1. Define Computer Network.

Multiple computers are connected to each other to share information and

resources.network is interconnected collection of autonomous computers that
can share and exchange information

2. List out the advantages of Computer Network.

File sharing ,Resource sharing,Sharing a single internet connection,

Increasing storage capacity – you can access files and multimedia, such as
images and music, which you store remotely on other machines or network-
attached storage devices. Resource sharing, Reliability, Reduced cost, Fast
communication.

3. List the available network components.

Hubs, Switches, Bridges, Routers, Gateways.

4. What is hub and what is switch?

A switch is used to connect various network segments. A network switch is a
small hardware device that joins multiple computers together within one local
area network (LAN).A Hub connects multiple Ethernet devices together,
making them act as a single segment.

5. List out the different types of networks.

Personal Area Network (PAN) ,Local Area Network (LAN),Campus

Area Network (CAN) ,Metropolitan Area Network (MAN), Wide
Area Network (WAN) ,Storage-Area Network (SAN)

6. Suppose there are n number of devices in a network, what is the number of

cable links required for a Mesh, Ring, and Star topology?
n(n-1)/2 cable link are required for mesh, n for ring, n-1 cable link for bus,
and n cable link for star topology.

7. List Popular Internet applications, their application-layer protocols, and their

underlying transport protocols
8. Which layers in the Internet protocol stack does a router process? Which
layers does a link-layer switch process? Which layers does a host process?

Routers process network, link and physical layers. Link layer switches process
link and physical layers Hosts process all five layer

9. What are the types of media transmitters?

Twisted Pair Cable ,Coaxial Cable ,Optical Fiber Cable ,Unguided Media,
Radio waves ,Microwaves, Infrared

10. What is the transmission rate of Ethernet LANs?

11. Give the name of a protocol used in each layer of the network
 .

12. List out the merits and demerits of TCP / IP model.

13. What are the types of wireless networks?

14. How many bits does IPV6 address contain? How is it different from IPV4?
The IPv4 uses a 32-bit address scheme allowing to store 2^32 addresses which
is more than 4 billion addresses.
15. What are the two sub layers of data link layer in IEEE 802 networks?

16. List four commonly used topologies to set up a LAN. Suggest a MAC scheme
for each.
Ring,Bus,Star,mesh
17. What is the 32-bit binary equivalent of the IP address 223.1.3.27?

223=11011111
1=00000001
3=00000011
27=00011100
So, the 32-bit binary equivalent of the IP addresses 223.1.3.27:
11011111 00000001 00000011 00011100

18. Define host and end system

Host is Computer or a device connected to a network which provide
information, resources or services to users or other host in a network.

End Systems are termed as they are at the edge of internet which does not
interact with the users but provide various services.For example, web servers
and e-mail servers which does not interact with users directly but provide
resources

19. Define packet switching.

mode of data transmission in which a message is broken into a number of
parts which are sent independently, over whatever route is optimum for each
packet, and reassembled at the destination.
20. Differentiate Infrastructure based network from Ad-hoc network.
21. What is the difference between Wi-Fi and wireless LAN

WLAN, short for Wireless Local Area Network and sometimes called
Wireless LAN, is a network of computers over distances of a few hundred
feet that uses high frequency radio signals to transmit and receive data.
Wi-Fi (short for "wireless fidelity") is a term for certain types of WLANs that
use specifications in the 802.11 wireless protocol family
.
22. Compare and contrast link-state and distance-vector routing algorithms.

23. List out the examples of dynamic routing algorithms.

24. What is packetizing?
partition or separate (data) into units for transmission in a packet-switching
network.

25. Write the difference between protocol and interface in OSI model.
An interface refers to the connecting point between two
adjacent network entities. A protocol defines rules to be complied with for
exchanging information on the connecting point

26. What are the functions of physical layer?

27. What is Simplex, Half Duplex and Full Duplex?

There are three modes of transmission namely: simplex, half duplex,
and full duplex. Transmission mode defines the direction of flow of signal
between two connected devices.
In a simplex transmission mode, the communication between sender and
receiver occurs only in one direction.
 The communication between sender and receiver occurs in both the
directions in a half duplex transmission but, one at a time.
In a full duplex transmission mode, the communication between sender and
receiver can occur simultaneously.

28. What are the differences between the following types of wireless channel
impairments: path loss-LOSS OF SIGNAL, multipath propagation-SIGNAL
TAKES MULTIPLE PATHS, interference from other sources-
DISTURBANCE FROM OTHER SOURCES

29. Sketch 3G system architecture

30. What is the use of two frequencies in cell phone network technology?
Forward Traffic Channels are code channels used to assign call (usually voice)
and signaling traffic to individual users. The Reverse CDMA channel is
the mobile-to-cell direction of communication or the uplink path.
31. What does it mean for a wireless network to be operating in “infrastructure
mode?” If the network is not in infrastructure mode, what mode of operation
is it in, and what is the difference between that mode of operation and infra-
structure mode?

32. List out the advantages of cellular networks.

Draw the schematic and present the working of the cellular system.
 It provides voice/data services even while roaming.
It connects both fixed and wireless telephone users.
It is used in areas where cables can not be laid out due to its wireless nature.
It is easy to maintain.
It is easy to upgrade the equipments.
The mobile and fixed subscribers are connected immediately with cellular
network as soon as mobile phones are switched on. All the handshake signals
between mobile and base station are automatically exchanged.
33. What is time sharing?

TDM is the digital multiplexing technique.

In TDM, the channel/link is not divided on the basis of frequency but on the
basis of time.
Total time available in the channel is divided between several users.
Each user is allotted a particular a time interval called time slot or time slice
during which the data is transmitted by that user.
Thus each sending device takes control of entire bandwidth of the channel for
fixed amount of time.
In TDM the data rate capacity of the transmission medium should be greater
than the data rate required by sending or receiving devices.
In TDM all the signals to be transmitted are not transmitted simultaneously.
Instead, they are transmitted one-by-one.
Thus each signal will be transmitted for a very short time. One cycle or frame is
said to be complete when all the signals are transmitted once on the transmission
channel.
The TDM system can be used to multiplex analog or digital signals, however it is
more suitable for the digital signal multiplexing.
The TDM signal in the form of frames is transmitted on the common
communication medium.

