Definition of Literary Elements

Let's say your English teacher wants you to analyze a lengthy novel. You wonder how you can analyze something
that's hundreds of pages long. The easiest way to do so is to break the whole text down into its smaller parts, or
elements. That way, you have manageable units that you can examine separately and then put back together as a
whole.
The parts of a literary text are known as its literary elements. Rather than looking at a whole novel, we can examine
its plot, setting, characters, point of view and themes individually. Yes, that's quite a list, but in the spirit of breaking
down large tasks, let's break these elements down and view them piece by piece, using the following questions:
what, when, where, who and how.

Plot
Simply put, plot is what happens in a story. For a simple example, let's consider Dr. Seuss's Green Eggs and Ham. If
someone were to ask us for the book's plot, we can give a basic rundown:
An unnamed character spends most of the book refusing to try green eggs and ham. The book's other character,
Sam, constantly asks the unnamed character to try green eggs and ham in various settings. The unnamed character
refuses all these possibilities until, near the book's end, he agrees to try them so Sam will leave him alone. He
realizes he actually does like green eggs and ham, and he thanks Sam for introducing them to him.
Simple enough! But let's look at how the plot engages us from beginning to end.

Most plots fit into a story arc, which is a visual representation of a story's shape.
A story's beginning is called the exposition, which is a fancy way of saying the set-up to the story. This is where the
author introduces the main characters and sets up the story's problem, or conflict. In our example, the exposition
consists of the two characters' introductions and Sam initially asking the unnamed character to try green eggs and
ham. Now, the real action can begin.
The rising action is all the action that leads up to the climax, or the pivotal part of the story. In our case, all the
instances of Sam asking the other character to try green eggs and ham make up the rising action.
All these actions lead up to the story's most important part, which is the aforementioned climax. This is where the
story hits its peak, which is why it's also the peak of the story arc diagram. You can think of it as the point at which
the story changes and starts heading toward its end. In Green Eggs and Ham, the climax occurs when the unnamed
character finally agrees to try green eggs and ham. Once he does, he comes to the startling realization that he loves
them! This is the high point of the story, and now it can start heading toward its ending.
The falling action (also known by fancy people as the denoument) is so named because it consists of everything that
'falls' out from the climax. What are the results of the climactic action? Well, after the unnamed character eats the
green eggs and ham, he tells Sam that he would eat it anywhere!
And just as the rising action leads to the climax, the falling action leads to the resolution, which is another way of
saying how everything ends up. In this example, the reluctant character thanks Sam for convincing him to try green
eggs and ham. All is well, and the unnamed character has a new favorite food.
A well-structured plot will keep readers guessing what happens next until they hit the climax. It will also keep the
reader's attention until the story's resolution. Ideally, the resolution is in line with everything that came before it,
and the end doesn't seem forced or unrealistic for the story.
Setting
Setting is the when and where of a literary text. For example, the novel Gone With the Wind takes place in and
around Atlanta, Georgia, and the plot - or action - occurs before, during and after the Civil War.
Although it's a simple concept, setting is a vital literary element. Try thinking of all the Southern romanticism of Gone
With the Wind in New York City during the same time period. It just wouldn't work.
In some stories, the location itself almost becomes a character. Think, for example, of the importance of New York
City in the television series Sex and the City. If you take the city out of it, the title and the show itself become
completely different, and probably not as enjoyable.

Characters
Characters are the fictional people - the who - in a story. The number of characters is completely up to the author.
Think of the movie Castaway, for instance. It involves one character for a majority of the film. On the other hand,
Anne Rice's novel The Witching Hour follows tons of characters to weave a complex saga.
Now, there are a few literary terms we have for certain types of characters. The main character, the one we follow
most closely in the story, is the protagonist. They're the Harry Potters, the Katniss Everdeens and the Luke
Skywalkers of the literary world.
Then there are the antagonists, or the bad guys who work against the protagonists. Enter Voldemort, President
Snow and Darth Vader.

Visual Language: Genres and Conventions

Visual genres include pictures, picture books, photographs, book jackets, posters, advertising, newspapers, maps,
cartoons, comics, plays, computer games, feature films, and television programmes.

These genres can be grouped into more specific genres. For example, feature films can be westerns, thrillers,
comedies, or musicals. A play in which the hero and/or heroine dies at the end is usually called a tragedy, whereas a
funny play (or television programme or feature film) that has a happy ending is called a comedy. Tragedies and
comedies are different kinds, or genres, within the broader genre of plays, and they can be usefully considered in
this more specific way.

