OVERVIEW OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
BIOTECHNOLOGY
A field of applied biology that involves the use of living
organisms and bioprocesses in engineering, technology,
medicine and other fields requiring bioproducts. Modern
use of similar terms includes genetic engineering as well
as cell and tissue technologies. The concept
encompasses a wide range of procedures for modifying
living organisms according to human purposes.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
I. Green biotechnology: Green biotechnology is defined
as the application of biological techniques to plants with
the aim of improving the nutritional quality, quantity and
production economics. It is done by implanting foreign
genes to plant species that is economically important.
This contains three main areas: plant tissue culture;
plant genetic engineering and plant molecular marker
assisted breeding.
II. Red biotechnology: Red biotechnology is concerned
with the discovery and development of innovative drugs
and treatments. A key prerequisite was an increasing
understanding of how proteins function, their roles in
communication between and within cells, and the
diseases caused when these proteins malfunction. This
includes: Gene Therapy, Stem Cells, Genetic Testing,
etc.
III. White biotechnology: This field of biotechnology is
connected with industry. White biotech uses moulds,
yeasts, bacteria and enzymes to produce goods and
services or parts of products. It offers a wide range of
bio-products like detergents, vitamins, antibiotics etc.
Most of the white biotech processes results in the saving
of water, energy, chemicals and in the reduction of
waste compared to traditional methods.
IV. Blue biotechnology: Blue biotechnology is concerned
with the application of molecular biological methods to
marine and freshwater organisms. It involves the use of
these organisms, and their derivatives, for multiple
purposes, the most remarkable are the identification
process and development of new active ingredients from
marine origin.
V. Yellow biotechnology: Yellow biotechnology’ refers to
biotechnology with insects — analogous to the green
(plants) and red (animals) biotechnology. Active
ingredients or genes in insects are characterized and
used for research or application in agriculture and
medicine.
TERMINOLOGIES ASSOCIATED WITH
BIOTECHNOLOGY
Biochemistry: It is the branch of science use to study
chemical reactions in organisms.
Biochemical engineering: has usually meant to extension
of chemical engineering principles to systems using a
biological catalyst to bring about desired chemical
transformations.
Bioinformatics: Bioinformatics is an independent
discipline which merges the field of molecular biology
and computer science. This mainly involves the
transformation of biological polymers such as nucleic
acids molecules and proteins into sequences of digital
symbols. The symbols and their meaning for the protein
sequences have also been generated.
Bioremediation: Bioremediation is the use of
microorganisms for the degradation of hazardous
chemicals in soil, sediments, water, or other
contaminated materials. It uses naturally occurring
bacteria and fungi or plants to degrade or detoxify
substances hazardous to human health and/or the
environment.
Biosensors: Biosensors are biophysical devices which
can detect the presence of specific substances e.g.
sugars, proteins, hormones, pollutants and a variety of
toxins in the environment.
Bioreactors: Bioreactors can be thought of as vessels in
which raw materials are biologically converted into
specific products, individual enzymes, etc., using
microbial plant, animal or human cells.
Bioprospecting is an umbrella term describing the
process of discovery and commercialization of new
products based in biological resources, typically in less-
developed countries. Bioprospecting often draws on
indigenous knowledge about uses and characteristics of
plants and animals.
Biopiracy is a situation where indigenous knowledge of
nature, originating with indigenous people, is used by
others for profit, without permission from and with little or
no compensation or recognition to the indigenous people
themselves.
Bioregionalism is a political, cultural, and ecological
system or set of views based on naturally defined areas
called bioregions, similar to ecoregions. Bioregions are
defined through physical and environmental features,
including watershed boundaries and soil and terrain
characteristics. Bioregionalism stresses that the
determination of a bioregion is also a cultural
phenomenon, and emphasizes local populations,
knowledge, and solutions.
Bioethics: Bioethics is the branch of ethics, philosophy,
and social commentary that deals with the biological
sciences and its impact on the society.
Chromosome: A DNA-containing body, located in the
cells of most living things, that holds most of the
organism's genes.
 OVERVIEW OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
Clone: A cell, group of cells, or organism that contains
genetic in formation identical to that of its parent cell or
organism.
Cloning: A specialized genetic process whereby clones
are produced. Cloning is a form of asexual reproduction.
Asexual reproduction is reproduction without sex. In this
form of reproduction, a single organism or cell makes a
copy of itself. The genes of the original and copy will be
the same, except for rare mutations.
DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a molecule that
encodes the genetic instructions used in the
development and functioning of all known living
organisms.
Enzyme: A protein material that speeds up chemical
reactions in the bodies of plants and animals without
itself taking part in or being consumed by those
reactions.
