ASNT

Level I I I
Study Guide
Leak Testing
Method
by Charles N. Jackson, Jr.

The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

 Acknowledgements
A special thank you goes to the following technical reviewers who helped with this publication:
Brace Crouse, Cowley County Community College
Darrell Harris, ASCG Inspection, Inc.
John Keve, Cogema Engineering Corp.
Orvis M . Knarr, Midwest Helium Leak Detection, Inc.
Todd Sellmer, Westinghouse TRU Solutions

The Publications Review Committee includes:

Chair, Sam J. Volk, North Atlantic Energy Services Company
Sharon I . Vukelich, University of Dayton Research Institute
B. Boro Djordjevic, Johns Hopkins University

Ann E. Spence
Educational Materials Editor

Published by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

1711 Arlingate Lane
Columbu rOH 43228-0518
s

Copyright © 2003 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ASNT is not responsible for the
authenticity or accuracy of information herein. Published opinions or statements do not necessarily reflect the opinion
of ASNT. Products and/or services that may appear in this book do not carry the endorsement or recommendation of
ASNT. ASNT assumes no responsibility for the safety of persons using the information in this book.

ASNT exists to create a safer world by promoting the profession and technologies of nondestructive testing.

ISBN 1-57117-109-6

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Jackson, Charles N .
ASNT level III study guide leak testing method / Charles N . Jackson,
Jr.
p. cm.
ISBN 1-57117-109-6 (pbk.)
1. Leak detectors. 2. Gas leakage. I . Title.

TA165.J34 2004
620.1T27-dc22
2003023996

First printing 2004

ii
 Foreword
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. (ASNT) has prepared a series of
Level III Study Guides which are intended to present the major areas in each nondestructive
testing method. They can be used to prepare for taking ASNT NDT Level I I I tests or an
employer's in house Level I I I tests. The Level I I I candidate should use this study guide as a
preparation tool, even though it does not contain all of the information an ASNT NDT
Level III is expected to know.
In using this study guide, specific references are cited, including page numbers, where
detailed information can be obtained. The source documents used in this study guide are listed
under References on page iv. Typical Level I I I questions at the end of each section serve as a
benchmark for determining the candidate's comprehension of the material.
A typical use of this study guide might include the following steps.
1. Review the questions at the end of each section to assess your comprehension of
the leak testing method.
2. I f the questions in a certain section are found to be difficult, carefully study the
information presented in that section, as well as the cited reference material. This
review of the information in the study guide will refresh your memory of theory
and facts long forgotten.

iii
 References
The references used to develop this study guide are:

1. Reference A
Jackson, Charles N . , Jr., and Charles N . Sherlock, technical editors, Patrick O. Moore,
editor, Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third edition, Volume 1, Leak Testing, The
American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc., Columbus, OH: 1998.

2. Reference B
Hanlon, John, A Users Guide to Vacuum Technology, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New
York, NY: 1989.

3. Reference C
Dushman, Saul, Scientific Foundation of Vacuum. Technique, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
New York, NY: 1962.

IV
 Table of Contents

Acknowledgements ii

Foreword iii

References »v

Table of Contents v

Chapter 1 - Introduction 1
Background 1
Safety 1
Review Questions 3
Chapter 2 - Fundamentals of Leak Testing JS
Test Category 5
Leak Path 5
Pressure Units and Leakage Rates 5
Dynamic and Static Testing 6
Helium Mass Spectrometer Leak Detector 8
Helium Tracer Gas 8
Calibration Standards 8
Review Questions 10

Chapter 3 - Flow Characteristics Through a Leak Path 11

Gas Flow Modes H
Molecular Flow 11
Viscous Flow 12
Transitional Flow 12
Permeation 13
Liquid Leaks 14
Unusual Leaks 14
Conductance 15
Review Questions 16

Chapter 4 - Characteristics of Vacuum Gases and Equipment 17

Nature of Gases 17
Gas Laws 17
Boyle's Law 17
Charles's Law 17
Avogadro's Law 17
Universal Gas Law 17
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures 18

v
 Evacuating a Vessel 18
Pumpdown 18
Vacuum Pumps 18
Blowers 19
Diffusion Pumps 19
Turbomolecular Pumps 19
Cyrogenic Pumps 19
Vacuum Gages 19
Vacuum Hardware 19
Vacuum Valves 20
Review Questions 21

Chapter 5 - Planning and Performing Leak Tests 23

Physical Considerations 23
Measurements 23
Review Questions 25

Chapter 6 - Test Equipment and Techniques 27

Helium Mass Spectrometer 27
Counter Flow and Older Direct Flow Spectrometers 27
Bubble Test 28
Pressure Change Test 28
Other Techniques 30
Review Questions 31

Review Question Answers -33

Leak Testing Glossary -35

VI
 Chapter 1
Introduction

TABLE 1. Relative ultimate leakage sensitivities of leak

Background testing methods under ideal conditions with very high
3
concentrations of tracer gases.
The applications of leak testing are very diverse
because they are used in many industries, such as Minimum Detectable
Leakage Rate
nuclear, aerospace, chemical, electronics and automotive, 3 _1 3 1
Test Method Pa-m -s (std cm -s~ )
to name a few. This diversity complicates the subject * • •
because each field has its own special techniques and Liquid pressure drop b b
technical language. Fortunately, the various techniques Gas pressure drop b b
are based on similar, familiar principles that provide a Pressure rise b b
basis for understanding or reviewing the subject. This Ultrasonic leak detector 10- 2 1
(io- )
0

review will emphasize helium, halogen, bubble and Volumetric displacement 10-3 (10-2)
2

pressure change leak testing methods. Gas discharge (10- )

Ammonia and phenolphthalein tO 10"
4
(10-2 1Q-3)
t 0
Other nondestructive test methods, such as 2
Ammonia and bromocresol purple 10"3 tO 10" 4
(10- tO 10-3)
radiography, ultrasound, magnetic particle and penetrant Ammonia and hydrochloric acid 10"3 to 1CT 4 2
(10- tO 10-3)
testing, are usually performed on raw materials or welds Ammonia and sulfur dioxide 10-3 tO 10-^ (10-2 tO 10-3)
to ensure structural integrity. Leak testing is frequently Halide torch 10" 4
(10-3)
performed on a finished assembly to ensure the leak Air bubbles in water l O ^ t o 10- 5 3
(10- to K r ) 4

tightness as a finished product. The technique does not Air and soap or detergent 10-^to 10~ 5 3
(10- to 10- ) 4

necessarily ensure structural integrity except to the Thermal conductivity 10" 5

(10^)
extent that atmospheric pressure exerts force. A broader Infrared 6 x irj-^to (6x l O ^ t o
7 6
tabulation of leak test techniques is listed in Table 1. 6 x 10" 6x 10" )
7

Leak testing is generally performed for one or more Hydrogen pirani 10- 6
(10- )
Hot filament ionization gage 10" to 10- 7 8 6
(10- to 10~ ) 7

of the following reasons: 6 7

Mass spectrometer detector probe 1CT to 10~ 5
(10- to 10" ) 6

1. to prevent loss of a valuable material; 6 8

Halogen diode detector 10~ tO 10- 7 9
(10" to 10" )
2. to prevent a hazardous condition or Hydrogen bubbles in alcohol 5 x 10" 7
(5x10" ) 6

contamination; and Paladium barrier detector l O ^ t O 10- 9 7

(10- to 10" ) 8

3. to ensure proper assembly by detecting a Mass spectrometer envelope test 10" 11 10

(10" )
missing or faulty component. Radioactive isotopes
9
10~ to 1 0 - 13
(lO^tolO- ) 12

a. Numbers not to be used as guides in practical leak testing.

Leak testing is most efficient and cost effective b. Depends on volume tested and pressure range of gage.
when it is performed to meet a specific numerical c. Gas type flow meters.
8 3
requirement, such as 1 x 10" std cm -s~'
9 3
(1 x 10~ Pa-m -s~') rather than working to an extreme 1155 lb on a 10 in. diameter surface. For this reason,
requirement, such as no detectable leakage. evacuated bell jars should be enclosed in a safety shield.
Similarly, a pressurized system experiences explosive
Safety forces that must not exceed structural capability. Test
Possible hazards to take into account when leak pressures should not exceed the working pressure of a
testing are: system, and should be controlled by pressure regulators,
1. danger of implosion or explosion; pressure relief valves and accurate, well maintained
2. flammability of tracer gas; calibrated pressure gages carefully matched to pressure
3. asphyxiation; range. I f higher test pressures are needed, special safety
4. poisoning; and analysis must be performed to ensure safe operation.
5. freezing. In some circumstances, it may be desirable to use a
flammable gas contained in a system as the tracer gas.
Evacuating a system can create substantial Procedures must carefully control conditions to prevent
implosive forces. For instance, evacuation of a system gas ignition and to provide adequate ventilation.
for helium leak testing can create an implosive force of

1
Hydrogen is especially dangerous, and a system must be
purged with nitrogen to avoid air and hydrogen mixtures.
Most tracer gases are nontoxic, but they do present
the hazard of asphyxiation. Before a system is leak
tested, it is very important to verify that it is properly
assembled and will not leak large quantities of tracer
gas. It is recommended that a gross leak test be
performed before the actual test to protect against such
loss. Area monitors and portable detectors should be
used to detect the presence of toxic gas or vapors, and
oxygen monitors should also be used to ensure adequate
level of oxygen. Halogenated hydrocarbons will stagnate
in low areas, and helium will collect in closed high
areas. Adequate ventilation must be provided to maintain
oxygen at safe breathing levels.
Care must be practiced (using face shields and loose
fitting gloves) when handling liquid nitrogen used to
cool cold traps. The cryogenic temperature of liquid
nitrogen can cause instant freezing of exposed body
parts. Tests that involve large pressurized equipment may
require special facilities or buildings that can shield
personnel from hazards and restrict unnecessary
personnel from the test area. Safety training is very
important and must be incorporated into the special
training of the technicians performing the leak testing.
An attitude of top priority for safety is extremely
important. This may require specific safety training for
special hazardous tests.

SUGGESTED STUDY
Reference A , Chapter 4

2
 1.6 When pressurizing for a bubble leak test, which
Review Questions of the following gases must never be used?
a. Nitrogen.
1.1 Many cleaning processes involve liquid solvents b. Carbon dioxide.
and vapors that may present hazards, such as: c. Helium.
a. flammability. d. Hydrogen.
b. toxicity.
c. asphyxiation. 1.7 From a design and material standpoint, which
d. all of the above. would best fulfill the design and safety criteria
requirements for a vacuum tank with a glass
1.2 Suppose that 24 L of methyl ethyl ketone are window?
evaporated i n a 6 x 6 x 3 m enclosed workspace a. 55 kPa (8 psig) using auto safety glass.
during a normal workday. One liter of this b. 103 kPa (15 psig) using auto safety glass.
3
solvent requires a ventilation quantity of 1800 m c. 55 kPa (8 psig) using tempered plate glass.
of air. What quantity of ventilation air is required d. 103 kPa (15 psig) using tempered plate
each hour? glass.
a. Three room changes.
b. Six room changes. 1.8 Which of the following statements concerning
c. 1800 m . 3
test gases used in halogen leak testing is true?
3
d. 5400 m . a. Argon and helium will readily react with
certain halogens under ordinary conditions.
1.3 Helium is widely used as a tracer gas. It is b. Halogenated gases cannot become corrosive
nontoxic, but can act as an asphyxiant. It can be at high temperatures.
detected by: c. Nontoxic gases can act as an asphyxiant by
a. odor. displacing the necessary amount of air to
b. color. support life, and safety precautions must be
c. taste. observed.
d. none of the above. d. R-134A is stable in the presence of very
high temperatures, such as weld puddle.
1.4 Safe procedures for compressed gas cylinders
include: 1.9 What is the surest means to prevent failure
a. using cylinders in upright position. (implosion) of a vacuum box caused by pressure
b. securing cylinders to prevent them from differential created when evacuating the box?
being accidentally knocked over. a. Build the box to withstand full atmospheric
c. opening cylinder valves slowly. pressure.
d. all of the above. b. Monitor the pressure differential with a
vacuum gage installed inside the box.
1.5 Leakage is detected during a bubble leak test of a c. Watch the bubble solution become
pressurized vessel formerly used for natural gas fluorescent, indicating a pressure difference
storage. With all leaks marked at the conclusion of 102 kPa has been reached.
of the test, the essential steps that must be d. It is impossible to evacuate the box to reach
performed to safely affect the repair to the vessel a pressure differential high enough to cause
are to: failure.
a. fully purge the vessel with inert gas followed
by air. 1.10 Which of the following test materials may be
b. check for any residual explosive gases and safely used for immersion bubble testing,
adequate oxygen in the vessel. provided they are not detrimental to the
c. repair and retest. component being tested?
d. all of the above. a. Water with a wetting agent.
b. Carbon tetrachloride.
c. Acetone.
d. R-134A.

