grazing incidence on one face of a prism just emerges from
the opposite face when its refracting angle is twice the critical angle.

Here i1 = 900 and therefore r1 = C, i2 = 900 and therefore r2 = C.

We have A = r1 + r2.  A = 2C

i) When A > 2C, the incident ray undergoes total internal reflection at the second face of the prism. Hence the
ray cannot emerge.

ii) If A < 2C, light can always emerge.

iii) For light to just emerge A = 2C. Therefore for a ray of light to be transmitted through a prism, its
maximum permissible angle is 2C.

DISPERSION

When the white light is incident on the prism, it splits into seven colours. This is called dispersion.

Dispersion is the phenomenon in which a composite light splits into its constituents colours. The medium
which brings about the dispersion is called dispersive medium. In the formation of rainbow water droplets
active as dispersive medium.

The colour patches obtained on the screen due to the dispersion is called spectrum. The spectrum can
classified as a) pure spectrum b) impure spectrum

In a pure spectrum there is no over lapping colours, different colours can be seen distinctly. In an impure
spectrum there is over lapping colours such that different colours cannot be seen distinctly. Rainbow is an
example for impure spectrum

The medium which brings about the dispersion Dispersive medium

Reason for the dispersion

When white light is incident on the prism different colours travel with different velocity Because Prism
introduces different refractive indexes for different colours. So that red travels with maximum velocity
because its refractive index is less.
Violet travels with lesser velocity because is refractive index is more.
Violet ray bends maximum where as red ray ends to a minimum extent.
Angular dispersion:
Angular dispersion between any two colours can be defined as the difference in the deviation between any
two colours. Angular dispersion between red & violet

Angular dispersion between red & violet = d v – d r

=  V  1 A   R  1 A
=  V  1  ( R  1)  A

=  V  1  R  1  A
= (V - R) A

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Chapter – 3 REFRACTION THROUGH A SPHERICAL SURFACE
DENSER

RARER
RARER DENSER

CONCAVE
CONVEX

Lens is an optical medium bounded by two curved surfaces. Lenses find number of applications in various
optical instruments like microscope, telescope, camera and even in correcting the defect of human eye.

TERMS:

1 Centre Of Curvature[C]: it is the centre of the sphere for which the given spherical surface is a part.

2 Aperture: The surface exposed for refraction is called Aperture.

3 Pole[P]: it is the mid point of the spherical surface.

4 Radius Of Curvature[R]: It is the radius of the sphere for which the given spherical surface is apart

OR

It is the distance between pole and centre of curvature.

5 Principal Axis: It is a line passing through pole and centre of curvature.

6 Paraxial Rays: Rays of light which are parallel and close to principal axis are called paraxial rays.

7 Object Space: The medium in which the incident rays travel is called object space.

8 Image Space: The medium in which the refracted rays travel is called Image space.

9 Object Distance [  ]: It is the distance of the object from the pole.

10 Image Distance [V]: It is the distance of the image from the pole.

11 Normal: It is the line joining the point of incidence and the centre of curvature.

12 .Paraxial ray: Paraxial ray is the rays of light very close to principal axis.

n 2 n 2 n 2  n1
To derive  
v u R

Consider a spherical surface XY of radius of curvature R placed in air. An object O is placed at a distance u
from the pole. Light from the object O is incident on the curved surface XY at an angle i after refraction it
passes along MI with an angle of refraction r and forms a real image I at a distance v from the pole. Now
drop a perpendicular MD on the principal axis so that MD MP .

Applying Snell's law

n1sin i  n 2sin r When  is small,sin  

n1i  n 2 r ............(1)

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In  OMC,i     ................(2) int erior angle  sum of angle of exterior angle

In  IMC,   r  
r     .............(3)
MD MD
In  OMD, tan    
OD OD
MD MD
In IMD, tan    
ID ID
MD MD
In  CMD, tan    
CD CD
When  issmall, tan  

Substitute (2),(3)(4) in (1)

n1 (    )  n 2 (   )
 MD MD   MD MD 
n1     n2   
 OD CD   CD ID 
OD OP  u object dis tan ce
ID IP  v image distance from the pole
CD CP  R radiusof curvature
Applyingsign conventions u   ve R   ve v   ve

1 1   1 1
n1     n 2   
u R R v
n1 n1 n 2 n1
  
u R R v
n 2 n1  n 2  n1 
 
v u R

Note:

n2  n1
1) In the above expression P  is called power of a curved surface.
R

n 2  n1
2) For a plain surface, radius of curvature R  ,Then the power of curved surface is P  0


3) Curvature and radius of curvature is inversely related.