Such specific genres or subgenres derive from the purpose or purposes of their makers, who have made choices just
as writers or speakers make choices. Genre categorisation is based on the experiences and perceptions of audiences,
who in the case of visual language are more likely to be viewers than creators of visual language. In fact, most of us,
including our students, are much more likely to be experienced writers and speakers than film or television directors.
However, it is important that students have as many opportunities as possible to produce visual language, in the
same way that they have opportunities to speak and write. The experience of production will in turn help them to
understand and "read" visual language in an informed way.

What is the basis of the experiences and perceptions that influence our categorisation of visual genres?

Different genres are not fixed or discrete categories. Rather, what distinguishes them from each other is the
distinctive pattern of what we call conventions.

Conventions can be based on what is presented, drawing on the agreed expectations that have already been
established within a certain genre. For example, if you open a kitchen drawer, you expect to find kitchen utensils,
not underwear. Breaking the expected conventions creates surprise and humour or shock. Monty Python's The Holy
Grail is based on the well known search by King Arthur. If a strange creature were to appear, we would expect a
dragon or a knight with the strength of ten men, but not a killer rabbit. The arrival of a vicious rabbit instead breaks
the expected conventions of the historical film genre and creates the humour.
Feature films such as westerns, thrillers, or musicals, and tragedies and comedies for stage, television, or film - all
have their own conventions. So, too, do television news programmes, documentaries, soap operas, and quiz
programmes. And so do cartoons, comics, and weather information in our daily newspapers. Although all the
conventions of what is presented in one genre may not be exclusive to that genre, the pattern or combination of
conventions is what distinguishes examples of one genre from another.

Other conventions are based on how something is presented. Such conventions influence our expectations, how we
interpret what we view and read, and what we and our students in turn recreate and present. For example, in a
mime or drama, the performer is able to suggest, and we are able to understand, that he or she has come to a wall
or is eating or drinking, even though there is no wall or food, knife and fork, or glass. We know this because of our
knowledge and understanding of the conventions of mime, which enable us to read, make, and share meaning. We
explore, read, and interpret visual language in terms of our understanding of conventions.

Some Conventions Common to Books, Film, and Television

Conventions of narrative

Many teachers and students view and study the feature film in much the same way as they do a novel because the
conventions of narrative in the novel and the feature film are similar. Our youngest students come to school with
prior knowledge of many of the conventions of narrative, based on considerable experience of books, film, and
television.

Both books (especially novels) and films often have a plot and narrative structure shaped into three main
movements, similar to a three-act play. The work typically opens with one or more characters in a situation where an
incident incites a conflict. This catalyst then sets off complications, often developing through two or three crises or
particularly tense moments. The situation reaches a climax and is then resolved.

However, the structure of narratives in books and feature films differs from that in programmes made for television.
Television programmes are scripted, made, and shown in segments, the length of the segments being determined by
how frequent and how long the advertising breaks are. Feature films made for continuous screening but shown on
television with ad breaks inserted are consequently often interrupted at inappropriate times.

Makers of films or television programmes use in-points and out-points to start and end a sequence or narrative in
much the same way as writers do. In-points grab our interest, introduce the situation, reveal character conflict, or
start the action. Out-points end a sequence of narrative in such a way that the sequence can either be returned to if
it is left unresolved or be concluded. If it is concluded, the narrative can be either resolved or left open.

Subplot

As in written narrative, a subplot is common in feature films and television. A secondary story, connected to the
main narrative in some way, keeps viewers interested and may reinforce or provide contrast to important ideas in
the main story.

Journeys

Many films, such as Watership Down, Once Were Warriors, and An Angel at My Table, are journeys of experience for
both their characters and their viewing audiences. So, too, are television programmes like The Simpsons or Friends.
As in fiction, the structure of a film narrative can be based on a physical as well as a mental and emotional journey:
one well known example is Apocalypse Now, which is closely related to Conrad's Heart of Darkness.

Symbols and motifs

Narratives can be unified by symbols. Visual symbols, such as bright sunny weather, might suggest happiness,
enjoyment, and hope. Narratives can also be unified by the repetition of symbols, called motifs, as in the sea, rain,
mud, bush, and trees in The Piano: motifs that reinforce the sense of isolation and entrapment. The same film has
several other recurring symbols or motifs: the fingers and hands and, of course, the piano itself. Sound can also unify
narrative, providing recurring motifs. The regular, rhythmic, and sinister musical beat in Jaws, signalling that another
crisis or attack is imminent, is a good example. Comedy often has a motif of a particular recurring character or action,
such as the mice who appear in the corner of the screen singing to introduce each new adventure in Babe.

Themes

The structured narratives of feature films and television programmes have central ideas or themes. Our
interpretation of the theme is related to the expectations we have, which in turn revolve around the external and
internal conflicts of the characters.

