Chapter 2: CONSERVATION LAWS

INTRODUCTION
The flow of water in hydraulic conduits is governed by:
1. conduit geometry
2. fluid properties
3. conservation laws
The conduit geometry characteristics comprise area, wetted
perimeter, hydraulic radius, and roughness of boundaries. The
fluid properties include density, viscosity, pressure and
compressibility. Conservation laws include laws of
conservation of mass, energy, and momentum.
All hydraulics problems are based on fundamental governing
equations of fluid dynamics, the continuity, momentum and
energy equation. These equations speak physics. They are the
mathematical statements of these fundamental physical
principles upon which all the fluid dynamics is based:
1. Mass is conserved
2. Newton’s second law (F = ma)
3. Energy is conserved
This chapter discusses equations of conservation of mass,
conservation of momentum and conservation of energy for
steady flows in open channels. For simplicity only axial
component of velocity is considered while the components of
velocity in transverse and vertical direction are taken as zero.

CONTINUITY EQUATION
Physical principle: Mass is conserved
Civil engineers deal primarily with the flow of incompressible
liquids, i.e., the mass density of the liquid remains constant.
According to law of conservation of mass in open channels,

1
 the volumetric flow rates at different channel cross sections
remain equal provided there is no lateral inflow or outflow. In
order to derive continuity equation, consider the flow of an
incompressible liquid in a channel as shown below:

Rate of mass inflow through area dA1 at section = 1v1dA1 (1)

Rate of mass inflow through area dA2 at section = 2v2dA2 (2)
No change takes place in volume of liquid between sec 1 and sec 2
Therefore,
 1v1 dA1   2 v 2 dA2  (3)

For incompressible liquids,

1=2
Therefore  v1dA1   v2 dA2  (4)
If the flow velocity is uniform at each section then equation
(4) may be written as;
V1  dA1  V2  dA2  (5)
OR V1 A1  V2 A2  (6)
In terms of volumetric flow rate, Q, this equation becomes
Q1  Q2  (7)

This is called equation of continuity.

MOMENTUM EQUATION
Physical principle: F=ma
2
In order to derive the momentum equation, consider the flow
of an incompressible liquid in an open channel as shown
below:

Let this channel be prismatic and there is no inflow or outflow


Now the time rate of mass inflow at section 1  g Q  (1)
If V1 is the mean velocity at section 1 then;

Time rate of momentum inflow at sec 1  g Q V  (2)
1 1

Where 1 = momentum correction factor to account for

Non-uniform velocity distribution

Time rate of momentum outflow at sec 2  g Q V  (3)
2 2

Time rate of change of momentum of volume of liquid


between sec 1 and sec 2  g Q(  V   V )  (4)
2 2 1 1

Pressure force at sec 1  P1   Z 1 A1  (5)

Pressure force at sec 2  P2   Z 2 A2  (6)
Let,
 The resultant force = Fr
 The shear force = Fe
 W= weight of the volume of the liquid b/w
sections 1 & 2.
 Neglect shear stress at the free surface b/w air
and liquid.
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According to Newton’s 2nd law of motion, comparing
Equations 4 & 7, we get

Q (  2V2   1V1 )  A1 Z 1  A2 Z 2  W sin   Fe  (8)
g
Q2  2V2  Q1 1V1  gA1 Z 1  gA2 Z 2  W sin   Fe  (9)

For horizontal channel bottom = W sin = 0

For smooth channel bed and walls = Fe = 0
Also for smooth channel, velocity is uniform at sections 1&2,
i.e.,  = 2 = 1
1

Therefore for horizontal smooth channel, Eq. (9) reduces to

Q2V2  Q1V1  gA1 Z 1  gA2 Z 2
Q2V2  Q1V1  gA1 Z 1  gA2 Z 2

Applying continuity equation, i.e., Q1 = Q2 = Q

QV2  QV1  gA1 Z 1  gA2 Z 2
QV1  gA1 Z 1  QV2  gA2 Z 2
Q2 Q2
 Z 1 A1   Z 2 A2  (10)
gA1 gA2

In general
Q2
Fs   Z A  (11)
gA
Where Fs = Specific Force or Momentum Function
(Each term on RHS represents force per unit weight)