Sign conventions

Following sign conventions are used in drawing ray diagram

1. Distance = +ve if the distance is measured in the same direction as the direction of light ( parallel to
direction of light)
2. Distance = -ve, if the distance is measured in the opposite direction as the direction of light (anti parallel
to direction of light)
3. Height = +ve if it is measured parallel to +ve Y axis.
4. Height = -ve if it is measured anti parallel to –ve Y axis.

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LENSES:A lens is an optical medium bounded by either two spherical surfaces or one spherical surface and
one plane surface.
R 1=
PLANO R R R BICONCAVE R 2= 1
BICONVEX R1 R2 2
CONVEX LENS LENS
LENS

R1
R1
R1 = CONVEXD CONCAVE
LENS [ R2 > R1] CONCAVE CONVEX
PLANO R2=R R1 BICONCAVE R2 R2 R2=R
R1 BICONVEX R2 LENS [ R1 > R2] R2 R1 = PLANO
CONVEX LENS LENS
LENS
CONVEX LENS

TERMS:

Thin
R1
Lens: If the thickness
R of the lens is negligible compared to the radius of curvature, then the lens is called
1

as thin lens. (<< R)

CONVEXD CONCAVE
LENS [ R2 > R1] CONCAVE CONVEX
R 2 R 2=R
R
LENS [ R1 > R2]
R 2 1=
PLANO
CONVEX LENS

Optic centre(o)

For thin lens, it is the point inside the lens on the principal axis through which the incident ray passes
undeviated. For thick lens; it is the point of intersection of refracted ray and the principal axis for which the
emergent ray becomes parallel to the incident ray.

3 Principal Axis- It is the line passing through the two centres of curvatures.

4 Principal Focus[F] – It is he point on the principal axis at which refracted rays meet [in case of convex lens],
appears to be coming from [in case of concave lens].

f
f

[5] FOCAL LENGTH [F] – It is the distance between optic centre and the principal focus.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CONVEX AND CONCAVE LENS

Convex Concave
 Thinner at the edges  Thinner at the centre, thicker
thicker at the centre. at the edges.
 Converges rays of light.  Diverges the rays of light.
 Focal length is positive.  Focal length is negative.
 Power is positive.  Power is negative.

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LENS MAKERS FORMULA

1  1 1 
To derive   n 2  1   
f  R1 R 2 

For an object  placed at a ditance 'u' from a convex lens of focal length 'f' we get the real image at a distance
V. The formation of this image can be discussed in the following 2 steps.

Steps 1: consider the first surface AP1B

Let R1 = radius of curvature of A,P1B.

light from the object O is incident on surface . After refraction the real image is formed at I1 at a distance v1
from the pole P1.

n 2 n1 n 2  n1
From  
v u R
Here put v  v 1
and R  R1
n 2 n1 n 2  n1
  ....................(1)
v1 u R1

Step 2: Now consider the second surface AP2 B

Let R2 = radius of curvature of AP2B

For the second surface, the refracted ray of the first surface acts as incident ray and hence I acts as virtual
object. The final real image is formed at I in air (n1) at a distance v.

put u  v1  virtualk object dis tan ce

R  R 2

n1 n 2 n 2  n 1
Now we get,   ..........................(2)
v v1 R2
Add (1) adn (2)
n 2 n1 n 1 n 2 n 2  n 1 n 2  n 1
    
v1 u v v1 R1 R2
n1 n1  1 1  n1 n1  1 1 
   n 2  n1     When u   and v  f , then    n 2  n1    
v u  R1 R 2  f   R1 R 2 
n1  1 1  1 n 2  n1  1 1  1  n2   1 1 
 O   n 2  n1          1  
f  R1 R 2  f 
n1  R 1 R 2  f  n1   R 1 R 2 
1  1 1 
  n 21  1   
f  R1 R 2 