3
 Chapter 2
Fundamentals of Leak Testing

very small and can be easily plugged by dirt or moisture.

Test Category
Leak testing is divided into three categories:
measurement, location and monitoring. Leakage
measurement is the measurement of the total leakage of
a system. It is the only category that can truly determine
that all possible leak paths have been detected.
Leak location is a procedure for pinpointing the
exact location of individual leaks. Until located, a leak is
not known to exist. It is not a reliable technique for
determining total leakage because each individual leak
may not be found. However, it is a very useful technique
for locating, and then repairing, leaks to reduce or
eliminate leakage in a system.
Leakage monitoring is a long term, continuous test
ensuring that containment of a vessel has not been
breached. A recommended procedure for leak testing a
system is to first measure the total leakage to see if the
system is acceptable as is. I f not, leak locating is used to
For this reason, cleanliness is very important.
Pressure Units and Leakage Rates
Pressure is an important consideration because it is
used to define the quality of a vacuum; the driving force
across a boundary. It is part of the leakage rate term and
is used in many basic calculations. The standard unit for
pressure is the pascal. The pascal is equal to one newton
per square meter. There are many other units for
measuring pressure, as shown in Table 2.
Pressure is frequently measured relative to
atmospheric pressure and must be converted to an
absolute value for use in calculations. This can be
TABLE 2. Conversion factors for pressure values.
To Convert from To Multiply by
pascal (Pa) lb in." 2
1.4504 X 1CT 4
f

locate and fix the leak sites. Then, another total leakage kg-mm" 2
1.0197 X 1 0 " 7

measurement is made again to see i f the leakage has atm 9.8692 X 10" 6

been reduced to an acceptable value. in. Hg 2.9530 X 1 0 ^

3
torr 7.5006 X 10"
Leak Path pound per square Pa 6.8948 X 10 3

A leak path is a hole or porosity in the wall of a 2

inch (lb,-in.- ) kg-mm" 2
7.0307X 1 0 ^
2
chamber capable of passing gas from one side of the atm 6.8046 X 10~
wall to the other when there is a pressure differential or a in. Hg 2.0360
concentration differential across the wall. A leak path is torr 51.715
5
not described in terms of its physical dimensions, such kilogram per square Pa 9.8066 X 10
2 3

as length and diameter, because these cannot usually be millimeter lb in.-

( 1.4223 X 10
2

well defined. Thus, in leak testing, the amount of gas (kg-mm" ) atm 96.784
3
in. Hg 2.8959 X 10
that will pass per unit of time through the leak path 4
torr 7.3556 X 10
under a specified pressure differential is used to describe 5
atmosphere (atm) Pa 1.01325 X 10
or measure the leak path. Leakage is usually expressed 2
lb -inr 14.696
as a mass flow rate, such as pascal cubic meters per f

2 2
3 kg-mm" 1.0332 X 10~
second (Pa-m -s-'). The leak paths are usually treated as
in. Hg 29.921
though they were of an ideal shape, such as a smooth
torr 760.0
bore capillary, and they would leak the same amount in 3
inch mercury Pa 3.3864 X 10
either direction under similar pressure differentials. (in. Hg) lb -in ~ 2
4.9115 X 10~ 1
f

However, there are exceptions, such as when the test kg-mm- 2

3.4532 X 10" 4

gas pressure changes the shape of the leak path, or where atm 3.3421 X 10~ 2

there is a loose particle in the path that changes position torr 25.40
and thus changes the amount of gas that will leak under torr Pa 1.3332 X 10 2

a fixed pressure differential. Fortunately, these lb -in."

(
2
1.9337 X 10" 2

exceptions are relatively rare. The dimensions of small kg-mm- 2

1.3595 X 10~ 5

3
7 3 1
leaks, those in the 10" Pa-m -s" and smaller ranges, are atm 1.3158 X 1 0 "
2
in. Hg 3.9370 X 10"

5
accomplished with the following equation when Dynamic and Static Testing
measuring pressure at sea level: Helium leak testing is usually performed with the
high vacuum pump of a helium mass spectrometer
continually pumping on the test object. This is called
(1) p = p + 101 000
a g
dynamic testing. Another procedure where the vacuum
pump is disconnected from the test object is called the
where P is absolute pressure (pascal) and P is gage static method. This method accumulates helium leakage
pressure (pascal). to make a more sensitive measurement and is relatively
Leak rate is measured as a mass flow rate per unit of uncommon; however, one example is illustrated below.
time and is usually expressed as Pa-m -s . Another 3 -1
Common methods are called the hood, bell jar, tracer
common unit of leak rate measure is std cm -s . The 3 -1
probe, detector probe and bombing methods, as
relationship between these two leakage rates is shown in illustrated in the following figures.
Eq. 2. The hood method, shown in Figure 1, provides a
quantitative measure of the total leakage of a system.
3 1 Comparison of system leakage to the response from a
(2) Pa-m -s" =10 std cm s"
helium standard leak provides this quantitative
measurement. A hood to contain the helium tracer gas
In some applications, other units of leak rate may be formed from a plastic sheet with up to 50%
measurement are used. The relationship of these units is greater volume than that of the test object. The standard
shown in Table 3. leak is usually located at a point most remote from the
mass spectrometer.
SUGGESTED STUDY
Reference A , Chapter 4
FIGURE 1. Hood technique of leak testing of evacuated
components inserted into hood or envelope containing a
helium atmosphere.

TABLE 3. Mass flow conversion factors for leakage rate. _Hood containing
helium and air
Multiply by System under mixture Auxiliary
To Convert from To
test mechanical
3 1 pump
Pascal cubic meter per std cm -s~ 9.87 (= 10) n
3 -1 -4 Valve
second (Pam -s ) mol-s" 1
4.40 X 1 0
-1
torr-L-s 7.50
-1 1
mb-L-s 1.00 X 10
3 -1
Optional
std ft -h 1.25 throttle
3 1 -1
Standard cubic Pa-m -s~ 1.01 X 1 0 valve
-5
centimeter per mol-s -1
4.46 X 1 0 Helium Helium leak
-1 1
second (std cm -s ) 3 -1
torr-L-s 7.60 X 10~ detector
-1
mb-L-s 1.01
3 -1
std ft -h 1.27 X 1 0 -1

3 -1 3
Mole per second Pa-m -s 2.27 X 10
(mol-s )-1
std cm s 3 - 1
2.24 X 10 4
In the bell jar method, shown in Figure 2, a similar
-1 4
torr-L-s 1.70 X 10 comparison to a standard leak provides a quantitative
s
mb-L-s -1
2.27 X 10 measurement of the test object leak rate. In this
3 -1 3
std ft -h 2.85 X 1 0
3 -1 -1
arrangement, the test object already contains the tracer
Torr liter per second Pa-m -s 1.33 X 1 0
3 -1
gas.
(torr-L-s ) -1
std cm -s 1.32
mol-s -1
5.87 X 1 0 -5 With the system under test (evacuated), a leak path
mb-L-s -1
1.33 can be located by the tracer probe method, as shown in
3
std ft -h -1
1.67 X 1 0 -1
Figure 3. Scan the test object from the top to the bottom
Millibar liter per 3
Pam -s -1
1.00 X 1 0 -1
with a fine spray of helium.
-1 3 -1 -1
second (mb-L-s ) std cm -s 9.87 X 1 0 With the system under pressure, a leak path can be
4
mol-s -1
2.27 X 10
-1 -1 located by the detector probe method, as shown in
torr-L-s 7.50 X 1 0
3
std ft h - 1
1.26 X 1 0 -1 Figure. 4. Scan the test object from bottom to top. The
Standard cubic foot per Pa-m s 3 -1
0.80 probe sucks a small amount of gas past a permeable
hour (std ft -h ) 3 -1
std cm -s 3 -1
7.87 membrane that connects with the spectrometer tube. The
mol-s -1
3.51 X 1 0 ^ probe may be connected to the leak detector with over
-1
torr-L-s 5.99 100 ft (30 m) of cable length.
mb-L-s -1
7.94

6
FIGURE 2. Leak testing of sealed components internally FIGURE 5. Calibration of helium accumulation out leakage
pressurized with helium and enclosed in a bell jar. parts per million test.

Standard
Helium leak
pressurized
object =txr=^ Helium
standard Detector
leak probe

Helium leak
detector
Optional Optional
throttle throttle
valve Vent valve
valve
Helium
Auxiliary
leak
rough pump
detector
=txt

FIGURE 3. Helium leak testing of evacuated vessel or

system with tracer probe. Accumulation
chamber

Valve Auxiliary
=4XM pump

Optional i
turbomolecular \ ::0 O-
Valve
or A FIGURE 6. Calibration of helium accumulation out leakage
high vacuum Optional test with calibrated (standard reference) leak.
pump throttle
Helium leak
Helium valve
detector

FIGURE 4. Helium leak testing of pressurized vessel or

system with detector probe.

Standard Detector probe or

leak O x * ' sampling probe

System under
helium Helium leak >
pressure detector

The bombing method is a special case of the bell jar

test and, as shown in Figure 2, helium tracer gas is
driven into the test object before the test. Accuracy of
the measurement is a function of the helium pressure
concentration developed in the test object. 3
Time f x 10 (s)
The sensitivity of the static method, shown in
Figures 5 and 6, is a function of accumulation time, with
sensitivity increasing as the time increases. Comparison Known leakage rate Unknown leakage rate
to response from a standard leak in the accumulation Output divisions Output divisions x 2

chamber provides a quantitative measurement of leak

rate.

7
Helium Mass Spectrometer Leak
Detector
Developed during World War I I , the helium mass
spectrometer has continually improved and is much
easier to use today. The counterflow method with a
turbomolecular vacuum pump has eliminated the need
for liquid nitrogen and, with split flow design, has
resulted in spectrometers that can measure leaks from
-1 1 3 _1
10 to lCH m -s . They can also tolerate an input
pressure range up to 10 000 Pa (76 torr). These
innovations simplify operation of the spectrometer and
reduce the cost of helium leak testing. Earlier models
based on the conventional design required introducing
the leak to be measured directly into the spectrometer
tube. This called for considerable skill on the part of the
test technician, especially where manual valving was
required. Newer designs feature computer controlled
valves that have substantially improved reliability of test
operation.
There are several precautions that must be taken
when leak testing. It is important to visually test the
system to ensure proper assembly. Ensure there is no
moisture, water or other contaminant in the system. Use
short length and as large diameter vacuum pumping lines
as feasible. Also, use a minimum of rubber and
elastomers; use metal, i f possible, and a minimum
amount of vacuum grease.
FIGURE 7. Helium permeation leak standards with self contained reservoir: (a) photograph of standard helium leak and cut away
mode; (b) schematic cross section.
(b)
Helium Tracer G a s
Helium is used as the tracer gas because it is inert,
nontoxic, a small molecule, has low concentration in the
atmosphere, nonflammable, and is relatively inexpensive.
Air contains about 1 part helium in 200 000 parts air.
SUGGESTED STUDY
Reference A , Chapter 8
Calibration Standards
In helium and halogen leak testing, the leak
standards for calibrating measurements are important.
For helium leak testing, standards can be obtained over
11
the full range of testing from 10" to 1 0 Pa-m^s" . For -3 1
halogen leak testing, standards can be obtained over the
8 3 3 _1
range from 10~ to 10~ Pa-m -s . Helium leak standards
provide a constant rate of leakage with an accuracy of
about 15% for up to several years, depending on the size
of the leak rate. With a leakage rate of 10~ Pa-m -s , 8 3 -1
only a few cubic centimeters of helium will be lost in a
year, illustrating what little loss in sensitivity will be
experienced in a year for the smaller leaks. Leak
standards with yearly calibration provide very reliable
sources of calibration for helium mass spectrometers in
the field. Reservoir leak standards come in convenient
sizes and are rugged enough for manual handling and
coupling to a mass spectrometer or test object. Figure 7
Permeable
glass/quartz 38 mm
membrane (1.5 in.) Filling
outside diameter port
shows a photograph and schematic cross section,
illustrating the main features of a reservoir leak standard
with its permeable membrane and small tank for holding
helium. Other reservoir leak standards for the larger leak
rates use either capillary or porous plug designs.
Halogen standards also come in convenient sizes, as
shown in Figure 8 where liquid halogen is released
through a valve into a vapor reservoir and then through
an orifice to obtain a reference leak rate. A valve
controlling pressure in the vapor reservoir adjusts the
leak rate.