GENE: A gene is a segment of nucleic acid that contains
the information necessary to produce a functional
product, usually a protein. The genes are made up of a
coding alphabet of 4 nucleotides made up of 4 bases:-
Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G) and Cytosine (C)
present in DNA.
Genetic engineering: Techniques to alter the chemistry
of genetic material (DNA and RNA), to introduce these
into host organisms and thus change the phenotype of
the host organism.
Gene Therapy: This is in a way, genetic engineering of
humans, which would allow a person suffering from a
disabling genetic disorder to lead a normal life.
Genome: The entire complement of genetic material
(genes + noncoding sequences) present in each cell of
an organism, or in avirus or organelle. A complete set of
chromosomes (hence of genes) inherited as a (haploid)
unit from one parent.
Genome Resource Bank: Genome Resource Bank
(GRB) is a frozen repository of biological materials,
including sperm and embryos, tissue, blood products
and DNA. It is going to being used as a conservation tool
for protecting and preserving biodiversity
Human Genome Project: The aim of the Human
Genome Project was to identify all the genes (approx.
25,000) in human DNA and to determine the sequence
of the three billion chemical base pairs that make up
human DNA. Efforts were made to create databases to
store this information and develop tools to do
comprehensive data analysis
Gel electrophoresis: A technique used to separate DNA
fragments and other macromolecules by size and
charge.
GMO: GMO stands for genetically modified organism.
This refers to bacteria or other microorganisms, or
multicellular organisms such as plants and animals,
whose genetic makeup has been altered by scientists.
Microarray: Typically a glass side, on to which DNA
molecules are attached at fixed locations as spots
Microbiology: Study of organisms, a large and diverse
group of microscopic organisms that exists as single
cells or a cluster of cells including viruses.
Nanotechnology: It involves techniques and methods for
studying, designing, fabricating and manipulating things
at the nanoscale to understand and create materials,
devices and systems to exploit these.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): It is a technique used
in molecular biology to amplify a single copy or a few
copies of a segment of DNA across several orders of
magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of
a particular DNA sequence
Plasmid: An extrachromosomal, autonomous circular
DNA molecule found in certain bacteria, capable of
autonomous replication. Plasmids can transfer genes
between bacteria and are important tools of
transformation in genetic engineering. They exist in an
autonomous state and are transferred independently of
chromosomes.
Restriction enzymes: Enzymes that break DNA into
fragments at particular sites.
Recombinant DNA allows the direct manipulation of
genetic material of individual cells, which may be used to
develop microorganisms that produce new products as
well as useful microorganisms. The laboratory
technology for the genetic manipulation w/in living cells
is also known as genetic engineering.
Stem cell: A fundamental cell that has the potential to
develop into any of the 210 different cell types found in
the human body. Human life begins with stem cells,
which divide again and again and branch off into special
roles, like becoming liver or heart cells. They are an
important resource for disease research and for the
development of new ways to treat disease.
Transgene: A gene from one genome that has been
incorporated into the genome of another organism. Often
refers to a gene that has been introduced into a
multicellular organism.
Transgenesis: The introduction of a gene or genes into
animal or plant cells, which leads to the transmission of
the input gene (transgene) to successive generations.
Transgenic: An organism in which a foreign gene (a
transgene) is incorporated into its genome. The
transgene is present in both somatic and germ cells, is
expressed in one or more tissues, and is inherited by
offspring in a Mendelian fashion.
Vector: A vehicle that carries foreign genes into an
organism and inserts them into the organism’s genome.
Modified viruses are used as vectors for gene therapy.
 OVERVIEW OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
APPLICATIONS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY Bioelectronics
Pharmaceuticals

Animal Agriculture

CAUSES FOR CONCERN FOR GMO PRODUCTS

Concern: Some people are concerned that genetically
altering foods could change their nutritional value by
lowering vitamin content or other nutrients.
Plant Agriculture Counter Argument: Others point out that several genetic
engineering projects are designed to increase, not lower
the health attributes of foods.
Concern: There is some concern that the process of
inserting genes is not precise. Scientists can not tell
exactly where they go or how many reach their target.
Counter Argument: Supporters of genetic engineering
insist that it is more precise than traditional
Environmental Applications crossbreeding methods and carries less risk of
undesired traits being transferred.
Concern: Some fear that a foreign gene may not behave
in a new crop the way it did in the original species. It
may interact with genes around it or with its new
environment to produce undesirable traits.
Counter Argument: Others point out that traditional plant
breeders use well-established practices to eliminate
Food and Beverage plants with adverse traits prior to commercial use and
that transgenic plant breeders can do the same.
Concern: Concerns have been raised about the effect of
genetically engineered foods on special populations,
such as infants or people suffering from other conditions
or diseases. Testing is done on healthy adults, so effects
Health Care that might emerge in other populations could be missed.