This is the required equation

Note:
1 1 
1. Since P  1 f , the lens maker's formula can be written as P   n 21  1   
 R1 R 2 

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2. For a convese lens R1 = +Ve , R2 = -Ve

1 1 1 
P   n 21  1   
f  R1 R 2 
1 1 
P  (n 21  1)   
 R1 R 2 
For a concave lens R1 = -Ve, R2 = +Ve
1  1 1 
 P   n 21  1   
f   R1 R 2 
1 1 
P  (n 21  1)   
 R1 R 2 

To show that fw = 4f a focal length in water is 4 times the focal length in air

When the lens is placed in air

1  1 1  1  1 1 
 (n 21  1)     (n ga  1)     (1)
fa  1
R R 2 fa  1
R R 2

When thelens is placed in water

1  1 1  1  1 1 
 (n 21  1)     (n gw  1)     (2)
fw  R1 R 2  fw  R1 R 2 
(1)  (2)
 ng   3/ 2 
  1
1  1
fw  1
1 (n gw  1)
fa  fa   a
n   
1 (n gw  1) 1  ng  fa  3 / 2 
fw   1   1
fw  n w  4/3 
3 1
1
fw 2 fw 2 fw 8 fw
   4 fw  4fa
fa 9  1 fa 1 fa 2 fa
8 8

Focal length in water is four times the focal length in air.

LENS FORMULA

Lens formula gives the relationship between object distance (u) , image distance (v) and the focal length(f).

1 1 1
 
f v u

Ray diagram

1. When object is at infinity.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
u      0 v  f
f v u f v  f v

When the object is at infinity, the image is at the focus. Hence image distance = focal length.

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2. when object is at focus

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
  uf     0 v
f v u f v f f f v v 0

Note:-

The property of convex lens is a parallel beam is incident, it renders the parallel beam of light.

3. When object is beyond the focus

When object is placed beyond principal focus, the image formed is

1) Inverted 2) real 3)highly magnified 4) Beyond the focus

(i) CONVEX LENS PRODUCING THE REAL IMAGE (ii) CONVEX LENS PRODUCING THE VIRTUAL IMAGE (iii) CONCAVE LENS PRODUCING THE IMAGE (ALWAYS REAL)

B1

B1
B

B
A1 B1
A O F2 2F2
2F1 F1
2F1 A F1 A1 0 F2 2F2

B1 2F1 A1 F1 A 0
F2 2F2

Real
Magnified (A1 B1 > AB) Virtual
Virtual Diminished (A1B1 < AB)
Inverted
Magnified (A1B1 > AB) Erect
Erect

Magnification(m)

Magnification can be defined as the ratio of image distance to the object distance.

imagedis tance v v
m  m Or
object dis tance u u

Magnification can be defined as the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object.

hi height of image 50cm

m    10cm
ho height of object 5cm

Power of a lens

Power of a lens is its ability to converge or diverge the beam of light after refraction.

Power of a lens can be defined as its reciprocal of focal length.

The power of a lens can also be defined as the tangent of the angle made by the refracted ray on the principal
axis at a unit distance.
h 1 1
S. tan   h  1 tan    p P
f f f
Unit of power
1 1
S.I unit of power of a lens is diopters [D] From P  when f  1m P   1D
f 1

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S.I unit of power is said to be 1 D, if its focal length 1m.
1
f  2m , P   0.5D
2
1
f  4m , P   0.25D
4
1 1
f  m , P   2D
2 1
2

Combination of thin lenses

Consider two lens L1 and L2 and its focal length f1 and f2 respectively kept in contact. Light from the object O
is incident on the lens L1, after refraction, find image I is formed in air. The formation of image can be
discussed in following two steps.
Consider the first lens L1 and focal length f1.

Light from object O is incident on this lens L1

and after refraction the image is formed at I1 at
a distance v1.

