ULTRASONIC TESTING OF WELDS
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Ultrasonic testing is one of the major NDT methods
being used to detect internal discontinuities.
Ultrasonic waves are sound waves of high
frequency and inaudible to human ears. Human ears
can detect sound waves of frequency 20 to 20000
cycles / sec. When the frequency exceeds the wave
is ultrasonic wave. Usually ultrasonic waves of
frequency ranging from 0.5 MHz to 10 MHz are
used for testing of engineering materials.
Production of such high frequency ultrasonic waves
were made possible by the discovery of Piezo -
electric effect by Curie brothers. Basically in
ultrasonic testing we inject ultrasonic waves into a
specimen.
Ultrasonic wave experiences change in its
propagation due to material properties and presence
of discontinuities. The resulting changes are
detected by testing system and displayed as an
indication. Indications are analysed for acceptance
as per standards.
2.0 BASIC CONCEPTS OF SOUND
Sound waves, audible and ultrasonic, are produced
by vibrating bodies. Vibration is a back and forth
movement and vibration is energy in motion.
Vibrations pass through a medium as a succession
of particle displacements. The transmission of
ultrasonic vibrations through a material is related to
the elastic property of the material. The back and
forth movement is called “cycle” and cycles in a
given period of time is called the frequency (n) and
its unit is Hertz (Hz)
2.1 Ultrasonics
Ultrasonics refers to the sound vibrations beyond
20,000 Hz. When sound is injected into a specimen,
the specimen may absorb the sound energy or
reflect the sound energy. In either case the
specimen provides a means of learning something
about the specimen.
When sound energy is injected into a specimen, the
energy is originating from a transducer, which
causes material displacement within the specimen.
These displacements move through the specimen
and are sensed by another transducer positioned at
the end of the specimen. The energy transmitted by
the transducer may be pulsed or continuous.
Welding Research Institute, BHEL, Tiruchirappalli, India
Sound transmission is not limited to solid materials.
Other media such as air, water, oil, and grease also
transmit ultrasonic sound. The velocity with sound
travels in different media is different. It is to be
noted that the velocity of sound is constant for a
given medium but different for each medium.
The velocity of sound in steel is approximately
6000 m/s, the velocity of sound in water is
approximately 1500 m/s, and the velocity of sound
in air is approximately 330 m/s. Sound is
transmitted in the form of wave. The distance
between two identical points in a wave is known as
wavelength ().
The wavelength , velocity V and frequency n are
related by the formula:
V = n
Since the wavelength depends upon the velocity it
also varies from medium to medium, for a specific
frequency. Since the velocity of sound is a constant
for a given material, when the frequency is
increased, the wavelength decreases and vice versa.
Hence by selecting different frequencies one has
the control over the wavelength of the sound
transmitted in the medium.
Detectability of discontinuities by the ultrasonic
sound depends upon the wavelength. The smallest
discontinuity which can be detected under
favourable conditions is approximately equal to /2
and hence sensitivity of ultrasonic testing can be
altered by selection of suitable frequency to have
suitable wavelength.
Frequencies of the order of 1 MHz to 25 MHz are
commonly used in ultrasonic testing. Production of
such a high frequency vibrations were made
possible by the discovery of piezoelectric effect by
Curie and those high frequency sound waves are
introduced in the material being inspected for
detection of internal flaws.
3.0 ULTRASONIC WAVE & THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS
3.1 Longitudinal Wave
There are many wave modes of ultrasonic
vibration. The wave modes most widely used in
ultrasonic testing are: longitudinal, shear, surface
and plate waves. Longitudinal waves are the waves
in which the particle vibrations are moving back
and forth in the direction of wave propagation.
Longitudinal wave can travel through solid, liquid,
Page UT1 of 10
and gas. Longitudinal wave is also known as
compressional or L - wave. Materi Density Velocity Impedance
al Kg / m m / sec Kg / m2 . sec
3.2 Shear Wave 3