Counter Argument: This situation is not unique to
genetically engineered foods. It would be very difficult to
test any new product on every specialized population
before it is marketed.
Concern: A reaction might occur between two food
Tissue Engineering compounds that may be harmless separately, but
together could be toxic. There are also concerns that
harmless plants that have toxic relatives may have the
toxic gene turned on in a recombinant plant.
Counter Argument: Genetic changes that can lead to
unexpected toxins can occur not only in genetically
transformed plants, but also in plants developed through
traditional breeding practices or as a natural part of
growth.
 OVERVIEW OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
Concern: Some people fear that the genes for resistance
which are inserted into plants will somehow be passed to
weeds. Insects may build up resistance to the new
pesticide. Some think that a gene that is intended to be
toxic only for insects will somehow mutate and become
toxic to humans as well.
Counter Argument: Others cite the fact that the potential
of pests to develop resistance against defense
mechanisms of crops is well-known and is not unique to
genetically engineered plants. Insects may develop
resistance to a crop defense no matter how it was
developed.
Concern: There are individuals who see a conflict of
interest where a company’s own scientific data is used to
determine food safety. They would like to see a great
deal more independent testing.
Counter Argument: Some companies resent this
implication that test results from their own laboratories
are false. They argue that it is to their benefit to produce
safe, beneficial food products because there is no profit
in bad products.
Concern: Others fear that new plant species may upset
the balance of nature, changing the delicate
relationships between crop plants, weeds, and the
animals that consume them.
Counter Argument: Supporters of biotechnology foresee
a different day when not one, but many improved crop
varieties could flourish in areas of the world that
currently can not produce enough food crops for the
entire population.
BIOTECHNOLOGY TIMELINE
The history of using scientific knowledge and
living systems as tools to solve problems or make useful
products. Humans have manipulated genes since the
dawn of civilization
8000 B.C.E. - Humans domesticate crops and livestock.
Potatoes first are cultivated for food.
7000 B.C.E - Yeast is one of the oldest microbes that
have been exploited by humans for their benefit. The
oldest fermentation was used to make beer in Sumeria
and Babylonia as early as 7,000BCE.
4000 B.C.E. - The Egyptians use yeast to leaven bread
and ferment beer
2000 B.C.E. - Production of cheese, fermentation of
wine occur in Sumeria, China, Egypt
500 B.C.E. - Chinese use the first antibiotic: Moldy
soybean curds for treating boils
400 B.C.E. - Hippocrates treated patients with vinegar
300 B.C.E - Greeks develop grafting techniques for plant
breeding.
100 B.C.E. - Rome had over 250 bakeries which were
making leavened bread
100 C.E.- The first insecticide is produced in China from
powdered chrysanthemums.
13th and 14th CENTURY
- The Aztecs used Spirulina algae to make cakes.
-One of the oldest examples of crossbreeding for the
benefit of humans is mule. Mule is an offspring of a male
donkey and a female horse. People started using mules
for transportation, carrying loads, and farming, when
there were no tractors or trucks.
- The distillation of alcoholic spirits was common in many
parts of the world.
- Vinegar manufacture began in France
1590 - Dutch spectacle-maker Zacharias Janssen
invents the microscope.
1663 - English physicist, mathematician and inventor
Robert Hooke discovers the existence of the cell.
1675 - In the seventeenth century, Antonie Van
Leeuwenhoek discovered microorganisms by examining
scrapings from his teeth under a microscope. He
discovers bacteria using a simple microscope.
1796 - First vaccination. First small pox vaccine is
discovered. Edward Jenner discovered the process of
vaccination by inoculating a small boy with cowpox and
then trying to re-infect him with smallpox. The boy
recovered from the weaker cowpox infection and thus
became immune to smallpox. The cowpox virus was
called ‘Vaccinia’, from the Latin word for cow, ‘Vacca’.
This is how the word ‘Vaccine’ came into use.
1830 - Proteins are discovered.
1833 - First enzyme is discovered and isolated
1850 - Casimir Davaine detected rod-shaped objects in
the blood of anthrax-infected sheep and was able to
produce the disease in healthy sheep by inoculation of
such blood.
1855 - The Escherichia coli bacterium is discovered. It
later becomes a major research, development, and
production tool for biotechnology.
1822-1895 – Louis Pasteur
- Louis Pasteur proposes that microbes cause
fermentation. He later conducts experiments that
support the germ theory of disease.
- Disproved the notion of spontaneous generation,
describing the role of bacteria in spoilage and the
scientific basis for fermentation
- Created the rabies vaccine
1859 - Charles Darwin’s landmark book, The Origin of
Species is published. This is about the theory of
evolution by natural selection
1865 - After seven years of cultivating and testing
thousands of pea plants, Gregor Mendel publishes a
description of rules governing how hereditary traits pass
between generations, the foundation of modern
genetics. Often considered the founder of genetics.