EULER’S EQUATION OF MOTION

Physical principle: energy is conserved
In order to derive this equation, consider a rectangular fluid
element in a streamline in non-viscous fluid as shown below:

4
Let,
 Length of the fluid element along the streamline be ∆s
 Length normal to the streamline be ∆n
 Thickness of the fluid element perpendicular to the plane
of paper be unity
Pressure force on U/S face  pn  (1)
p
Pressure force on D/S face = ( p  s s)n  (2)
W = Weight of fluid element = sn  (3)
Component of this weight in ‘s” direction
W sin  sn sin   (4)
Z
 sn( )  ( 4a )
s
-ive sign shows that Z reduces in flow direction‘s’
Z=height above datum, measured positive in upwards direction

The resultant force acting on element in D/S direction

p Z
Fr  pn  ( p  s )n  sn(  )  (5)
s s
p Z
Fr   sn  sn  ( 6)
s s
By Newton’s 2nd law of motion, the resultant force = Fr =m.as
Where ‘as’ is the acceleration in‘s’ direction and
‘m’ is the mass =  (sn)
p Z
sna s   sn  sn  (7 )
s s

5
 
a s   ( p  Z )  (8)
s

Since V = V(s, t)
as in‘s’ direction may be written as
dV V V ds
as  s  s  s
dt t s dt
(Chain Rule for P/ Diff.)
ds
Now dt
 Vs (s = V.t)
Vs V
So as 
t
 Vs s  (9)
s
1st term (∂Vs/∂t) = Local acceleration
Vs
2nd term (Vs s ) = Convective acceleration
Substituting eq. (9) in eq. (8), we get
Vs V 
(  Vs s )  ( p  Z )  0  (10)
t s s
This equation is called Euler’s equation of motion. The only
assumption is that the fluid is non-viscous otherwise it is
applicable along a streamline for unsteady non-uniform flows.
CASE I: Steady Flow
V
In case of steady flow local acceleration ts  0
So equation (10) reduces to
dVs d
Vs  ( p  Z )  0  (11)
ds ds
By multiplying throughout by ‘ ds ’ and integrating
  Vs dVs   dp    dZ  Constant
1
Vs 2  p  Z  Constant  (12)
2
Vs 2 p
2g 
 Z H  Constant  (13)
This is known as Bernoulli’s equation or energy equation for a
streamline and applicable to steady, irrotational,
incompressible and non-viscous flow. The term ‘H’ is called
total head or energy head.
CASE II: Steady Uniform Flow
Both local and convective acceleration in steady uniform flow
become zero so equation (10) reduces to
6
 d
( p  Z )  0  (14)
ds
By integrating
p

Z  Constant

p
Where (

 Z) is called piezometric head

CASE III: Unsteady, Non-uniform Flow

Vs Vs
Neither ( t ) nor (Vs s ) (i.e., local and convective
acceleration) are zero so equation 10 can be written as
V
  s ds    Vs dVs  ( p  Z )  Constant
t
By dividing by g,
2
1 Vs V p

g t
ds  s   Z 
2g 
Constant  (15)
1 V
Hence due to unsteadiness, an additional term g  ts ds is
introduced. To evaluate this we need to know variation of V s
with respect to time. This expression is not usually known so
equation (15) is not useful for general analysis.
SPECIFIC ENERGY

If velocity distribution is uniform, i.e.,  = 1 and pressure

distribution is hydrostatic then Bernoulli’s equation reduces to
V2
Z  y  H  (1)
2g

If the channel bottom is considered as datum, i.e., Z = 0 then

V2
y  E  (2)
2g

Where E is called as Specific energy. (E is the total head

above the channel bottom).

Now consider a wide rectangular channel having discharge Q

and width B. Then discharge per unit width is given by

7
 Q
q
B
(Since the unit width can be assumed to be unaffected by the
channel bed and sides)
Q Q qB
Now V   
A B y B y
q
Or V 
y
So equation (2) can be written as
q2
E y  (3)
2 gy 2
q2
(E  y) y 2   ( 4)
2g

For a specified ‘q’ the RHS is constant, so

( E  y ) y 2  cons tan t

OR Ey 2  y 3  cons tan t  (5)

This equation describes a relationship between E and y for a

specified q. The plot of this equation produces a curve called
specific energy diagram as shown below.