34. What are the functional areas of mobile phone?

Like traditional landline phones, mobile phones allow one user to call
another and talk from afar. Functions related to voice
communications include automatic redial, last number recall, caller ID,
logging of incoming and outgoing calls, speakerphone or hands-free
capabilities, and speed dialing
35. List out the components of mobile phone.
Antenna Switch
P.F.O
RF IC / Hagar / Network IC
26 MHz Crystal Oscillator
VCO
RX Filter
TX Filter
ROM
RAM
Flash IC
RTC (Simple Silicon Crystal)

36. Define LTE

LTE (Long Term Evolution) is a standard for 4G wireless broadband
technology that offers increased network capacity and speed to mobile device
users.
LTE offers higher peak data transfer rates -- up to 100 Mbps downstream and
30 Mbps upstream. It also provides reduced latency, scalable bandwidth
 capacity and backward-compatibility with existing GSM and UMTS
technology. Future developments could yield peak throughput on the order of
300 Mbps.
History/development
The 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), a collaborative industry
trade group, developed GSM, a 2G standard; UMTS, the 3G technologies
based on GSM; and, eventually, LTE. 3GPP engineers named the technology
Long Term Evolution because it represented the next step in the process.
37. Sketch Forward and reverse communication channels in AMPS

Differentiate between CDMA and GSM networks in terms of sharing access to

the channel.

GSM

 A GSM phone is a digital cellular technology used for transmitting mobile voice
and data services.
 GSM makes use of narrow band Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
technique for transmitting signals.
 This circuit-switched system divides each 200 kHz channel into eight 25 kHz
time-slots.
 The GSM operates on the mobile communication bands 900 MHz and 1800
MHz in most parts of the world. In the US, GSM operates in the bands 850
MHz and 1900 MHz.
 The GSM network is divided into three major systems: the switching system (SS),
the base station system (BSS), and the operation and support system (OSS).
 The switching system (SS) is responsible for performing call processing and
subscriber-related functions.
 All radio-related functions are performed in the BSS, it consists of base station
controllers (BSCs) and the base transceiver stations (BTSs).
 The operation and support system is to provide a network overview and support
the maintenance activities of different operations and maintenance organizations.

 In CDMA technology, More security is provided as compared with the GSM

technology because encryption is inbuilt in the CDMA.
 A unique code is provided to each and every user and all the conversation
between two users are encoded ensuring a greater level of security for CDMA
users.
 The signal cannot be traced easily in CDMA as compared to the signals of GSM,
which are concentrated in the narrow bandwidth.
 Therefore, the CDMA phone calls are more secure than the GSM calls. In terms
of encryption, the GSM technology has to be upgraded so as to make it operate
more securely.

38. List out the generations of cellular network with specifications.

39. What are methods to increase cell capacity
Techniques such as cell splitting, sectoring, and coverage zone
approaches are used in practice to expand
the capacity of cellular systems. Cell splitting allows an orderly
growth of the cellular system. Sectoring uses directional antennas
to further control the interference and frequency reuse of channels.

40. List out the small cell coverage area sizes.

A macrocell is a cell in a mobile phone network, that provides
radio coverage, is served by a high power cellular base station
(tower). Generally, macrocells provide larger coverage than
microcell

 Macro-cellular nets, with cell radius 1 - 30 km

 Micro-cellular net, with cell radius 200 - 2000 m
 Pico-cellular nets, with cell radius 4 - 200 meter

41. What is meant by frequency reuse factor in a cellular network ? Draw the
arrangement of cells for a frequency reuse factor of 3.
The frequency reuse factor is the rate at which the same frequency can be
used in the network. It is 1/K where K is the number of cells which
cannot use the same frequencies for transmission.

42. Why does the mobile phone cell – the basic geographic unit of cellular system
– have a hexagonal shape?

The geographical area is divided into small hexagonal regions called

cells. It is the basic unit of the cellular system.These cells collectively
provide coverage over large geographical areas.

Hexagonal shapes are preferred than square or circle in cellular

architecture because it covers an entire area without overlapping.

Other advantages of hexagonal cellular system:

The frequency reuse become possible using this shape.

 The radiation pattern of the antennas used is 60 degree which means 6
are required for the full 360 degrees coverage which is the same no. of
sides the hexagon consists.(equidistant antennae)

Minimum interference.

43. In the 900 MHZ band of GSM, 890-915 MHz are allocated for the uplink,
and 935-960MHz for the downlink; i.e., a 25MHz bandwidth for each
direction. If 200 KHz is allotted for each channel, how many channels can be
supported? If each channel is further divided into 8 time slots, how many
users can be supported?
N=8*(25*10^3/200)=125*8=1000

44. The bandwidth allocated to a particular FDD cellular system is 33 MHz. It

uses two 25 kHz simplex channels to provide full duplex voice and control
channels, compute the number of channels available per cell if a system uses
(a) 4 cell reuse and (b) 7 cell reuse
Total bandwidth = 33 MHz
Channel bandwidth = 25 kHz *2 simplex channels = 50 kHz
Total available channels = 33000/50 = 660 channels.
(a) N = 4, 660/4 = 165
(b) N=7, 660/ 7=95
(c) N=12,660/12 =55
In practice, the control channel are allocated separately as 1 per
Cell
 45. The 2G system GSM 900 has 125 channels in the uplink and 125 reverse
channels in the downlink. Each channel has a bandwidth of 200 kHz.
a) What is the total bandwidth occupied in both the uplink and downlink
communications.

46. How to Place a call to a mobile user using indirect routing

47. Skype offers a service that allows you to make a phone call from a PC to an
ordinary phone. This means that the voice call must pass through both the
Internet and through a telephone network. Discuss how this might be done?
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) allows you to make phone calls over a broadband
internet connection instead of typical analog telephone lines. With VoIP, analog voice
calls are converted into packets of data. The packets travel like any other type of data,
such as e-mail, over the public Internet and/or any private Internet Protocol (IP) network.
When data travels over telephone network, it uses circuit switching and it applies packet
switching over the Internet.

48. Name some components of digital cell phone

49. Calculate the reuse distance in cellular communication given the radius of a
cell to be 10 sqkm and the number of user in the cell is 48

PART B
UNIT III NETWORK LAYERS

1. EXPLAIN ISO OSI REFERENCE MODEL IN DETAIL WITH NEAT

DIAGRAM.

OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) is reference model for how applications can
communicate over a network. A reference model is a conceptual framework for
understanding relationships.