 OVERVIEW OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
1869 - Swiss physiological chemist Friedrich Miescher
first identified what he called "nuclein" inside the nuclei
of human white blood cells. (The term "nuclein" was later
changed to "nucleic acid" and eventually to
"deoxyribonucleic acid," or "DNA.")
1870-1910 Luther Burbank
Father of modern plant breeding Luther Burbank
develops over 800 new strains of fruits, vegetables and
flowers. His blight-resistant Burbank potato is heavily
planted across Ireland, ending the potato famine.
1873 - Botanist William James Beal produces the first
experimental corn hybrid in the laboratory.
1881 - Robert Koch, a German physician, described
bacterial colonies growing on potato slices (First ever
solid medium)
1901 - Japanese biologist, Shigetane Ishiwatari first
isolated the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) in 1901.
And it was rediscovered by Ernst Berliner in 1911.
Bacillus Thuringiensis
Plants are now being engineered to produce Bacillus
thuringiensis (Bt). This is a bacterium which occurs
naturally in the soil. There are strains of Bt that produce
proteins that kill certain insects. When these insects
ingest the protein, the function of their digestive system
is disrupted, producing slow growth and eventually
death. Another positive feature of Bt is that it is not
harmful to humans, other mammals, birds, fish, or
beneficial insects. It is not a very effective pesticide for
several reasons. It is relatively expensive, it must be
eaten by insects as opposed to simple exposure, it is
broken down by sunlight, and rain washes it away from
plants. This is why Bt is most effective when it is actually
contained in the plant itself.
1909 - The term ‘Gene’ had already been coined by
Wilhelm Johannsen (1857-1927), who described ‘gene’
as carrier of heredity. Johannsen also coined the terms
‘genotype’ and ‘phenotype.’
Genes are linked with hereditary disorders
1910 - American pathologist Peyton Rous extracted
material from a cancer tumor in a hen and injected it into
a healthy chicken. The chicken developed cancer, and
he concluded that cells from the hen's tumor contained
an infectious substance, a virus, that transmits cancer.
However, the study could not be replicated in mammals
and was long overlooked. When research showed that
viruses can operate by affecting the genetic material of
normal germ cells, interest in Peyton Rous' discovery
was reignited.
Rous Sarcoma Virus (RSV)
The discovery of Rous sarcoma virus, which was
reported by Peyton Rous in the Journal of Experimental
Medicine 100 years ago, opened the field of tumor
virology. It showed that some cancers have infectious
etiology, led to the discovery of oncogenes, and laid the
foundation for the molecular mechanisms of
carcinogenesis.
The 55 years elapsed between Rous’s discovery and his
Nobel recognition in 1966 is, in part, a testament to the
way time operates when it comes to science. There’s no
way to know what is going to turn out to be important
and why.
1915 - Phages — viruses that only infect bacteria — are
discovered.
1919 - The word “biotechnology” was coined by Karl
Ereky (1878–1952), in Hungary, to describe general
processes of converting raw materials into useful
products, such as on industrial farms.
1922 - In Toronto, Dr. Frederick Banting and his
assistant Charles Best discover insulin as a treatment for
diabetes.
1927 - Herman Muller discovers that radiation causes
defects in chromosomes (mutations).
1928 - Sir Alexander Fleming discovers the antibiotic
penicillin by chance when he realizes that Penicillium
mold kills bacteria. He shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in
Medicine with Ernst Boris Chain and Sir Howard Walter
Florey.
1928: World War II: Penicillin Production
In 1940, a team of researchers at Oxford University
found a way to purify penicillin and keep it stable.
• Pfizer, which had made fortunes using fermenting
processes to produce citric acid in the 1920s, turned its
attention to penicillin.
The company developed a complicated
production process and opened a new factory to
implement it: Pure strains of the mold were first grown in
small bottles, then seed tanks, then deep fermentation
tanks. The mold was then purified using a crystallization
process. Using this new method, they were able to
produce as much in a day as they had in the previous
year.
• The massive production of penicillin was another major
factor in the Allied victory in WWII.
1941 - Danish microbiologist A. Justin coins the term
genetic engineering, a technique involving the transfer of
a select piece of genetic material from one organism to
another.
1943-1944 Canadian scientist Oswald Theodore Avery
isolates pure DNA. DNA is proven to carry genetic
information by Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod and
Maclyn McCarty.
1953 - James Watson and Francis Crick describe the
double helical structure of DNA. They shared the 1962
Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology with Maurice
Wilkins.
 OVERVIEW OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
1955 – Frederick Sanger determines the amino acid,
sequence of insulin, making it the first protein to be
sequenced and by 1982 Human insulin (humulin) is
produced in genetically modified bacteria and is the first
biotech drug approved by the FDA
1958 - DNA is made in a test tube for the first time.