Air 0.001 330 0.3

A wave having particle vibrations perpendicular to
the direction of wave propagation is called a shear
wave. A shear wave may also be known as S -
wave or transverse wave. The velocity of shear
wave is approximately one half of the longitudinal
wave in the same material. Because of lower
velocity, the wavelength of shear wave is shorter
than that of longitudinal wave and hence the
sensitivity is higher for a given testing condition.
Another characteristic is that shear wave will not
travel through liquid and gas, since there is no
rigidity modulus for liquid and gas.
In many respects ultrasonic wave resemble light
wave obeying a general wave equation. It travels
with a characteristic velocity in a given material. It
is reflected at surfaces, refracted when crossing a
boundary between different materials and diffracted
at edges. Ultrasonic wave is also attenuated
depending upon the acoustic impedance Z of the
material through which it travels. Figure 1
illustrates the different modes of sound waves.
Water 1 1500 1500.0
Al. 2.71 6350 17208.5
Steel 7.8 6000 46800.0
Water has one impedance value and steel another.
So if water is placed in contact with steel and sound
beam is transmitted through the media, there is
impedance mismatch. Whenever, there is an
impedance mismatch, partial reflection and partial
transmission takes place at the boundary.
The sound wave used in flaw detection will be
reflected back whenever there is mismatch of
acoustic impedance. The surface at which the
reflection occurs is called an interface. An interface
is a boundary between two media or materials in
contact with each other and has different acoustic
impedance.
The amount of energy reflected at the interface can
be calculated from the acoustic impedance (Z) of
two materials.
The percentage of reflected intensity of the sound

Longitudinal mode Transverse mode Surface mode

Figure 1 Types of Waves

beam is given by R, where R is

3.3 Acoustic Impedance (Z)
Acoustic impedance (Z) is the resistance of a
material or medium for the sound propagation. It is
defined as the product of density () and sound
velocity (v) within that material by
Acoustic Impedance = Density x Velocity
Z = v
Air has very low impedance, with water being
relatively higher. Aluminium and steel have still
higher impedance (Refer Table 1).
Table 1 Impedance Values for Different
Materials
R = [(Z1 - Z2) 2 / (Z1 + Z2) 2] X 100 %
The percentage of transmitted intensity of the sound
beam is given by T, where T is
T = [4Z1 x Z2 / (Z1 + Z2) 2] X 100 %
If we calculate reflection percentage for the
interface between air and steel, 99.9 % of sound
energy gets reflected back and it is true if sound
travels from air to steel or steel to air. It is true for
sound wave generated by the transducer kept on
steel for testing. Hence, to send maximum sound
energy into the material under test, air film between
the transducer and the material should be removed