FIGURE 8. Reservoir variable rate physical orifice leak

standard (top) and fluorocarbon resin permeation leak
standard (bottom) for calibration of detector probe
instruments.

SUGGESTED STUDY
Reference A, Chapter 3
 i0
2.6 I f a leak detector has a sensitivity of 4 x 10~ std
Review Questions 3
cm /div, what is the leakage rate from a leak that
gives a reading of 7.5 divisions on the 100 scale
2.1 The torr is defined as about: multiplier range?
a. 133 Pa (1 mm Hg). 13
a. 5.25 x 10" std cm -s"' 3

b. 1 atm. 12
b. 4.00 x 10" std cm -s- 3 ]

7 3
c. 760 mm Hg. c. 3.00 x 10~ std cm -s~'
7 1
d. 101 kPa (14.7 psig). d. 5.25 x 10~ std c n r V

2.2 The following are methods of leak testing with a 2.7 Which of the following is a valid reason for
helium mass spectrometer. The method for which choosing helium as a tracer gas?
a helium mass spectrometer is not basically a. Low molecular weight.
designed, and for which the test sensitivity is the b. Inert.
least, is a helium: c. Present only in trace quantities in the
a. dynamic leakage rate test. atmosphere.
b. detector probe test. d. A l l of the above.
c. tracer probe test.
d. static leakage rate test. 2.8 A t the completion of a helium mass spectrometer
detector probe test, it can definitely be stated
2.3 The minimum detectable leakage of a mass that:
spectrometer leak detector system changes when a. a total leakage rate of the test system is less
a parallel auxiliary pump is used according to than a certain amount.
the: b. all leaks equal to or larger than the test
a. position of the pump. sensitivity were detected.
b. ratio of throughput of the auxiliary pump to c. at least 90% of all leaks equal to or larger
that of the leak detector. than the test sensitivity were detected.
c. amount that the minimum detectable leak d. to the best knowledge of the test personnel,
does not change. all leaks within the test sensitivity were
d. compression factor of the tracer gas. detected.

2.4 The major difference between a mass 2.9 When conducting a helium detector probe test of
spectrometer leak detector and an analytical mass a vessel using a helium mass spectrometer, which
spectrometer is that: of the following variable factors directly affects
' a. the analytical unit is less reliable. the test sensitivity attainable?
b. the leak detector unit at any one time is a. Linear speed of the sniffer.
tuned to peak on only one gas. b. Vessel vacuum system pump speed.
c. the analytical unit does not require a c. Size of standard leak.
vacuum. d. Pressure level in the evacuated vessel.
d. there are no differences.
2.10 Helium quartz or permeation leak standards have
2.5 Which of the following is not associated with leakage rates in the range of:
5 3 _1
vacuum testing of an object? a. 10 to 10" std cm -s
1
a. A test subject is evacuated. b. 10"' to l O ^ s t d c n r V
3 -7 3 ]
b. Helium is applied externally. c. 10~ to 1 0 std cm -s~
6 3
c. Helium is introduced internally. d. 10~ std cm -s and smaller
d. None of the above.

10
 Chapter 3
Flow Characteristics Through a Leak Path

G a s Flow Modes TABLE 4 . Mean free path lengths of various atmospneric

gases at 20 °C (68 °F) and at absolute pressure of 1.0 mPa
Characteristics of gas flow through a leak path are a (7.6 ptorr).
Mean Free Path
function of the type of gas, quantity of gas, pressure and
Gas m (inO_
size and shape of the path. The amount of leakage
determines the mode of flow. The mode of flow may be Air 6.8 (268)
molecular, viscous or transitional, and viscous may be Argon (Ar) 7.2 (284)
further subdivided into either laminar or turbulent flow. Carbon dioxide (C0 ) 2 4.5 (177)
Some study of these modes is important for Hydrogen (H ) 2 12.5 (492)
understanding flow mechanisms occurring through a Water (H 0)2 4.2 (165)
leak path. Simplified descriptions follow. Sometimes gas Helium (He) 19.6 (771)
Nitrogen (N ) 6.7 (264)
may escape by permeation. This loss mechanism is not a 2

Neon (Ne) 14.0 (551)

leak through a leak path but will also be discussed.
There are several important characteristics that
affect gas leakage. Some of these factors include
molecular weight, viscosity, pressure and pressure drop
through the leak path and the height and width (aspect
ratio) of the leak path. The aspect ratio (height and
width) of a leak path is usually very small so that the
theoretical treatment in the following analysis is only
approximate (it is based on the leak path being
considered a small diameter tubular path).
Molecular Flow
Molecular flow occurs when the mean free path is
greater than the diameter of the leak path, assuming an
idealized tubular path. The average distance a molecule
travels between successive collisions with other
molecules is the mean free path. The mean free path
under static pressure is defined in Eq. 3:
Oxygen ( 0 ) 2 7.2 (284)
pressure (pascal) and NF is a numerical factor (meter-
pascal) given in Table 5.
Equations 3 and 4 provide valuable estimates about
the mean free path that can be useful in determining the
mode of gas flow. However, it is the ratio of the mean
free path to the diameter of the leak path that is the
important criterion, and there is no way to know the size
of the path. Fortunately, experience shows that the mode
of gas flow is also related to the quantity of gas flowing
6 3 _1
through a leak. I f the leak rate is 10~ Pa-m -s
5 3 _1
(10~ std cm -s ) or less, the flow mode is primarily
molecular.
I f the mode of flow does not change, certain
correlations of leak rate can be made for changes in
tracer gas pressure and temperature:

_ _ [MT T
X P -P
3 4

(3) A = 116.4-J— (5) Q? = Q^ —- x —x——-

P V M

where X is mean free path (meters), n is gas viscosity where Q is tracer gas leak rate, Q is other gas leak rate,
} 7

(pascal to seconds), P is absolute pressure, T is absolute Tj is absolute temperature of tracer gas, T is absolute 2

temperature and M is molecular mass of the gas. temperature of other gas, M is molecular weight of
}

Table 4 lists the mean free path of common gases at tracer gas, M is molecular weight of other gas, Pj — P
2 2

known conditions. is tracer gas inlet and outlet pressures and P - P is 3 4

An approximate formula for mean free path is given other gas inlet and outlet pressures.
in Eq. 4: It can be seen from Eq. 5 that the amount of flow in
NF the molecular flow mode is directly proportional to the
(4) A = —— absolute temperature, inversely proportional to the
P square root of the molecular weight and directly
proportional to the pressure drop. So, i f the pressure
where X is mean free path (meters), P is absolute drop of a system is doubled, the flow is doubled. If

11
TABLE 5. Physical properties of common gases used in leak testing.
d
Numerical Diffusivity
3 b
Density Factor for in Air at Thermal
Molecular at Mean Free Viscosity 0
0 °C (32 °F) Conductivity 6

Mass 100 kPa Path at 20 °C (68 °F) and 101 kPa at 20 °C (68 °F)
Gas Formula (g-mol ) -1 1
(g-L- ) (m-Pa) (uPa-s) 2
(m -s- ) 1 1
(W-m- -K- ) 1

1
Air Mixture 29.0 1.21 6.8 X 10~ 3
18 26.2
Argon Ar 40 1.79 7.2 X 10~ 3
22 13.9 X 10" 6
17.9
Carbon dioxide C0 2 44 1.97 4.5 X 10~ 3
15 15.8 X 10" 6
16.0
Refrigeranl-12 CCI F 2 2 121 5.25 13 9.8
Helium He 4.0 0.179 19.6 X 1 0 ' 3
19 149.0
Hydrogen H 2 2.0 0.090 12.5 X 10~ 3
9 63.4 X 10" 6
183.0
Krypton Kr 84 3.74 5.36 X 10- 6
25 9.4
Neon Ne 20 0.90 14.0 X 1 0 ' 3
31 48.0
Nitrogen N 2 28 1.25 6.7 X 10" 3
18 25.6
Oxygen o2 32 1.43 7.2 X 10" 3
20 17.8 X 10" 6
26.2
Sulfur hexafluoride SF 6 146 6.60 2.5 X 10" 3
15 13.0
Water Vapors H 0 2 18 0.83 4.2 X 10~ 3
9 23.9 X 10" 6
18.7
Xenon Xe 131 5.89 3.8 22 5.5
3 1 3
a. Density in o z f r = g-L" = mg-cnr at 20 °C (68 °F) and 100 kPa (1 atm).
b. Numerical factor for calculating mean free path using Eq. 4. Mean free path in meters at 20 °C (68 °F).
c. Independent of pressure under conditions for viscous flow.
2 _1
d. Diffusivity in m s in air at 0 °C (32 °F) and 101 kPa (1 atm).
1 1
e. Thermal conductivity in W r r r K ~ at 20 °C (68 °F). Thermal conductivity is independent of pressure under conditions for viscous flow.
f. N , 78%; 0 , 2 1 % ; Ar, 0.9%; others, 0.1%.
2 2

g. Vapor pressure of H 0 at 20 °C (68 °F) is 2.3 kPa (17.5 torr).

2

another gas is substituted for helium, the flow will be

altered according to the square root of the molecular (6) Q = KPA K h —
weight ratio. See the flow comparisons in Table 6. 2n

SUGGESTED STUDY where Q is leak rate, K is constant, P is (P, + P )/2, P

a 0 }

Reference A , Chapter 2 is pressure upstream, P is pressure downstream and n is

2

gas viscosity.
Viscous Flow Two important characteristics shown in Eq. 6 are
Laminar flow, one of the two classes of viscous that leak rate is proportional to the difference in the
flow, is a condition in gas flow where the velocity squares of the pressure upstream and downstream, and
profile in the cross section of a tube is parabolic. The gas leak rate is inversely proportional to viscosity. I f
flows smoothly with greatest velocity at the center of pressure downstream is essentially zero and pressure
tube. Turbulent flow, the other form of viscous flow, is upstream is doubled, the leak rate will be quadrupled.
rarely encountered in leak testing for small leaks. Thus, a simple way to increase sensitivity is to increase
Poiseuille and Hagen developed a simple and familiar the pressure drop, as shown in Figure 9. The viscosity of
solution for laminar flow through tubes. A simplified gases used for leak testing does not vary greatly, as
version is shown in Eq. 6: shown in Table 7.

Transitional Flow
TABLE 6. Comparison of molecular flow rates of other gases Transitional flow occurs when the mean free path is
with helium flow rates. about equal to the diameter or cross sectional dimension
Multiply Helium of the leak path. The theory of gas flow in this transition
To Convert to Flow by region is not well developed. When there is uncertainty
about the flow mode, the following guides are suggested.
Q of argon 0.316
1. I f pressure is increased, treat as laminar.
Q of neon 0.447
Oof hydrogen 1.410
2. I f pressure is decreased, treat as molecular.
Q of nitrogen 0.374 3. I f gas is changed, treat as molecular.
O of air 0.374
Q of water vapor 0.469

12
FIGURE 9 . Relationship of leakage to pressure differential T A B L E 7. Mean free paths at 25 °C (77 °F), molecular
with laminar flow of helium gas in typical hardware leak. diameters and viscosities for gases and vapors used in leak
testing.