Sickle cell disease is shown to occur due to a change in
one amino acid.
1960 - Discovery of messenger RNA ‘tape copy’.
Messenger RNA plays a key role in protein synthesis.
Messenger RNA, also known as mRNA, are RNA
molecules that carry genetic information from the DNA in
the cell nucleus to the protein-making machinery in the
cell cytoplasm.
1961 - Scientists understand genetic code for the first
time.
1962 - Dr. Osamu Shimomura discovers the green
fluorescent protein in the jellyfish Aequorea victoria. He
later develops it into a tool for observing previously
invisible cellular processes
1968 - The genetic code for DNA is cracked,
demonstrating that a sequence of three nucleotide bases
(a codon) determines each of 20 amino acids. Three
scientists ( Marshall Nirenberg, Robert Holley and Har
Gobind Khorana) shared the 1968 Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine for the discovery.
1969 - An enzyme is synthesized in vitro for the first
time. In vitro (meaning: in the glass) studies are
performed with microorganisms, cells, or biological
molecules outside their normal biological context.
1970 - Restriction enzymes that cut and splice genetic
material are discovered, opening the way for gene
cloning.
The restriction enzyme technique becomes a
fundamental tool in modern genetic research, helping to
create the biotechnology industry and providing the
basis for the Human Genome Project.
1971 - The first complete synthesis of a gene occurs.
1973 - Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer perfect genetic
engineering techniques to cut and paste DNA using
restriction enzymes. They develop recombinant DNA
technology. Considered to be the birth of modern
biotechnology, they complete the first successful genetic
engineering experiment by inserting a gene from an
African clawed toad into bacterial DNA. (1977 sees the
first expression of a human gene in bacteria.)
1975 - Georges Kohler and Cesar Milstein develop the
technology to produce monoclonal antibodies — highly
specific, purified antibodies derived from only one clone
of cells that recognize only one antigen. They later would
share the 1984 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
with Neils Jerne.
1977 - Herbert Boyer uses E. coli bacteria to produce
human insulin. The technique represents a significant
improvement in the efficiency and long term viability of
producing this vital medical therapy, formerly extracted
from limited supplies of animal tissues that could lead to
allergic reactions. The vast majority of insulin used in the
today is now produced through this recombinant method.
1981 - The first transgenic animals are produced by
transferring genes from other animals into mice. The first
patent for a genetically modified organism is granted —
for bacteria that can break down crude oil.
1982 - The first recombinant DNA vaccine for livestock is
developed.
- The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
approves the first biologic or recombinant protein.
1983 - Dr. Luc Montagnier of the Pasteur Institute in
Paris isolates the AIDS virus. The discovery of HIV/AIDS
as a deadly disease has helped tremendously to
improve various tools employed by life-scientist for
discoveries and applications in various aspects of day-
to-day life
- The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique, which
makes unlimited copies of genes and gene fragments, is
conceived. Kary Mullis, who was born in Lenoir, N.C.,
later would win the 1993 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for
the discovery. He became interested in science as a
child when he received a chemistry set for Christmas.
- The FDA approves a monoclonal antibody based
diagnostic test to detect Chlamydia trachomatis.
- The first artificial chromosome is synthesized.
- The first genetic markers for specific inherited diseases
are found.
1984 - Genetic fingerprinting is discovered, which is
used today to establish family relationships and to
identify criminal suspects.
1985 - Genetic fingerprinting is entered as evidence in a
courtroom.
- The NIH approves guidelines for performing
gene‐therapy experiments in humans
1986 - First recombinant vaccine is approved for human
use: hepatitis B. First anti-cancer drug is produced
hrough biotech: interferon.
1989 - Oil-eating bacteria are used to clean up the
Exxon Valdez oil spill.
- Discovery of defective gene for cystic fibrosis by Dr.
Lap-Chee Tsui at Toronto’s Hospital for Sick Children.
Similar discoveries later link specific genes to other
disorders, such as autism, Huntington’s Disease, and a
rare heart problem known as Right Ventricular
Cardiomyopathy. Each has added to a growing
knowledge of the complex relationship between gene
function and disease.
 OVERVIEW OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
1990 - The first federally approved gene therapy
treatment is performed successfully on a 4-year-old girl
suffering from an immune disorder called adenosine
deaminase deficiency.
- Chy‐Max™, an artificially produced form of the
chymosin enzyme for cheesemaking, is introduced. It is
the first product of recombinant DNA technology in the
U.S. food supply.
1992 - American and British scientists unveil a technique
for testing embryos in vitro for genetic abnormalities
such as cystic fibrosis and hemophilia.
- The FDA declares that transgenic foods are “not
inherently dangerous” and do not require special
regulation.