Welding Research Institute, BHEL, Tiruchirappalli, India Page UT2 of 10

by a thin film of oil, grease, glycerin or water as a
couplant.
Acoustic impedance of the couplant should match
the transducer and the material under test. If the
acoustic impedances of the crystal, couplant and
material are Z1, Z2, Z3 respectively, then Z2 must
follow the below relation
Z2 =  (Z1 x Z3)
The most common couplants used are water,
glycerin, oil and grease. Sometimes foil, rubber and
wax or cement are also used.
3.4 Beam Intensity
Ultrasonic wave is generated by a piezo - electric
crystal. The wave generated is a conical beam
having a beam spread. The intensity of the beam
throughout the specimen will not be the same
because of beam spread, i.e. the intensity of the
beam decreases as the distance from the centre of
the beam increases. The beam spread can be
controlled by selecting suitable frequency and size
of the transducer, D.
Half Beam Spread is given by the formula
Sin ( / 2) = 1.22 x  / D
Where,  / 2 is the half beam spread angle
High frequency transducer will have narrow sound
beam. Similarly, bigger size probe will have less
beam spread compared to the smaller size probe.
3.5 Dead Zone, Near zone & Far
zone
When the crystal generates a beam of sound energy,
the beam can be classified into three zones, called
“Dead zone“, “Near Zone” and “Far Zone”,
In front of the crystal there exists a zone called “
Dead Zone due to the “ringing“ of the crystal.
During the ringing time, the crystal will not receive
any signal. This time is controlled by the damping
of the crystal. Time duration during which crystal is
not receiving the signal, converted in to distance is
the measure of dead zone.
In the near zone a different condition exists. Here
the intensity varies irregularly. Localised areas of
high and low intensity (maxima and minima) exist
within the area. Near zone prevents the detection of
discontinuities close to the surface of the specimen
and the near zone is given by the formula
Welding Research Institute, BHEL, Tiruchirappalli, India
NZ = D 2 / 4 
In the far zone the intensity decreases steadily as
the distance from the transducer increases. This is
caused by the fact that the specimen is absorbing
energy.
3.6 Attenuation
In the far zone, the intensity of sound beam
decreases steadily.
The term attenuation is used to describe this
condition of energy loss. Attenuation depends upon
the properties of the specimen or medium and
characteristics of the sound beam.
3.7 Mode Conversion
When sound beam strikes an interface between two
materials having different acoustic impedance, at an
angle, mode conversion takes place. When
longitudinal wave is striking an interface at an
angle, refraction takes place and since the velocity
of sound is different for different mode of vibration,
refracted sound beam is split into two sound waves,
one travels as longitudinal wave and the other
travels at lower velocity as transverse wave.
The angular relationship of waves within a medium
can be determined for both longitudinal and shear
waves by Snell’s law. Snell’s law is defined by the
formula
Sin 1 / sin 2 = V1 / V2, where,
1 - Angle of incidence, V1 - Velocity of sound
in first medium
2 - Angle of refraction, V2 - Velocity of sound
in second medium
So, if the angle of incidence and the velocity of
sound in the two media are known, then it is
possible to calculate the angle of refraction using
the above relationship. The law can also be used to
determine the angle of incidence, for a specific
angle of refraction in a particular medium.
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Figure 2 Mode Conversions
3.8 Critical Angles
As the angle of incidence increases the angle of
refraction also increases. When the angle of
refraction of a longitudinal wave reaches 90º, the
wave emerges from the second medium and travels
parallel to the interface or surface. The angle of
incidence, at which the refracted longitudinal wave
travels along the interface, is called ‘1 st critical
angle’.
For greater angle of incidence, the longitudinal
wave mode is totally reflected and no longer exists
in the second medium. Now if the angle of
incidence is increased further, at Second critical
angle, the angle of refraction for the shear wave
becomes 90º and the shear wave travels parallel to
the interface or surface.
For incident beam angle beyond this second critical
angle, total internal reflection occurs. Both
longitudinal and shear waves are reflected into the
first medium. No incident beam energy is
transmitted through the interface. Usually, the angle
of incidence in the plastic wedge will be decided to
have shear wave in steel at various known angle of
refraction like, shear wave in steel at 45, 60, 70, 80
deg.
3.9 Surface Wave
When the incident beam is at its second critical
angle (Shear wave traveling parallel to the surface),
a third wave mode is developed. This wave is
called “surface wave” or “Rayleigh” wave. Its
characteristic particle vibration is elliptical. Surface
(Rayleigh) wave travels only on the surface of a
solid material, the penetration is about one