1 1 1
From lens formula ,   Put V  V1  imagedis tan ce u  object dis tan ce
f v u
1 1 1
  1  1
f1 v u
Step 2- Now put second lens L2 of focal length f2 in combination with L1. For the L2, refracted ray of L1
act as incident ray and I1 acts as virtual object. The final real image is formed at I at a distance V.
Put u  7 u  v1  virtual object dis tan ce
1 1 1
   1 2
f2 v v
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Add1and 2           
v1 u v v1 f1 f 2 v u f1 f 2 f f1 f 2
Where, f= equivalent lens or effective focal length.
Note:-
01 – Equivalent lens is a single lens which gives the same effect as the number of lens in combination.
02. The reciprocal of the effective focal length can be defined as sum of reciprocal of individual focal length.
03. When there are two lenses the focal length is
1 1 1 1 f .f
    1 2
f f1 f 2 f f1  f 2
1 1 1 1 (ii) TWO THIN LENS SEPARATED BY A DISTANCE

04.    P1  P2 P  P1  P2 L1 L2
f f1 f 2 f
F – Effective focal length P – effective power
I

NOTE: (i) Equivalent lens is the single lens which produces the same
O

effect as that of number of lenses in combination. F1 F2

(ii) In terms of powers, P = P1 + P2 d

Consider two thin convex lenses of focal length f1 and f2 separated by a small distance‘d’.
If f is the focal length of equivalent lens then,
1 1 1 d
  
f f1 f2 f1f2
in terms of power
P  P1  P2  dP1P2

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SCATTERING OF LIGHT
Rayleigh’s Criterion for the Scattering of Light:

According to Rayleigh’s criterion, the percentage of light scattered is inversely proportional to the
1
fourth power of the wavelength. I  Where I=Intensity of scattered light  =wavelength of light
4
Following are some of the examples of the phenomenon of scattering of light.
(a) The blue colour of the sky : This is due to Rayleigh’s scattering. When white light from the sun travels
through earth’s atmosphere, it gets scattered by the large number of gaseous molecules. The wavelength
of blue colour is smaller is compared to the wavelength of red colour. According to Rayleigh’s criterion,
blue light is scattered to a greater extent than the red light. Therefore, the blue colour dominates and sky
appears blue.
(b) The clouds are generally white: Because the larger particles like dust and water drops present in the
atmosphere do not scatter light according to Rayleigh’s criterion. These particles being larger in size as
compared to wavelength of light, scatter of light of all colours almost equally and hence the clouds are
generally white.
(c) The sun looks almost reddish at sunrise or sunset. This is due to Rayleigh’s scattering because at sunset
or sunrise, the sunlight has to traverse a larger thickness of earth’s atmosphere to reach on the earth. As
blue colour is scattered is most, therefore, the white light being deprived of the blue colour, appears red.
(d) The sky will appear black if there were no atmosphere because no light will be scattered in that case. The
planets, in which there is no atmosphere, do not scatter light and therefore, the sky appears dark when
observed from the surface of such planets, e.g., moon.
(e) Rainbow. The rainbow is a beautiful natural display of the solar spectrum on a large scale. When the sun
shines during the rain, the sun rays get refracted into raindrops, and the red rays are bent out of their
course to a lesser extent than the blue. This means that there is a dispersion of the white sunlight into
colours. The deviation that a ray suffers on emerging out of the rain drops depends on the angle of
incidence and the wavelength (i.e., colour) of the light ray. This way the different colours are separated
out. The overall effect of millions of rain-drops falling through sunlight is the production of the coloured
arcs of the rainbow. Since a given set of drops meet the requirements of the rainbow for a given observer
only for an instant, another observer sees another rainbow formed by different set of drops. The sun is
always on the back of the person observing the rainbow. Sometimes, only one bow is seen, but often two
are visible. The inner one is brighter and is called the primary rainbow. In the primary rainbow, the red
arc is on the outer side and the violet on the inner side. The outer rainbow, when present, has the colours
in the reversed order and is called the secondary rainbow. This is formed because the light is reflected
twice within the drop as shown.

HUMAN EYE :
The image we generally see by any optical instrument depends on the observer’s eye. We shall briefly
describe the image formation by the eye. Eye basically consists of a lens (L) and a screen (R) called the retina.
In between, we have different layers and transparent liquids between the cornea and the lens and also
between lens and the retina Fog. 6 illustrates the image formation by the human eye.

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To see any object AB lying in front of the eye, the image

must always be formed on the retina (R) of the eye. The
eye can see finer details of the object if the object lies at a
certain distance D from the eye, known as Also, the least
distance of distinct vision. D is about 25 cm for a normal
eye. This point is also known as the near point.