1994 - Genetically modified tomatoes are sold for the
first time in the United States. FDA approves the first
whole food produced through biotechnology:
FLAVRSAVR™ tomato.
- The first breast‐cancer gene is discovered.
- Pulmozyme® (dornase alfa), a recombinant version of
human DNase, is approved. The drug breaks down
protein accumulation in the lungs of cystic fibrosis
patients.
1995 - The first baboon-to-human bone marrow
transplant is performed on an AIDS patient.
The first vaccine for Hepatitis A is developed.
1996 - Sequencing of the baker’s yeast genome is
completed. The achievement marks the complete
sequencing of the largest genome to date—more than
12 million base pairs of DNA
1997 - Scientists report the birth of Dolly, the first animal
cloned from an adult cell. UNESCO adopts the Universal
Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights,
recognizing the human genome as a common heritage
that must be safeguarded from inappropriate
manipulation
- Biotech crops are grown commercially on nearly 5
million acres worldwide. The crops are grown in
Argentina, Australia, Canada, China, Mexico and the
United States.
- The first human artificial chromosome is created
1998 - Human embryonic stem cell lines are established.
They offer hope to many because they may be able to
replace diseased or dysfunctional cells.
- The first complete animal genome, for the C. elegans
roundworm, is sequenced.
- An early rough draft of the human genome map is
produced, showing the locations of more than thirty
thousands of genes.
- Human skin is produced for the first time in the lab.
1999 - A diagnostic test allows quick identification of
Bovine Spongicorm Encephalopathy (BSE, also known
as “mad cow” disease) and Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease
(CJD).
- The complete genetic code of the human chromosome
is deciphered.
2001 - Science and Nature magazines publish the
human genome sequence, making it possible for
scientists all over the world to begin researching new
treatments for diseases that have genetic origins, such
as cancer, heart disease, Parkinson's and Alzheimer's.
2002 - Draft version of the complete map of the human
genome is published.
2003 - The SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome)
virus is sequenced three weeks after its discovery.
SARS, which began in China, spreads quickly — and
spreads fear throughout the Far East and the world. The
last reported cases occurred in 2004 and resulted from
laboratory-acquired infections.
- A far more precise version of the human genome—one
that is 99.999%accurate—is published.
- TK-1 (GloFish) went on sale in Taiwan, as the first
genetically modified pet.
2004 - The first cloned pet — a kitten — is delivered to
its owner. She is called CopyCat (or Cc for short).
- Avastin, a recombinant monoclonal antibody, is the first
targeted biological therapy of its kind to receive FDA
approval
- UN Food and Agriculture Organization endorses
biotech crops, stating biotechnology is a complementary
tool to traditional farming methods that can help poor
farmers and consumers in developing nations.
2005 - Researchers at the University of Georgia
successfully produce a cow cloned from the cells of a
carcass.
- Scientists at Harvard University report success in
converting skin cells into embryonic stem cells through
fusion with existing embryonic stem cells.
- On May 7, the one billionth acre of biotech seed is
planted.
2006 - A vaccine against the human papillomavirus,
which causes cancer of the cervix, receives FDA
approval. The vaccine is made via recombinant DNA
technology by inserting of the viral genes into the DNA of
baker’s yeast.
- The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) grants
Dow AgroSciences the first regulatory approval for a
plant-made vaccine.
- The Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine,
in Winston-Salem, N.C., creates the first laboratory-
grown organs by successfully transplanting bladders
grown from a patient’s own cells. This method greatly
reduces the risk of organ rejection.
- The artist Stelarc had an ear grown in a vat and grafted
onto his arm.
 OVERVIEW OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
2007 - Scientists discover how to use human skin cells
to create embryonic stem cells.
- Taiwanese researchers develop a biotech eucalyptus
tree that ingests up to three times more carbon dioxide
than conventional varieties. The biotech eucalyptus also
produces less lignin and more cellulose.
- U.S. researchers announce the production of biotech
cattle that cannot develop prion proteins. Prions have
been implicated in the degenerative neurological disease
bovine spongiform encephalopathy. (Mad Cow Disease)
2008 - Japanese scientists create the first DNA molecule
made almost entirely of artificial parts. This advances the
field of gene therapy and brings scientists one step
closer to creating an artificial organism.
2009 - U.S. Congress frees up federal funding for
broader embryonic stem cell research.
- Canadian-owned Medicago produces the first plant-
based influenza vaccine, in tobacco leaves. Medicago
has built a manufacturing facility in Durham, N.C., to
scale up production. Quebecbased firm Medicago grows
H5N1 (bird flu) vaccine in tobacco leaves. The product
becomes the first plantbased influenza vaccine to
undergo human trials in Canada.
- Sasaki and Okana produced transgenic marmosets
that glow green in ultraviolet light (and pass the trait to
their offspring).