Pressure across leak (ltyin.~ ) 2 Mean Free Molecular

Path Diameter Viscosity
2 1
1 2 5 10 20 50 100 Gas (mm-Pa) (pm) (uPa-s)
irr (10- )
T
Acetylene 9.2
Air 16.9
Ammonia 9.4
3 2
Argon 7.23 358 20.8
10- (10- )
Benzene 1.53 765 6.9
Carbon dioxide 4.49 465 13.5
Carbon disulfide 8.9
Carbon monoxide 17.1
10- 4 3
(10- ) Dichloromethane
Ethane 3.21 537 8.5
Ethyl alcohol 8.2
Ethylene 9.3
Refrigerant-11 10.3
10" 5 4
(10- ) Hefrigerant-12 11.8
10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 Refrigerant-21 10.8
Legend Pressure across leak (kPa) Refrigerant-22 12.0
= Theoretical values Refrigerant-113 9.8
= Measured values Refrigerant-114
Refrigerant-134a
Helium 19.5 218 17.8
If possible, take a measurement to verify leak rate. Hydrogen 12.2 275 8.3
A graph showing the relationship of the three flow Hydrogen sulfide 11.8
regions is shown in FigurelO. Methane 5.27 419 10.0
n-Butane 1.86 706 10.0
n-Pentane 1.51 782
FIGURE 10. Types of flow characteristics of tracer gases n-Hexane 1.31 842
through leaks as function of leak channel radius and gas Neon 13.70 260
pressure. Graph illustrates air at 25 °C (77 °F). Nitric oxide 17.8
Nitrogen 16.8
\ \ Nitrous oxide 13.3
\ \
\ \ Oxygen 6.99 364 19.1
\ \ Propane 2.32 632 7.7
\
\ \
Sultur dioxide 11.6
10 3 \ «. Sulfur hexafluoride
\ N Vise;ous
\ \ Water 4.23 468 8.8
\ \
\ \ Xenon 21.0
\ \
\ \

E 10'
\ T r ansitic n \
\
\ \ SUGGESTED STUDY
\ \
\ \ Reference A , Pages 46 to 69
\ \
\ \
Mole cular Permeation
\ \
V
\ Permeation is the passage of gas through a solid
\
material, such as rubber. I f there is no leak path, the gas
\
s works its way through a solid material, such as helium
\
leaking out of a rubber balloon overnight. A rubber
10"
7 3 _ 1
O-ring has a permeability of about 5 x 10" P a m s
6 1
(5 x I f r std c m V ) for every 100 kPa (760 torr) of
icr4 10- 3 10~ 2 10"' 10° 10' 1 0 2 1 03 1 04 1 05
pressure differential per linear centimeter of exposed
Absolute pressure (pascal) O-ring surface. I t takes time for saturation to build up, as

13
shown in Figure 11. I f possible, a leak test should be
done in a short period of time before the permeated gas
has a chance to build up to a significant level.
Liquid Leaks
It is possible to predict liquid leaks on the basis of
leakage measured under known conditions with a gas.
This technique is generally applicable to a leak or series
of leaks that have a conductance between 1 and
5 3
10 cm -s~'. An equation that relates laminar gas flow to
laminar liquid flow and is independent of leak geometry
is shown in Eq. 7:
(7) a =
where Q is gas flow rate, Q is liquid flow rate, « is
g }
viscosity of gas, rij is viscosity of liquid and
This correlation is accurate for laminar flow only.
Should the measured leak be molecular, the calculation
will predict a greater liquid leak than will actually be
found.
Unusual Leaks
Some leaks that occur in practice exhibit a flow
behavior quite unlike that of a smooth bore capillary.
These include check valve, geometry change, self
cleaning and surface flow leaks.
In the check valve leak, a certain threshold pressure
must be obtained before the leak of relatively large
amount is observed in the laminar flow region. This type
FIGURE 11. Permeation rate of helium at differential
pressure of 100 kPa (1 atm) through O-rings of 4 x 4 mm
(0.16 x 0.16. in.) cross section, per 25 mm (1 in.) length at
25 °C (77 °F) in units of pascal cubic meter per second (left
vertical scale) and torr liter per second (right vertical scale).
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 200
Time (min)
14
of leak can be particularly elusive because it cannot be
detected below the threshold pressure, and leak tests are
usually conducted at lower pressures for safety reasons.
Geometry change leaks occur when an increase in
leak value is caused by an increase in temperature or
pressure. This is a physical phenomenon that actually
causes a change in the size of the leak path. Thus, it is
important to record the temperature and pressure
conditions under which a leak rate is actually measured.
Self cleaning leaks are leak paths in which the
leaking fluid actually sweeps material aside and causes
the conductance to increase. It is a physical change in
the leak tightness. Leak testing should be performed at
the proposed operating pressure to obtain representative
measurements.
In surface flow leaks, the flow of gases and
noncondensing vapors through fine capillaries and
micropores cannot be dealt with by means of simple
techniques analogous to those applicable to molecular
and laminar flow. The narrow passages and large surface
areas involved cause surface absorption and surface flow
to become important factors. The absorption may be
physical, where only relatively weak van der Waals
attractions are involved, or the absorption may be
regarded as chemical, where the surface of the solid
provides binding sites for the atoms and the electronic
structure of the solid permits the formation of a chemical
absorption bond. The nature of the binding sites and the
bonds between the gas atoms and the surface influence
the degree of surface migration of the atoms.
The flow along a fine capillary or micropore
consists of two mechanisms working simultaneously.
1. Molecular flow along the bore of the
capillary, whereby molecules are supposed
to collide with the wall, reevaporate and
collide with the wall again without
intermolecular collisions.
2. Surface flow along the wall of the capillary,
whereby molecules are absorbed and diffuse
along the surface of the wall.
Although the final leak rate achieved with a
condensable gas is higher than predicted from flow
theory, there will be an initial delay of flow because of
condensation of a tracer gas on the leak surfaces. This
delay is important i f a tracer probe method is used for
testing. For example, if butane, a readily condensable
gas, is used in a tracer probe, some small leaks will be
missed because of the delay caused by the absorption.
Two remedies are suggested to counter this problem:
using a noncondensable gas and using a detector probe
with condensable gases. With a detector probe, the gas is
continually in contact with the leak and equilibrium is
established.
Conductance
Conductance is a term that describes the flow
characteristics of a pipe or leak path. It is the flow rate
per unit pressure drop of a component, as shown in
Eq. 8:

(8) C Q

where C is conductance, Q is gas flow and P - P is

; 2

pressure drop.
When two flow paths are in parallel, the total
conductance is the sum of conductance of the two
separate paths, as shown in Eq. 9:

(9) c = q+c + c + ... + c

t 2 3 n

When paths are in series, the total inverse

conductance is the inverse of the sum of the reciprocal of
the two separate paths, as shown in Eq. 10.

,, 1 1 1 1
(10)
m
— = — + — + ... + —
c c c c

15
 3.7 Which of the following relationships is
Review Questions representative of Poiseuille's law for viscous
flow rates of gases with the same viscosity?
3.1 When considering gas flow under normal a. Q = ( X P ) Q ,
2
2

conditions, the mean free path is: b. Q = ( A P ) Q ,

2 2
2

a. the minimum distance between any two 2

c. Q = ( P - P ) Q , / ( P , - P )
2 3 2
2 2
0
2

molecules at any given time. d. Q = 1 . 6 5 Q ,

2

b. the maximum distance between any two

molecules at any given time.
c. the average distance that a molecule travels
before colliding with another molecule.
d. none of the above.
3.2 The kinetic molecular theory of matter states
that:
a. for every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction.
b. molecules of matter are in motion caused by
heat.
c. matter at rest tends to stay at rest, and matter
in motion tends to stay in motion.
d. none of the above.
3.8 What are three essential parameters involved in
the dynamics of gases?
a. Density, atomic weight and pressure.
b. Pressure, specific gravity and atomic weight.
c. Volume, temperature and density.
d. Volume, temperature and pressure.
3.9 The passage of a gas by diffusion through a solid
material where there is no physical leak in the
sense of an opening or defect is called:
a. absorption.
b. adsoiption.
c. capillary action.
d. permeation.

3.3 The flow characteristics of a leak are often 3.10 The leakage rate through a given leak is:
expressed in terms of: a. greatest at a zero differential pressure.
a. pressure. b. smaller at a higher differential pressure
b. conductance. c. larger at a higher differential pressure.
3
c. cubic centimeters (cm ). d. larger at a lower differential pressure.
d. time.

3.4 A leak exhibiting which of the following modes

of gas flow would be most costly to detect?
a. Viscous flow.
b. Transitional flow.
c. Molecular flow.
d. Turbulent flow.

3.5 The ratio of the throughput of gas to the

difference in pressure of the gas between the two
points of flow being considered is:
a. outgassing.
b. a hang up.
c. conductance.
d. fission.

3.6 What is the general formula for calculating the

conductance of a vacuum system made up of
various parts joined in parallel?
a. C, = X C + X C, + ... + X n

b. C = C, + C + ... + C
t 2 n

c. C = Cj - C - C - . . . - C
t 2 3 n

d. 1/C = 1/C, + 1 / C + . . . + 1/C

t 2 n

16
 Chapter 4
Characteristics of Vacuum Gases and Equipment

Nature of G a s e s
A gas is made of molecules that move rapidly in all (12)
directions. The speed of the molecules is quite high.
Even at room temperature, the air molecule has a speed
1
of about 500 m-s" . The distance between molecules is, The higher pressure is inversely proportional to the
on average, much greater than the diameter of the change in volume.
molecule. I f a chamber is evacuated creating a partial
vacuum, the distance between molecules increases. The Charles's Law
increase in mean free path is inversely proportional to Charles's law states that the volume of a gas varies
pressure, as shown in Eq. 3, and the value of the mean directly as the absolute temperature changes when the
free path is shown in Table 4 to be relatively large for a pressure is kept constant.
low pressure.
The blanket of air surrounding the earth creates a
2 (13) YL = YL
pressure at sea level of 101 kPa (14.7 lb-in." ). The
T, 71
pressure is reduced as the elevation increases so that
atmospheric pressure will vary depending on elevation
above sea level. Also, local variations occur with where V' is initial volume, T is initial temperature, V is
] } 2

temperature changes that may affect leak rates and have final volume and T is final temperature.
2

to be taken into account when reporting accurate

measurements.
(14) v = v,
2

G a s Laws
Ideal gas is gas that obeys the laws of
thermodynamics for ideal gases. Ideal gas is also called
perfect gas. Pressure, volume, temperature and the
amount of gas measured in cubic moles are known in
23
ideal gas. A mole of gas contains 6 x 10 molecules,
and at standard conditions (0 °C and 101 kPa) occupies a
3 3
volume of 0.0224 m . For example, 1 cm of air contains
9
2.7 x ]iV molecules of air at standard conditions.
There are five simple laws that govern the behavior
of gas: Boyle's, Charles's, Avagadro's, universal gas and
Dal ton's laws.
Heating causes gas to expand, and doubling the
temperature causes the volume to double. The
temperature must be expressed in absolute units.
Avogadro's Law
Avogadro's law states that equal volumes of any gas
at the same temperature and pressure contain the same
number of molecules. This law provides an important
relationship between the number of moles in a sample
and the pressure of the sample.

Boyle's Law P P
Boyle's law shows the relationship of volume and (15) \ _ _L2_
pressure on a mass of gas when the temperature is held
constant.
where P is initial pressure, Nj is initial moles of gas, P-,
}

is second gas pressure and N is second amount of gas in

(11) PnV, 7

moles.

where P is initial pressure, Vj is initial volume, P is

} 2 Universal G a s Law
smaller pressure and V is smaller volume.
2 The universal gas law provides a relationship
Solving for P is shown in Eq. 12.
2
between all four quantities needed to describe the
condition of a gas.