8
Some characteristics of E-y curve
 The specific energy or E-y curve has two asymptotes,
i.e.
When E = y (45o line passing through origin)
And y=0

 Starting form upper limb, it can be seen that initially ‘E’

reduces with ‘y’ and attains minimum value at ‘C’ and
then again starts increasing with a decrease in ‘y’.
 Equation (5) is a cubic equation having 3 roots. One of
these roots is always negative. But since depth cannot be

9
 –ive so there are only two values of ‘y’ for a given ‘E’.
These two depths are called alternate depths.
 The flow depth corresponding to ‘C’ is called critical
depth denoted by ‘yc’ and the corresponding flow is
called critical flow.
 A flow having depth  yc is called sub critical flow and a
flow having depth  yc is called supercritical flow.
 If ‘q’ varies then we get different specific energy curves
as shown below:

If the channel slope is steep as shown below then the pressure

distribution is not hydrostatic

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Thus, we have,
Q 2
E  d cos 
2 gA2
Q 2
Or E  y cos 2   (as d = ycos)
2 gA2
If we plot a specific energy curve, the upper limb of the curve
is not asymptote to 45o line; this angle depends on slope of the
channel bottom. (45 or 45 ???)

PROBLEM 2-1
Determine an expression for the slope of the straight line to
which the upper limb of the specific energy curve is an
asymptote for a channel having a bottom slope of.
Solution
For a sloping channel, the specific energy is given by

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 V 2
E  d cos 
2g
V 2
E  ( y cos ) cos 
2g
Q 2
E  y cos 2  
2 gA 2
q 2 B 2
E  y cos 2  
2 gB 2 y 2
q 2
E  y cos 2  
2 gy 2

( E  y cos 2  ) y 2  Constant
2 2
( E  y cos  ) y  0

So either (E – ycos2) = 0 or y2 = 0 (which being depth  0)

Hence E  y cos   0
2

E
Or y
 cos  2

This is the required expression. Hence with an increase in

angle of the sloping channel, the angle of asymptote of upper
limb of the specific energy diagram increases from 45.

PROBLEM 2-2
Plot the specific energy versus depth curves for Q = 400 m 3/s,
600 m3/s, and 800 m3/s in a trapezoidal channel having a
bottom width of 20 m and side slopes of 2H:1V. Assume the
bottom slope is small. From these curves, determine the
critical depth for each discharge.
Solution:

12
The specific energy is given by

E= y+ (Q2 / (2gA2)……………………….. (1)

A= (B+sy) y= (20+2y) y…………………. (2)

Putting the Value of Area (A) in (1)

E=y+ Q2/ 2g [(20+2y) y] 2……………….. (3)

Using equation (3), for different values of y, (1, 2,3,4,5 etc.),

we get three different specific energy curves for discharges,
Q=400 m3/s, 600 m3/s, 800 m3/s respectively as shown below

13
From Specific Energy Curves
Discharge Critical depth
Q1=400 m3/s yC1=3.0m
Q2=600 m3/s yC2=3.8m
Q3=800 m3/s yC3=4.5m

14
APPLICATION OF MOMENTUM AND ENERGY
EQUATIONS

The momentum and energy equations should yield the same

results if properly applied to any flow problem. However,
which of these equations should be preferred for a
particular situation depends upon the problem under
consideration. Although it is difficult to set rigid guidelines,
the following discussion of the advantages and limitations
of each equation should be helpful for such a selection.

 Energy is a scalar while momentum is a vector quantity.

Energy being easy to calculate, energy equation is
preferred over momentum equation.

 But the right selection of equation depends on the flow

problem under consideration.

 The losses involved in energy equation are internal losses

(i.e., within the volume of liquid) while those involved in
momentum equation are external losses (i.e., acting at the
boundaries of control volume, e.g., shear stress).

 Sometimes energy and momentum equations are used in

sequence to solve a flow problem.