Also, the normal eye can focus an object at infinity which is the far point of the normal eye. The eye is relaxed
in this case or we say it is un accommodated. With the help of ciliary muscles the power of eye lens (L).I can
be adjusted and objects at varying distances can be clearly seen. This is known as accommodation. From the
Fig. we find that A’B’ (=hi) is the image of an object AB(=ho). hi = A’B’ = dα where ‘d’ is the distance from
retina ® to the lens (L) and is a constant.  I  α. Therefore, size of the image formed by the eye is
proportional to the angle subtended at the eye by the object. This angle is called the visual angle. For a normal
eye, this angle is one minute of an arc. Thus, if two objects, of different sizes lying at different distances from
the eye subtended same angle at the eye, then they will appear to be of the same size.
SPHERICAL ABERRATION
We have assumed so far that all rays starting from some point object or coming from infinity, come to
focus after passing from the lens. However, this is true only if the aperture is large, all the rays originating
from a point object do not come to focus at a single point. Therefore, the final image formed is not sharp but
blurred as shown in figure

The inability of a lens to enable all the rays coming from a point object to focus at a single point is known as
spherical aberration. The spherical aberration can be minimized by
(a) Reducing the aperture of the lens. (b) Using specially designed meniscus lens
(b) Using a combination of lenses.
DEFECTS OF VISION:
(1) Myopia: A myopic eye is able to see nearby objects clearly but far off objects appear blurred. The point
beyond which the objects cannot be seen clearly is called far point.

(i) Myopia is another name for short-sightedness.

(ii) In case of myopia, eye is not able to see the distant objects clearly, though it can clearly see the nearby
objects.
(iii) Myopia arises either due to decrease of the focal length of the eye lens or elongation of the eyeball.
(iv) Myopia can be corrected by making the eye lens less convergent (or using a concave lens of suitable
focal length). Above figure clearly depicts the distinctions between a normal eye and a short – sighted
and also its correction.
(2) Hypermetropia : Hypermetropia is another name for long-sightedness.

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(i) In case of Hypermetropia, eye is not able to see the nearby objects clearly, though it can clearly see the
distant objects.
(ii) Hypermetropia arises either due to contraction of the length of the eye ball or the focal length of the eye
lens becoming too large.
(iii) Hypermetropia can be corrected by making the eye lens more convergent (or using a convex lens of
suitable focal length). Above figure gives the distinction between a normal eye and a long-sighted eye,
and also its correction:
(3) Presbyopia : An eye which suffers from myopia as well as Hypermetropia is said to be presbyopic. A man
suffering from this defect cannot see objects placed at any distance from him, distinctly. The weak
accommodating power of the eye lens causes this defect. In old age, the muscles become loose and so does
the accommodating power of the eye lens. The eye lens fails to form a distinct image of an object at any
distance from the eye. To correct the defect, bifocal lenses are used, concave to see distant objects, and
convex for reading purposes.
(4) Astigmatism: An eye which cannot simultaneously focus (see distinctly) all objects or lines making
different inclinations, is an astigmatic eye e.g., an astigmatic eye may see distinctly vertical lines on a
graph paper but at the same time horizontal lines are hardly seen. The defect is in eyes in which either the
cornea or the retina becomes aspherical, i.e., eyes with distortions in the cornea such that its curvature is
not the same everywhere. The defect is corrected by using suitable cylindrical lenses.
Most people with defective eyes also suffer from astigmatism. They were spectacles which have a
combination of spherical and cylindrical lenses. Some people whose eyes are otherwise healthy have
significant astigmatism which requires correction.

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

EYE: The eye has a convex lens of focal length about 2.5 cm. This focal length can be changed by the
action of the action of the ciliary muscles so that the image is always formed on the retina.

 The ability (property) of the eye to change the focal length by the actin of the coliary mucles so that the
imges is always formed on the retaina is called accommodtion.
 If the object is too close to the eye, the lens cannot curve enough to
focus the image on to the retina, and the image is blurred. The closest
distance for which the lens can focus light on the retina is called the
least distance of distinct vision or the near point(D). The stanard
value for normal vision D is taken as 25 cm.
 In an eye if the light is focused before (in front of ) the retina then the
defect known as nearsightedness or myopia.