17

(16) PV = nRT
where P is pressure, V is volume, n is amount of gas and
R is universal gas constant. The universal gas law
combines the terms of Boyle's and Charles's laws and
can be used to replace them.
Dalton's Law of Partial P r e s s u r e s
Dal ton's law states that the pressure a gas exerts is
not affected by the presence of other gases in the same
chamber. The total pressure is the sum of all the
individual gases in the vessel.
(17)
P, P,+P +P +...
2 3 +P n
SUGGESTED STUDY
Reference A , Pages 34 to 37,165
Evacuating a Vessel
Evacuation will begin at atmospheric pressure and
-6
proceed down to a pressure of 130 x 1 0 Pa. From
101 kPa to 130 Pa., water vapor in the vessel will
condense into a gray fog that swirls around as it is
pumped out of the system. The pressure on the vessel
will build up to nearly atmospheric pressure. Thus, the
vessel must be strong to withstand these forces and not
warp or bend to create leaks. At first, mainly air will be
removed. Then, as the pressure lowers, mostly gas phase
of impurities will be removed from 130 Pa to 13 mPa.
Below 130 Pa, the thermal conductivity decreases
rapidly and the electrical characteristics change. The
voltage to start an electrical discharge initially decreases
and then increases again toward the lower end of the
range.
From 13 /<Pa to 130 mPa, the molecular density
decreases and the mean free path increases to 0.5 m in
length. Also, the thin layer of adsorbed gas on metal
surfaces is reduced, causing an increase in sliding
friction.
Pumpdown
The time it takes to perform a leak test is always of
interest. An important factor in determining this is the
speed of the vacuum pumping systems or the gas
handling systems. Equation 18 provides a basic
relationship.
5
(18) = -
where 5 is pumping speed, Q is flow rate and P is
3
pressure. The S expressed in m -s~' should be as large as
18
practicable to remove the gas from a system as quickly
as possible.
As a system is pumped down, the pressure will drop
until a base pressure is reached, determined either by the
capability of the pump or, in many cases, by a leak in the
system. Equation 18 can be solved for P, as shown in
Eq. 19:
Q
(19) P =
In this case, S is pumping speed, Q is the flow rate
of a leak path and P is vacuum pressure that the pump
can achieve. A pump with a greater pumping speed can
achieve a lower pressure.
It may be desirable to know the amount of time
required to pump a chamber from atmospheric pressure
down to a lower pressure. A n equation for pumpdown
time is:
V P
(20) w
S p
where t is time, V is system volume, S is pump speed, P l
is start pressure, P is lower pressure and K is constant.
7
(K has different values for pressure ranges, as shown in
Table 8.) The calculation can be performed in steps for
pressure drops of a factor of ten or less in accordance
with the variations in K.
Vacuum Pumps
The rotary oil sealed pump is the most common for
bringing a system from atmospheric pressure down to a
few milli pascal. Oil is used as the pump sealant for the
sliding spring loaded vanes that sweep the gas from the
vacuum chamber and exhaust it to the atmosphere.
Improvements in the oil have allowed faster pumping
speeds, and now a shaft can directly drive these pumps
from an electric motor. Contamination of the pump oil is
a critical factor in limiting the ultimate pressure that can
be attained. Pumps can be designed to provide a ballast
gas to remove moisture contamination from the oil.
Some applications require a dry pump because oil
cannot be tolerated in the vacuum system. These pumps
TABLE 8. K factor for pumpdown.
Pressure (pascal) K Factor
1.0
101 000 to 10 000
10 000 to 1000 1.25
1000 to 100 1.5
100 to 10 2.0
10 to 1 4.0
have close tolerances and do not need oil to provide
seals.
Blowers
The blower is a booster pump with low compression
and high throughput used where large gas volumes must
be pumped. Blowers are most useful in the 0.1 to
0.01 Pa pressure range and are used as a forepump for
large diffusion and turbomolecular pumps.
Diffusion Pumps
Diffusion pumps are used to obtain vacuums where
the pressure is below 0.1 Pa. They operate by heating
pump oil to its boiling point, creating a vapor stream.
The stream is directed away from the vacuum chamber
through three or four stages so that the oil molecules
sweep gas from the chamber to the exhaust. The cooled
walls of the pump condense the vapors so they flow into
the heater and are continually recycled. Because they
have several stages, different pumps sweep chamber gas
to a higher pressure until it is exhausted into a forepump.
A diffusion pump cannot operate above a pressure
of 0.1 Pa because a vapor jet cannot be formed at this or
higher pressures. A chamber must first be evacuated,
usually with a mechanical pump before the diffusion
pump becomes operable. Diffusion pumps have largely
been replaced with turbomolecular pumps. I f a diffusion
pump is exposed to a burst of atmospheric pressure, the
oil vapor stream would collapse and the vacuum
chamber could be soaked with pump oil. This could also
lead to cracking (decomposition) of the oil, and then
both the diffusion pump and the vacuum chamber must
be thoroughly cleaned to remove all oil contamination.
Another drawback is the initial start up time of 0.25 to
0.3 h for diffusion pumps used in helium mass
spectrometers.
Turbomolecular Pumps
The turbomolecular pump is a high speed
mechanical machine that removes gas from a vacuum
chamber and discharges the gas into a forepump. The
-1
blades rotate at speeds of 100 to700 m-s ,
corresponding to the thermal motion of gas molecules.
Several stages of blades strike and drive the molecules
toward the discharge port and can achieve a very high
compression ratio. This creates a high vacuum in the
range of 1.0 to 0.1 /(Pa when discharging into a
forepump in the pressure range of 1.3 Pa to 1.3 mPa.
Turbomolecular pumps can be built with bearings that do
not require lubrication, thus providing an oil free
vacuum. With helium mass spectrometer leak testers, it
can come to full pumping speed in just a few minutes.
19
Cryogenic Pumps
This review is limited to a discussion of liquid
nitrogen cold traps that stop migration of pump oil vapor
and remove water vapor from the high vacuum chambers
of some mass spectrometer leak testers. The cold trap is
not often used because it is not needed in most turbo
pumped machines. However, it has a high pumping
capacity for water vapor, the most common condensable,
3
of 152 m -s^' per square meter of exposed surface area.
A cold trap freezes moisture and essentially removes it
from the high vacuum system. After a period of time,
usually one week, the cold trap must be removed from
the system so that the trapped gases can escape. High
maintenance for the cold trap is a distinct drawback; it
has to be cleaned and filled with liquid nitrogen on a
regular basis.
SUGGESTED STUDY
Reference A , Pages 223 to 230
Vacuum Gages
Various types of gages are required to measure
pressure from atmospheric down to 10 ^Pa. The actual
force exerted by the gas is used in the higher pressure
region. A t lower pressures, some property of the gas,
such as thermal conductivity or ionization, is used to
measure pressure.
Mechanical gages, such as the bourdon and
diaphragm type, indicate vacuum pressure from
atmospheric down to the low pascal range. They work
on the principle of force exerted by gas to measure total
pressure.
Heat transfer gages, such as the thermocouple or
pirani, depend on the thermal insulative properties of a
vacuum and measure pressures from atmosphere to 0.1
or 0.01 Pa.
Ionization gages measure low pressures over a range
from 1 to 100 fiPa. Their operation is electronic; the gas
is ionized and the amount of ionization depends on gas
pressure. An electric power supply provides a voltage
that causes the current to be measured that is
proportional to pressure. The gage may be a cold
cathode or a hot filament type.
SUGGESTED STUDY
Reference A , Pages 243 to 253
Vacuum Hardware
A series of baffles have been designed to prevent
contamination from migrating from the diffusion pump
region to the high vacuum area. The baffles must have
high conductance so as not to impede gas flow and are
usually made from brass or stainless steel. Typical
configurations are shown in Figure 12.
FIGURE 12. Typical baffle designs used in oil diffusion FIGURE 13. Operating principles of vacuum valves:
vacuum pump systems. (a) bellows sealed valve; (b) diaphragm valve.

Plate
Cooling coils
(a) Cover

zr Cooling
coils
Top view
of disk
- Bonnet gasket

3. Cooling
coils
—21
XL XX

Cooling coils

Cooling coils

»»»»
Cooled chevron trap
- Body

Seat Braze

Vacuum Valves
To isolate or control a vacuum system, valves that (b)
Vent hole
are leak tight and have high conductance are used. Such
valves are expensive and require special construction. Diaphragm
They must use very stable materials that have a
minimum of outgassing and no valve stem leakage.
Samples of such valves are shown in Figure 13.

Braze and mechanical seal

of an elastomer diaphragm

20
 6
4.7 Pressures of 133 ;<Pa (10" mm Hg):
Review Questions a. have never been attained in vacuum systems.
b. are uncommon even in very high vacuum
A virtual leak is: systems.
a leak that is small enough to be within the c. are not uncommon in very high vacuum
acceptance standard and therefore does not systems.
have to be repaired. d. are easily attained with mechanical vacuum
a leak that is so small as to be virtually pumps.
impossible to detect.
a leak from an isolated pocket within a 4.8 Which of the following describes how to provide
vacuum system. a natural exit for gas molecules and isolating
d. outgassing vapors within a vacuum system. them so they may not reenter a closed system?
a. Theory of hyperventilation.
4.2 Cold traps are used in older high vacuum systems b. Concept of vacuum pumping.
to: c. Concept of neutralizing negative flow.
a. prevent diffusion pump oils from vaporizing. d. Basic technique for differential
b. stop back migration of vapors and to trap pressurization.
condensable vapors.
c. cryogenically pump vapor molecules out of 4.9 At constant pressure, how is the volume occupied
the vacuum system. by a fixed weight of an ideal gas related to its
d. all of the above. absolute temperature?
a. Directly proportional.
4.3 High vacuum systems at operating pressure b. Inversely proportional.
typically use: c. 5 / 9 ° C - 3 2 .
a. bourdon and diaphragm gages. d. Inversely proportional to the square root of
b. liquid level manometers. the temperature.
c. thermal conductivity gages.
d. ionization gages. 4.10 I f a gas occupies a volume of 10 ml (0.1 qt) at
567 mm Hg (22 in. Hg) absolute pressure and
4.4 Charles's law requires temperature to be 60 °C (140 °F), what volume would the gas
expressed in: occupy at 0 °C (32 °F) and an absolute pressure
a. degrees kelvin. of 101 kPa (760 mm Hg)?
b. degrees fahrenheit. a. 4.5 ml (0.5 qt).
c. degrees celsius. b. 6.1 ml (0.6 qt).
d. any of the above. c. 8.0 ml (0.8 qt).
d. 12.2 ml (1.3 qt).
4.5 Pressures of 34 and 48 kPa (5 and 7 psi) are
3 3
exerted in 0.03 m (1 f t ) samples of argon and
3 3
oxygen. When mixed together in a 0.03 m (1 ft )
volume, the pressure will be:
a. 48 kPa (7 psi).
b. 62kPa(9psi).
c. 82kPa(12psi).
d. 241 kPa(35psi).

4.6 The volume that a gas sample occupies at a

standard temperature and pressure is directly
proportional to the number of gas molecules
within that sample. This is known as:
a. Brownian motion.
b. Dalton's law.
c. Laminar distribution principle.
d. Avogadro's law.

21
 Chapter 5
Planning and Performing Leak Tests
Physical Considerations
Leak tests, as with all types of nondestructive testing
methods, may be expensive and time consuming
operations. They require skilled technicians and need to
be performed in an efficient, competent and cost
effective manner. In many applications, the technician
should be brought in during the design phase so that
adequate provision can be made for performing a leak
test. Without proper planning, it may not be possible to
perform the desired test or maintain costs at a reasonable
level. The tubulation for evacuating a chamber should be
large enough that long pumpdown times of several hours
are not encountered, or that the system response time
constant is more than a few minutes duration. The
shorter these times are, the better, because they directly
contribute to the time and cost of performing a test.
Some test specifications require the leak standard be
at the most remote point in the system from the leak test
instrument. During design is the time to provide
plumbing for such arrangements, otherwise this
condition cannot be met. In other cases, the equipment
may be complex and the most effective procedure is to
leak test each module before final assembly. Then, at
final assembly, the only untested boundaries are the main
couplings between modules. This greatly reduces the
amount of disassembly and reassembly that could be
encountered. Such provisions for testing can only be
arranged during the design stage of a product.
The application of leak testing is vast and there are
many leak test techniques to go along with the various
industries, as shown in Figurel4.
Measurements
Figure 14 ranks test methods and indicates relative
sensitivity and cost. I f a helium mass spectrometer leak
tester is already owned, it has innate flexibility to
perform many of the simpler tests quite economically
because it can measure large leaks as readily as small
leaks, as indicated in Chapter 2. Hood and bell jar
methods do not usually require thermal stabilization
times that can greatly affect the performance of pressure
change or flow measurement tests. Often a helium leak
test can save time and money.
Depending on the industry, the term leak tighl has a
variety of meanings. The degree of leak tightness
depends on the application, whether a simple liquid such
23
as water or a radioactive gas is being contained in a
stainless steel container. A n engineering decision must
be made to set a specification that will be acceptable in
the industry. The specification may range from a gross
amount to an extremely small amount. The specification
of no leak is not acceptable because all systems have
some degree of leakage. Nothing is totally leak tight.
Detail design of a chamber must be consistent with
the intended vacuum application. Possible welds should
be full penetration to minimize the possibility of having
trapped volumes in the weld itself. Such volumes could
leak into a vacuum and cause a virtual leak that would
lead to rejection of the part.
The fabrication sequence, or testing sequence, can
be very important in performing the leak test of a high
vacuum chamber. The chamber should not be penetrant,
magnetic particle or hydrostatic tested before helium
leak testing to prevent a temporary plug in the leak path.
A temporarily plugged leak path could lead to an invalid
leak test.
Application of helium tracer gas to detect a leak
requires considerable care because elevated levels of
helium in the atmosphere at the test site can saturate the
helium mass spectrometer. It takes hours to days of
continuous operation of the leak tester to bring helium
background down to acceptable levels. Another cause of
high background is outgassing of helium trapped in the
vacuum system or in the test equipment. The system
should have a minimum of rubber or plastics because
they can become saturated with helium and require
extensive pumpdown times to remove the helium
contamination.
Before helium leak testing, the component must be
cleaned to remove liquid or other contamination. Such
contamination will outgas, create a partial pressure,
require additional test time and possibly contaminate the
oil in the mechanical pumps disabling their pumping
ability. I f pressure drops to about 2600 Pa and remains
when being evacuated, there is moisture in the system.
The vacuum pressure will remain at this level until the
pumps have removed all moisture from the system.
Using the vacuum pumping system to clean a component
is time consuming and costly.
SUGGESTED STUDY
Reference A , Pages 7 to 21
FIGURE 14, Graphical decision tree for step by step selection of leak testing methods.