2. WHAT IS THE NEED FOR LAYERING? COMPARE AND CONTRAST

LAYERED MODEL WITH TCP/IP MODEL

NEED FOR LAYERING

• The concept of layers is used to describe communication from one computer
to another.
OSI(Open System Interconnection) TCP/IP(Transmission Control
Protocol / Internet Protocol)
1. OSI is a generic, protocol 1. TCP/IP model is based on
independent standard, acting as a standard protocols around which
communication gateway between the Internet has developed. It is a
the network and end user. communication protocol, which
allows connection of hosts over a
network.
2. In OSI model the transport layer 2. In TCP/IP model the transport
guarantees the delivery of packets. layer does not guarantees delivery of
packets. Still the TCP/IP model is
more reliable.
3. Follows vertical approach. 3. Follows horizontal approach.
4. OSI model has a separate 4. TCP/IP does not have a separate
Presentation layer and Session layer. Presentation layer or Session layer.
5. Transport Layer is Connection 5. Transport Layer is both
Oriented. Connection Oriented and
Connection less.
6. Network Layer is both 6. Network Layer is Connection
Connection Oriented and less.
Connection less.
7. OSI is a reference model around 7. TCP/IP model is, in a way
which the networks are built. implementation of the OSI model.
Generally it is used as a guidance
tool.
8. Network layer of OSI model 8. The Network layer in TCP/IP
provides both connection oriented model provides connectionless
and connectionless service. service.
9. OSI model has a problem of 9. TCP/IP model does not fit any
fitting the protocols into the model. protocol
10. OSI model defines services, 10. In TCP/IP, services, interfaces
interfaces and protocols very clearly and protocols are not clearly
and makes clear distinction between separated. It is also protocol
them. It is protocol independent. dependent.
11. It has 7 layers 11. It has 4 layers
 The OSI and TCP/IP models have layers that explain how data is
communicated from one computer to another.
• The models differ in the number and function of the layers.
• However, each model can be used to help describe and provide details about
the flow of information from a source to a destination.
• Breaks network communication into smaller, more manageable parts.
• Standardizes network components to allow multiple vendor development and
support.
• Allows different types of network hardware and software to communicate with
each other.
• Prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers.
Divides network communication into smaller parts to make learning it easier to
understand
• The information that travels on a network is generally referred to as data or a
packet
A packet is a logically grouped unit of information that moves between computer
systems

3. what is an application-layer message? a transport-layer segment? a network-layer

datagram? a link-layer frame explain the process of encapsulation and de
capsulation on each layers.
 Encapsulation describes the process of putting headers (and sometimes trailers)
around some data. Like with the TCP/IP layers, each OSI layer asks for services
from the next lower layer. The lower layer encapsulates the higher layer’s data
between a header (Data Link protocols also add a trailer). While the TCP/IP
model uses terms like segment, packet and frame to refer to a data packet
defined by a particular layer, the OSI model uses a different term: protocol data
unit (PDU).
4. Which of the OSI layers handles each of the following:

(a) Dividing the transmitted bit stream into frames.

(b) Determining which route through the subnet to use.

ANSWER: (a) Data Link Layer (b) Network Layer

Explain about data link and network layer

 1. The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one
hop (node) to the next
2. The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to
the next.
3. The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
4. The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one
process to another.
5. The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.
6. The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and
encryption.
7. The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.

5. WHAT ARE THE PROTOCOLS IN EACH LAYER OF OSI MODEL?

WHAT IS A PAYLOAD AND EXPLAIN HOW DATA IS
TRANSMITTED IN EACH LAYER OF OSI MODEL WITH NEAT
DIAGRAM?
 Encapsulation describes the process of putting headers (and
sometimes trailers) around some data. Like with the TCP/IP layers, each OSI
layer asks for services from the next lower layer. The lower layer encapsulates the
higher layer’s data between a header (Data Link protocols also add a trailer).
While the TCP/IP model uses terms like segment, packet and frame to refer to a
data packet defined by a particular layer, the OSI model uses a different
term: protocol data unit (PDU).

6. Which layers in the internet protocol stack does a router process? which layers
does a link-layer switch process? which layers does a host process?
Or

What are the five layers in the Internet protocol stack? What are the principal
responsibilities of each of these layers?

Or

Explain the functions carried out by each layer in the TCP/IP model, and the
protocols used at these layers.

Or

Explain TCP / IP model in detail and compare it with ISO OSI model.
 Internet Layer is responsible for router

Network Interface Layer

The Network Interface layer (also called the Network Access layer) is responsible
for placing TCP/IP packets on the network medium and receiving TCP/IP packets
off the network medium.
The Network Interface layer encompasses the Data Link and Physical layers of the
OSI model.
Internet Layer
The Internet layer is responsible for addressing, packaging, and routing functions.
The core protocols of the Internet layer are IP, ARP, ICMP, and IGMP.
The Internet Protocol (IP) is a routable protocol responsible for IP addressing,
routing, and the fragmentation and reassembly of packets.
The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is responsible for the resolution of the
Internet layer address to the Network Interface layer address such as a hardware
address.
The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is responsible for providing
diagnostic functions and reporting errors due to the unsuccessful delivery of IP
packets.
The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is responsible for the
management of IP multicast groups.
The Internet layer is analogous to the Network layer of the OSI model.
Transport Layer
The core protocols of the Transport layer are Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
TCP provides a one-to-one, connection-oriented, reliable communications service.
TCP is responsible for the establishment of a TCP connection, the sequencing and
acknowledgment of packets sent, and the recovery of packets lost during
transmission.
UDP provides a one-to-one or one-to-many, connectionless, unreliable
communications service. UDP is used when the amount of data to be transferred is
small (such as the data that would fit into a single packet), when the overhead of
establishing a TCP connection is not desired or when the applications or upper layer
protocols provide reliable delivery.
The Transport layer encompasses the responsibilities of the OSI Transport layer
and some of the responsibilities of the OSI Session layer.
Application Layer
The Application layer provides applications the ability to access the services of the
other layers and defines the protocols that applications use to exchange data. There
are many Application layer protocols and new protocols are always being developed.
The most widely-known Application layer protocols are those used for the exchange
of user information:
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is used to transfer files that make up the
Web pages of the World Wide Web.
The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used for interactive file transfer.
The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is used for the transfer of mail
messages and attachments.
Telnet, a terminal emulation protocol, is used for logging on remotely to network
hosts.
Additionally, the following Application layer protocols help facilitate the use and
management of TCP/IP networks:
The Domain Name System (DNS) is used to resolve a host name to an IP address.
The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a routing protocol that routers use to
exchange routing information on an IP internetwork.
The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is used between a network
management console and network devices (routers, bridges, intelligent hubs) to
collect and exchange network management information.
7. Show how data flows through different layers in a TCP/IP network, where you
have to go through 2 routers to go from the source to the destination. Calculate
the number of times encapsulation and decapsulation take place.