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CHANNEL TRANSITION

A channel transition is defined as the change in the channel

cross section, e.g., change in the channel width and/or channel
bottom slope. Such a geometrical change may be over a
distance or it may be sudden. A channel transition is usually
designed so that the losses at the transition are small. Thus the
energy losses in the transition may be neglected; and
consequently the energy equation is more appropriate for their
analysis.

In order to determine whether the water surface in sub critical

flow rises or drops downstream of a transition, consider a
constant-width rectangular channel having a bottom step as
shown below:

16
Since the channel width is constant, the unit discharge, q, is
the same on both sides of the transition, so same specific
energy curve is applicable to the U/S and D/S sides. Because
the energy losses in the channel transition are assumed to be
negligible, the total head H1 = H2
And E 1 = H 1 = H2
So E2 = H2 - z
Or E2 = E1 - z
On the specific energy diagram of Fig. a, the point
corresponding to flow conditions at section 1 is marked as 1.
To determine the point corresponding to section 2, a vertical
line is drawn such that E = E2 as shown in Fig. b. The flow
depths corresponding to the points where this line intersects
the specific energy curve are the possible downstream depths.
In this case, there are three such points, marked as 2, 2’, and
2’’. Point 2’’ corresponds to a negative depth which is not
physically possible. Hence, we shall not consider this point
any further in our discussion. Of the other two points 2 and 2’,
let us determine which one is actually feasible.
We see no particular problem in going from point 1 to 2 along
the specific energy curve (Fig. b). However, to go from 2 to

17
2’, two different paths [Henderson, 1966] may be followed, as
shown in Fig. c (case 1) and d (case 2).

Case I (Path 1)
For the path along the vertical line 2-2’ (as shown below), we
have to move off the specified specific energy curve and pass
through the curves corresponding to higher unit discharges
which is possible only if the channel width is reduced at the
transition, as shown by a hypothetical channel in this figure.
However, since the channel width is constant, there is no such
contraction and consequently this path is not feasible.

Case II (Path 2)
A decrease in E is necessary to follow the second path 2-C-2
as shown below:

18
E decreases only if channel bottom rises until E = E c and then
drops again until E = E2. There is no such rise and drop in
bottom of the channel under consideration. Hence the second
path 2-C-2 is not possible either.
Therefore only one depth is possible corresponding to point 2.
In other words, subcritical flow remains subcritical
downstream of the transition.

Following a similar argument, we can show that if the flow

U/S of the transition is supercritical, then the possible flow
depth D/S of the transition is that corresponding to point 2 and
not that corresponding to point 2 as shown below.

We can also develop these relationships mathematically as

follows:
If the pressure distribution is hydrostatic, i.e.,  = 1, then the
total head, H, at a channel section may be written as
V2
H z y  (1)
2g
Q2
H z y  ( 2)
2 gA2
Before analyzing further, assume following sign conventions
in this analysis.

19
 For ‘x’ measured along channel length, the d/s flow
direction is considered +ive while u/s flow direction is –ive.
The flow depth ‘y’ increases if dy/dx is +ive and it
decreases if dy/dx is –ive.

Differentiating equation (2) w.r.t. ‘x’, we get

dH dz dy Q 2 d 1
   ( )  (3)
dx dx dx 2 g dx A 2
d 1 2 dA
( 2) 3  ( 4)
dx A A dx

For a small change in the flow depth, Δy, change in the flow
area is ΔA  BΔy, in which B=top surface width. In the limit,
as Δy  0, we may write dA= Bdy, hence Eq. (5) becomes
dA dy
B  ( 6)
dx dx
Substituting equation (6) in equation (4)
d 1 2 B dy
( 2) 3  (7 )
dx A A dx
We know that Froude number is
V V
Fr  
gy g( A )
B
2 BV 2 BQ 2
Fr    (8)
gA gA3
Substituting equation (7) in equation (3)
dH dz dy Q 2   2 B dy 
  
dx dx dx 2 g  A3 dx 
dH dz  BQ 2  dy
  1  
dx dx  gA3  dx

Using equation (8)

 1  Fr 
dH dz dy
 2
 (9)
dx dx dx

If there are no losses then

20
 dH
0
dx

So

This equation describes the variation of the flow depth for any
variation in the bottom elevation.