Halogen electron capture/halogen heated anode

Helium mass spectrometer

Infrared
Optical deflection
Gage response
Higher sensitivity
Chemical reaction

Bubble Helium mass spectrometer

Inherent tracer Airborne ultrasonic Argon mass spectrometer

Laser imaging
Residual gas analyzer
Gage in place
Acoustic emission Compare these factors in
Detector Infrared choosing a leak testing
probe Hydrostatic method or technique
Halogen heated anode
Pressurized
system High voltage discharge

Leak Gage response

location
Pressure measurement
Evacuated
system ^' Lower equipment cost
Inherent detector Airborne ultrasonic

Tracer probe

Radioactivity

Helium mass spectrometer

Leak
test Halogen heated anode

Low sensitivity Infrared Helium mass

test run Back pressurizing spectrometer
after high
sensitivity test Inherent gage Flow measurement
Halogen heated anode
Evacuated
Radioactivity
Pressure change

Mass spectrometer Helium mass Flow measurement

Multiple
sealed spectrometer
Infrared
Leakage Halogen electron
rate capture/halogen
Halogen heated anode
measurement Sealed with
heated anode
tracer Radioactivity
Infrared ——-—>•--•
Halogen electron capture/
High sensitivity Optical deflection halogen heated anode

Back pressuring R r e s s u r e
Infrared
measurement
Air sealed
Bubble Helium mass spectrometer

Bubble
Flow measurement
Low sensitivity
Pressure measurement
Inherent tracer Gage in place Flow measurement
Leak to vacuum
Open or single
sealed units
Inherent tracer Gage in place

Leak to atmosphere

24
Review Questions 5 7
When performing a mass spectrometer detector
test of an ultrahigh vacuum system:
5.1 In a vacuum system, detected leakage in the a. a preliminary hydrostatic test should be
7 9 3 -
range of 10~ to 10~ std cm -s ' would likely be: performed.
a. viscous fluid. b. a preliminary hydrostatic test should not be
b. molecular flow. performed.
c. checked flow. c. a pressure test should be used instead of a
d. transition flow. vacuum test.
d. none of the above.
5.2 The helium mass spectrometer leak test
performed by spraying helium on the outside of 5.8 In addition to the direct effect of helium mass
an evacuated system when the system vacuum spectrometer sensitivity, which of the following
pumps are still pumping on the system is called a can affect the sensitivity attainable when
helium: performing a helium tracer probe test of a
a. integrated leakage rate test. vacuum system?
b. detector probe test. a. Volume of the system.
c. tracer probe or dynamic leakage test. b. Location and length and size of the
d. analyzer test. connection between the instrument and the
system.
5.3 A helium mass spectrometer is a leak testing c. Effective pump speed of the system.
instrument that can be used to perform: d. A l l the above.
a. vacuum testing.
b. pressure vacuum testing. 5.9 An output signal of the mass spectrometer leak
c. pressure testing. detector caused by any reason other than a real
d. any of the above. leak is called a:
a. doppler signal.
5.4 Which of the following factors affect(s) the b. dipole signal.
response or cleanup times of a vacuum test c. background.
system? d. virtual leak.
a. Volume of the object being tested.
b. Total effective pump speed of the system.
c. Amount of tracer gas used to pressurize the
system.
d. Both a. and b. above.

5.5 What are normally accepted ratios of sensitivities

achieved by either a vacuum or pressure helium
mass spectrometer test for the same object?
a. They are equal.
b. 10:1, vacuum more sensitive.
c. 100:1, vacuum more sensitive.
d. 2:1. vacuum more sensitive.

5.6 Which of the following is not associated with

mass spectrometer pressure testing?
a. Different functions with the same units of
measurement.
b. The helium is applied externally.
c. The test object is sniffed with a detector
probe.
d. Leaks can be located in a test object.

25
 Chapter 6
Test Equipment and Techniques
Helium Mass Spectrometer
A spectrometer tube is an electronic device that
separates molecules on the basis of their mass-to-charge
ratio. It requires ionization, separation and measurement
of the separated ions. For leak detection, the
spectrometer is limited to detection of only helium.
Usually a deflection type spectrometer accelerates the
ions and performs a separation by passing the ions
through a magnetic field. Helium mass spectrometers are
available commercially with high sensitivity, ruggedness
and ease and range of operation, as described in
3
Chapter 2. They are most often calibrated in std cm -s"',
even though the actual factor being measured is helium
partial pressure. Afunctional schematic of a helium mass
spectrometer is shown in Figure 15. Only the helium
ions are allowed to reach the collector plate for
measurement.
FIGURE 15. Arrangement of 60 degree magnetic sector mass spectrometer.
Object
plate
Neutral gas split
electrons
Legend
= neutral gas atom or molecule
•~ = electron
+
• = positive ion
Counterflow and Older Direct Flow
Spectrometers
In the counterflow units, the test gas is introduced
into the foreline of the high vacuum pump rather than
directly into the spectrometer tube. The helium tracer gas
back flows against the pumping action of the diffusion or
turbomolecular pump into the spectrometer tube and
achieves suitable sensitivity. The high vacuum pumps
retain high efficiency for pumping heavier gases such as
air, oil or water vapors. General layouts of these
spectrometers are shown in Figure 16.
Advantages of counterflow units include reduced
test time (because testing can be performed at higher
pressure) and a significant reduction in effort (because
liquid nitrogen is not needed). A disadvantage is that it
cannot test a system that is at a high vacuum. If total oil
free testing is needed, a dry forepump and oil free
turbomolecular pump can be used.
Heavy
Magnet j ns
0
27
 Bubble Test
FIGURE 1 6 . Leak detector vacuum system configurations:
(a) counterflow system with turbomolecular pump or diffusion Gas leakage from a pressure chamber can be readily
pump; (b) portable counterflow system with turbomolecular detected by formation of bubbles. I f the chamber is
pump or diffusion pump; (c) direct flow system with dual immersed, bubbles pinpointing the location of a leak are
primary pumps and liquid nitrogen cold trap. readily evident. Where immersion is not possible, a thin
(a) layer of liquid film may be flowed over the test object to
Test port
act as a test medium. I f the leak is large, a layer of foam
may be used so the escaping gas blows a hole through
Spectrometer the foam. The liquid film must wet the test surface so
tube Vent that leaking gas will be trapped and cannot escape from
Test valve

HE ' valve forming bubbles.

Sometimes bubble testing is used to test boundaries

\ Gross leak valve Roughing

that cannot be pressurized, such as welds in the side or
floor of a tank. A vacuum box is then used to provide a
E valve
pressure differential across the boundary, and a liquid
film is used to detect the leaks.
Lf Roughing A vacuum pump creates a vacuum in the box, and a
pump pressure gage in the box indicates the pressure
Diffusion
pump differential. Only a few pounds of vacuum pressure are
Forepump
used so that the liquid film does not boil.
There are many factors that influence the sensitivity
of a bubble test. These include pressure differential,
surface tension, viscosity of gas, weather conditions and
personnel technique. Solutions with low surface tension
form and reform many small bubbles. Higher surface
tension solutions form larger bubbles.
Immersion bubble tests can locate leaks in the range
5 1 4 1
of l f r Pa-m V ( l f r std cnr'-s ). Solution film
techniques are a factor of ten less sensitive, and both are
quite low in cost.

SUGGESTED STUDY
Reference A , Chapter 5

Pressure Change Test

Leak testing using the pressure change technique is
accomplished by observing the pressure change in a
vessel as a function of time; it may be either an increase
or decrease in pressure. This technique is only suitable
for leakage measurement and can be used on small or
large systems. A vessel may either be pressurized or
evacuated to create a pressure drop across the containing
surface. A pressure change with time indicates a leakage
that may be calculated using Eq. 21:

(21) Q
^ 7

where Q is leak rate, V is system volume, P is pressure

Diffusion change and t is elapsed time.
pump
As shown Eq. 21, the volume of the system must be
Forepump known or calculated to determine leak rate. Sensitivity of
the technique is important and is determined by several
Foreline

28
factors, such as the ability to measure small changes in
pressure or to extend the duration of the test for a longer
P - P
period of time. Also, the sensitivity is inversely related AP 12
1
to volume; greater sensitivity can be obtained with a (22)
smaller volume. More accurate pressure gages or longer
At At
test times can both be used to increase test sensitivity. V J
When tests are made on evacuated systems,
outgassing may occur. To minimize outgassing, the where Tj is initial temperature, T is final temperature,
7

system must be kept clean and dry. To reduce Pj is initial pressure and P is final pressure. I f the
2

outgassing, heat the system and/or introduce a dry bleed
gas and remove the contaminant from the system. When
tests are made on pressurized systems, the temperature
of the test gas must become stabilized before the test
begins or large measurement error may be introduced.
Also, corrections must be made for ambient temperature
changes i f such occur during the performance of the test,
as shown in Eq. 22.
pressure gages are affected by atmospheric changes,
corrections must be made for that also.
For large systems, computers provide the fastest and
most accurate analysis of pressure change data. The data
for pressure, temperature, dew point and calibration are
fed into a computer, as shown in Figure 17. This system
provides real time measurement of leak rate and
documentation of all variables and test results.

FIGURE 17. Information flow diagram for computer controlled integrated leakage rate measurement system using a
microcomputer, dual disk memory and instrument display console.

Containment Console

Digital
Containment Quartz
pressure > manometers
Preset up/down
counter

Analog
Digital
Verification Turbine Microprocessor
air flow flow meters data conversion

3! Serial interface
Input/output
port

Resistance Digital
Analog
Resistance temperature Analog
temperature
detectors 0 detectors (signal
conditioning)

Scanner

Analog
Dew point Hygrometer control
conditioning
hygrometers
circuitry Digital data
encoder

Digital
Manual
scanner
Analog Panel meter
Linear variable
Structural
differential and Analog
integrity test
<
other transducers

29
 If a system has an unacceptable leak rate, some leak
location technique, such as bubble testing, would be
used to find the leak path. After the leak has been fixed,
the original test would be repeated to demonstrate that
the vessel has adequate leak tightness.

SUGGESTED STUDY
Reference A , Chapter 5

Other Techniques
There are many other techniques for leak testing,
such as the halogen, sonic, infrared, chemical,
hydrostatic, radioactive, tesla coil and others. Many
areas of technology have developed very specific
techniques that testers should follow to ensure product
reliability. The halogen test is very important in the area
of refrigeration. Several instruments, such as the heated
anode halogen detector, have been specifically developed
to locate leaks and have high sensitivity for halogen
leaks, even more sensitive than the helium mass
spectrometer detector probe technique.