1. GIVE NOTES ON NETWORK COMPONENTS.

•To separate / connect one corporate division with another.
•To connect two LANs with different protocols.
•To connect a LAN to the Internet.
•To break a LAN into segments to relieve traffic congestion.
•To provide a security wall between two different types of users.
•To connect WLAN to LAN

Computers within a LAN are often connected using a hub

LAN to LAN connections are often performed with a bridge.
Segments of a LAN are usually connected using a switch.
LAN to WAN connections are usually performed with a router.

HUBS

1. Hubs are simple network devices, and their simplicity is reflected in their
low cost.
2. A hub interconnects two or more workstations into a local area network.
3. They provide everything needed to create a small network.
4. When a workstation transmits to a hub, the hub immediately resends the
data frame to all connecting links.
5. Hubs expand one Ethernet connection into many.

SWITCHES

1. A switch is a combination of a hub and a bridge.

2. It can interconnect two or more workstations, but like a
 bridge, it observes traffic flow and learns.
3. When a frame arrives at a switch, the switch examines the destination address
and forwards the frame out the one necessary connection. switches are far
more efficient than hubs
Switches
1. It looks at the Media Access Control (MAC) addresses of the devices connected
to it to determine the correct port.
2. A MAC address is a unique number that is stamped into every NIC.
3. By forwarding data only to the system to which the data is addressed, the switch
decreases the amount of traffic on each network link dramatically

BRIDGE

1. Bridges are networking devices that connect networks.

2. It is necessary to divide networks into subnets ot reduce the amount of traffic
on each larger subnet or for security reasons.
3. Once divided, the bridge connects the two subnets and manages the traffic
flow between them network switches have largely replaced bridges
Bridge
A bridge connects networks and forwards frames from one network to another

ROUTER
 1. A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer
networks.
2. Routers perform the traffic directing functions on the Internet.
3. A data packet is typically forwarded from one router to another router
through the networks that constitute an internetwork until it reaches its
destination node. Examining data as it arrives, the router can determines the
destination address for the data; then, by using tables of defined routes, the
router determines the best way for the data to continue its journey. bridges
and switches, which use the hardware- configured MAC address to determine
the destination of the data, routers use the software-configured network
address(IP) to make decisions.
4. Approach makes routers more functional than bridges or switches.

MODEMS

Modem is a contraction of the terms modulator and demodulator. perform a

simple function: They translate digital signals from a computer into analog signals
that can travel across conventional phone lines. modem modulates the signal at the
sending end and demodulates at the receiving end. Modems provide a relatively
slow method of communication.

REPEATERS

As signals travel along a network cable (or any other medium of transmission), they
degrade and become distorted in a process that is called attenuation.
If a cable is long enough, the attenuation will finally make
asignal unrecognizable by the receiver.
A Repeater enables signals to travel longer distances over a network. Repeaters work
at the OSI's Physical layer. A repeater regenerates the received signals and then
retransmits the regenerated (or conditioned) signals on other segments.

FIREWALL
A firewall is a networking device, either hardware or software based, that controls
access to your organization’s network. This controlled access is designed to
protect data and resources from outside threat. To do this, firewalls are typically
placed at entry/exit points of a network. example, a firewall might be placed between
an internal network and the Internet. After the firewall is in place, it can control
access in and out of that point.

2. Explain Ethernet concepts.

3. Explain all types of topologies in networks. .
4. EXPLAIN SWITCHING TECHNIQUES IN DETAIL.

Or
COMPARE THE TELEPHONE NETWORK AND THE INTERNET.
WHAT ARE THE SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
THEM?
Or
WHAT ADVANTAGE DOES A CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORK
HAVE OVER A PACKET-SWITCHED NETWORK? WHAT
ADVANTAGES DOES TDM HAVE OVER FDM IN A CIRCUIT-
SWITCHED NETWORK?

A network packet is a formatted unit of data carried by a packet-switched

network. A packet consists of control information and user data which is also known
as the payload. Control information provides data for delivering the payload, for
example: source and destination network addresses, error detection codes, and
sequencing information. Typically, control information is found in packet headers
and trailers.
 Packets are transmitted over each communication link at a rate equal to the
full transmission rate of the link. So, if a source end system or a packet switch is
sending a packet of L bits over a link with transmission rate R bits/sec, then the time
to transmit the packet is L/R seconds.
Store-and-Forward Transmission
Most packet switches use store-and-forward transmission at the inputs to the
links. Store-and-forward transmission means that the packet switch must receive
the entire packet before it can begin to transmit the first bit of the packet onto the
outbound link.

Sending one packet from source to destination over a path consisting of N links each
of rate R (thus, there are N-1 routers between source and destination).

PACKET SWITCHING: QUEUEING DELAY, LOSS

 Each packet switch has multiple links attached to it. For each attached link,
the packet switch has an output buffer (also called an output queue), which stores
packets that the router is about to send into that link.

The output buffers play a key role in packet switching. If an arriving packet
needs to be transmitted onto a link but finds the link busy with the transmission of
another packet, the arriving packet must wait in the output buffer.
Thus, in addition to the store-and-forward delays, packets suffer output buffer
queuing delays. These delays are variable and depend on the level of congestion in
the network. Since the amount of buffer space is finite, an arriving packet may find
that the buffer is completely full with other packets waiting for transmission. In this
case, packet loss will occur—either the arriving packet or one of the already-queued
packets will be dropped.
CIRCUIT SWITCHING
Circuit switching is a method of implementing a telecommunications network
in which two network nodes establish a dedicated communications channel (circuit)
through the network before the nodes may communicate. The circuit guarantees the
full bandwidth of the channel and remains connected for the duration of the
communication session. The circuit functions as if the nodes were physically
connected as with an electrical circuit.
The defining example of a circuit-switched network is the early analog telephone
network
When two hosts want to communicate, the network establishes a dedicated end-to-
end connection between the two hosts.
end-end resources allocated to, reserved for “call” between source & dest:
 In diagram, each link has four circuits.
 call gets 2nd circuit in top link and 1st circuit in right link.
 dedicated resources: no sharing
 circuit-like (guaranteed) performance
 circuit segment idle if not used by call (no sharing)
 Commonly used in traditional telephone networks
MULTIPLEXING IN CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS
A circuit in a link is implemented with either frequency-division multiplexing
(FDM) or time-division multiplexing (TDM). With FDM, the frequency spectrum
of a link is divided up among the connections established across the link.