If there is a step rise in the channel bottom then dz/dx  0. For

the RHS side of equation (10) to be +ive there are two
possible situations, i.e., (Fr2 – 1) and dy/dx are both +ive or
both –ive.

First condition implies that

Fr2  1, i.e., the flow is supercritical
dy/dx  0, i.e., the flow depth increases at the step
Second condition implies that
Fr2  1, i.e., the flow is sub critical
dy/dx  0, i.e., the flow depth decreases at the step

Quiz : (How would you comment about drop in channel

bottom?)

Example 2.1
A 4-m wide rectangular channel is carrying 10m 3/s at a depth
of 2.5 m. There is a step rise of 0.2 m in the channel bottom.
Assuming there are no losses at the transition, determine the
flow depth downstream of the bottom step. Does the water
surface rise or fall at the step? For the channel shown in the
figure, does the water surface rise or fall at the step.
Given:
Q = 10 m3/s
B=4m

21
Y1 = 2.5 m
z = 0.2 m
Assume head losses negligible in the transition
Solution:

V1 = Q/A1= 10/ (4×2.5) =1 m/s

V1
Fr1 = gy1 = 0.2  1, so U/S depth is sub-critical
E1 = y1 + V12/2g = 2.55 m
E2 = E1 - z = 2.35 m
Q2
E2  y 2  2
2gA2
By substituting values of E2, A2 (i.e. 4y2), g and Q, we get
3 2
y2  2.35 y2  0.32  0
A trial and error solution yields following 3 roots:
y2 = 2.29 m ; y2 = 0.405 m ; y2 = -0.345 m
rd
The 3 root is physically not possible because of negative
depth.
The 2nd root requires flow to pass through critical depth at step
22
The 1st root is possible since u/s depth is sub-critical
Now water level d/s of the transition = 0.2 +2.29 = 2.49 m
Thus the water surface will drop by 2.5 – 2.49 = 0.01 m
HYDRAULIC JUMP
Whenever a supercritical flow changes to sub critical flow, a
hydraulic jump is formed. There is a sharp discontinuity of
water surface and considerable amount of energy is dissipated
due to turbulence. The depths of flow U/S and D/S of the
jump are called sequent or conjugate depths.
In order to develop a relationship between the flow
depths and flow velocities U/S and D/S of the jump, consider
a rectangular, horizontal channel. Since the amount of energy
lost in the jump is not known a priori, we cannot apply the
energy equation directly. However, we can apply the
momentum equation since the length of the jump is short and
thus losses due to shear at the channel bottom and sides can be
ignored.

Hence in the specific force diagram, F s at section 1 is equal to

that at section 2, i.e,
Q2 Q2
 z1 A1   z 2 A2  (1)
gA1 gA2

(Since Fe and Wsin are zero)

23
 Q 2  A2  A1 
   z 2 A2  z1 A1  (2)
g  A1 A2 
1
For a rectangular channel, A=By and z  2 y . By substituting
these relationship into Eq. (2)

Q 2  y 2  y1  B 1 1
  2  y 2  By 2  y1  By1
g  y1 y 2  B 2 2
Q2 1 2 2
( y2  y1 )  B 2 y1 y2 ( y2  y1 )  (3)
g 2
Q2 1
 B 2 y1 y2 ( y2  y1 )
g 2

Substituting Q=By1V1 and simplifying

2 2
B 2 y1 V1 1
 B 2 y1 y2 ( y2  y1 )
g 2
2
y1V1 1
 y2 ( y2  y1 )  (4)
g 2
Dividing throughout by y12 yields
y y 
2
2V1
 2  2  1  (5)
gy1 y1  y1 
Now Fr1  V1 / gy1
2
2y y
2 Fr1  22  2
y1 y1
2
y2 y2 2
2
  2 Fr1  0  (6)
y1 y1
Using quadratic formula
y2 1 
  1  (1) 2  4  1  (2 Fr1 )   0  (6)
2

y1 2  
y2 1 
  1  1  8 Fr1   (7)
2

y1 2  

(Since depth cannot be -ive)