wavelength. Velocity is 0.9 times that of shear
wave and damped out by placing finger, water or
grease on the surface.
3.10 Plate Wave
Welding Research Institute, BHEL, Tiruchirappalli, India
When ultrasonic vibrations are transmitted into a
relatively thin sheet of thickness comparable to
wavelength, the energy travels in the form of
“plate” or “Lamb” waves. Two basic types of plate
(Lamb) wave exist, one being symmetrical and
other asymmetrical. Plate wave velocity depends
not only on the material through which the wave is
traveling but also on frequency, incidence angle,
and plate thickness.
3.11 Resonance
Resonance is defined as the characteristic of a
vibrating body, under certain conditions, to
resonate or vibrate in sympathy with a vibration
source. The vibration source in this case is the
transducer. And the vibrations are continuous
longitudinal waves.
A resonant condition will exist anytime a
continuous longitudinal wave is introduced into a
specimen and reflected “in phase” with the
incoming wave. Standing waves are set up with
considerable increase in amplitude.
The transmitted and reflected waves in a specimen
will be “in phase” only when the specimen
thickness is equal to half wavelength or whole
number multiples thereof. In other words,
resonance will occur only when the thickness of the
specimen is equal to half-wavelength or exact
multiples of half wavelength.
From the following relationship
V = n  where
V = velocity, n = frequency &  = wavelength
it is clear that if the frequency is changed, the
wavelength will also change. By applying this one
can set up a resonant condition in any material
thickness, by simply varying the frequency of the
transmitted wave till a half wavelength or one of its
exact multiples equals the material thickness. So
the resonance will occur anytime a continuous
longitudinal wave is transmitted into a specimen
and the frequency is varied till standing waves are
set up.
The fundamental frequency is the minimum
frequency at which a given material thickness will
resonate. It is also the frequency at which resonance
amplitude will be the highest. And since the
wavelength and frequency are related to material
thickness, the fundamental resonant frequency can
be determined from the formula
n0 = V / 2T
Where
Page UT4 of 10
n0 = fundamental frequency Each transducer has a characteristic resonant
frequency at which ultrasonic waves are most
V= Velocity of longitudinal waves within a
effectively generated and received. This resonant
given material
frequency is determined mainly by the piezoelectric
T= Thickness of the material material and its thickness. Transducer responds
efficiently at a band of frequencies centered on the
3.12 Sensitivity & Resolution resonant frequency. The extent of this band known
as bandwidth is determined chiefly by the damping
Sensitivity or the ability to detect a very small characteristics of the backing material that is in
discontinuity is generally increased by using contact with the rear face of the piezo-electric
relatively high frequencies (short wave lengths). element.
Resolution is the ability of the system to give
simultaneous, separate indications from Narrow bandwidth transducers exhibit good
discontinuities that are close together in depth. penetration capability and sensitivity but poor
Resolution is directly proportional to probe resolution. Broad bandwidth transducers exhibit
bandwidth and inversely related to pulse length but greater resolution, but lower sensitivity and
is not affected by frequency. Penetration, or penetration capability, than narrow bandwidth
maximum depth (range) in a material from which transducers.
useful indications can be detected is reduced by the
use of high frequencies. This effect is most 4.2 Probe Types
pronounced in the inspection of material having
coarse grain structure or minute inhomogenities, Search units are of many types and shapes.
because of the scattering of the ultrasonic waves. Variation in search unit construction includes
transducer element material, transducer element
4.0 PROBES thickness, surface area and shape; and type of
backing material and degree of loading.
Generation as well detection of ultrasonic wave for
Figure 3 shows the normal and dual crystal types of
inspection is accomplished by means of a
probes.
transducer element housed in a device called search
unit or probe. The active element in a search unit is
a piezo electric crystal. This crystal works on the
principle of piezo - electric effect. Electrical charge
is developed in the crystal when pressure is applied
to it and when an electrical field is applied; the
crystal mechanically deforms and produces
pressure around it. Piezo-electric crystal exhibits
various deformation process, thickness expansion is
the principal deformation process used in the
construction of transducers for ultrasonic
inspection. The most common types of piezo-
electric materials used for ultrasonic search units
are quartz, lithium sulphate and polarised ceramics
such as barium titanate, lead zirconate titanate and
lead metaniobate.