5. EXPLAIN WLAN IN DETAIL.

ELEMENTS IN A WIRELESS NETWORK:

 wireless hosts
 laptop, PDA, IP phone
 end systems that run applications
 may be stationary (non-mobile) or mobile
 wireless does not always mean mobility

BASE STATION
typically connected to wired network
relay - responsible for sending packets between wired network and wireless
host(s) in its “area”
e.g., cell towers, 802.11 access points

WiFi hotspots—public locations where users can find 802.11 wireless access—are
becoming increasingly common in hotels, airports, and cafés around the world.
Most college campuses offer ubiquitous wireless access, and it’s hard to find a
hotel that oesn’t offer wireless Internet access.
WIRELESS LINKS
A host connects to a base station (defined below) or to another wireless host
through a wireless communication link. Different wireless link
technologies have different transmission rates and can transmit over different
distances.

CHARACSTERICS OF WIRELESS NETWORKS

CLASSIFICATION
Hosts associated with a base station are often referred to as operating in
infrastructure mode, since all traditional network services (e.g., address
assignment
and routing) are provided by the network to which a host is connected via
the base station. In ad hoc networks, wireless hosts have no such infrastructure
with which to connect. In the absence of such infrastructure, the hosts themselves
must provide for services such as routing, address assignment, DNS-like name
translation, and more.

TAXONOMY
WIRELESS LINK CHARACTERISTICS
In wireless telecommunications, multipath is the propagation phenomenon that
results in radio signals reaching the receiving antenna by two or more paths.
Causes
of multipath include atmospheric ducting, ionospheric reflection and refraction,
and reflection from water bodies and terrestrial objects such as mountains and
buildings.
S/N ratio is defined as the ratio of signal power to the noise power, often
expressed in decibels. A ratio higher than 1:1 (greater than 0 dB) indicates more
signal than noise.
Differences from wired link
 DECREASED SIGNAL STRENGTH:
radio signal attenuates as it propagates through matter (path loss)
 INTERFERENCE FROM OTHER SOURCES:
 standardized wireless network frequencies (e.g., 2.4 GHz) shared by other
devices (e.g., phone); devices (motors) interfere as well
 MULTIPATH PROPAGATION: radio signal reflects off objects around,
arriving at destination at slightly different times
 SNR: signal-to-noise ratio
larger SNR – easier to extract signal from noise (a “good thing”)
 SNR versus BER tradeoffs
given physical layer: increase power -> increase SNR->decrease BER
given SNR: choose physical layer that meets BER requirement, giving
highest thruput
 SNR may change with mobility: dynamically adapt physical layer
(modulation technique, rate)
6. EXPLAIN WIFI TECHNOLOGY IN DETAIL.
 WIFI is an alternative network to wired network which is commonly
used for connecting devices in wireless mode.
 WIFI is stand for Wireless Fidelity is generic term that refers to
IEEE802.11 standard for Wireless Local Networks or WLANs.
 WIFI connects computers to each other, to the internet and to the wired
network
 WIFI uses radio technology to transmit and receive data at high speed.

IEEE 802.11b

IEEE 802.11a

IEEE 802.11g

 Appear in Late 1999

 2.4Ghz radio spectrum

 11Mbps (theoretical speed) within 30m range

 4-6Mbps (actual speed)

  100-150 feet range

 Most popular and Less expansive

 Interference from mobile phones and Bluetooth devices which can

reduce the transmission speed

Elements of WIFI network

IEEE 802.11 LAN ARCHITECTURE

A Basic Service Set
contains one or more wireless stations and a central base station,
known as an access point (AP) in 802.11
Figure shows the AP in each of two BSSs connecting to an
interconnection device (such as a switch or router), which in turn leads to the
Internet.
In a typical home network, there is one AP and one router (typically
integrated together as one unit) that connects the BSS to the Internet.
As with Ethernet devices, each 802.11 wireless station has a 6-byte
MACaddress that is stored in the firmware of the station’s adapter
(that is, 802.11 network interface card).
Each AP also has a MAC address for its wireless interface. As with
Ethernet, these MAC addresses are administered by IEEE and are (in
theory) globally unique. wireless LANs that deploy APs are often referred to
as infrastructure wireless LANs, with the “infrastructure” being the APs
along with the wired Ethernet infrastructure that interconnects the APs and
a router.
 Figure shows that IEEE 802.11 stations can also group themselves
together to form an ad hoc network—a network with no central control and
with no connectionsto the “outside world.” Here, the network is formed “on
the fly,” by mobile devices that have found themselves in proximity to each
other, that have a need to communicate, and that find no preexisting
network infrastructure in their location.
An ad hoc network might be formed when people with laptops get
together (for example, in a conference room, a train, or a car) and want to
exchange data in the absence of a centralized AP.

 wireless host communicates with base station

 base station = access point (AP)
 Basic Service Set (BSS) (aka “cell”) in infrastructure mode contains:
 wireless hosts
 access point (AP): base station
 ad hoc mode: hosts only

CHANNELS AND ASSOCIATION

In 802.11, each wireless station needs to associate with an AP before it
can send or receive network-layer data. When a network administrator
installs an AP, the administrator assigns a oneor two-word Service Set
Identifier (SSID) to the access point. (When you “view available networks”
in Microsoft Windows XP, for example, a list is displayed showing the SSID
of each AP in range.) The administrator must also assign a channel number
to the AP.

 Beacons—Used by the WLAN network to advertise its presence.

• Probes—Used by WLAN clients to find their networks.
 • Authentication—An artifact from the original 802.11 standard.
• Association—Establishes the data link between an AP and a WLAN
client.