Note that the negative sign with the radical term is neglected
because it gives a negative ratio, which is physically
impossible. This equation specifies a relationship between the
depths upstream and downstream of the jump in terms of Fr1.
Proceeding similarly, we can derive the following equation in
terms of Fr2.
24
 y1 1 
  1  1  8Fr 2   (8)
2

y2 2  

Thus if flow depth and velocity on one side of the jump are
known, then their values on the other side can be determined
using equations (7) or (8) and continuity equation. The energy
losses can then be computed from energy equation.
Example 2.2
The reservoir level u/s of a 30m-wide spillway for a flow of
800m3/s is at El. 200m. The d/s river level for this flow is at
El. 100m. Determine the invert level of a stilling basin having
same width as the spillway so that a hydraulic jump is formed
in the basin. Assume losses in the spillway are negligible.

Given:
Q= 800 m3/s
B=30 m
U/S water level=El.200 m
D/S water level=El.100 m
Determine:
The invert elevation of the stilling basin =?
Solution:
Let the invert elevation of the stilling basin = z
Thus y2 = 100 – z
25
Since the losses on the spillway face are negligible, and
assuming y1 to be small,
V1  2 gH  2  9.81  ( 200  z )

Now Q = BV1y1 (equation of continuity)

Q 800 6.02
So y1  
B  V1 30  19.62  (200  z )

200  z
2
V
Now
2
Fr1  1  0.332( 200  z )1.5
gy1
y2 1 
  1  1  8 Fr1 
2

y1 2  

Now substituting values of y1, y2 and Fr12 in equation (7)

y2 1 
  1  1  8Fr1 
2

y1 2  
100 - z
6.02 200  z
1

  1  1  8  0.332(200  z )1.5
2

Simplifying this equation, we obtain
(100 - z) 200  z  3.01  3.01 1  2.656( 200  z )1.5

Solving this equation by trial and error, we get

z = 84.18 m
Thus stilling basin should be set at El.84.18 to form the jump.
HYDRAULIC JUMP AT SLUICE GATE
Consider the following outflow conditions D/S of a sluice
gate used to control outflow from a reservoir. A hydraulic
jump is formed D/S of the gate as shown in the diagram. The
combined use of use of specific-energy and specific-force
diagrams is illustrated.
Between sections 1 and 2 (i.e., at gate)
At the sluice gate there is no loss of energy, so E1 = E2
But due to water thrust on the gate Fs1  Fs2
Between sections 2 and 3 (i.e., at jump)
In the jump there is energy loss, so E1  E2
Since the losses due to shear at the channel bottom and sides
between sections 2 and 3 are small, and can be neglected,
Fs2 = Fs3
(Provided channel bottom slope is either zero or very small)

26
 Thrust on gate = Fg =  (Fs1 – Fs2)
Energy loss in jump = E2 –E3

Example 2-3
A hydraulic jump is formed in a 5-m wide out outlet at a short
distance downstream of a control gate as shown above. If the
flow depths just upstream and downstream of the gate are 10
m and 2 m respectively and outlet discharge is 150m 3/s,
determine:
(i) Flow depth downstream of jump
(ii) Thrust on the gate
(iii) Head losses in the jump.
Assume there are no losses in the flow through the gate
Given:
Q = 150 m3/s ; B = 5m ; y1 = 10m ; y2 = 2m
Determine:
Y3 =? ;
Thrust on the gate Fg =? ;
Head losses in the jump E2 - E3 =?
27
Solution:
q = Q/B = 150/5 = 30m3/s
V2 = q/y2 = 30/2 = 15 m/s
Fr22 = V22/gy2 = (15)2/ (9.81 x 2) =11.47
Depth d/s of jump (y3)
y3 1 
  1  1  8Fr 2 
2

y2 2  

y3 
1
2
 
 2  1  1  8  11 .47  8.63m

Head loss in the jump (E2 – E3)

 2 q2   q 2 

E2  E3   y2   
 y 
2  3

2 
 2 gy2   2 gy 3  

Substituting values of y2, y3 and q

 q2   q 2 
E2  E3   y2     y  
2 
2 gy2   2 gy3 
2 3

 302   302 
E2  E3   2  
2 
 
 8.63  
2  E2  E3  4.22 m
  2  9.81  2   2  9.81  8.63 
Thrust on the gate

Thrust on the gate per unit weight = (Fs1 – Fs2)