2010 - First synthetic cell. J. Craig Venter Institute
created the first fully synthetic, self-replicating bacterial
cell, which was named Synthia.
2011 - A trachea derived from stem cells is transplanted
into a human recipient.
- Advances in 3D printing technology lead to “skin
printing.”
- European scientists begin clinical trials for an anti-HIV
biotech medicine produced using genetically modified
tobacco. This increases the potential for cost-effective
HIV/AIDS therapy in the developing world.
2012 - The FDA issues draft guidelines for biosimilar
drugs (follow-on biologics) as a growing percentage of
biopharmaceuticals reach the end of patent protection.
Novartis, which has a manufacturing facility in Holly
Springs, N.C., receives FDA approval for Flucelvax, the
first cell-culture derived vaccine in the United States.
2013 - The U.S. Supreme Court rules that naturally
occurring genes cannot be patented.
- The world celebrates the 60th anniversary of Watson
and Crick’s discovery of the double helix.
- The first bionic eye has seen the light of day in the
United States, giving hope to the blind around the world.
Developed by Second Sight Medical Products, the Argus
II Retinal Prosthesis System has helped more than 60
people recover partial sight, with some experiencing
better results than others.
2014 - Researchers showed that blood from a young
mouse can rejuvenate an old mouse’s muscles and
brain.
- Researchers figured out how to turn human stem cells
into functional pancreatic β cells—the same cells that
are destroyed by the body’s own immune system in type
1 diabetes patients.
- All life on Earth as we know it encodes genetic
information using four DNA letters: A, T, G, and C. Not
anymore! In 2014, researchers created new DNA bases
in the lab, expanding life’s genetic code and opening the
door to creating new kinds of microbes.
- For the first time ever, a woman gave birth to a baby
after receiving a womb transplant.
- An international team of scientists reconstructed a
synthetic and fully functional yeast chromosome. A
breakthrough seven years in the making, the remarkable
advance could eventually lead to custom-built organisms
(human organisms included).
- Doctors discovered a vaccine that totally blocks
infection altogether in the monkey equivalent of the
disease — a breakthrough that is now being studied to
see if it works in humans.
- Ebola was merely an interesting footnote for anyone
studying tropical diseases. Now it’s a global health
disaster. But the epidemic started at a single point with
one human-animal interaction — an interaction which
has now been pinpointed using genetic research. A total
of 50 authors contributed to the paper announcing the
discovery, including five who died of the disease before
it could be published.
2015 - Scientists hit a number of breakthroughs using
the gene-editing technology CRISPR.
Researchers in China reported modifying the
DNA of a nonviable human embryo, a controversial
move.
Researchers at Harvard University inserted
genes from a long-extinct woolly mammoth into the living
cells — in a petri dish — of a modern elephant.
Elsewhere, scientists reported using CRISPR to
potentially modify pig organs for human transplant and
modify mosquitoes to eradicate malaria.
- Scientists from Singapore’s Institute of bioengineering
and nanotechnology designed short strings of peptides
that self-assemble into a fibrous gel when water is added
for use as a healing nanogel.
- Researchers in Sweden developed a blood test that
can detect cancer at an early stage from a single drop of
blood.
- Scientists discovered a new antibiotic, the first in nearly
30 years, that may pave the way for a new generation of
antibiotics and fight growing drug-resistance. The
antibiotic, teixobactin, can treat many common bacterial
 OVERVIEW OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
infections, such as tuberculosis, septicaemia, and C. • Primary focus on the development of agriculture
Diff. and food production (to address issues on
- A team of geneticists finished building the most famine and malnutrition)
comprehensive map of the human epigenome, a Classical Biotechnology (1800-1945)
culmination of almost a decade of research. The team • “Biotechnology” is a technology based on
was able to map more than 100 types of human cells, converting raw materials into a more useful
which will help researchers better understand the product. Biotechnology could provide solutions
complex links between DNA and diseases. to societal crises, such as food and energy
- Stanford University Scientists revealed a method that shortages.
may be able to force malicious leukemia cells to change • Classical biotechnology refers to a number of
into harmless immune cells, called macrophages. ancient ways of using living organisms to make
- Using cells from human donors, doctors, for the first new products or modify existing ones.
time, built a set of vocal cords from scratch. The cells • Ancient Science was adapted for industrial
were urged to form a tissue that mimics vocal fold production.
mucosa – vibrating flaps in the larynx that create the Modern (New) Biotechnology (1945-present)
sounds of the human voice. • Modern biotechnology refers to a number of
2016 - A little-known virus first identified in Uganda in techniques that involve the intentional
1947—Zika—exploded onto the international stage when manipulation of genes, cells and living tissue in
the mosquito-borne illness began spreading rapidly a predictable and controlled manner to generate
throughout Latin America. Researchers successfully changes in the genetic make-up of an organism
isolated a human antibody that “markedly reduces” or produce new tissue.
infection from the Zika virus. • Applications using Genetic engineering and
- The revolutionary gene-editing tool that promises to rDNA
cure illnesses and solve environmental calamities, took a • Biotechnology is most often associated with the
major step forward this year when a team of Chinese development of drugs
scientists used it to treat a human patient for the very
first time. GM CROP PRODUCTION WORLDWIDE:
- Researchers found that an ancient molecule, gk-pid, is
the reason single-celled organisms started to evolve into
multicellular organisms approximately 800 million years
ago.