Beacons are regularly broadcast by an AP, the probe, authentication, and

association frames are generally used only during the association and re-
association process. In Wireless network, the Access Points advertise their
presence in the network by sending out Beacon frames, which includes the
Service Set IDentifier and Basic Service Set Identifier information.
A. BSS
Basic Service Set. A bunch of machines forming a cell.
B. ESS
Extended Service Set. Using WiFi beyond a BSS, gluing together
several BSS
C. BSSID
A 48 bit identifier for a BSS. If an infrastructure BSS, it is the MAC of
the 802.11 side of the Acess Point. Else the local bit is set and a 48-bit
identifier is randomly selected.
D. SSID
Service set Identifier. An character string identifier for a ESS.
E. NAV
Network Access Vector. A time slot reservation, in microseconds.
F. RTS/CTS
Request To Send, Clear To Send. Reservation mechanism.

A WiFi jungle is any physical location where a wireless station receives a

sufficiently
strong signal from two or more APs. For example, in many cafés in New
York City,
a wireless station can pick up a signal from numerous nearby APs.
 The process of scanning channels and listening for beacon frames is
known as passive scanning . A wireless host can also perform active scanning,
by broadcasting a probe frame that will be received by all APs within the
wireless host’s range. APs respond to the probe request frame with a probe
response frame. The wireless host can then choose the AP with which to
associate from among the responding APs.

The process of scanning channels and listening for beacon frames is known
aspassive scanning . A wireless host can also perform active scanning, by
broadcasting a probe frame that will be received by all APs within the
wireless host’s range. APs respond to the probe request framewith a probe
response frame. The wireless host can then choose the AP with whichto
associate from among the responding APs.
802.11 Frames are devided into three categories.
1. Managment Frames
2. Control frames.
3. Data Frames
1. MANAGEMENT FRAMES
Managment Frames are used by Wireless stations to join and Leave the
Basic Service Set .Another name for Managment Frames is "MAC protocol
Data Unit"(MMPDU)
There is no MSDU encapsulated in the MMPDU frame body , which
carries only layer2 information fileds and information elements
1. Assosiation Request
2. Assosiation Response
3. Reassosiation Request
4. Reassosiation Response
5. Probe request
6. Probe Response
7. Beacon
8. Announcement Traffic Indication Message(ATIM)
9. Disassosiation
10. Authentication
11. Deauthenication
12. Action
2. CONTROL FRAMES
802.11 Control frames assit with the delivery of the data frames.
Control frames must be heard by all the stations, therefore they must be
transmitted at one of the basic rates
Control frames are also used to clear the channel,acquire the channel and
provide the unicast frame acknowledgements
They contain only header information
Following are the list of control frame subtypes as defined by 802.11
standard
1. Power Save(PS) Poll
2. Request to Send (RTS)
3. Clear to send (CTS)
 4. Acknowledgement(ACK)
5. Contention-Free(CF)-End (PCF only)
3.DATA FRAMES
Most of the Data Frames carry actual data that is passed down from higher
layer protocols
Some 802.11 data frames contain no data at all but do have a specfific
purpose within BSS
There are 15 data frame subtypes
1. Data
2. Data+CF-Ack (PCF only)
3. Data+CF-Poll (PCF only)
4. Data+CF-Ack+CF-Poll (PCF only)
5. Null data (no data transmitted)

7. Explain in detail about routing and explain any two routing algorithms.
oR
What is routing? Explain in detail.

Routing is the process of moving packets across a network from one host to
a another. It is usually performed by dedicated devices called routers

Packets are the fundamental unit of information transport in all modern

computer networks, and increasingly in other communications networks as
well. They are transmitted over packet switched networks, which are
networks on which each message (i.e., data that is transmitted) is cut up into
a set of small segments prior to transmission. Each packet is then transmitted
individually and can follow the same path or a different path to the common
destination. Once all of the packets have arrived at the destination, they are
automatically reassembled to recreate the original message.

Routing is a key feature of the Internet and it, together with a great deal of
deliberate redundancy of high capacity transmission lines (e.g., optical fiber
cable and microwave), is a key factor in the robustnEsS (i.e., resistance to
equipment failure) of the Internet. Each intermediary router performs
routing by passing along the message to the next router. Part of this process
involves analyzing self-configuring routing tables to determine the best (i.e.,
optimal) path.
 Routing is also used by circuit switched networks, in which a dedicated
circuit is established for the duration of the transmission of each message.
The dominant circuit switched network is the public switched telephone
network(PSTN), which is the worldwide collection of interconnected public
telephone networks that was designed primarily for voice traffic.

8. What is the difference between ad-hoc and infrastructure mode in IEEE

802.11? How can u differentiate Wi-Fi and WLAN?

WLAN is an acronym for Wireless Local Area Network. It refers to

the application of wireless communication technology to interconnect
computer devices to form a network system that can communicate with each
other and share resources. For example, multiple computers or devices
connected with each other using the Wireless network of a wireless router to
provide local connectivity. These computers or laptops installed with the
wireless adapter or Wireless LAN card can communicate with each other for
files transfer, printer sharing and more locally; the internet connection is not
compulsory.
WLAN uses ISM (Industrial, Scientific, Medical) radio broadcast band
communications. The WLAN 802.11a standard uses the 5 GHz band, and
the maximum supported speed is 54 Mbps, while the 802.11b and 802.11g
standards use the 2.4 GHz band, which supports speeds of 11 Mbps and 54
Mbps, respectively. The current WLAN includes the following protocol
standards: IEEE802.11b, IEEE802.11a, IEEE802.11g, IEEE802.11E,
IEEE802.11i, and WAP, however, in 2009 IEEE802.11n was added for
better connectivity; it operates in both the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands at a
maximum data transfer rate of 600 Mbit/s

wiIFI (Wireless Fidelity) technology, is a brand of wireless network

communication technology based on the IEEE 802.11 series of standards.
The purpose is to improve the interoperability between wireless network
products based on the IEEE 802.11 standard, and the Wi-Fi Alliance. (Wi-
Fi Alliance) holds, in short, WIFI is a kind of wireless networking
technology. In the past, it was connected to a computer via a network, and
now it is connected via radio waves.
9. WHICH MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUE IS USED BY IEEE
802.11 STANDARD FOR WIRELESS LAN? EXPLAIN IN DETAIL
IEEE 802.11: MULTIPLE ACCESS
 avoid collisions: 2+ nodes transmitting at same time
 802.11: CSMA - sense before transmitting
 don’t collide with ongoing transmission by other node
 802.11: no collision detection!
 difficult to receive (sense collisions) when transmitting due to
weak received signals (fading)
 can’t sense all collisions in any case: hidden terminal, fading
goal: avoid collisions: CSMA/C(ollision)A(voidance)
802.11 sender
1 if sense channel idle for DIFS then transmit entire frame (no CD)
2 if sense channel busy then start random backoff time timer counts down
while channel idle transmit when timer expires
if no ACK, increase random backoff interval, repeat 2
802.11 receiver
- if frame received OK
return ACK after SIFS (ACK needed due to hidden terminal problem)
 Avoiding collisions
idea: allow sender to “reserve” channel rather than random access of data
frames: avoid collisions of long data frames
 sender first transmits small request-to-send (RTS) packets to BS using
CSMA
 RTSs may still collide with each other (but they’re short)
 BS broadcasts clear-to-send CTS in response to RTS
 CTS heard by all nodes
 sender transmits data frame
 other stations defer transmissions
RTS /CTS EXCHANGE