Forms

The form is the essential structure of the visual language text, including its organisation, style, and sequence. A
picture book might be in the form of a series of collages. A film might be structured in flashback or contrasting
sequences from plot and subplot.

Settings

The setting, including the period in which the action takes place, is important, too. For example, in science fiction,
the setting is usually in the future. Other science fiction conventions might include some scientific development or
phenomenon that is central to the narrative; there may be extraterrestrial beings, and the world of good characters
may be under threat from evil "baddies" trying to gain power. Again, the conflict may be between the good and evil
uses of a discovery or a new world. The expectation, or convention, is that at the climax, usually against the odds,
the "goodies" win.

The settings of The Piano in the past and Once Were Warriors in the present are significant in the comments they
make about the societies they are set in. Sometimes, however, a production will be located in a period or setting
different from its original script - Hamlet probably holds the record for different settings. The setting for a particular
film will have been chosen to relate the emphasis of the script to the audience, breaking conventions and their usual
expectations or demonstrating the timelessness of a theme.

Rites of passage

The conventions of feature films that deal with rites of passage typically include unsympathetic adults who don't
understand or sympathetic adults who do but find themselves in conflict with other adults who don't. The teenagers
usually rebel, but in the end, they either conform or find some way of accommodating themselves. This is often as a
result of some change by some of the initially unsympathetic adults or authorities as well as of the increased
understanding the teenagers may have gained.

Codes

When we are about to read a book or to view a film or a television programme in any particular genre, we have
expectations about what it will contain. In a Western, we expect a gun-slinging hero in the American West, probably
in a saloon with a barmaid somewhere and a duel at high noon. In a thriller, we expect a female victim, a male killer
or would-be killer, and a male rescuer. But such conventions may also be very effectively broken.

The common characteristics or conventions of any genre, including film, are sometimes called codes. These can
include structural codes, which are such features as particular kinds of plot, character, or setting. Stylistic codes
include such features as particular lighting, shooting style, or music.

For example, take the romance genre. Structurally, it commonly includes two people who fall in and out of love two
or three times during the course of the film. Their difficulties often seem huge, though sometimes simple
misunderstandings are the cause. Against seemingly insurmountable odds, they are nevertheless usually completely
in love at the end. Stylistically, this genre includes low lighting, soft focus, sometimes beautiful settings, and music
that might at times be raunchy and at times soft and romantic.

The different genres, or patterns of various conventions and codes, influence our expectations and help us to read
closely and to make and present meanings.
The Five Main Genres of Literature: Poetry, Prose, Drama, Non-Fiction, and Media
Literature Study Guides and Chapter Summaries / By Haley Drucker / Homework Help & Study Guides
Categorizing Literature

Back in ancient Greece, literature was divided into two main categories: tragedy and comedy. Nowadays the list of
possible types and genres of literature can seem endless. But it is still possible to narrow down the vast amount of
literature available into a few basic groups.
The five genres of literature students should be familiar with are Poetry, Drama, Prose, Nonfiction, and Media—
each of which is explained in more detail below. You’ll see some overlap between genres; for example, prose is a
broader term that includes both drama and non-fiction. At the end of this article, we’ll also touch on a couple of
narrower but still important literary categories.
Poetry

This is often considered the oldest form of literature. Before writing was invented, oral stories were commonly put
into some sort of poetic form to make them easier to remember and recite. Poetry today is usually written down but
is still sometimes performed.

A lot of people think of rhymes and counting syllables and lines when they think of poetry, and some poems certainly
follow strict forms. But other types of poetry are so free-form that they lack any rhymes or common patterns. There
are even kinds of poetry that cross genre lines, such as prose poetry. In general, though, a text is a poem when it has
some sort of meter or rhythm, and when it focuses on the way the syllables, words, and phrases sound when put
together. Poems are heavy in imagery and metaphor and are often made up of fragments and phrases rather than
complete, grammatically correct sentences. And poetry is nearly always written in stanzas and lines, creating a
unique look on the page.
Poetry, as experienced in the classroom, is usually one of three types. There are the shorter, more modern poems,
spanning anything from a few lines to a few pages. Often these are collected in books of poems by a single author or
by a variety of writers. Edgar Allen Poe’s “The Raven," is one of the most commonly taught poems of this type. Then
there are the classical, formulaic poems of Shakespeare’s time, such as the blank verse and the sonnet. And finally,
there are the ancient, epic poems transcribed from oral stories. These long, complex poems resemble novels, such as
Homer’s The Iliad and The Odyssey.
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Prose

Once you know what poetry is, it’s easy to define prose. Prose can be defined as any kind of written text that isn’t
poetry (which means drama, discussed below, is technically a type of prose). The most typical varieties of prose are
novels and short stories, while other types include letters, diaries, journals, and non-fiction (also discussed below).
Prose is written in complete sentences and organized in paragraphs. Instead of focusing on sound, which is what
poetry does, prose tends to focus on plot and characters.