4.1 Probe Selection

Transducer selection for a given application is done
on the basis of size (active area) of the piezo-
electric element, characteristic frequency,
frequency bandwidth and the type (construction) of
search unit. Both the amount of sound energy
transmitted into the material being inspected
(radiated power) and beam divergence are directly
related to the size (active area) of the transducer
element. Thus it is sometimes advisable to use a
larger search unit to obtain depth of penetration or
greater sound beam area.
Figure 3 Types of Probes - Normal Probe &
Dual Crystal Probe
5.0 CALIBRATION AND REFERENCE
BLOCKS
Ultrasonic testing is basically a comparison process
and requires the use of calibration (Figure 4) and
reference blocks (Figure 5) for preparing the
equipment and probe before putting to use on the
actual job. Time base calibration is done with
standard calibration blocks, like International

Welding Research Institute, BHEL, Tiruchirappalli, India Page UT5 of 10

Institute of Welding (IIW) calibration block. With
IIW – V1 calibration block, the following
characteristics of the equipment and probe system
can be analysed: Time base Linearity, Resolution,
Sensitivity, Beam spread, Beam angle, Dead zone,
Probe index and Penetration Power.

a) IIW V1 block Figure 6 Pulse echo method, Through

Transmission Method &
Resonance Method

6.1 Pulse Echo Method

In pulse echo method flaws are detected and their

sizes are estimated by comparing the intensity of
b) IIW V2 block
reflected sound from an interface (either within the
Figure 4 Calibration Blocks
test piece or at the back surface) with the intensity
of sound reflected from a reference interface of
known size or from the back surface (back
reflection) serves as a reference point for time of
flight measurements that enable the depth of some
internal flaws to be measured. It is necessary that
an internal flaw reflect at least part of the sound
energy to the receiving transducer for such depth
measurements to be made.
Side drilled hole Block Flat bottom hole block
6.1.1 Principle
Fig 5 Reference blocks
In pulse echo method, short bursts of ultrasonic
6.0 INSPECTION energy (pulse or wave packets) are introduced into
METHODS a test piece at regular intervals of time. If the
pulses encounter a reflecting surface, some or all
Ultrasonic inspection can be performed by of the energy is reflected. The proportion of
energy that is reflected is highly dependent on the
a. Pulse Echo Method size of the reflecting surface in relation to the
b. Through Transmission Method and size of the incident ultrasonic beam. The
direction of the reflected beam depends on the
c. Resonance Method orientation of the reflecting surface with respect to
the incident beam. From the reflected sound beam
Ultrasonic technique in which flaws are detected by both the amount of energy reflected in a specific
measuring intensity and time of flight of reflected direction and the time delay between transmission
sound waves having single frequency is called of the initial pulse and receipt of the echo are
pulse echo method of ultrasonic testing which is measured.
most widely used.
Pulse echo inspection can be accomplished with
longitudinal, shear or surface waves. Straight beam
or angle beam techniques can be used, depending
on test piece shape & inspection objectives. Data
can be analysed in terms of type, size, location