Thrust on the gate = Fg =  (Fs1 – Fs2)
 Q 2   Q2 
Fg     z1 A1     z2 A2 
 gA1   gA2 
 150 2 10   150 2 2 
Fg     (50)     (10) 
 9.81(50) 2   9.81(10) 2 
Fg  9.81 56.5  554.4kN

Problem 2-4.
The flow depth and the flow velocity upstream of a 0.2-m
sudden step rise in the bottom of a 5-m wide rectangular
channel are 5 m and 4 m/s respectively. Assuming there are
no losses in the transition, determine:
28
(i)The flow depth downstream of the step and the change in
the water level;
(ii) The flow depth and the water level downstream of the step
if the channel bottom has a 0.2-m drop instead of the rise, as
in (i).
Solution:
(i)

Q  AV1  By1V1  5 5 4  100m3/s

V1 4
Fr1    0.57 < 1, flow is sub
gy1 9.815
critical
Assuming there are no losses in the transition so energy
equation
H1  E1  E2  z  (1)
Eq. (1) can be written as
V12
y1   E2  0.2
2g
42 Q2
5  y2   0.2  (2)
29.81 2 gA2 2

Putting the value of Q, A and g in Eq. (2) we get

29
 100 2
5.61  y2 
29.81(5 y 2 ) 2
( y2 )3  5.61( y2 )2  20.387  0

By trial and error method we get y2=2.6m

(ii) The flow depth and the water level downstream of the step
if the channel bottom has a 0.2-m drop instead of the rise, as
in (i).

We know that energy equation is

V12 V22
H  y1   0.2  y2   (3)
2g 2g
V12 Q2
y1   0.2  y2 
2g 2gA22
42 100 2
5  0.2  y2 
29.8 29.81(5 y 2 ) 2
20.387
6.015  y2  2
 (4)
( y2 )
30
Simplifying Eq. (4) we get
( y2 )3  6.015( y2 ) 2  20.387  0
y2  5.285m Rise in the water level.
Problem 2-8
A hydraulic jump is formed in a 4-m wide outlet just
downstream of the control gate, which is located at the
upstream end of the outlet. The flow depth upstream of the
gate is 20 m. If the outlet discharge is 100 m3/s,

Determine:
(i). Flow depth downstream of the jump;
(ii). Thrust on the gate; and
(iii). Energy losses in the jump.
Assume there are no losses in the flow through the gate.
Solution:

(i). Flow depth downstream of the jump;

y1=h=20m; Q=40 m3/s; b=4m
Q q 40
E1=E2; V1=0, V2   q 10
by 2 y 2 4
As there is no loss of energy, so
E1=E2

31
 (V1 ) 2 (V2 ) 2
y1   y2   (1)
2g 2g
Eq. (1) can be written as
(V1 ) 2 q2
y1   y2   (2)
2
2g 2( y 2 ) g
Putting values of V1, y1, q and g in Eq. (2) we get
10 2
20  0  y2  2
 (3)
29.81( y 2 )

Simplifying Eq. (3)

( y2 )3  20( y2 )2  5.097  0
By trial and error method y2=0.511 m
10
V2  19.57m / s
0.511
V2
Fr 2   8.74 , Fr2>1, flow is supercritical
gy 2
y3 1 
1  8 Fr 2  1
2


y2 2  

0.511  2

y3   1 8(8.74) 1  6.066m


2  

y3  6.066m
(ii). Thrust on the gate
Thrust on the gate per unit weight = (Fs1 – Fs2)
Thrust on the gate = Fg =  (Fs1 – Fs2)
 Q 2   Q2 
Fg     z1 A1     z2 A2 
 gA1   gA2 

32
  40 2 20   40 2 0.511 
Fg     ( 20  4)     (0.511  4) 
 9.81( 20  4)   
 2   9.81(0.511  4) 2 
Fg  9.81  721.72  7080.07 kN

(iii). Energy losses in the jump.