Prose is the type of literature read most often in English classrooms. Any novel or short story falls into this category,
from Jane Eyre to Twilight and from “A Sound of Thunder" to “The Crucible." Like poetry, prose is broken down into
a large number of other sub-genres. Some of these genres revolve around the structure of the text, such as novellas,
biographies, and memoirs, and others are based on the subject matter, like romances, fantasies, and mysteries.
Drama

Any text meant to be performed rather than read can be considered drama (unless it’s a poem meant to be
performed, of course). In layman’s terms, dramas are usually called plays. When written down the bulk of a drama is
dialogue, with periodic stage directions such as “he looks away angrily." Of all the genres of literature discussed in
this article, drama is the one given the least time in most classrooms. And often when drama is taught, it’s only read
the same way you might read a novel. Since dramas are meant to be acted out in front of an audience, it’s hard to
fully appreciate them when looking only at pages of text. Students respond best to dramas, and grasp their
mechanics more fully when exposed to film or theater versions or encouraged to read aloud or act out scenes during
class.
The dramas most commonly taught in classrooms are definitely those written by the bard. Shakespeare’s plays are
challenging, but rewarding when approached with a little effort and a critical mindset. Popular choices from his
repertoire include Hamlet, Taming of the Shrew, and Romeo and Juliet, among others. Older Greek plays are also
taught fairly often, especially Sophocles’ Antigone. And any good drama unit should include more modern plays for
comparison, such as Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman.
Non-Fiction

Poetry and drama both belong to the broader category of fiction—texts that feature events and characters that have
been made up. Then there is non-fiction, a vast category that is a type of prose and includes many different sub-
genres. Non-fiction can be creative, such as the personal essay, or factual, such as the scientific paper. Sometimes
the purpose of non-fiction is to tell a story (hence the autobiography), but most of the time the purpose is to pass on
information and educate the reader about certain facts, ideas, and/or issues.
Some genres of non-fiction include histories, textbooks, travel books, newspapers, self-help books, and literary
criticism. A full list of non-fiction types would be at least as long as this entire article. But the varieties most often
used in the classroom are textbooks, literary criticism, and essays of various sorts. Most of what students practice
writing in the classroom is the non-fiction essay, from factual to personal to persuasive. And non-fiction is often used
to support and expand students’ understanding of fiction texts—after reading Hamlet students might read critical
articles about the play and historical information about the time period and/or the life of Shakespeare.
Media

The newest type of literature that has been defined as a distinct genre is media. This categorization was created to
encompass the many new and important kinds of texts in our society today, such as movies and films, websites,
commercials, billboards, and radio programs. Any work that doesn’t exist primarily as a written text can probably be
considered media, particularly if it relies on recently developed technologies. Media literature can serve a wide
variety of purposes—among other things it can educate, entertain, advertise, and/or persuade.

More and more educators are coming to recognize the importance of teaching media in the classroom. Students are
likely to be exposed to far more of this type of literature than anything else throughout their lives, so it makes sense
to teach them how to be critical and active consumers of media. Internet literacy is a growing field, for example,
since the skills required to understand and use online information differ in important ways from the skills required to
analyze printed information. Teaching media literacy is also a great way for educators to help students become
participants in their own culture, through lessons on creating their own websites or home movies or commercials.
Other Types of Literature

These are far from the only important genres of literature. Here are a few more that are sometimes used in
classrooms:

Oral Literature: The oldest type of literature, and the foundation on which culture was built. Now, most oral texts
have been written down, of course, and are usually taught in the form of epic poems or plays or folk tales.
Folklore/Folk Tales/Fables: A distinction is often made between regular prose and folklore. Most folk tales were
originally oral literature, and are short stories meant to pass on a particular lesson or moral. They often have a
timeless quality, dealing with common human concerns that are just as relevant to us today, while still being
products of a very specific culture and time period.
Graphic Novels and Comic Books: It used to be that most educators saw comic books as the lowest form of
literature, not suitable or valuable for children. But times have changed, and many teachers have come to realize
that comic books and the more modern graphic novels are both appealing to kids and are a valid form of literature in
their own right.
Some Resources

“Literary Genres” by the California Board of Education

“Literary Genre, Mode, and Style” at The Victorian Web