Explain Ethernet in detail

Ethernet

The original Ethernet standard was developed in 1983 and had a maximum speed of
10 Mbps (phenomenal at the time) over coaxial cable. The Ethernet protocol allows
for bus, star, or tree topologies, depending on the type of cables used and other
factors. This heavy coaxial cabling was expensive to purchase, install, and maintain,
and very difficult to retrofit into existing facilities.

The current standards are now built around the use of twisted pair wire. Common
twisted pair standards are 10BaseT, 100BaseT, and 1000BaseT. The number (10, 100,
1000) ands for the speed of transmission (10/100/1000 megabits per second); the
"Base" stands for "baseband" meaning it has full control of the wire on a single
frequency; and the "T" stands for "twisted pair" cable. Fiber cable can also be used at
this level in 10BaseFL.

Fast Ethernet

The Fast Ethernet protocol supports transmission up to 100 Mbps. Fast Ethernet
requires the use of different, more expensive network concentrators/hubs and network
interface cards. In addition, category 5 twisted pair or fiber optic cable is necessary.
Fast Ethernet standards include:

 100BaseT - 100 Mbps over 2-pair category 5 or better UTP cable.

 100BaseFX - 100 Mbps over fiber cable.
 100BaseSX -100 Mbps over multimode fiber cable.
 100BaseBX - 100 Mbps over single mode fiber cable.

Gigabit Ethernet

Gigabit Ethernet standard is a protocol that has a transmission speed of 1 Gbps (1000
Mbps). It can be used with both fiber optic cabling and copper. (see the Cabling
section for more information).

 1000BaseT - 1000 Mbps over 2-pair category 5 or better UTP cable.

 1000BaseTX - 1000 Mbps over 2-pair category 6 or better UTP cable.
 1000BaseFX - 1000 Mbps over fiber cable.
 1000BaseSX -1000 Mbps over multimode fiber cable.
 1000BaseBX - 1000 Mbps over single mode fiber cable.

The Ethernet standards continue to evolve. with 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10,000 Mbps)
and 100 Gigabit Ethernet (100,000 Mbps),

Ethernet Protocol Summary

Protocol Cable Speed

Ethernet Twisted Pair, Coaxial, Fiber 10 Mbps

Fast Ethernet Twisted Pair, Fiber 100 Mbps

Gigabit Ethernet Twisted Pair, Fiber 1000 Mbps

Explain cell phone working fundamentals in detail.

Frequency reuse

 is a method used by service providers to improve the efficiency of a cellular network and to serve
millions of subscribers using a limited radio spectrum

 is based on the fact that after a distance a radio wave gets attenuated and the signal falls bellow a
point where it can no longer be used or cause any interference

 a transmitter transmitting in a specific frequency range will have only a limited coverage area

 beyond this coverage area, that frequency can be reused by another transmitter

cells

 the entire network coverage area is divided into cells based on the principle of frequency reuse

 a cell = basic geographical unit of a cellular network; is the area around an antenna where a specific
frequency range is used; is represented graphically as a hexagonal shape, but in reality it is irregular
in shape

 when a subscriber moves to another cell, the antenna of the new cell takes over the signal
transmission

 a cluster is a group of adiacent cells, usually 7 cells; no frequency reuse is done within a cluster

 the frequency spectrum is divided into subbands and each subband is used within one cell of the
cluster

 in heavy traffic zones cells are smaller, while in isolated zones cells are larger

Types of cell

 macrocell – their coverage is large (aprox. 6 miles in diameter); used in remote areas, high-power
transmitters and receivers are used

 microcell – their coverage is small (half a mile in diameter) and are used in urban zones; low-
powered transmitters and receivers are used to avoid interference with cells in another clusters

 picocell – covers areas such as building or a tunnel

  handover = moving a call from one zone (from the transmitter-receiver from one zone) to another
zone due to subscriber’s mobility

 roaming = allowing the subscriber to send/receive calls outside the service provider’s coverage area

Multiple access schemes

Frequency Division Multiple Access

- when the subscriber enters another cell a unique frequency is assigned to him; used in analog systems

Time Division Multiple Access

- each subscriber is assigned a time slot to send/receive a data burst; is used in digital systems

Code Division Multiple Access

- each subscriber is assigned a code which is used to multiply the signal sent or received by the subscriber

Cellular services

 voice communication

 Short Messaging Service (SMS)

 Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS)

 Global Positioning System (GPS)

 Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) – to access the Internet

Cellular network components

 BTS (Base Transceiver Station) – main component of a cell and it connects the subscribers to the
cellular network; for transmission/reception of information it uses several antennas spread across
the cell
  BSC (Basic Station Controller) – it is an interface between BTSs and it is linked to BTSs by cable
or microwave links; it routes calls between BTSs; it is also connected to the MSC

 MSC (Mobile Switching Center) – the coordinator of a cellular network, it is connected to several
BSCs, it routes calls between BSCs; links the cellular network with other networks like PSTN
through fiber optics, microwave or copper cable

Components of a cellular phone (MSU – Mobile Subscriber Unit)

 radio transceiver – low power radio transmitter and receiver

 antenna, usually located inside the phone

 control circuitry – formats the data sent to and from the BTS; controls signal transmission and
reception

 man-machine interface – consists from a keypad and a display; is managed by the control circuitry

 Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) – integrated circuit card that stores the identity information of
subscriber

 battery, usually Li-ion, the power unit of the phone

Setting up a call process

 when powered on, the phone does not have a frequency/ time slot/ode assigned to it yet; so it scans
for the control channel of the BTS and picks the strongest signal

 then it sends a message (including its identification number) to the BTS to indicate its presence

 the BTS sends an acknowledgement message back to the cell phone

 the phone then registers with the BTS and informs the BTS of its exact location

 after the phone is registered to the BTS, the BTS assigns a channel to the phone and the phone is
ready to receive or make calls

Making a call

 the subscriber dials the receiver’s number and sends it to the BTS

 the BTS sends to its BSC the ID, location and number of the caller and also the number of the
receiver

 the BSC forwards this information to its MSC

 the MSC routes the call to the receiver’s MSC which is then sent to the receiver’s BSC and then to
its BTS

 the communication with the receiver’s cell phone is established

GSM – global digital standard for cellular phones that offered roaming facility

 first named Groupe Special Mobile and used in Europe; then usage extended to other continents

 GSM operate in frequency bands: 900MHz, 1800 MHz, 1900 MHz

 GSM provides voice and data services

 SIM – a memory card (integrated circuit) holding identity information, phone book etc.

 GSM system support SIM cards

 other systems, like CDMA do not support SIM cards, but have something similar called Re-Usable
Identification Module (RUIM)

 IMEI – a unique 15 digit number identifying each phone, is incorporated in the cellular phone by
the manufacturer

 IMEI ex.: 994456245689001

 when a phone tries to access a network, the service provider verifies its IMEI with a database of
stolen phone numbers; if it is found in the database, the service provider denies the connection

 IMSI – a 15-digit unique number provided by the service provider and incorporated in the SIM
card which identifies the subscriber

 IMSI enables a service provider to link a phone number with a subscriber

 first 3 digits of the IMSI are the country code

 TMSI – is a temporary number, shorter than the IMSI, assigned by the service provider to the
phone on a temporary basis

 TMSI key identifies the phone and its owner in the cell it is located; when the phone moves to a
different cell it gets a new TMSI key

 as TMSI keys are shorter than IMSI keys they are more efficient to send

 TMSI key are used for securing GSM networks

Explain in detail Geneartions

 1G (first generation) – voice-oriented systems based on analog technology; ex.: Advanced Mobile
Phone Systems (AMPS) and cordless systems

 2G (second generation) - voice-oriented systems based on digital technology; more efficient and
used less spectrum than 1G; ex.: Global System for Mobile (GSM) and US Time Division
Multiple Access (US-TDMA)
  3G (third generation) – high-speed voice-oriented systems integrated with data services; ex.: General
Packet Radio Service (GPRS), Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

 4G (fourth generation) – still experimental, not deployed yet; based on Internet protocol networks
and will provide voice, data and multimedia service to subscribers

How packet transfer happens in data transmission what is the mechanism

Packet switching

Which protocol works at the Transport layer and discuss about the protocols

TCP and UDP(Transport Layer)

The transport layer is concerned with efficient and reliable transportation of the data
packets from one network to another. In most cases, a document, e-mail message or
other piece of information is not sent as one unit. Instead, it is broken into small data
packets, each with header information that identifies its correct sequence and
document.

When the data packets are sent over a network, they may or may not take the same
route -- it doesn't matter. At the receiving end, the data packets are re-assembled into
the proper order. After all packets are received, a message goes back to the originating
network. If a packet does not arrive, a message to "re-send" is sent back to the
originating network.

TCP, paired with IP, is by far the most popular protocol at the transport level. If the
IPX protocol is used at the network layer (on networks such as Novell or Microsoft),
then it is paired with SPX at the transport layer.

GIVE NOTES ON CELL, CELL SITE, HAND OFF, NEIGHBOURS WITH

DIAGRAMS.
CELL
The cell provided by a cell site can be from one mile to twenty miles in diameter, depending on
terrain and transmission power. Several coordinated cell sites are called a cell system.
Cellular network is an underlying technology for mobile phones, personal communication systems,
wireless networking etc. The technology is developed for mobile radio telephone to replace high
power transmitter/receiver systems. Cellular networks use lower power, shorter range and more
transmitters for data transmission.
TYPES OF CELL
Microcell, less than 2 kilometres
A microcell is a cell in a mobile phone network served by a low power cellular base station (tower),
covering a limited area such as a mall, a hotel, or a transportation hub.
Picocell, less than 200 metres
A picocell is a small cellular base station typically covering a small area, such as in-building (offices,
shopping malls, train stations, stock exchanges, etc.), or more recently in-aircraft.
Femtocell, around 10 metres
In telecommunications, a femtocell is a small, low-power cellular base station, typically designed
for use in a home or small business.
CELL SHAPES
HEXAGON SHAPE OF CELLS
• provides best approximation to circular omni directional radio pattern
• economical to use since hexagon requires fewer cells
• practical realization of overlapping circles
• hexagon has largest area, approximates circular radiation pattern

HANDOFF
 Mobile users are mobile they can be mobile while using the phone
 Network should be able to access as they move
 If user moves from one cell to another a handoff is required
 The user can move around while using mobile phone which is the advantage of handoff
 If the user moves within a cell,but moving from cell to another cell handoff is required
 Process of transferring active cell from first cell to another without disconnecting a call
when a mobile moves into different cell while the call is in progress MSC TRANSFERS
automatically transfers to new BS

1. Handoff involves identifying a new base station along with transfer of voice and control
signals
2. A user is transmitting and receiving from a given base station
3. Assume the user moves from coverage area of one base station BS1 to another base
station BS2
4. BS1 notices the signal is degrading
5. BS2 notices the signal is improving
 6. The users signal is weak in bs1 the communication is transferred from BS1 to BS2

SOFT AND HARD HANDOFF

hard handoff
 Break before make
 Connection to the old bs is broken before new connection is made
 Hard handoff occurs between different radio systems,differnt frequency assignments and
different technologies
soft handoff
 make before break
 connection is not broken until a connection is made
 normally connected to another base station
when sectors of same bs within msc is involved

what are IPv4 and IPv6? Who manages these?

What do you mean by adhoc networks(

What are the different types of transmission impairment

Explain the difference between BSS and ESS.

In WLAN, what messages are exchanged between AP and STA and what are the
functions of both?

i) Compare FDMA and TDMA. (6)

ii) Expand and explain the terms ESN, MIN, SIM, CDMA, GSM, ADC and DAC

Write the function of data link layer

List the available network components

(i)Summarize basic components of Wi-Fi

Explain IEEE 802.11 physical layer (PHY) in detail.