E E H
2 3 L
H E E
L 2 3
   

 q2 


 q2 

H  y 
  y   (4)
  
L 2 2g ( y ) 2
 3 2g ( y ) 2   
 2 3   
   

Putting the values of q, y2, y3, and g in Eq. (4), we get

  

 10 2 


 10
H  0.511
   6.066

L 
 29.81(0.511) 2



 29.81
  
  

H 13.85m
L

Problem2-9
On the specific-energy diagram for a rectangular channel,
prove that the slope of the straight line joining the critical
depth for different unit discharges is 2/3.
Solution:
We know that specific energy
q2
E y  (1)
2 gy 2
Re-arranging Eq. (1), we get

33
 q 2  2 gy 2  E  y 
1 / 2
  2

q   2 gy 2 E  2 gy 3 
 

Diff. Eq (2) w.r.t “y”

 1 / 2 
  3
dq 1  2 3 2 
  2 gy E  2 gy 
 4 gEy  6 gy
 

dy 2  






dq
For maximum discharge put  0 in Eq (3) and
dy
simplifying

 1 / 2 
1  2 3   2 

0   2 gy E  2 gy   4 gEy  6 gy 
2  






4 gEy  6 gy 2  0
2
y  E
c 3
y 2,
tan   c  hence we have proved that the slope of
E 3
the straight line joining the critical depth for different unit
discharges is 2/3

Problem 2-11.
Figure shows a step rise in the channel bottom. If the channel
width is constant and there are no losses, determine:
(i). Flow depth downstream of the transition.
(ii).The maximum height of the step so that the upstream
water levels are not affected.

34
Solution:

(i). Flow depth downstream of the transition.

V1 A1  V2 A2
0.8 26
V2 
y 2 b
1 .6
V2 
y2
V1
F 
r gy1
0.8
F   0.181 Flow is sub critical.
r 29.81
E1  E2  z

V12 V22
y1   y2   z
2g 2g
2  2
0.8 1.6   1
2  y2    0.15
29.81 y 2  29.81




y23 1.882 y22  0.1305  0

35
By trial and error method we get
y2  1.84m
(ii).The maximum height of the step so that the upstream
water levels are not affected.

y1=2m V1=0.8m/s q=1.6

V12
E1  y1   2.033m  (1)
2g
Maximum Δz occurs at minimum energy and at Fr=1
2 2
q 1.6
y2  3 3  0.64m
g 9.81
V22 q 2 1 .6 2
E2  y2   y2   0.64   0. 9
2 2
2g 2gy 2 29.81(0.64)
From Eq. (1) and Eq. (2), we get

z  E  E  2.033 0.96 1.073m

max 1 2

Problem 2-28
The reservoir level upstream of an overflow spillway is at El
400 ft. The downstream water level for the design flow of
80,000ft3/sec is at El 220 ft. If the spillway width at the
entrance to the stilling basin is 200 ft, determine the invert
36
level of the basin so that a hydraulic jump is formed in the
basin at design flow. No baffle piers, chute blocks, or end sill
are to be provided.
Solution:

V  232.2 400  z 

1
Q=AV1=by1V1
Q  200 y  232.2 400  z 
1
80,000 49.844
y1    (1)
200 232.2(400  z) 400  z

We know that Froude number

V 2
232.2 400  z 
Fr21  1   0.04(400  z)3 / 2  (2)
gy1 32.2 49.844
400  z
We know that
y2 1
  1  1  8Fr 2 2   (3)
y1 2 

 
220  z 1  
3/ 2 
 1 1 80.04 400  z 
 



49.844 2 





 
400  z
37
  
 3/ 2 
220  z 400  z  24.9221 1 0.32 400  z  


 


By trial and error, we get z=166.5ft

Assignment No. 2

Problems (M. Hanif Ch.)

G-1 G-2 G-3 G-4 G-5 G-6
2-7 2-6 2-5 2-4 2-3 2-2
2-13 2-12 2-11 2-10 2-9 2-8
2-19 2-18 2-17 2-16 2-15 2-14
2-25 2-24 2-23 2-22 2-21 2-20
2-28 2-27 2-26 2-28 2-27 2-26

38