Welding Research Institute, BHEL, Tiruchirappalli, India Page UT6 of 10

and orientation of defects, or any combination of
these factors.
6.1.2 Equipment
The testing system for pulse echo method consists
of:
a. An electronic clock
b. An electronic signal generator or pulser
c. A sending and receiving transducer
d. An echo signal amplifier
e. A display device.
Figure 7 Principle of Operation of UT Pulse
Echo Test Equipment
The operation of a single transducer pulse echo
system is as follows: At regular intervals, the
electronic clock triggers the signal generator, which
imposes a short burst of high frequency alternating
voltage on the transducer. Simultaneously the
clock activates a time measuring circuit connected
to the display device. The operator pre - selects a
constant interval between pulses by means of a
pulse repetition rate control on the instrument.
Pulses usually are repeated 60 to 2000 times per
second. The operator may also pre - select the
output frequency of the signal generator. For best
results, some achieve the maximum response of
the transducer resonance in the vibrating element
and maximum signal to noise ratio (Lowest amount
of electronic noise) in the electronic equipment.
The transducer converts the pulse of mechanical
vibration having essentially the same frequency
as the imposed alternating voltage. The
mechanical vibration is introduced into a test piece
through a couplant, and travels by wave motion
through the test piece.
When the pulse of ultrasound encounters a
reflecting surface it is reflected and if the reflecting
surface is perpendicular to the direction of travel,
sound beam returns to the transducer. The returning
pulse travels along the same path and at the same
speed as the initial pulse, but in the opposite
Welding Research Institute, BHEL, Tiruchirappalli, India
direction. Upon reaching the transducer through
the couplant the returning pulse causes the
transducer element to vibrate which induces an
alternating electrical voltage across the transducer.
The induced voltage is instantaneously amplified
then fed into the display device.
This process of alternately sending and receiving
pulses of ultrasonic energy is repeated for each
successive pulse, the display device displaying
the received echo each time.
6.2 Through Transmission Method
In through transmission method, flaws are detected
by comparing the intensity of ultrasound
transmitted through the test piece with the
intensity transmitted through a reference standard
made of the same material. Transmission testing
requires two search units, one to transmit the
ultrasonic waves and one to receive them. The main
application of transmission method is the inspection
of plate for cracks or laminations that have
relatively large dimensions compared to the
size of the search units. Immersion techniques
or water column techniques are the most effective
because these techniques provide efficient and
relatively uniform coupling between the search
units and the test piece. Good coupling is critical
to transmission methods, because variations in
sound transmission through the couplants have
corresponding effects on measured intensity, which
affects the evaluation of indications.
6.3 Resonance Method
In resonance testing, the transducer is driven by a
sweep oscillator whose frequency is varied
continuously. When the natural frequency of the
material thickness or multiple of this frequency,
is reached, the amplitude of vibration increases
considerably and produces a display on the
screen.
This type of equipment is mostly used for
thickness measurement of any material from one
side when properly calibrated. However, the
opposite surface of the test object must be
reasonably parallel to the surface in contact with
the transducer.
7.0 TESTING OF WELDS
7.1 Surface Preparation
The material surfaces to be used for the scanning
must allow free movement of the probes and
provide satisfactory conditions for the transmission
of the ultrasonic waves. The surfaces should be
Page UT7 of 10
free, (on each side of the weld for a minimum of ½
skip distance), from weld spatter, loose scale,
machining and grinding particles, dirt, paint or
other foreign matter.
It may be necessary to clean and smooth the surface
with a flexible wheel grinder. If smooth, adherent
scales are present , it may not be required to remove
them. It may be necessary to remove gross weld
surface irregularities, undercut, sharp ridges or
valleys that will interfere with the interpretation
during the test.
7.2 Couplant
A couplant, usually a liquid or semi - liquid is
required between the face of the probe and the
test surface to permit transmission of the acoustic
energy from the transducer to the material under
test. Typical couplants include water, oil, grease
and glycerine. The couplant used should be of
thin film between the probe and the test piece
surface.
7.3 Defect Detection
To detect all possible defects, the weld is to be
examined over its entire cross section and along the
length specified. For the detection of longitudinal
defects the shear wave probe is placed on the
contact surface and kept perpendicular to the weld
centre line. In a fixed probe position the ultrasonic
beam is directed at only a part of the weld and to
examine the entire weld, the probe is moved over
the scanning zone in the following ways:
i. Lateral motion
ii. Traversing motion
iii. Swiveling motion
iv. Orbital motion
a b
c 7.6
d
Figure 8 Scanning methods a) Lateral Motion
b) Transverse method, c) Swiveling
method, d) Orbital motion
Welding Research Institute, BHEL, Tiruchirappalli, India
Depending on the plate thickness, the geometry
and the position and nature of the defect,
scanning may be carried out with shear wave
probes of a frequency of at least 2 MHz and 70°,
60°, or 45° angle. The weld is scanned on both
sides from one surface, the scanning zone being a
full skip distance. To ensure full coverage of the
weld and the HAZ the probe should be moved as
near as possible to the centre line of the weld.
The examination should be carried out with
shear wave probes at a frequency 2 MHz at two
different probe angles (45º and 60° or 70°). To
examine welds in the thickness more than 100
mm an additional scanning technique with two
probes in tandem, positioned at right angle to the
centre line of the weld is used. Tandem technique
scan is made with 45° probes from the four sides
of the weld.
7.4 Defect Location
The accurate determination of the position of a
defect in a welded joint is important not only
when repairs have to be made but, in an ultrasonic
examination it can give, together with defect
orientation useful information for the
determination of the type of defect. The position of
a defect is determined by the distance (Projected
path length between probe index and reflector) and
depth from the surface. The distance and the depth
can be easily calculated from the path length, probe
angle and thickness.
7.5 Defect Size Estimation
Techniques for ultrasonic defect size estimation
currently applied are based on the following
principles:
 Comparison with known reflectors in test
pieces or reference blocks.
 Evaluation of defect echo amplitude by
comparison with DGS scales showing the
relative reflectivity of the target expressed as
an equivalent value for a circular reference
reflector at a given distance and given
equipment amplification.
 Scanning the edges of a defect with an
imaginary defined line in the beam such as its
axis or its boundary
Distance Amplitude Correction Curve
(DAC)
It is the response curve for a given probe and
equipment-giving percentage of reflection from a
known reflector like side drilled hole, flat bottom
Page UT8 of 10
hole at various distances from probe. When the
reflector is at near zone, reflection will be
maximum. As distance increases from near zone
the reflection decreases. As distance increases from
the probe surface, within near zone, the reflection
will vary from maximum to minimum. There exists
a small distance in front of probe surface where
reflection will be zero.