 The person with myopic eye can be able to see near objects but image of far away objects become blurred.
A diverging lens ( concave lens) is used to correctmyopia.
 In a eye, if the light is focused beyound ( behind the) the retina then the defect known as farsightedness or
hypermetropia.

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 The person with hypermetropic eye can be able to see far away objects but image of near-by objects
become blurred.
 A converging lens ( convex lens) is used to correct hypermetropia.
 Astigmatism is corrected by using cylindrical lenses.

THE MICROSCOPE

Simple microscope: A simple magnifier or microscope is a

convex (converging) lens of small focal length. E.g: A
magnifiying glass.

(i) Eye focused on near point: To use this convex lens as a

microscope, the lens is held near the object, at a distance less
than one focal length and the eye is positioned close to the lens
on the other side.Here we see an erect, magnified and virtual
iamge of the object at a distance so that it can be viewd
comfortably, i.e., image is formed at D = 25 cm or more.

 D
The magnification (magnifying power ) is m  1  
 f 

(ii) Magnification when the image s at infinity (Angular magnification OR magnifying power):

Angular magnificaton is the ratin of the angle subtended by the image to the subtended by the object, when
palced at D.

  D
Angular magnification : m   i   , D – least distance of distinct vision and f- focal length of th elens.
 0  f

Note: A simple microscope has a limited maximum magnificaton ( 9) for realistic focal lengths.

COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

 For larger magnifications, two lenses, one compounding the

effect of the other are used. This arrangement is known as a
compound microscope. A schematic diagram of a compound
microscope is shown in figure.
 The lens nearest the object, called the objective, forms a real,
Inverted, magnified image(A'B) of the object. This iamge acts as
the object for the second lens, the eyepiece, produces the final
image (A"B") , which is enlarged and virtual.
 The eyepiece works as a simple microscope or magnifier.
 The first inverted image is near (at or within) the fical plane of the
eyepiece, at a distance appropriate for final image formatin at
infinity, or a little closer for image formation at the near point.
The final image(A"B") is inverted with respect ti the original
object.

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MAGNIFICATION OF A COMPOUND MICROSCOPE:

Let fO the focal length of objective and fe focal length of eyepiece and D is the least distance of distiner vision.

 When the final image is formed at the near point D, the magnification produced by eye piece,
 D
me   1  
 fe 
 L  D 
 The total magnification, when the final image is formed at near point D, is mo me   1  
 f0  fe 
 D
 When the final image is formed at infinity, the angular magnificatin due to the eyepiece is me   
 fe 
 L  D 
 The total magnification of the microscope, if the final image of formed at infinity : m  mo me    
 f0  fe 
 The distance L is the distance beyween the second focal point of the objective and the first focal point of
the eyepiece (focal length = fe) is called the tube length of the compound microscope.
 To get a large magnification, the objective and eyepiece both should have small focal lengths.

v0 L L v0
Note: One can also use m0  instead of m0  in the above formulae, because  ; when L not given,
u0 f0 f0 u0

Where V0 – image distance for the objective lens and u0 – object distance for the objective lens.

TELESCOPE:

a telescope is adevice, used to produce large angular magnification

of distant objects like star, planet….,

Refracting telescope: It has an objective and an eyepiece. Here,

the objective has a large aperture than the eyepiece. Light from a
distant object enters the objective and a real iamge (A'B') is formed
in the tube at its second focal point. The eyepiece magnifies this
image producing a final inverted image.

f0
 Magnifying power m  Where f0 – focal length of objective and fe – focval length of eyepiece.
fe
 To get large magnification, objective of longer focal length and eyepiece of shorter foccal length to be
used.
 The length of the telescope tube is called tube length L = f0 + fe.

REFLECTING TELESCOPE (CASSEGRAIN TELESCOPE)

 In reflecting telescope tehre is an objective primary mirror (concave) of large diameter and light is focused
on to a convex mirror by it. The convex mirror (secondary mirror) focusses the incident light to eye piece,
throught a hole in the objective concave mirror as shown figure.
 The advantage of Cassegrain telescope is its large focal length in a short telescope.

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