SUGGESTED STUDY
Reference A , Chapter 10
 Which of the following terms is used to indicate
Review Questions the difference between absolute pressure and
atmospheric pressure?
6.1 Which of the following chemical elements is not a. Ambient pressure.
classified as a halogen? b. Gage pressure.
a. Fluorine. c. Air pressure.
b. Calcium. d. Varies with the square root of the
c. Bromine. temperature.
d. Chlorine.
6.7 Which of the following terms is used to describe
6.2 Which of the following factors affects the the percentage of volume of one gas mixed in
sensitivity attainable by the halogen diode one or more other gases related to the total
detector method of testing? volume?
a. Differential pressure. a. Conductance.
b. Halogen concentration. b. Concentration.
c. Type of refrigerant. c. Diffusion.
d. A l l of the above. d. Absoiption.

6.3 When an operator knows the sensitivity of the 6.8 One way to increase accuracy and reliability of
halogen leak detector throughout the test, which the results of a pressure change measurement test
of the following is true at the completion of the is to:
test? a. extend the time period of the test.
a. No leaks of a certain size or larger have gone b. use a reliable person to record the gage
undetected. readings.
b. The total leak rate of the test object is less c. use a reliable dew point sensor.
than a certain amount. d. shorten the time period of the test.
c. The instrument was capable of detecting
leakage of the size required by the test 6.9 For a short duration pressure change
procedure during the test. measurement test of systems, such as gasket
d. All of the above. interspaces and leak chase (channel test) zones, it
is always necessary to measure which two of the
6.4 Which of the following terms is generally used to following variables?
describe the halogen rich refrigerant gas, a. Volume and pressure.
detectable by a halogen diode leak detector as it b. Absolute pressure and skill factor.
passes through a leak? c. Barometric pressure and dew point.
a. Sensing gas. d. Time and gage pressure.
b. Tracer gas.
c. Ionize gas. 6.10 For short duration pressure change measurement
d. Detector gas. tests of small volume systems, which of the
following are two of the more important features
6.5 When the temperature surrounding a bottle of or characteristics of the pressure gage used?
refrigerant gas decreases, the maximum pressure a. Repeatability and readability.
attainable from the affected bottle: b. Manufacture and repeatability.
a. increases. c. Needle length and sensitivity.
b. remains the same. d. Readability and inlet diameter.
c. decreases.
d. varies with the square root of the
temperature.

31
 Review Question Answers

Review questions in this Level III Study Guide use a modular numbering system, so that question 3.1 is the first review
question in Chapter 3. Comments about this table should be directed to the Educational Materials Supervisor at ASNT:
1711 Arlingate Lane, Columbus, OH 43228. 1-800-222-2768 ext. 225. <www.asnt.org>