The curve giving the details of probe distance along

‘x’ axis and reflection percentage along ‘y’ axis for
a given reflector is called Distance amplitude
correction curve (DAC). To draw DAC, standard
blocks having similar surface finish, nominal
thickness and metallurgy are used. Usually standard
DAC block of thickness T will have reference side
drilled hole or flat bottom hole at T/4,T/2,3/4T
depths from the testing surface. The reflection from
the first hole is brought to nearly 80% of full screen Figure 9 DAC
height by adjusting the gain and the peak point is
marked on the display screen. The adjusted gain is 8.0 TESTING OF PLATE BUTT
called the reference gain. The reflection from the
second and third holes are marked on the screen, WELD
keeping the gain the same. Smooth curve joining all
the three points will be the reference curve (RE) of To test the plate butt weld of thickness (T) a
DAC. reference DAC as per the standard is drawn after
selecting probe angle as per the standard, scanning
Another curve will be drawn taking 50% of each pattern like 0-1, ½- 1 skip, etc. Half skip and full
point and this 2nd curve connecting these three skip distances are marked on the
points is called (RE-6) curve. While testing, any
echo at any distance crossing reference curve is
treated as echo from discontinuity of size greater
than reference reflector. Any echo touching the
reference curve will be treated as echo from
discontinuity of size equivalent to reference
reflector. Any echo between RE-6 and RE will be
treated as echo from discontinuity of size less than
reference reflector.

Depending upon the code, standard, procedure,

equivalent size will be evaluated. Length of the
discontinuity will be measured by using 6 dB drop
method

Welding Research Institute, BHEL, Tiruchirappalli, India Page UT9 of 10

surface from weld centerline and scanning is done. Usually scanning is done at +6 dB higher sensitivity level
than the reference gain RE. When an echo is detected scanning dB is reduced to reference dB and indication
location, indication depth and indication size with respect to reference level are evaluated. Selection of probe
angle, scanning pattern, and number of scanning directions are aimed at complete coverage of weld volume in
the area of interest. Preferably 1:1 drawing may be used as a reference tool to ensure the complete coverage of
weld volume.

9.0 REPORT

The results of an ultrasonic weld examination are given in a report which includes all the necessary
information required, to take decisions on the acceptance of the defects revealed by the ultrasonic
examination, to facilitate repairs of non acceptable defects and to permit the examination to be repeated. The
required information may therefore be divided into following groups:
 General data relating specifically to the weld under examination such as order, drawing, and weld
numbers, weld dimensions, time and place of the examination, name and signature of the operator.
 Further particulars of the weld with respect to weld preparation, welding procedure, material of the
parent metal, surface condition, temperature etc.
 Special data relating to the ultrasonic techniques used including make and type of ultrasonic equipment,
make, type, frequency and angle of refraction of probes, coupling medium, technique of probes,
coupling medium, technique of examination, calibration of the equipment.
 Reference gain or Sensitivity setting with reference to the applied specification or reference reflector
used.
 Data concerning the results of the examination.
 Additional data, which may concern limitations of the examination because of the geometry or other
factors.

 Specific requirements agreed upon by the parties involved

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