- Stem cells injected into stroke patients re-enable
patient to walk.
- Cloning does not cause long-term health issues
- For the first time, bioengineers created a completely
3D-printed ‘heart on a chip.’
2017 - Scientists at the Salk Institute in La Jolla, CA,
said they’re one step closer to being able to grow human
organs inside pigs. In their latest research they were
able to grow human cells inside pig embryos, a small but
GMO’S LABELLING AROUND THE WORLD
promising step toward organ growth.
- Researchers at the National Institute of Health (NIH)
discovered a new molecular mechanism that might be
the cause of severe premenstrual syndrome known as
PMDD.

PARADIGM OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
Ancient Biotechnology (Pre-1800)
• Most of the biotech developments can be
termed as ‘discoveries’ or ‘developments’.
• Inventions were based on common observations There are 65 countries that opted to label GMO crops.
about nature. USA is the 65th country who have GMO labeling law.
 OVERVIEW OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
DOMAINS and PROSPECTS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY • Biotechnology will become a part of our life, from
drugs, medicine and therapeutics to
environmentally friendly chemicals, fuels and
materials

BIOTECHNOLOGY in the PHILIPPINES

The Philippines is the first ASEAN country to
initiate a biotechnology regulatory system with the
issuance of Executive Order No. 430 in 1990, which
established the National Committee on Biosafety of the
Philippines (NCBP). The countries biosafety regulatory
system follows strict scientific standards and has
become a model for member-countries of the ASEAN
seeking to become producers of agricultural
biotechnology crops.
Agricultural biotechnology is recognized by the
Philippine government as one of the potent tools to
attain food security and sustainable agriculture, and
promote health and food/environmental safety. The
agricultural biotechnology R&D in the Philippines started
in the 1970s.
Biotechnology Products developed and being
developed in the Philippines:
• Bt Corn greenhouse trial done in 1996. The
Philippines pioneered the planting of Bt corn in
Asia. The crop’s commercial propagation was
allowed in late December 2002.
• Since then, the area planted to biotech maize in
the country has reached a total of 702,000
hectares (has) involving over 400,000 farming
families. (Sunstar 2016)
• Bt cotton has been genetically engineered to
resist the dreaded bollworm (Heliothis armigera),
a destructive pest that is partly responsible for
the decline of the Philippines’ cotton industry.
The Bt variety is being cultivated in experimental
areas as PhilFIDA works on securing approvals
for commercial release of the seeds. In 2017, 26
*Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) is farmers in Ilocos Norte and a growing number of
defined as an assay that relies on an enzymatic farmers in Pangasinan are expected to plant Bt
conversion reaction and is used to detect the presence cotton
of specific substances (such as enzymes or viruses or • Bt eggplant is a modern variety, genetically
antibodies or bacteria). modified with high level of resistance against the
eggplant fruit and shoot borer developed by the
PROSPECTS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY University of the Philippines in Los Banos
• A world where there is sustainable development Institute of Plant Breeding. In 2017, the
that will tackle energy, food and environmental Vegetable Industry Council of Southern
needs without compromising the Earth’s Mindanao (Vicsmin) has expressed its full
resources or its future. support for the commercial planting of Bt
• A world which can address any medical and eggplant in the country.
health challenges • Biotech papaya with delayed ripening traits and
resistance to the destructive papaya ring spot
 OVERVIEW OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
virus, being developed by UPLB-IPB, has been
tested in confined field trials.
• Golden Rice (GR), a biotech rice biofortified with
provitamin A beta-carotene that is being
developed by the Philippine Rice Research
Institute (PhilRice) and the International Rice
Research Institute (IRRI).
• The virus-resistant sweet potato is being
developed by the Visayas State University in
Baybay City, Leyte and UPLB-IPB.
• The DA-Fiber Industry Development Authority
and UPLB have also been developing
transgenic lines of virus-resistant abaca.
The Philippines remains to be the top grower
of biotech or genetically modified (GM) crops in
Southeast Asia, and ranks as the twelfth biggest
producer of such crops in the world, according to the
latest report from the International Service for the
Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA).
(SEARCA Biotechnology Information Center May 19,
2017)
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