1.1 d 2.1 a 3.1 c 4.1 c 5.1 b 6.1 b

1.2 d 2.2 b 3.2 b 4.2 b 5.2 c 6.2 d

1.3 d 2.3 b 3.3 b 4.3 d 5.3 d 6.3 c

1.4 d 2.4 b 3.4 c 4.4 a 5.4 d 6.4 b

1.5 d 2.5 c 3.5 c 4.5 c 5.5 c 6.5 c

1.6 d 2.6 c 3.6 b 4.6 d 5.6 b 6.6 b

1.7 d 2.7 d 3.7 c 4.7 c 5.7 b 6.7 b

1.8 c 2.8 d 3.8 d 4.8 b 5.8 d 6.8 a

1.9 a 2.9 a 3.9 d 4.9 a 5.9 c 6.9 d

1.10 a 2.10 d 3.10 c 4.10 b 6.10 a

33
 Leak Testing Glossary
absolute pressure: Pressure above absolute zero value,
or pressure above that of space empty of all
molecules. Equal to sum of local atmospheric
pressure and gage pressure.
absolute temperature: Temperature above absolute zero
value. Absolute zero temperature is expressed as 0 K
or-273.15 °C (-460 °F).
acceptance criteria: Standard against which test results
are to be compared for purposes of establishing the
functional acceptability of a part or system being
examined.
acceptance level: Test level above or below which test
objects are acceptable in contrast to rejection level.
acceptance standard: Specimen similar to test object
and containing natural or artificial discontinuities that
are well defined and similar in size or extent to the
maximum acceptable in the product. See standard.
accumulation test technique: Detecting the total
amount of leakage by enclosing the component under
test within a hood, bag, box, shroud or container. For
pressure testing, any gas leaking from the component
accumulates in the space (volume) between the
component and the enclosure. For vacuum testing,
any gas leaking into the component accumulates in
the leak detector sampling the evacuated component.
Accumulation of tracer gas in a measured time period
provides a measure of the leakage rate.
accuracy: Degree of conformity of a measurement to a
standard or true value.
acoustic emission: In leak testing, elastic waves
resulting from the flow of fluids through leaks in the
frequency range 30 to 100 kHz.
acoustic emission leak testing: Leak test method that
uses acoustic emission.
air flow: In leak testing, flow of air from the probe inlet
to the sensitive element of the halogen leak detector
that carries the tracer gas from the leak to the sensing
diode.
ambient temperature: Temperature of surrounding
atmosphere.
ASNT: American Society for Nondestructive Testing,
atmosphere or atmospheric conditions: See standard
atmospheric conditions.
35
atmospheric pressure: Ambient pressure caused by the
weight of the earth's atmosphere. Because the weight
of the earth's overlying atmosphere decreases with
increase in altitude, atmospheric pressure decreases
with elevation. Also called barometric pressure. A t
sea level, standard barometric pressure is taken as
2
101.325 kPa (14.696 lb -in.- ). It is also equal to the
f
pressure exerted by a mercury column 760 mm
(29.92 in.) high; that is, equal to 760 mm Hg
(29.92 in. Hg) or 760 ton".
background contamination: Tracer gases in a test
system that initiate a response from the leak detector
and that may or may not be attributable to a leak.
backstreaming: Movement of pumping fluids from the
pump back to the vacuum chamber.
baffle: System component, typically a plate, that
condenses pump fluids before they reach the vacuum
chamber and returns fluid to the pump.
barometric pressure: Ambient pressure caused by the
weight of the earth's atmosphere. See atmospheric
pressure.
bell jar: Kind of evacuated test chamber. See vacuum
pressure testing.
bourdon gage: See quartz bourdon tube gage.
bubble leak testing: Pressure test where leakage is
indicated by formation of bubbles by escaping gas.
Methods include immersion, vacuum box and bubble
solution tests.
capillary action: Tendency of liquids to penetrate or
migrate into small openings, such as cracks, pits or
fissures. The positive force that causes movement of
certain liquids along narrow or tight passages.
calibrated leak: Instrument or specimen providing
leakage at known rate for purposes of reference or
comparison. See standard.
cleanup time or cleanup: Time (time constant) required
after a tracer gas has ceased to enter a leak test
system, for the system to reduce its signal output to
37% of the signal indicated before the tracer gas had
ceased to enter the leak testing system.
cold cathode ionization gage: Ion gage in which the
ions are produced by a cold cathode discharge,
usually in the presence of a magnetic field that
lengthens the path of electrons between the cathode
and anode. It has a range of 1 Pa to 0.1 mPa.
cold trap: Device that condenses vapors and prevents
oil or water molecules from entering a vacuum
chamber.
conductance: Flow characteristics of a tube, manifold or
3 _1
leak path expressed in m -s .
cryogenic pump: Pump that condenses chamber gas on
a cold surface of 4 to 80 K (-269 to -194 °C).
Cooling is provided by liquid gas such as liquid
helium or by refrigeration.
defect: Discontinuity whose size, shape, orientation or
location make it detrimental to the useful service of
its host object or which exceeds the accept/reject
criteria of an applicable specification. Some
discontinuities may not affect serviceability and are
therefore not defects. All defects are discontinuities.
detector probe: Adjustable or fixed device through
which air and/or tracer gas is drawn into the leak test
instrument and over the sensing element or detector.
Also called a sampling probe or a sniffer probe.
detector probe test: Pressure leak test in which the
leakage of a component, pressurized with a tracer rich
mixture, is detected by scanning the test object
boundary surface with a detector probe connected to
an electronic leak detector. Leakage tracer gas is
pulled from the leak through the probe inlet to the
sensing element to cause a visible or audible signal
on the indicator of the leak test instrument.
diffusion: Process by which molecules intermingle as a
result of concentration gradients or thermal motion.
Spreading of a gas through other gases or solids
within a volume.
diffusion pump: High vacuum pump with no moving
mechanical parts that uses a vapor jet to sweep gas
from the vacuum chamber and achieve pressures as
low as 1 nPa.
discontinuity: Interruption in the physical structure of a
part. A discontinuity may or may not be considered a
defect.
elastomer: Natural or synthetic rubber gasket material
used to make a vacuum tight seal in a vacuum
system.
flow measurement: Determining the extent of leakage
by measuring the rate of flow of gas into or out of a
system or component under test.
foam leak test: Bubble leak test technique in which the
tracer gas blows a hole through a blanket of foam
covering the test object, thus indicating the location
of the leak.
forepump: Mechanical pump in a helium mass
spectrometer that performs initial evacuation of a
system to a pressure of 0.1 Pa, and then accepts the
exhaust from the high vacuum pump, such as a
diffusion pump. The forepump lowers pressure to
less than 10 kPa into which the diffusion pump can
exhaust its gas.
gage pressure: Pressure above or below atmospheric
pressure at the measurement location.
36
gas ballast: Gas (air) admitted into the pumping
chamber of a mechanical pump and inhibiting
condensation of vapors in the chamber.
halide: Compound of two or more elements, one of
which is a halogen.
halogen: Any of the nonmetallic elements (fluorine,
chlorine, bromine and iodine) or any gaseous
chemical component containing one or more of these
elements.
halogen detector probe test: Pressure leak test in which
the leakage of a component, pressurized with a
halogen rich mixture, is detected by scanning over tire
test object boundary surface with a probe connected
to a halogen leak detector. Halogen gas is pulled from
the leak through the probe inlet to the sensing
element to cause a visible or audible signal on the
indicator of the leak test instrument.
halogen leak detector: Leak detector that responds to
tracer gases containing halogen. Normally not very
sensitive to the elemental halogen gases, but very
good when used with a gas that contains halogen.
Also called halogen sensitive leak detector or halide
leak detector.
halogen standard leak: Standard leak in which the
contained gas is a halogen tracer gas compound.
heated immersion test: Bubble test where the heating
causes buildup of internal pressure in a test object
and the formation of bubbles at leak sites.
helium: Monomolecular, noble gas with atomic weight
of four, commonly used as tracer gas in leak testing.
Because of helium's small molecular size and rarity
1
(5 m L L " in air), it is an excellent tracer gas.
helium leak detector: Leak detector that responds to
helium tracer gas.
helium mass spectrometer leak detector: Mass
spectrometer constructed to be peaked or tuned for
response to helium gas.
holes: Any void remaining in an object as a result of
improper manufacturing processing. Often called gas
holes, cavities or air locks.
hood test: Quantitative leak test in which a test object
under vacuum test is enclosed by a hood filled with
tracer gas so as to subject all parts of the test object to
examination for leakage at one time. A form of
dynamic leak testing in which the entire enclosure or
a large portion of its external surface is exposed to
the tracer gas while the interior is connected to a leak
detector, with the objective of detecting leakage or
measuring its total rate.
ideal gas: Gas that obeys the laws of thermodynamics
for ideal gases. Also called perfect gas.
immersion leak testing: Test object is pressurized and
then submerged in detection fluid. The formation of
bubbles from the object indicates a leak; the absence
of bubbles indicates leak tightness.
implosion: Collapse of pressure boundary' or wall of a
containment vessel or structure when evacuated and
subject to atmospheric or higher external pressures.
inert gas: Gas that does not readily combine with other
substances. Examples are helium, neon and argon.
infrared: Below red, referring to radiation of frequency
lower than the color red.
infrared and thermal testing: Nondestructive testing
that uses heat or infrared radiation as interrogating
energy.
infrared radiation: Radiant energy below the color red,
of wavelengths longer than 770 nm, between the
visible and microwave regions of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
inlet: Opening, flange, connection or coupling on a leak
detector or leak testing system through which tracer
gas may enter from a leak in a test object.
integrated leakage rate test: Leakage test performed
for an entire system or component by pressurizing the
system to the calculated peak containment internal
pressure related to the design and determining the
overall integrated leakage rate.
interpretation: Determination of the significance of test
indications from the standpoint of their relevance or
irrelevance. The determination of the cause of an
indication or the evaluation of the significance of
discontinuities from the standpoint of whether they
are detrimental or inconsequential.
ionization gage: High vacuum gage that depends on the
measuring of electrical current resulting from
ionization of gas. Examples include thermionic
ionization gages (Bayard-Alpert), cold cathode gages
(Penning or Philip) and alphatron gages.
laminar flow: Class of viscous flow where velocity
distribution of fluid in a cross section of a tube is
parabolic.
leak: Opening that allows the passage of a fluid,
leak detector: Device for detecting, locating or
measuring leakage,
leak testing (LT): Nondestructive testing method for
detecting, locating or measuring leaks or leakage in
pressurized or evacuated systems or components,
leakage: Measurable quantity of fluid escaping from a
leak.
leakage rate: Quantity of leakage fluid per unit time that
flows through a leak at a given temperature as a result
of a specified pressure difference across the leak. See
throughput.
level, acceptance: In contrast to rejection level, test
level above or below which, depending on the test
parameter, test objects are acceptable.
37
level, rejection: Value established for a test signal above
or below which, depending on the test parameter, test
objects are rejectable or otherwise distinguished from
the remaining objects. See level, acceptance.
L T : Leak testing.
magnetic sector: Permanent magnet that separates the
ion species in the spectrometer tube of the helium
mass spectrometer,
manometer: Instrument for measuring pressure (or
pressure differentials) of gases and vapors,
mass flow rate: Weight, moles or number of molecules
passing through a system as function of time,
mass spectrometer leak detector: Mass spectrometer
with design factors optimized to produce an
instrument that has high sensitivity to a single tracer
gas.
mean free path: Average distance a gas molecule
travels between successive collisions with other
molecules in the gas or vapor state,
mechanical pump: Mechanical device with pumping
fluid and seals that physically removes a portion of
the gas from a system with each revolution of the
armature. A mechanical pump can pump a chamber
down to about 0.1 Pa.
micro: Prefix that divides a basic unit of measure by one
million.
mole: Molecular weight of a substance, in gram (gram
mole).
molecular flow: Phenomenon occurring when mean free
path length of gas molecules is greater than the
largest cross sectional dimension of a leak or the tube
through which flow is occurring.
molecular weight: For a gas, the mass of 22.4 L
3
(0.8 f t ) at standard conditions.
motion feedthrough: Function provided by rotary or
linear drives that penetrate the vacuum boundary to
operate valves, pumps or perform other functions
inside the vacuum system.
NDT: Nondestructive testing.
nondestructive testing (NDT): Determination of the
physical condition of an object without affecting that
object's ability to fulfill its intended function.
Nondestructive testing techniques typically use a
probing energy form to determine material properties
or to indicate the presence of material discontinuities
(surface, internal or concealed).
outgassing: Forms of gas coming from material in a
vacuum system. Includes gases adsorbed on the
surface, dissolved in material and trapped in pockets
and those due to evaporation.
overall integrated leakage rate: Total leakage through
all leakage paths including containment welds,
valves, fittings and components that penetrate a
primary reactor containment system, expressed in
weight percent of contained air mass per day.
partial pressure: Pressure a gas would exert i f alone in
a container.
parts per million (ppm): Concentration of a specific
gas in another gas or gas mixture. For example, a
tracer gas concentration might be 10 ppm in air or
- 1
nitrogen. The more specific term m L L is preferred,
to indicate proportion by volume.
penetrant: Liquid capable of entering discontinuities
open to the test surface and adapted to the penetrant
test process by being made highly visible in small
traces. Fluorescent penetrants fluoresce brightly under
ultraviolet light, and visible penetrants are intensely
colored to be readily visible on developer
backgrounds when illuminated with visible light.
penetrant leak testing: Technique of penetrant testing
in which the penetrant is applied to one surface of a
test material while the opposite surface is tested for
indications that would identify a leak or void passing
through the material thickness.
permeation: Passage of fluid into, through and out of a
solid barrier having no holes large enough to permit
more than a small fraction of molecules to pass
through any one hole.
pirani gage: Bridge circuit that measures the effect of
gas conductivity changes corresponding to pressure
variations. Measures pressure from atmospheric
down to 0.1 Pa.
pressure differential: Difference in pressure between
two sides of a pressure boundary.
pressure testing: Technique of leak testing objects
pressurized with a tracer gas with the subsequent
detection and location of any existing leaks with a
sampling probe (a qualitative test). Tests performed
by increasing the pressure inside a test boundary to a
level greater than the surrounding atmosphere and
detecting leakage by systematic examination of the
outside of the test surface. Leaks are located at time
of detection; however, it is impossible to accurately
determine a total leakage rate for the object being
pressure tested.
probe: In leak testing, the physical means for sensing a
gaseous leak, typically a tube having a fine opening
at one end, used for directing or collecting a stream of
tracer gas. Detector probes are used for pressure
testing and tracer probes are used for vacuum testing.
pumping speed: Volumetric speed at which gas is
transported, expressed in cubic meter per second.
38
qualification: Process of demonstrating that an
individual has the required amount and the required
type of training, experience, knowledge and
capabilities. See also qualified.
qualified: Having demonstrated the required amount and
the required type of training, experience, knowledge
and abilities. See also qualification.
quality: Ability of a process or product to meet
specifications or to meet the expectations of its users
in terms of efficiency, appearance, longevity and
ergonomics.
quartz bourdon tube gage: High precision pressure
measuring instrument containing a quartz helical
bourdon tube.
recommended practice: Set of guidelines or
recommendations.
repeatability: Ability to reproduce a detectable
indication in separate processings and tests from a
constant source.
response time: Time required for a leak detector signal
to reach a specified value after the application of a
step input. The signal reaches 63% of final value in
one time constant.
sensitivity: Measure of a sensor's ability to detect small
signals. Limited by the signal-to-noise ratio.
sensitivity of leak detector: Response of a leak detector
to tracer gas leakage (typically panel meter pointer
deflection in scale divisions; leak sensitivity is
1 3
measured in units of Pa-rrr'-s"" or std c m s~').
sensitivity of leak test: Smallest leakage rate that an
instrument, technique or system can detect under
specified conditions (implies minimum detectable
leakage rate).
SI: International System of Units (Le Sysleme
Internationale d' Unites), a system of measurement
based on seven units: meter (m), kilogram (kg),
second (s), kelvin (K), ampere (A), candela (cd) and
mole (mol).
signal: Response containing relevant information.
sniffer probe: See detector probe.
sniffer test: See detector probe test.
solution film: Thin continuous film of bubble solution
used in bubble testing.
specification: Set of instructions or standards invoked
by a specific customer to govern the results or
performance of a specific set of tasks or products.
spectrometer: In the helium mass spectrometer, the
basic device that sorts the charged gaseous particles
by species in accordance with molecular weight.
standard: (1) Physical object with known material
characteristics used as a basis for comparison or
calibration; reference standard. (2) Concept
established by authority, custom or agreement to
serve as a model or rule in the measurement of
quantity or the establishment of a practice or
procedure. (3) Document to control and govern
practices in an industry or application, applied on a
national or international basis and usually produced
by consensus. See also acceptance standard and
working standard.
standard atmospheric conditions: Atmospheric
2
pressure of 101.325 kPa (14.6959 lb -in.- ).
f contained gas is a tracer gas compound.
Temperature of 0 °C (273 K , 32 °F or 492 °R). The
density of dry air at these conditions is
3 3
0.12041 kg-nr (0.075 17 l b - f r ) at sea level.
standard leak: Device that permits a tracer gas to be
introduced into a leak detector or a leak testing
system at a known rate to facilitate tune up and
calibration of the leak detector or test system.
static testing: See accumulation test technique.
structural integrity test (SIT): Test that demonstrates
the capability of a vessel to withstand specified
internal pressure loads.
surface tension: Characteristic of liquids where the
outer surface contracts to the smallest possible area.
temperature: Measure of the intensity of particle
motion in degrees Celsius (°C) or degrees fahrenheit
(°F) or, in the absolute scale, kelvin (K) or degrees
rankine (°R), where increment of 1 K = 1 °C = 1.8 °R
= 1.8 °F.
tesla coil: High voltage spark coil (several thousand
volt).
test surface: Exposed surface of test object,
thermal: Physical phenomenon of heat involving the
movement of molecules. Compare infrared radiation.
thermal conductivity: Heat transfer capability, as of a
gas.
thermal conductivity vacuum gage: Instrument that
operates on principle that as gas molecules are
removed from a system, the amount of heat transfer
by conduction is reduced. This relationship is used to
indicate absolute pressure.
thermocouple gage: Device that incorporates a
thermocouple to measure gas conductivity changes
corresponding to pressure variations from 0.1 Pa
(1 mtorr) to atmospheric pressure (100 kPa).
throughput: Quantity of gas, or total number of
molecules at a specific temperature, passing a section
of a vacuum system per unit of time. See leakage
rate.
torr: Unit of pressure nearly equal to 133 Pa
(1 mm Hg).
39
tracer: In leak testing, a gas that is sensed as it escapes
from confinement.
tracer gas: Gas that can be detected by a specific leak
detector and thus disclose the presence of a leak in a
system. Also called search gas.
tracer probe test: Leak test in which a tracer gas is
applied by means of a probe to an accessible test
surface on an evacuated test object so that the area
covered by the tracer gas is localized. A leak detector
in the line to the vacuum pump enables individual
leaks to be located when they admit tracer gas.
tracer standard leak: Standard leak in which the
transition flow: Phenomenon that occurs when the
mean free path of gas is about equal to the cross
sectional dimension of a leak or the tube through
which flow is occurring.
trap: See cold trap.
turbomolecular pump: Molecular turbine that drives
gas out of a vacuum chamber, achieving a high
vacuum pressure in the 10 nPa range.
ultimate pressure: Lowest pressure that can be achieved
in a vacuum chamber after cleaning and baking.
ultrasonic: Pertaining to acoustic vibration frequencies
greater than about 20 kHz.
vacuum: Space containing gas at a pressure below
atmospheric pressure.
vacuum box: Device used to create a differential
pressure over an isolated area of a weld or of a
pressure boundary that cannot be directly pressurized.
vacuum box leak testing: Technique of bubble testing
where a vacuum box is used to create a pressure
differential across a boundary. A viewing window
allows observation of bubble formation.
vacuum grease: Substance commonly used to attain a
seal and to lubricate devices, such as stopcocks and
moving boundary penetrations.
vacuum pressure testing: Leak testing procedure in
which the test object containing tracer gas is placed in
an evacuated enclosure and the tracer gas is detected
after entering the enclosure. Also called bell jar
testing.
vacuum testing: Method of testing for leaks in which
the object under test is evacuated and the tracer gas is
applied to the outside surface of the test object.
vapor: Gaseous form of, for instance, water or oil.
vapor pressure: Pressure exerted by the vapor of a
liquid when in equilibrium with the surface of the
liquid at a specified temperature. These limiting
pressures can restrict the levels of pressurization of
enclosures with these tracer gases during pressure
leak testing and can also limit the vacuum obtainable
in presence of these liquids (for example, water or
solvents).
variable standard leak: Device that permits a tracer gas
to be introduced to the leak detector at a rate
adjustable by the operator.
vent: Valve in a vacuum system for letting air into a
vacuum chamber.
virtual leak: Emission of gas in a vacuum system that
results from condensible or trapped gases. They
gradually evaporate from surfaces or escape from
pockets, raising the absolute pressure in the same
manner as a real leak.
viscosity: Coherent characteristic of fluids that causes
resistance to flow.
viscous flow: Flow of gas or gas mixtures through a leak
or duct under conditions such that the mean free path
is smaller than the cross section of the leak or
opening. Viscous flow may be either laminar or
turbulent and is most likely to occur during leak tests
at atmospheric or higher pressures. With vacuum
conditions, the flow of tracer gases to the leak
detector element is usually by diffusion, resulting in
slow response to leaks being probed by a tracer jet.
working standard: Workpiece or energy source
calibrated and used in place of expensive reference
standards. In the calibrating of photometers, the
standard would be a light source.

40